




































 

 

27 | P a g e  

 

 

URBANIZATION AND INSECURITY IN AFRICA: ISSUES, PROBLEMS AND 

PROSPECTS 

 

Otu, Otu Akanu 

Alex Ekwueme Federal University Ndufu-Alike, Ebonyi State, Nigeria 

 

Abstract: 

Urbanization as an agent of development is currently shifting to agent of 

underdevelopment in many continents of the world, especially in Africa. Urban 

development in Africa continues to be threatened by high rate of insecurity which 

impedes the progress of individuals and society at large. This study is necessitated by the 

current trend of insecurity in many urban sectors. This assessment depends on the broad-

writing survey and narrative gathering of documentaries on issues pertaining to 

urbanization vis-à-vis insecurity in Africa anchored on Optimists/Pessimists theory. 

These involve overpopulation, rapid structural change, unemployment, rural-urban 

migration, high social pressures and social injustices, politicizing security issues with 

respect to administration of urban areas, et cetera. The paper further assessed the 

dimensions of these challenges comparable to the issue of insecurity in urban zones. It 

therefore maintained that urban areas if properly streamlined ameliorates persistence 

insecurity challenges, promote emotional stability and socio-economic development in 

Africa. 

Keywords: Urbanization, Insecurity; Issues, Problems and Prospects. 

 

Introduction  
The issue of insecurity has been a global concern due to incessant loss of lives and 

properties in many continents of the world, particularly in Africa. African continent has 

witnessed several forms of attacks which have affected its human and material resources 

both in the rural and urban areas. Mostly, urban areas are characterized by 

overpopulation, rapid structural change, unemployment, insecurity, high social pressures 

and social injustices. Lately, in the quest for greener pastures people migrate from the 

rural to urban areas. [1] This rural-urban migration seems to have constituted an 

overcrowded urban environment in most African countries. Evidently, there has been a 

sporadic increase in number of people living in urban areas ranging from 13% in 1900 to 

49% in 2005.[2] It is further submitted that rural-urban migration increased to three billion 

as at 2012 and will continue to skyrocket by 2050 to about five billion or more.[2] Despite 

this increase in migration of people from rural to urban areas, urban populace has not 

witnessed improved developmental standard.[3] Research has shown that Africans will 

meet urban standard by 2030 when most of its populace migrates from rural to urban 

areas.[4] It was reported that urbanization in Africa is bedeviled with a lot of intrigues, 

especially in Nigeria.[5] Nigeria as a country is the most jam-packed African Nation and 

is driven by population explosion.[6] At the interval, the current development pace of 



 

 

28 | P a g e  

 

 

Lagos city as the third biggest city on the planet has a population of 24m.[7] However, 

this situation is not peculiar to Nigeria as other nations like Cameroon, South-Africa 

among others are also driven by high population index. 

  

Globally, urbanization is the driving force of the economy especially in developing 

nations. [8] According to [2] urban areas offer individual a lot of opportunities to improve 

one’s standard of living. It was further maintained that urbanization is characterized with 

improved access to good housing facilities, transportation, employment, merchandise 

and other basic amenities for inhabitants in creating a better livelihood. Collaboratively, 

it is clear that urbanization is the crux for individual development and societal change 

that offer business opportunities, affluent, security and social incorporation among 

others.[3] However, urbanization in Africa has shifted from achieving those 

developmental components of social and economic sustenance to conglomerates of social 

unrest and economic despondency.[9] For instance, many developing nations like Nigeria, 

Chad, Cameroon and Niger Republic had been witnessing incessant attacks and killings 

by Boko Haram insurgence, armed bandits, Fulani herdsmen among others. These violent 

operations of Boko Haram, a Nigeria-based jihadi terrorist group which began in 

Nigeria’s Northeastern Borno State in 2009, have affected several other countries in the 

region of the Lake Chad Basin. Explicitly, Cameroon has been experiencing the spread 

of Boko Haram’s operations on its soil since 2013.[10] The socio-cultural, linguistic and 

religious ties that Cameroon’s Far North region shares with northern Nigeria eased Boko 

Haram’s spillover into Cameroon by combatants and fleeing Nigerians.[10] This sparked 

a military response from the government, supported in January 2015 by a Multi-National 

Joint Task Force (MNJTF) from the Lake Chad Basin Countries, overseen by the African 

Union which yielded little or no result. 

 

Nevertheless, thousands of Cameroonians eventually joined Boko Haram at different 

times due to ideological or religious conviction, out of opportunism or under duress. [11] 

This enabled the jihadist movement to gather support and gain ground in Cameroon’s 

Far North region. After Nigeria, Cameroon is the second largest victim of Boko Haram’s 

attacks which have led to multiple displacements and persistent insecurity in the 

country’s Far North region. Moreover, the region shelters more than 100,000 Nigerian 

refugees who have fled Boko Haram’s violence in their country with close to 60,000 of 

them living in the Minawao camp which was specifically built for Nigerian refugees in 

2013.[12] Although the intensity of the war between Boko Haram and Cameroon de-

escalated in 2016, the humanitarian situation remains precarious and the resurgence of 

attacks by the extremist group on Cameroon’s Northern border with Nigeria, still poses 

a major threat to national security. While Boko Haram is again recruiting fighters in 

Cameroon and attacking the Northern border, separatists on the other hand are fighting 

in the North West and South West regions to create an English-speaking state called 

Ambazonia.[13] Also, there exists lingering conflict between Cameroon and Nigeria over 



 

 

29 | P a g e  

 

 

the Bakassi Peninsula, governance challenges, security issues in the East Region that 

emanated from the crisis in the Central African Republic, piracy along the Gulf of 

Guinea, highway robbery in the North and terrorist insecurity in the Far North. Again, 

longstanding grievances of Anglophones in the North West and South West regions 

against the Francophone-dominated government escalated since October 2016 into what 

is today known as the “Anglophone crisis”.[13] Subsequently, Nigeria as the giant of 

Africa witnessed another dimension of agonizing imbroglio such that in 2014, about 260 

Chibok school girls were kidnapped; in 2020, more than 300 students were also 

kidnapped in Katsina and presently the wife of Nigerian President-Aisha Buhari ran away 

to Dubai after a sporadic shooting by unidentified armed men in Aso-Rock Presidential 

Villa, Abuja (urban area).[14, 59,  60] It therefore becomes pertinent to ask: if the wife of the 

Chief Security Officer and Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces of the Federal 

Republic of Nigeria flew away to another country over insecurity, what is the place of 

ordinary citizen? These tragedies have imposed brouhaha and insecurity of lives and 

properties among the entire populace with thousands of persons dead and millions 

internally displaced.  

