
































Microsoft Word - 3801-14755-1-ED-FINAL3.docx


 

 Epidemiology and Society Health Review| ESHR 
Vol. 3, No. 2, 2021, pp. 10-16 ISSN 2656-6052 (online) | 2656-1107 (print) 
 
 

 

      10.26555/eshr.v3i2.3801  

 
10 

 
 

  

Research Article 
 
Factors Associated with Hypertension among 
Postmenopausal Women in Parangtritis Coastal Area in 
Bantul, Yogyakarta, Indonesia 
 
Yanasta Yudo Pratama1* 
1 Faculty of Public Health, Universitas Ahmad Dahlan, Yogyakarta, Indonesia 
 
* Correspondence: yanastayudo@gmail.com. Phone: +6282223635566 
 
Received 09 March 2021; Accepted 30 July 2021; Published 31 July 2021 
 

ABSTRACT 

Background: Blood pressure tends to increase in women associated with menopause. 
Thus, post-menopausal women more often had hypertension than pre-menopausal. One of 
the risk factors for hypertension is high blood cholesterol levels (hypercholesterolemia). 
Meanwhile, people who live in coastal areas can suffer from hypertension, which is higher 
than in rural or mountain areas. 
Objective: To study the factors associated with hypertension among post-menopausal 
women in Parangtritis Coastal Area. 
Method: We used an observational study using the Case-Control design conducted in 
Parangtritis village, Kretek subdistrict, Bantul district, in June-July 2013. Amount 62 
respondents were recruited using consecutive sampling consist of 31 people for each case 
and control—data obtained from primary data (measurements and interviews). Analysis war 
performs using descriptive and the Chi-Square test. 
Results: Among the three risk factors we assessed, age and BMI significantly affect post-
menopausal women's hypertension. At the same time, total cholesterol is not a risk factor 
for post-menopausal women to get hypertension. 
Conclusion: There was an association between age, BMI, and hypertension among post-
menopausal women in Parangtritis coastal area. In contrast, total cholesterol was not a risk 
factor for post-menopausal women to get hypertension. 

Keywords: Hypertension; Post menopause; Woman; Coastal 

 

 

 

 



 
Pratama (Factors Associated with Hypertension among Postmenopausal Women in Parangtritis Coastal Area….) 

 
 

11 
Vol. 3, No. 2, 2021, pp. 10-16    10.26555/eshr.v3i2.3801 

  

INTRODUCTION 

Nowadays, hypertension received serious attention globally as it rolled as a silent killer 
disease in society. Poor management of hypertension can damage human organs and 
develop several complications such as heart attacks, strokes, kidney disorders, and blindness 
(1).  Based on the Indonesia Ministry of Health, there were increases in hypertension during 
2013-2018 from 25.8 to 34.11 (2). Almost 90% of people with hypertension have a common 
understanding of the cause. The hypertension risk factor can be grouped into two. The first is 
uncontrollable factors, including heredity, gender, and age. Second is controllable factors 
related to behavior, lifestyle, and diets, such as obesity, lack of exercise, smoking and alcohol 
consumption, and excessive salt consumption (3). In the young to middle-aged, hypertension 
and cardiovascular disease are more common in men than women (4,5). Hypertension in 
women is often not diagnosed or treated inadequately, especially after menopause when 
cardiovascular risk increases. In pre-menopausal women, endogenous estrogens maintain 
vasodilation, thereby playing a role in blood pressure regulation. The aging process, the loss 
of endogenous estrogen production after menopause, and increased blood pressure play a 
role in the high prevalence of hypertension in older women. In the United States, 75 percent 
of post-menopausal women experience hypertension. The high prevalence of obesity reduced 
regular physical exercise, salt intake as essential factors that play a role and worsen post-
menopausal hypertension (6,7). 
 
Hypercholesterolemia is associated with hypertension. High cholesterol in the blood will form 
deposits on the walls of blood vessels, causing a narrowing called atherosclerosis (8,9). 
Hypertension can occur due to atherosclerosis that has lasted a long time. As a result of 
thrombus formation, scar tissue, and proliferation of smooth muscle cells, the arterial lumen is 
reduced, and resistance to blood flow across the arteries increases. The left ventricle must 
pump more strongly to generate sufficient force to flow blood through the atherosclerotic 
vascular system (10). It triggers an increase in systolic and diastolic blood pressure, leading 
to hypertension (10,11). 
 
The Parangtritis beach area is at Bantul District. This area is coastal, meaning that people 
living in this place have a higher chance of suffering from hypertension than inland or 
mountainous areas (12). In addition, people with predominantly salty eating habits have a 
higher risk of suffering from hypertension because salt can retain water osmotically, increasing 
blood volume and playing a role in the long-term control of blood pressure (13). Evidence 
about this problem in this area is lacking. Accordingly, we are interested in studying the 
relationship between total cholesterol levels and hypertension in post-menopausal women in 
the coastal area of Parangtritis. This study contributes to the hypertension prevention program, 
mainly for prevention addressing gender aspects.  
 
METHOD 

This research was an observational analytic study (non-experimental) with a case-control 
method design conducted June to July 2013. The population was post-menopausal women 
who suffer from hypertension, and they lived in the Parangtritis Beach area, especially in 
Parangtritis village, Kretek sub-district, Bantul district, DIY province. 
 



 
Pratama (Factors Associated with Hypertension among Postmenopausal Women in Parangtritis Coastal Area….) 

 
 

12 
Vol. 3, No. 2, 2021, pp. 10-16    10.26555/eshr.v3i2.3801 

  

The sample was divided into two groups: case and control. The case group was post-
menopausal women with hypertension according to JNC VII (systolic pressure ≥140 mmHg or 
diastolic pressure ≥90 mmHg). Meanwhile, the control group was post-menopausal women 
who did not suffer from hypertension according to JNC VII. (Systolic pressure <140 mmHg 
and diastolic pressure <90 mmHg). 
 
We used inclusion and exclusion criteria to recruit the sample. The inclusion criteria of this 
study include post-menopausal women, experiencing menopause naturally, residing in the 
Parangtritis coastal area, and willing to participate in this research. At the same time, they 
experience surgical menopause, smoking, drinking alcoholic beverages, suffering from liver, 
kidney, and endocrine diseases, and consuming Hormone Replacement Therapy (HRT). 
 
According to our calculation, 31 samples should be recruited for each arm. We selected the 
sample through consecutive sampling techniques. The data was collected via direct 
measurement and interviews with the respondent. Blood pressure measurement used a 
mercury tensimeter and a stethoscope while measuring total cholesterol levels using an Easy 
Touch GCU (Glucose, Cholesterol, Uric Acid). Analysis was performed using descriptive and 
bivariate analysis using the chi-square test.  

RESULTS 

Characteristics of Research Subjects 
 

Table 1. Characteristics of Research Participants in this study 

Characteristic Total (n = 62) % 

Age 
<65-year-old 
≥65-year-old 

Body Mass Index 
<25 kg/m2 

≥25 kg/m2 

Cholesterol total 
<200 mg/dL 
≥200 mg/dL 

Blood Pressure 
Non-Hypertension 
Hypertension 

 
31 
31 
 

49 
13 
 

43 
19 
 

31 
31 

 
50.0 
50.0 

 
79.0 
21.0 

 
69.4 
30.6 

 
50.0 
50.0 

 
In total, 62 people participated in this study consist of 31 cases and 31 control. Table 1 shows 
the characteristics of the respondent. Most of the respondents (79%) had a BMI of less than 
25 kg/m. More than half of the total respondents (69.4%) had less the 200 mg/dL cholesterol.  
 
Table 2 presents the characteristic respondents between case and control. It means that there 
was no different mean between case and control. We found three characteristics (p-value 
<0.05): age, systolic, and diastolic blood pressure.  
 

 



 
Pratama (Factors Associated with Hypertension among Postmenopausal Women in Parangtritis Coastal Area….) 

 
 

13 
Vol. 3, No. 2, 2021, pp. 10-16    10.26555/eshr.v3i2.3801 

  

Table 2. Characteristics of Case and Control Groups 
 

Characteristic Case Group 
(mean) 

Control Group 
(mean) 

p-value 

Age (year old, SD) 67.42 ± 7.49 61.45 ± 7.67 0.00 
Systolic Blood Pressure (mmHg, 

SD) 
160.90 ± 24.26 120.81 ± 876 0.00 

Diastolic Blood Pressure 
(mmHg, SD) 

100 ± 14.83 80.16 ± 3.95 0.00 

Body Heigh (cm, SD) 147.37 ± 7.73  148.80 ± 5.60 0.40 
Body Weight (kg, SD) 47.53 ± 11.05 48.54 ± 7.24 0.67 
Body Mass Index (kg/m2, SD) 22.24 ± 5.01 21.93 ± 3.15 0.76 
Cholesterol Total (mg/dL, SD) 181.39 ± 32.51 183.84 ± 32.07 0.86 

 
Relationship between Age, BMI, Total Cholesterol and Hypertension 
The relationship between age and hypertension is presented in Table 3. We found a 
statistically significant p-value <0.05 between age and hypertension in the Parangtritis beach 
area post-menopausal women. The woman who is ≥65 years has higher odds (4.41 times) of 
getting from hypertension than post-menopausal women.  