 

Sadly, not only have these issues of insecurity caused societal unrest and economic 

decay, it has as well triggered mental health problems among these migrant youths in 

urban areas. Previous research with youths has found that those who experience multiple 

traumas such as Boko Haram insurgence, armed bandit and herdsmen attack are more 

likely to develop post-traumatic stress disorder or depression than those who experience 

one traumatic event [15] and are also more likely to experience more subsequent traumas 
[16]. Also, low socio-economic status is a factor for developing post-traumatic stress 

disorder among youths that results to abuse of substance and criminal tendencies. [17, 18, 

19] This could be the reason why many individuals who were unable to have access to 

quality standard of living in urban areas resort to crime, thereby, threatening the existence 

of security and permeating insecurity in the area.  

 

Indeed, insecurity of lives and properties in not only urban but also rural areas in Africa 

has risen to unimaginable state to warrant global attention and response from various 

international agencies such as United Nations, African Union Peace and Security Council 

(PSC), International Crisis Group among others. These organizations/agencies have sent 

scores of soldiers, armed personnel on boot, relieve materials among others to various 

African countries with high rate of insecurity to curb it. Despite interventions by these 

agencies to curb the issue of insecurity in most African countries, the menace still 

escalates. In most cases, government officials and other stakeholders responsible for 

tackling insecurity in many urban areas politicize it. As a result, addressing the issue of 

insecurity in urban areas in Africa is a jamboree messed in strategy irregularity, political 

class insensitivity, politics and politicking, lack of sufficient funds to counter security 

challenges and diversion of accessible funds among others.[3] Consequently, it is 



 

 

30 | P a g e  

 

 

maintained that urbanization process in Africa has subsequently been portrayed as 

pseudo-urbanization.[9] This assertion could be as a result of deteriorating insecurity in 

the continent’s urban areas which has threatened its human and material resources. Based 

on this scenario, this paper examined issues pertaining to urbanization as it relates to 

insecurity in urban areas with prospects of achieving economic and social development 

in Africa. 

 

Statement of the Problem  

Urbanization as a global phenomenon is considered a major index for development in 

various continents of the world especially in Africa. This is because African continent is 

still regarded as third world countries or developing nations due to shortfalls in its 

developmental stride compared to other continents like Europe, Asia, et cetera. It is worth 

note that collection of people of different tribe, race or ethnic groups in urban areas begets 

exchange of ideas and resources that propel development of any continent. 

Unfortunately, this collection of people in urban areas comprised mainly of rural 

migrants prompted a high degree of insecurity of lives and properties presumably in the 

quest for survival. However, most of these migrants are believed to be youths with low 

socio-economic background who on the course of migration experience varying 

traumatic events such as insurgence that invariably affects their mental health. This is 

because low socioeconomic status is a factor for developing post-traumatic stress 

disorder among youths that results to abuse of substance and criminal tendencies. 

Evidently, it has been noted that those who experience multiple traumas are prone to 

develop post-traumatic stress disorder or depression than those who experience one 

traumatic event and are also more disposed to exhibiting tendencies for criminal 

activities. This situation could be the cause of high rate of insecurity in many urban areas, 

especially among youths in African nations. 

 

Regrettably, insecurity of lives and properties in urban areas has eroded or rather 

threatened the essence of African existence as of late with an end goal to handle the 

security challenges in urban areas. Perhaps, the continent has directed an impressive 

piece of her national financial plan to re-establishing security in many urban areas. In 

spite of these gigantic costs on security, the degree of insecurity in the continent is still 

high particularly in urban areas. With the enduring insecurity challenges and the failure 

of the security contraption of the legislature to guarantee wellbeing and security in the 

continent, prompted this investigation. Therefore, this research sought to explore various 

issues surrounding urbanization and insecurity with prospects to achieving development 

in Africa. 

 

 

 

 



 

 

31 | P a g e  

 

 

Objectives of the Study 
Generally, the study sought to determine the issue of urbanization and insecurity bearing 

in mind its problems with prospect for African development. Specifically, the study 

sought to: 

1) ascertain the major functional elements of urbanization; 

2) evaluate issues pertaining to insecurity in Africa; 

3) ascertain the problems of urban insecurity in Africa; 

4) estimate prospects to achieving urban security in relation to attainment of socio-

economic development in Africa. 

 

Significance of the Study 

This paper has both theoretical and practical significance. Theoretically, this study is 

anchored on Optimists and Pessimists theory by [20, 21] which proposes that urbanization 

facilitates greater efficiency, either through acting on growth, providing innovations or 

making more important economies of scale, specialization or agglomeration. While, 

pessimists argue that urbanization may have a detrimental impact on financial execution 

in the event that it is inordinate or heedless. It is therefore paramount that Africans 

understand the need to maintain a security threat free society in its urban areas so as to 

improve on the growth and development of the continent’s socio-economic base.  

 

Practically, this study will be beneficial to government officials, security agencies, urban 

and regional policymakers/planners as well as the entire populace. Hopefully, 

government officials will benefit from this study if published and lobbied for legislation 

in various government agencies. It would enable them understand the damage meted by 

insecurity in urban areas and hasten move to control such. Again, security agencies will 

benefit from this study if published and used as a manual of instruction to enlighten 

various security apparatus of the government during their training and recruitment 

exercise. It would enable them to effectively and efficiently utilize various technological 

security machineries within their disposal. Also, if this study is published and used by 

government and non-governmental organizations to enlighten urban and regional 

policymakers/planners during workshops/seminars will help them make better policies 

that would ameliorate urban security bridge. Finally, if this study is published in the 

internet hopefully will be beneficial to the public as they would understand the need to 

always monitor activities capable of causing security threat in their environment and 

report any suspicious movement to the security agencies. 