 
Table 3. Relationship between Age, BMI, and Hypertension 

 
Variable Hypertension p-value Crude OR 

(95% CI) Case 
(hypertension) 

Control 
(non-Hypertension) 

n % n % 
Age       

≥65-year-old     21  67.7      10   32.3     0.00         4.41 
(1.52-12.79) <65-year-old 10 32.3 21 67.7 

BMI       
≥25 kg/m2 10 32.3 3 9.7 0.02 4.44  

(1.08-18.18) <25 kg/m2 21 67.7 28 90.3 
Cholesterol Total       

≥200 mg/dL 10 32.3 9 29 0.78 1.16 
(0.39-3.43) <200 mg/dL 21 67.7 22 71 

 
The relationship between BMI and hypertension is found significant, p <0.05. Post-
menopausal women in the Parangtritis beach area with a BMI of ≥25 kg /m have higher odds 
(4.44 times) than post-menopausal women with a BMI <25 kg/m. It seems there is no different 
risk between control and group related to total cholesterol, meaning total cholesterol is not a 
risk factor for getting hypertension among post-menopausal women. 
 
DISCUSSION  

This research assessed the association between several potential risk factors for getting 
hypertension among post-menopausal women. Age is identified as a possible risk factor for a 
post-menopausal woman to have hypertension. Our finding was confirmed by another 
previous research (14). The aging process is associated with changes in the anatomy and 
physiology of the cardiovascular system, which affect blood pressure regulation (15,16). 
Systemic hypertension that occurs in old age arises as a consequence of structural changes 
in the cardiovascular system. Decreased vascular compliance and increased resistance are 
associated with narrowing the vascular radius and increased vessel wall-lumen ratio (17). 



 
Pratama (Factors Associated with Hypertension among Postmenopausal Women in Parangtritis Coastal Area….) 

 
 

14 
Vol. 3, No. 2, 2021, pp. 10-16    10.26555/eshr.v3i2.3801 

  

Histologically, these changes are seen in the subendothelial layer and the media of the blood 
vessels. When people getting older, there is thickening and increased infiltration of connective 
tissue in calcification and lipid deposition. This process results in improved stiffness of the 
walls of the aorta and large arteries (18). 
 
Body mass index (BMI) also had a statistically significant relationship with hypertension in 
post-menopausal women in the coastal area of Parangtritis. The results of this study are in 
line with several previous studies which concluded that body mass index has a positive 
relationship with hypertension (19). In addition, other studies have also revealed that obesity 
is a risk factor for the incidence of hypertension (20). A study of three populations in Africa 
and Asia, one of which was Indonesian, stated that the mean blood pressure would increase 
with BMI (21). The risk of hypertension is higher in the overweight and obese population (BMI 
≥25 kg / m2) (22). An increase in body weight (body mass index) triggers an overactivity of 
the sympathetic nerves, increasing blood pressure. Hyperinsulinemia and hyperleptinemia are 
also additional factors that contribute to sympathetic nerve stimulation due to this weight gain 
(23,24). 
 
The analysis of total cholesterol levels and hypertension showed that this variable did not have 
a statistically significant relationship with hypertension in post-menopausal women. In 
addition, whole cholesterol level was not a risk factor for hypertension in post-menopausal 
women in this study. The same finding was stated by previous research (15,16,17). The 
previous research shows a statistically not significant relationship between hypertension and 
total cholesterol levels (p = 0.093) (25). The different results among the study are probably 
due to other factors that influence hypertension in post-menopausal women in the Parangtritis 
beach area. Cholesterol is one factor that plays a role in the incidence of hypertension in post-
menopausal women, but other factors are still related. Environmental factors that play an 
essential role in hypertension in post-menopausal women are age, body mass index, oxidative 
stress, and insulin (26). Meanwhile, two other factors also play a role in hypertension in post-
menopausal women, namely genetic factors and changes in sex hormones in post-
menopausal women (27). 
 