 

Methodology 
The data used for this study was obtained from archival materials and documented 

evidence from secondary sources such as newspapers, magazines, journals, internet 

among others. This was complimented by direct observations and professional 

experience of the researcher who had travelled in many African nations for 



 

 

32 | P a g e  

 

 

conferences/workshops. The aforementioned provided sufficient data needed to clarify 

the issues of urbanization and insecurity in Africa as it affects socio-economic 

development. Therefore, data analysis was logically based on content analysis. 

 

Review of Literature 

This section is carried out under the following sub-headings: Conceptual Frameworks, 

Theoretical Frameworks and Summary of Literature Reviewed. 

 

Conceptual Framework  

Concept of Urbanization 

Urbanization is an overall event that has modified and will keep on changing events and 

the manners by which social orders operate. [22] Ref [8] opined that, urban communities 

are characterized by improved business, training, medicinal services administrations, 

culture that contribute optimally to national economies. Urbanization is one of the 

significant segments of economic development in developing nations, with substantial 

complications for the financial turn of events. [2] However, [23] in the Oxford Advanced 

Learners Dictionary affirmed that urbanization is the circumstance of having loads of 

towns, roads, processing plants, and so forth as opposed to open country. Moreover, 

urbanization is the physical development of urban zones because of rural movement and 

even suburban fixation into urban communities especially the exceptionally enormous 

ones. 

 

Urban areas vary from country to country. However, urbanization is the move from rural 

to an urban culture which includes an expansion in the number of individuals in urban 

regions during a specific period [8, 2]. The United Nations Habitat in 2006 refers to 

urbanization as the expanded centralization of individuals in urban communities instead 

of in rural regions. Urbanization is the result of social, monetary, and political 

advancements that lead to development of enormous urban areas, changes in land use 

and change from rural to the metropolitan. [24] Outside Europe, the biggest urban cities 

were Tokyo and Beijing. [25] Today, the appropriation of the world's biggest urban areas 

is notably extraordinary being commanded by urban communities in developing nations. 

It was evidenced that, by 2011 just three urban areas from the created nations, specifically 

Tokyo (37.2 million), New York (20.4 million) and Los Angeles (13.4 million) were 

among the world's best twenty urban areas. [26] Lagos, Nigeria was positioned nineteenth 

(11.2 million)"whereas, the urban populace of Ukraine declined by 2 million and 

Bulgaria by 0.2 million. [6] The world's urban populace is relied upon to increment by 

72% by 2050, from 3.6 billion out of 2011 to 6.3 billion out of 2050. For all reasons, the 

typical advancement including its populace will be sure to be amassed in urban networks 

of developing nations whose populace is expected to increase from 2.7 billion of every 

2011 to 5.1 billion out of 2050. [6] Lagos, Nigeria, for instance, is expected to have a 

populace of 18.9 million, making it the eleventh most jam-packed city. This indicates 



 

 

33 | P a g e  

 

 

that most of the urban advancement occurs in developed nations with developing African 

nations struggling to attain urban standard. Regardless of the way that the world has 

accomplished a portion of urbanization in 2007, Africa is probably going to arrive at the 

half-pace of urbanization benchmark in 2035. [6] As indicated by the 2011 World Urban 

Planning Correction Project, 1.4 billion individuals are relied upon to profit by urban 

regions around the globe somewhere in the range of 2011 and 2030, of which 37 percent 

will originate from China (276 million) and India (218 million). The report predicts that 

a further 1.3 billion individuals will be added to the world's urban populace somewhere 

in the range of 2030 and 2050. With an all-out extension of 121 million people, Nigeria 

will be the second biggest contributor to India (270 million). It is therefore clear that 

African continent irrespective of high population index in various urban areas have not 

met urbanization criteria. 

 

Concepts of Security/Insecurity 
Lately, efforts have been made to move the conceptualization of security from a state-

driven perspective to a more extensive view that puts a premium on individuals, where 

human security which is part of national security of human rights and national 

progression clarify this fact. At the core of this conversation, efforts have been made to 

widen and expand the idea of security from the degree of states to individual and social 

context. 

 

However, the conceptualization of human security in this study is based on neo-

pragmatist theoretical system which is dependent on the force and centrality of the state. 

It explains security from the perspective of the fundamental commitment of the State. It 

is posited that human security consolidates political, money related, social and common 

risks, including those that are prepared for the fight to come. [27] Along these lines, Buzan 

plot a tripartite security examination that is subject to the worldwide system, state-level, 

and individual level which contended that sovereign states ought to remain the best 

security supplier. The ensuing strategy is a post-innovator or pluralistic view that looks 

to remove the state as a significant security supplier, however rather puts more 

accentuation on non-state characters on the screen. As a rule, the defenders of this 

approach will contend that the possibility of security goes past the military confirmation 

of dangers. As shown in [28], States and governments ought to never again be the key 

referents of security, since governments that ought to be the shields of their social orders' 

have rather become the primary wellspring of insecurity for the numerous people who 

live under their capacity. For instance, the massacre of many African inhabitants in the 

fight between Nigerian Government and Cameroonian counterpart over Bakassi 

Pennusula; the genocide on Nigerians by South-Africans is another pointer to this and 

the Anglophone region of Cameroon crisis also known as Ambazonia war which claimed 

more than 3,000 lives with millions internally displaced among others are all clear 

indications of governments insensitivity to the security of its people. Along these lines, 



 

 

34 | P a g e  

 

 

[28] likewise contended that human security is finally more significant than state security. 

This is in line with the assertion that the security of individuals ought to be of far more 

important to the society than the security of the State. [29] 

  

Security therefore, is the condition or sentiment of prosperity brought about by harm or 

peril, the gatekeeper, protection, and the non-appearance of risks that offer ascent to 

regard.[30] Security in the objective sense challenge the non-appearance of danger which 

theoretically connotes non-participation of dread that such characteristics would be 

assaulted.[31] Regardless of its determined unpredictability, the understanding of the term 

indicates that security is critical for national association, concordance, and sensible 

improvement. Security has to do with circumstances from danger to the limit of a nation 

to guarantee and make itself, to propel its esteemed characteristics and genuine interests, 

and to improve the flourishing of its family members. In this regard, interior security 

could be viewed as a chance or absence of help to those inclinations that could subvert 

inner association and co-ordinate proximity of the nation and its ability to keep up its 

basic establishments for the progression of its core value and socio-political and money 

related destinations, just as to meet the genuine targets of people. Internal security also 

hypothesizes an opportunity from threat to life and achievement. [32] It subsequently 

alludes to the chase for avoiding, premonition, diminishing, or resolve serious conflicts 

– regardless of whether the hazard starts from different states, non-state on-screen 

characters, or subordinate budgetary conditions. [33] 

  

It is obvious from the prior that national security is an objective, a sine qua non for 

financial turn of events and improvement of any country. [34] Security is fundamental in 

each nation's life, as it pulls in and pushes ahead. The possibility of headway has been a 

progressive condition for all records since the end of the subsequent Universal War. In 

the mid-1940s, the ideological contrasts between the Communist East and the Industrial 

West appear to have influenced the significance of security issues and conceptualization 

of the term. It is posited that the way of thinking itself has become an issue of progress 

because of lethargic limit or rather some degree of complacency in tackling security-

related issues.[35] Various scholars proposed models of headway by maintaining that 

adequate security plays a greater role to the advancement of a nation and thus should be 

maintained.[36, 37, 38] The supposition that fiscal advancement would make resources for 

hypothesis and infrastructural improvement that would guarantee a better day to day 

environment friendly for people erode insecurity. 

 

Insecurity has different meanings such as: lack of safety; threat; danger; vagueness; 

absence of protection and defense. Insecurity refers to a condition of terror or 

apprehension owing to lack of security. [39] Insecurity is also defined from two 

dimensions. First, insecurity is the condition of being volatile or prone to risk or threat 

of danger, where danger is the state of being vulnerable to harm or hurt. Second, 



 

 

35 | P a g e  

 

 

insecurity is the condition of being exposed to fretfulness or anxiety, where anxiety is an 

indistinct obnoxious feeling that is experienced in expectation of some calamity. [40] 

These definitions of insecurity emphasize foremost that those affected by insecurity are 

not only unsure or ignorant of what would happen but they are also susceptible to the 

threats and dangers when they happen. In this study, insecurity is defined as a violation 

of tranquility and security, whether religious, regional, socio-economic and political that 

begets frequent conflicts, and cause indiscriminate destruction of human lives and 

property. Human insecurity has reached alarming levels in Africa, particularly in Sub-

Saharan Africa (SSA). More than 40 percent of its 800 million people live below poverty 

level and this percentage is expected to increase. [41]  

 

Furthermore, incident of conflicts and instability is high in Africa. Presently, Ivory Coast, 

the Great lakes region, Somalia, Darfur (Sudan), and the Horn remain very much 

unstable. Africa at present has the biggest group of UN peacekeepers – 17,000 strong in 

the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC).[42] Also, Africa is devastated by a range of 

diseases, and at present the universal epicenter of the dreaded HIV/AIDS.[43] More so, 

food and nutritional shortages have escalated to the extent that over 28 percent of all 

children in SSA are underfed as a result of undernourishment.[43] And, while the typical 

percentage of undernourishment in the developing world is 17, that for SSA is 33 percent. 

Southern, Central and the Horn of Africa recurrently remain susceptible to droughts, 

painting a bleak picture for food security. The mixture of all these distressing 

developments presents SSA as an irrefutable area of high human insecurity. While there 

is a huge agreement on the incidence of human insecurity there has been little 

investigation on its basic causes. In the case of SSA, the propensity has been to assume 

the usual neo-classical formula and point to factors that are mostly internal to the area. 

[44, 45] One may argue that what is often regarded as internal causes of insecurity such as 

poverty, disputes, ecological dilapidation, food, health and educational insecurities are, 

in fact, signs of the crisis. In viewpoint, these are the product of more essential causes, 

as well as widespread structures and practices within the international system. Poverty is 

not natural; in Africa no one is born to be poor and fated to lead an insecure life. Neither 

does poverty come down from the skies like rain; instead it is the result of other basic 

causes. This is similar to conflicts. No persons in their correct senses like to always exist 

under circumstances of violence and crisis that threaten their individual or collective 

security. There are always rooted issues that instigate or predispose individuals to 

violence. It is thus not sufficient to tip to human insecurity devoid of identifying its basis 

or cause, particularly when the problem is threatening. So, in order to proffer efficient 

solution to a crisis, it is crucial to identify its root causes. To elucidate the core causes of 

human insecurity in Africa, [46] maintained that human insecurity is consequences of 

violence, which can be direct or indirect. Directly, the executor of violence is known. 

Indirectly, variously referred to as “structural violence”, violence is built into structures 

in the form of unequal power relations. This scenario accentuates a good background for 



 

 

36 | P a g e  

 

 

comprehending human insecurity in SSA. Although some may argue that the structural 

violence argument is deficient in failing to explain environmental insecurity, the study 

demonstrated that urbanization is another factor to insecurity in SSA.  

 

Summary of Review on Urbanization 

In fact, urbanization in Africa is especially conflicting due to each political and monetary 

motive. [25, 47, 48] Economically, statutory allocations to states are stimulated with the aid 

of their populace. As an end result, states with reputedly low populations are distracted 

from asset allocation and other stage benefits or incentives from the authorities. 

Strategically, the general public rule commencing legislative problems is a chain of 

numbers, and ideological companies controlling great populations may be at a favored 

position. Similarly, the population is one of the indices on which parliamentary 

representation is based. In spite of the disputes, available information gives good enough 

indicators of the city-state of affairs in Africa. 

  

For instance, prior to the British colonial administration in Nigeria and French’s colonial 

administration in Cameroon, there had been genuinely huge human settlements at that 

factor. [49] They were determined especially in phases of the profession (inclusive of the 

alternate of slaves) and management. However, pre-independence in Nigeria and 

Cameroon had an extremely low city population much like city populace development. 