In this study, total cholesterol level was not a risk factor for hypertension in post-menopausal 
women. Changes in sex hormones are one of the factors that influence the incidence of 
hypertension in post-menopausal women. The production of the endogenous hormone 
estrogen begins to disappear. In pre-menopausal women, endogenous estrogens maintain 
vasodilation and thus play a role in blood pressure regulation. The aging process and the loss 
of endogenous estrogen production play an essential role in the high prevalence of 
hypertension in older women (28). 
 
In post-menopausal women, a decrease in estradiol levels and a reduced ratio of estrogen to 
testosterone have several effects that lead to increased blood pressure (29). It triggers an 
increase in body mass index (BMI), resulting in increased sympathetic nerve activation, 
followed by the release of renin and angiotensin II (23). A decrease in estradiol and a decrease 
in the ratio of estrogen to testosterone also results in endothelial dysfunction followed by a 
decline in Nitrite Oxide (NO) and an increase in endothelin, both of which play a role in salt 
sensitivity to blood pressure, which is common in post-menopausal women (30,31). The 



 
Pratama (Factors Associated with Hypertension among Postmenopausal Women in Parangtritis Coastal Area….) 

 
 

15 
Vol. 3, No. 2, 2021, pp. 10-16    10.26555/eshr.v3i2.3801 

  

escalation of angiotensin II and endothelin produces vasoconstriction on the kidney blood 
vessels, which will lead to kidney hypertension (32).  
 
This study may have a limitation in terms of the sample number that could affect the result of 
this study. Accordingly, interpret and generalize this research need to be careful.  
 
CONCLUSION 

In summary, there is no statistically significant relationship between total cholesterol levels 
and hypertension in post-menopausal women in the coastal area of Parangtritis. Age and BMI 
are potential risk factors for getting hypertension among post-menopausal women in coastal 
settings. This research has been conducted for more than seven years. It is necessary to re-
examine at this time whether there is a shift in facts about hypertension on the coast of 
Parangtritis 
 
Authors' contribution 

YYP is the single author for this work; he is responsible thorough the content.  

Acknowledgment 

We thank to all respondents who participated in this study.  
 
Conflict of interest 
 
There is no conflict of interest in this research.  

REFERENCES 

1. Simbolon D, Yorita E, Talib RA. The risk of hypertension in adulthood as a consequence 
of adolescent obesity. Kesmas. 2019;14(1):28–36.  

2. The Ministry of Health of Indonesia. Hypertension is a silent killer [Internet]. Jakarta: 
Indonesia Ministry of Health; 2019 [cited 2021 Aug 7]. Available from: 
www.p2ptm.kemkes.go.id. [in Bahasa] 

3. Nuraini B. Risk Factors of Hypertension. J Major. 2015;4(5):10–9.  
4. Kusumawaty J, Hidayat N, Ginanjar E. Relationship between sex and hypertension 

intensity in the elderly in the working area of the Lakbok Public Health Center, Ciamis 
District. J Mutiara Med. 2016;16(2):46–51. [in Bahasa] 

5. Song JJ, Ma Z, Wang J, Chen LX, Zhong JC. Gender differences in hypertension. J 
Cardiovasc Transl Res. 2020;13(1):47–54.  

6. Barton M, Meyer MR. Post-menopausal hypertension: Mechanisms and therapy. 
Hypertension. 2009;54(1):11–8.  

7. Wenger NK, Arnold A, Bairey Merz CN, Cooper-DeHoff RM, Ferdinand KC, Fleg JL, et 
al. Hypertension across a woman’s life cycle. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2018;71(16):1797–813.  

8. Hurtubise J, McLellan K, Durr K, Onasanya O, Nwabuko D, Ndisang JF. The different 
facets of dyslipidemia and hypertension in atherosclerosis. Curr Atheroscler Rep. 
2016;18(12).  

9. Ivanovic B, Tadic M. Hypercholesterolemia and hypertension: Two Sides of the Same 
Coin. Am J Cardiovasc Drugs. 2015;15(6):403–14.  

10. Daniati, Erawati. Correlation of blood pressure with LDL (Low-Density Lipoprotein) 
cholesterol levels in coronary heart disease patients in RSUP.Dr.M.Djamil Padang. J 
Kesehat Perintis. 2018;5(2):153–8. [in Bahasa] 



 
Pratama (Factors Associated with Hypertension among Postmenopausal Women in Parangtritis Coastal Area….) 