[50] Starting in 1921, the best ten Nigerian settlements had city fame and by way of 1931, 

best urban communities, Lagos and Ibadan, had more than one hundred thousand 

populations each. Post-independence Nigeria and Cameroon have seen a regularly rapid 

pace of urbanization turned out to be an increasingly more urbanized and concrete society 

considering independence. Specifically, by the mid-1960s, Lagos and Ibadan had a large 

part of a million people in abundance. [50, 51, 52] In addition, there have been 24 urban 

regions with populations of at the least 100,000 humans. Nevertheless, until 70’s owing 

to technological advancement, Nigeria and Cameroon witnessed a dramatic upward 

thrust in urbanization, taken into consideration the very best pace of urbanization at the 

globe at that level. [53] 

  

Africa's economic and environmental indices monitor horrible facts, irrespective of how 

one takes a look at it. Destitution is a chief hassle in Africa. Nigeria has one of the 

maximum prices of need in sub-Saharan Africa and the 0.33 biggest number of negative 

within the international after China and India. [54] Urban poverty rose from 28% in 1980 

to 66% in 1996. 55% of urban residents surely live underneath what one dollar a day of 

purchasing power on an equal footing. [54] According to America International 

Advancement Office (USAID) in 2006, the maternal loss of life charge in Nigeria was 

estimated at 800 deaths in keeping with 1000 births in 2000. The future is the most 

important degree of a country's well-being. Nigeria’s future becomes 44.9 years old in 

2003, down from 47.5 years in 1999. It is one of the lowest on the earth, behind that of 



 

 

37 | P a g e  

 

 

Ghana (55.4) years and Cameroon (48.0 years). [55] In this context, it is clear that 

urbanization and insecurity in Africa is faced with myriads of problems that require 

sincere commitment to handling it. 

 

Theoretical Frameworks  

Optimists/Pessimists Theory 

This study is premised on Optimists and Pessimists Classes theories. Ref [20, 21] proposed 

that urbanization facilitates greater efficiency, either through acting on growth, providing 

innovations or making more important economies of scale, specialization or 

agglomeration. Pessimists maintained that urbanization may have a detrimental impact 

on financial execution in the event that it is inordinate or heedless. This is because urban 

development implies a high collection of individuals. With a greater workforce, each 

worker would have fewer profit-making elements (especially capital) both collected and 

uncollected to deal with. Therefore, irrespective of how the average yield grows, the per 

capita yield would usually be smaller. This cynical view depends on the Malthusian 

convention, but with significant changes and upgrades. Pessimists, however, suggest that 

rapid urbanization would be beneficial if there is a large capital structure or other 

substantial boosts that would be necessary to mitigate the low-level balance-sheet trap 

that may be triggered by rapid population growth. 

 

Frustration–Aggression Theory 

Frustration-aggression theory, also called frustration-aggression hypothesis was 

proposed in 1939 by John Dollard and colleagues. The theory posits that frustration 

always produces an aggressive urge and aggression is always the result of previous 

frustrations. Neal E. Miller, one of the proponents of this theory, afterward maintained 

that frustration can lead to several kinds of actions but noted that the urge to aggression 

will dominate as the upsetting persists. The theorist proposed that if we experience 

frustration, this leads to aggression. The aggression is a therapeutic discharge of the 

build-up of frustration. [56] It was further stated that if the person is prohibited from 

achieving an aim by few external factors, then frustration sets in which begets aggression. 

[56] The aggression cannot always be aimed at the basis of aggression, which may be 

intangible such as lack of money, or too powerful, as the risk of punishment is too high. 

This is because frustration is a feeling of anxiety that results when our efforts to achieve 

certain goal are hindered. When this arises, it can produce feelings of anger, which 

invariably can cause feelings of aggression and aggressive behavior. This could be the 

reason why many people migrating to the urban areas in search of greener pastures got 

frustrated when they could not meet their desired goals and invariably become 

aggressive. As a result, when such persons become aggressive they resort to exhibiting 

abnormal behavioral tendencies capable of bridging the security apparatus of the urban 

areas in which they live. For instance, due to high cost of living in urban sectors and 

incessant quest for material acquisition among youths teeming population, many of them 

https://dictionary.apa.org/frustration-aggression-hypothesis
https://dictionary.apa.org/frustration-aggression-hypothesis


 

 

38 | P a g e  

 

 

engage in criminal activities such as vandalism, armed robbery, cyber-crime among 

others in order to meet up those challenges or rather earn a living. 

 

Securitization Theory 
Securitization theory [57] further advanced this study by showing that national security 

policy is not a natural given, but cautiously chosen by politicians and decision-makers. 

According to securitization theory, political issues are constituted as intense security 

issues to be dealt with at once when they have been labeled as ‘unsafe’, ‘threatening’, 

‘frightening’, ‘distressing’ and so on by a ‘securitizing actor’ who has the social and 

institutional authority to shift the issue ‘beyond politics’. So, security issues are not just 

‘out there’ but somewhat ought to be expressed as problems by securitizing actors. In 

contrast, politics and politicking have bedeviled many Africa countries to the point that 

many political actors politicize security issues. For example, in Nigeria and Cameroon 

evidence abound of diverting funds meant for securing arms in fighting Boko Haram 

insurgency in the nations by the politicians. In some cases, many security agencies have 

been compromised by the politicians and the security architecture of the states infiltrated 

through security agencies’ collaboration. Therefore, messing up the fight against Boko 

Haramic extremists which has resulted to unquantifiable loss of lives and properties with 

thousands of persons displaced internally. Calling insurgency, a ‘threat to national 

security’, for instance, shifts insurgency from a low priority political concern to a high 

priority issue that needed action, like procuring sophisticated arms with modern tracking 

devices, safeguarding security agencies information data base, securing borders among 

others. Securitization theory challenges conventional approaches to security and affirm 

that issues are not really frightening in themselves; to a certain extent, it is   by referring 

to them as ‘security’ issues that they become security problems. Securitization theorists 

determined five sectors: the economic, the societal, the military, the political and the 

environmental sector. In each sector, a specific threat is articulated as threatening to 

others like in the case of African nations where each of the five sectors aforementioned 

have witnessed the detrimental effect of the extremists group. Insecurity in many urban 

areas rose to unimaginable state that all and sundry including the securitizing actors 

(political class) is gripped with tension.  

 

Issues and Challenges of Insecurity in Urban Areas 

Evidence has shown that majority of urban centers have a significant number of ghetto 

settlements, and these ghettos are known for a significant level of social unrest, which 

tend to be a grooming ground for most persons exhibiting unlawful acts that affect urban 

centers. These included: 

(a) Criminal hideouts for hoodlums: Owing to the random environment with ghettos, 

lawbreakers and people with criminal motives are easily infiltrated. There are 

people who take part in night-time drills using the ghettos as their base and/or 

camps. Also, because of the location of these wretched ghettos, there is high 



 

 

39 | P a g e  

 

 

tendency of prevalence of terrorist activities in these communities and its environs. 

The consequences of this ghetto camps degenerates into grooming hoodlums with 

criminal tendencies. 

(b) Indiscriminate sexual activities: The high rates of sexual impunity are also 

witnessed among these ghetto inhabitants. Most of these ghetto dwellers lack good 

parental upbringing thereby exposing them to susceptibility of indiscriminate 

sexual conduct. It is presumed that individuals who lived in ghettos at early 

childhood are prone to sexual wantonness, which causes high rates of unwanted 

pregnancy, premature births and the prevalence of sexually transmitted diseases. 

Consequently, children born from this ghetto parents mostly end up not being cared 

for, thereby, constituting nuisance to not only the urban areas but society at large 

by resorting to criminal activities later in life. 

(c) High rate of school drop-outs: I-do-not-care attitude predominant in ghettos 

predisposes its inhabitant to incessant quest for material things or immediate 

gratification. The quest could be to achieve or satisfy individual interest or to 

contribute to family upkeep which invariably results to a high rate of school drop-

outs among young people. This issue is further complicated by extreme poverty of 

their parents who hardly put food on the table daily, talk more of paying school 

fees. As such these inhabitants are eager to do anything whether legitimate or 

illegitimate in order to earn a living or rather improve one’s standard of living and 

that of their parents. 

(d) Illicit drug hawking, abuse and addiction: It is clear that in ghettos there exist 

prevalence of illicit drug hawkers, drug consumers whom have become habitual 

consumers or takers. These categories of people constitute nuisance in the areas of 

residence and the society at large, perpetuating all forms of social vices such as 

breaking into peoples’ home, snatch of peoples’ belongings, harassing and 

molesting both passer-by and residential among others which negatively influence 

other young ones. They have little or no regard for the security agencies or the law 

and most of the times engage security personnel in gun battle killing many of them.  

(e) Fire arms dealing: Most ghetto settlements are center point for dealing in arms and 

other deadly weapons. Subsequently, the inhabitants are predisposed to the evil 

exercises of hoodlums and bandits occupying the areas as their refuges. The 

problem of arms dealing in ghettos becomes rampant. This situation has triggered 

climate of insecurity given rise to anarchical situation, such as kidnapping, armed 

robbery, assaulting, vandalism and looting among other vices. 

 

Results of Insecurity in Africa 

Lately, instability and political warfare have been a major challenge to the African 

government and its urban population. The activity of the Islamic group (Boko Haram) 

led to the loss of life and property in the continent, especially in Northern Nigeria. Some 

of these activities include kidnapping or taking hostage, suicide bombing attacks, assault, 



 

 

40 | P a g e  

 

 

armed robbery, sporadic shooting of citizens, burning of police headquarters and 

religious worship centres et cetera. Politicization of security and political brouhaha 

among politicians or rather government officials were another major challenge facing the 

continent. This ugly situation has eroded African’s cultural heritage of being one’s 

brothers’ keeper and instill fear of known and/or unknown into the nucleus of its 

inhabitants as well as driven away peace and harmony previously existing in its social 

order. This has adversely affected the advancement of the African economy. 

Collaboratively, this review has indicated that fear-based oppression and insecurity have 

adversely affected economic improvement in African countries. It has made it possible 

for the political class to mismanage the security votes resources meant for improving the 

security apparatus of various nations. This finding is consistent with the various findings 

made by the different nations of the world. Nigeria and Cameroon has been included as 

one of the world's fearful monger nations. Numerous lives and property have been 

destroyed, and an overwhelming number of people have been destitute. Youngsters are 

becoming vagabonds with no desire for what is to come. Many African leaders has made 

some little but insignificant attempts to address these challenges posed by psychological 

warfare and insecurity in the continent, but the pace of fear-based oppression and 

insecurity is still overwhelming. Furthermore, insecurity in Africa has impeded socio-

economic, emotional and political stability of the continent in different ways to include: 

social disengagement and displacement; social stress, increases citizenship outcry; 

disengagement and disturbance of family and shared life relationships; uneasiness, 

dehumanization of citizens, uproar of war and/or genocide among others. 

 

Insecurity in Africa has hindered its financial development in various ways. 

These include: 

i)  Social disconnection and public relocation 

ii)  Social strains and displacement which caused Muslims/Christians or persons from 

an ethnic group migrating to Muslim/Christian commanded enclaves. 

iii)  Increases citizenship agitations that beget hostile vibe among inhabitants. 

iv)  Detachment and interruption of family and shared life. 

v)  The overall atmosphere of distrust, fear, apprehension, and commotion 

vi)  Dehumanization of women, men and even children mainly in areas where assault, 

child trafficking and disregard are used as instruments of war. 

vii) Extending of yearning and poverty in the nation. 

viii)  Stampedes local and international business enterprises. 

ix)  Ends business activities in a period of violence and circumvention of numerous 

ventures in the areas or zones where high levels of insecurity exist. 

x)  High cost of security expenditure by business empires and governments. 

xi)  Relocation of individuals from zone or locale where there is a pervasiveness of 

insecurity. 

 



 

 

41 | P a g e  

 

 

 

Prospects of Urbanization/Insecurity in Africa 
Economic emancipation is the essential objective of every good government, and is 

essentially dependent on the degree of economic activities of any nation. Therefore, the 

degree of economic activities is enhanced by an environment free of chaos or any form 

of security threat on individuals and other social structures. Without security, economic 

liberation cannot be supported because it affects financial, human and social capital. 

Likewise, the activities of other state armed forces in different nations in Africa pose a 

real risk to the monetary strength of these regions. Security emergencies in various parts 

of countries in Africa are crushing the existing foundation and making a serene situation 

in order to improve the future framework and the protected domain. For the economic 

activities of people to give them financial boost that will empower family units to be 

independent and improve their standard of living, security of lives and properties in urban 

areas is paramount. 

 

In concordance, the World Bank report on "Struggle, Security and Improvement" showed 

that about 1.5billion individuals live in nations influenced by political and criminal 

savagery, exacerbating human wretchedness, and upsetting urban advancement. 