 
 

16 
Vol. 3, No. 2, 2021, pp. 10-16    10.26555/eshr.v3i2.3801 

  

11. Gimbrone MA, García-Cardeña G. Endothelial Cell Dysfunction and the Pathobiology of 
Atherosclerosis. Circ Res. 2016;118(4):620–36.  

12. Saparina.L T. Identification of individual characteristics of hypertension incidence in 
communities in the mountains and coastal areas of Kendari City. MIRACLE J Public Heal. 
2019;2(2):169–80. [in Bahasa] 

13. Saputra O, Anam K. Lifestyle as a risk factor for hypertension in coastal communities. J 
Major. 2016;5(3):118–23. [in Bahasa] 

14. Song L, Shen L, Li H, Liu B, Zheng X, Zhang L, et al. Age at natural menopause and 
hypertension among middle-aged and older Chinese women. J Hypertens. 
2018;36(3):594–600.  

15. Buford TW. Hypertension and aging. Ageing Res Rev. 2016; 26:96–111.  
16. Cheitlin MD. Cardiovascular physiology - changes with aging. Am J Geriatr Cardiol. 

2003;12(1):9–13.  
17. Laurent S, Boutouyrie P. The structural factor of hypertension: Large and small artery 

alterations. Circ Res. 2015;116(6):1007–21.  
18. Bentzon JF, Otsuka F, Virmani R, Falk E. Mechanisms of plaque formation and rupture. 

Circ Res. 2014;114(12):1852–66.  
19. Addo OY, Stein AD, Fall CH, Gigante DP, Guntupalli AM, Horta BL, et al. Maternal height 

and child growth patterns. J Pediatr [Internet]. 2013;163(2):549-554.e1. Available from: 
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jpeds.2013.02.002. 

20. Landi F, Calvani R, Picca A, Tosato M, Martone AM, Ortolani E, et al. Body mass index 
is strongly associated with hypertension: Results from the longevity check-up 7+ study. 
Nutrients. 2018;10(12):1–12.  

21. Tesfaye F, Nawi NG, Van Minh H, Byass P, Berhane Y, Bonita R, et al. Association 
between body mass index and blood pressure across three populations in Africa and Asia. 
J Hum Hypertens. 2007;21(1):28–37.  

22. Hruby A, Hu FB. The Epidemiology of Obesity: A Big Picture. Pharmacoeconomics. 
2015;33(7):673–89.  

23. Brooks VL, Shi Z, Holwerda SW, Fadel PJ. Obesity-induced increases in sympathetic 
nerve activity: Sex matters. Auton Neurosci Basic Clin. 2015; 187:18–26.  

24. da Silva AA, do Carmo JM, Li X, Wang Z, Mouton AJ, Hall JE. Role of hyperinsulinemia 
and insulin resistance in hypertension: Metabolic Syndrome Revisited. Can J Cardiol. 
2020;36(5):671–82.  

25. Sopiah P, Haryeti P, Ningrum D. Correlation of BMI and cholesterol levels with 
hypertension in the elderly. 2020;6539(January):6533–9.  

26. DeMarco VG, Aroor AR, Sowers JR. The pathophysiology of hypertension in patients with 
obesity. Nat Rev Endocrinol. 2014;10(6):364–76.  

27. Zilberman JM, Cerezo GH, Sueldo M Del, Fernandez-Perez C, Martell-Claros N, Vicario 
A. Association between hypertension, menopause, and cognitionin women. J Clin 
Hypertens. 2015;17(12):1–7.  

28. Sabbatini AR, Kararigas G. Estrogen-related mechanisms in sex differences of 
hypertension and target organ damage. Biol Sex Differ. 2020;11(1):1–17.  

29. Zhao D, Guallar E, Ouyang P, Subramanya V, Vaidya D, Ndumele CE, et al. Endogenous 
sex hormones and incident cardiovascular disease in post-menopausal women. J Am Coll 
Cardiol. 2018;71(22):2555–66.  

30. Malik Aubead N. Role of sex hormones in human body. Reprod Horm. 2021;1–25.  
31. Suandi LA. Different effect of general exercise and progressive muscle relaxation on 

reducing hypertension in the elderly. Universitas ’Aisyiyah, Yogyakarta; 2018. [in Bahasa] 
32. Raina R, Chauvin A, Chakraborty R, Nair N, Shah H, Krishnappa V, et al. The role of 

endothelin and endothelin antagonists in chronic kidney disease. Kidney Dis. 
2020;6(1):22–34.  