Insecurity is the most contemptible aspect of advancement in Africa, especially in urban 

areas. [58] Insecurity is costing many countries like Nigeria and Cameroon its dominant 

role in Africa as far as development is concerned. Subsequently, more and more 

constructive measures to tackle the danger of urban instability and fear-based 

exploitation are required in Africa, as stability is vital to socio-economic development, 

and no continent advancement can be accomplished if the urban environment is not 

secured. Therefore, the need be of different apparatus of government such as security 

agencies to devise means of liaising with the citizens especially those in the urban areas 

to tackle the menace caused by insecurity in Africa. This could be achieved through 

formulation of community policing and neighborhood watch across the continent with 

regional cooperation of its leaders.  

 

Conclusion 

From the above discourse, it is clear that insecurity is a cankerworm to Africa’s 

development and has instigated violence conflicts and other social vices in the 

continent’s urban areas. Urban communities present the bait of improved business, 

training, medicinal services administrations, culture and they contribute excessively to 

national economies. To guarantee development in many African nations, adequate 

security of lives and properties of citizens, especially in urban areas is paramount. The 

study concludes therefore that security is fundamental in each nation's life, as it enhances 

infrastructural improvement that would guarantee a better day to day environment for 

people. 

 



 

 

42 | P a g e  

 

 

Recommendations 
Based on the findings of this study, the following recommendations were made: 

1.  Government and non-governmental agencies should make security-related issues a 

priority in Africa, since the continent cannot make any significant progress amidst 

insecurity.  

2.  The administration must be proactive in managing security issues through the use of 

modern technological apparatus and information based facilities in the coordination 

and supervision of security threats. 

3.  Governments at all levels should ensure that there are adequate social welfare 

packages designed and duly implemented for its citizens to enable citizenship 

engagement. This will help occupy their minds and avoid all sorts of negative 

thought because it is said that an idle mind is a devil’s workshop.  

4.  Government should liaise with other non-governmental agencies in creating 

employment opportunities for its teeming unemployed youths who parade in the 

street aimlessly. This will enable these youths who constitute majority of the 

populace to earn a better living. 

5.  Citizens should also use their creativity to eke-out other skills inherent in them so as 

to empower themselves and not always depend on government provisions. 

6.  Adequate housing and other basic facilities should be made available through 

government housing scheme and other intervention scheme. This will assist the 

citizens meet their basic needs and avoid living in ghettos which is believed to be a 

grooming ground for criminal elements. 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 



 

 

43 | P a g e  

 

 

References 

Muggah, R. “Researching the Urban Dilemma: Urbanization, Poverty and Violence,” 

IDRC, Ottawa (2012). 

 

O’Neill, B.C., Ren, X., Jiang, L. and Dalton, M. “The Effect of Urbanization on Energy 

Use in India and China in the iPETS Model Energy Economics” (2012). 

 

Celik, A.P., Zyman, R. and Mahdi, R. (eds). “Sustainable Urbanization in the Information 

and Technology Era.” New Haven, CT: Yale University Press (2009):302-311 

 

United Nations-Natural Surroundings “World Urbanization Prospects: The 2011 

Revision Highlights ESAJP/WP1224,” Department of Economic and Social 

Affairs Population Division, United Nations, New York (2004). 

 

United Nations Environmental Programme UNEP, “Africa Environment Outlook: Past, 

Present and Future Perspectives.” http://www. grida.no/aeo/209.htm 9/12/04; 

(2004). 

 

Joined Countries “Age ST/ESAJPAD/SER.E/1 37, Department of Economic and Social 

Affairs Division for Public Administration and Development Management” United 

Nations New York, NewYork (2012). 

 

Dung-Gwom, J.Y., Hirse, S.0. & Pwat, S.P. “Four Year Strategic Plan for Urban 

Development and Housing in Plateau State” (2008-2011) Submitted to the Plateau 

State Strategic Plan Committee (2008). 

 

Trivedi, J.K., Sareen, H. and Dhyani, M. Rapid Urbanization — Its Impact on Mental 

Health: A South Asian Perspective. Indian Journal of Psychiatr, 50(3); 

(2008):161-165. 

 

Lwasa, S. “Managing City Growth and Development in the Context of Environmental 

Changes within Sub-Saharan Africa.” UGEC Viewpoints, No. 2, (September, 

2009). 

 

Mechan, P. and Speier, J. “Boko Haram, Threat to the U.S. Homeland”. Washington: 

U.S. House of Representatives Committee on Homeland Security Subcommittee 

on Counterterrorism and intelligence (2011). 

 

UNDP “Human Development Report” (New York: Oxford University Press) (2005). 

https://data2.unhcr.org; news.un.org www.africaresearchinstitute.org Sun 

Newspaper, 15th Dec., 2020 

https://data2.unhcr.org/
http://www.africaresearchinstitute.org/


 

 

44 | P a g e  

 

 

 

Suliman, T., Kohrt BA, Rasmussen A, & Kaiser BN “Cultural concepts of distress and 

psychiatric disorders: literature review and research recommendations for global 

mental health epidemiology”. Int J Epidemiol; 43: (2009): 365‐406. [PMC free 

article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 

 

Cook, J., McLaughlin KA, Costello EJ, & Leblanc W. “Post-traumatic stress disorder 

and adolescent mental disorders”. Am J Publ Health; 102; (2009): 42‐50. [PMC 

free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 

 

Cox, J., Kotch E. & Everson, H., “Mental Health Issues”. Journal of the International 

Medical Association Vol. 38 No 1 (2003): 33-43. 

 

Hanson, Fen Osler (2008) “A Concept in Need of a Global Policy Response” Security 

Dialogue 35(3): 349-350. 

 

Hunt, D., Martens, B., & Betcher T.0. “Challenges of Sustainability and Urban 

Development in Nigeria: Journal of International Affairs, vol.10, No.1, Lagos, 

NIIA. (2011): 212-219. 

 

Boserup, K. “A Security Regime in Southern Africa”: Theoretical Considerations. 

Southern African Perspectives No. 30, CSAS; (1994). 

 

Hoover, D., “Human Security Relevance and Implications” Parameters: US Army War 

College 35(2); (1948): 91-106. 

 

Griffith, C. (2009). Introduction to the Issue, UGEC Viewpoints No. 2 September 2009. 

 

Hornby, A.S “Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English (6th. Ed.).” 

New York: Oxford University Press. (2003). 

 

Potts, D. “Whatever Happened to Africa’s Rapid Urbanization? Africa Research 

Institute” (2012). 

 

Gould, W.T.S. “Migration and Recent Economic and Environmental Change” in Baker, 

J. and Akin Ama, T. (eds.), The Migration Experience in Africa, Nordiska Afrika 

institutet, Uppsala (1995). 

 

United Nations “World Population Monitoring: Focusing on Population Distribution, 

Urbanization, Internal Migration and Development: A Concise Report” 

(ST/ESAISER.A/284, Sales No. E.09.XII.3), United Nations, New York. (2017). 

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3997373/
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3997373/
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24366490
https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?journal=Int+J+Epidemiol&title=Cultural+concepts+of+distress+and+psychiatric+disorders:+literature+review+and+research+recommendations+for+global+mental+health+epidemiology&volume=43&publication_year=2013&pages=365-406&pmid=24366490&
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3482020/
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3482020/
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22873479
https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?journal=Am+J+Publ+Health&title=Socioeconomic+status+and+adolescent+mental+disorders&volume=102&publication_year=2012&pages=1742-50&


 

 

45 | P a g e  

 

 

 

Buzan, B. “New Patterns of Global Security in the 2lth Century”. International Affruir 

Vol. 67, No. 3, pp. (1991): 431-451. 

 

Corner, B. “Urbanization in Developing Countries: Current Trends, Future Projections, 

and Key Challenges for Sustainability Technology, Society,” (1994): 63-80. 

 

Nwabueze B. “Social Security in Nigeria”. A Lecture Delivered at the 10th Anniversary 

of Nigerian Institute of Advanced Legal Studies. Lagos: (August 28, 1980). 

 

Igbuzor .0. “Peace and Security Education: A Critical Factor for Sustainable Peace and 

National Development”. International Journal of Peace and Development Studies 

Vol. 2, No.1: (2011). 

 

Wolfers .A “National security as an ambiguous symbol” in walfer .A. Discord and 

collaboration. Essay on International Politics. Baltimore: John Hopkins University 

Pr (1962). 

 

Oche, 0. “Democratization and the Management of African Security” in Akindele, R. 

and Ate, .B (eds) in Nigerian Journal of International Affairs, vol.13, No.1, Lagos, 

NIIA: (2001). 

 

Stan .F. “The Security-Development Nexus: Conflict, Peace and Development in the 21st 

Century.” New York: IPA Report (2004). 

 

Oladeji .S.I. and Folorunso B. A. “The Imperative of National Security and Stability for 

Development Process in Contemporary Nigeria.” African Economic and Business 

Review Vol. 5 No 2: (2007). 

 

Ake, C. “Democracy and Development in Africa”. Ibadan: Spectrum Books Limited 

(2001): 45-56. 

 

Rostow, W. “The Process of Economic Growth.” New York. Norton and Co. Inc. (1952). 

 

Harrod R.F and Domar .E. “Essays on the Theory of Economic Growth”. Oxford 

University Press London (1957). 

 

Otto G. and Ukpere W. (2012), National Security and Development in Nigeria. African 

Journal of Business Management. Vol 6 No 23. 

 



 

 

46 | P a g e  

 

 

Beland, D. “The Political Construction of Collective Insecurity: From Moral Panic to 

Blame Avoidance and Organized Irresponsibility”. Center for European Studies, 

Working Paper Series (2005):126. 

 

Achumba, I. C., Ighomereho, O. S., & Akpan-Robaro, M. O. M. “Security Challenges in 

Nigeria and the Implications for Business Activities and Sustainable 

Development”. Journal of Economics and Sustainable Development, 4(2); (2013): 

79-99. 

 

Callaghy, Thomas “Africa and the World’s Economy: still caught between a rock and a 

hard place” in John Harbeson and Donald Rothchild (eds.) Africa in World Politics: 

post-Cold War Challenges (Oxford: Westview Press) (1995). 

 

Timberlake, Lloyd “Africa in Crisis: the causes and cure of environmental bankruptcy” 

(London: Earthscan) (1991) 

 

World Bank “Intensifying action against HIV/AIDS in Africa, Responding to a 

development crisis” (New York: Oxford University Press) (2000) 

 

Adedeji, Adebayo “Comprehending Africa’s Conflicts” in Adebayo Adedeji (ed.) 

Comprehending and Mastering African Conflicts: the Search for Sustainable Peace 

and Good Governance (London: Zed Books) (1999): 3-21. 

 

Laremont, Ricardo Rene “The causes of Warfare and the Implications of Peacekeeping 

in Africa” in Ricardo R. Laremont (ed.) The Causes of War and the Consequences 

of Peacekeeping in Africa (Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann): (2002): 1-18. 

 

Galtung, Johan “Violence, Peace and Peace Research” Journal of Peace Research 6(3): 

(1969): 167-191 

 

Adepoju, A. “Migration in Africa”: An Overview, in Baker, J. and Ama, A.T. (eds) The 

Migration Experience in Africa, Nordiska Afrika institutet, and Uppsala (1995) 22. 

 

Oucho, J. “Recent Internal Migration Processes in Sub-saharan Africa: Determinants, 

Consequences and Data Adequacy Issues,” in R.E. Bilsborrow (ed.) Migration, 

Urbanization, and Development: New Directions and Issues, United Nations 

Population Fund (UNFPA) and Kluwer Academic Publishers, New York, (1998): 

pp. 89-120. 

 

Mabogunje, A.L. (2004). The New National Policy on Housing and Urban Development 

and its Implications. HUD Perspectives, July 2004, pp. 14-15. 



 

 

47 | P a g e  

 

 

 

Aniah, E.J. “The Role of Secondary Cities in Regional Economic Development in 

Nigeria”. Journal of Environmental Sciences 4(2); (2001): 112-119. 

 

Federal Republic of Nigeria “National Population Census (5th Ed.)” Lagos: NERDC 

press (1997).  

 

Rotimi, M.A. “Trends in Industrial and Residential Development in Nigeria: 

Implications for Health and Safety.” An invited paper presented at the 39th 

National Conference/Scientific Workshop of the Environmental Health Officer 

Association of Nigeria (EHOAN), (October, 2003). 

 

US Library of Congress “Report of a Staff Study Mission to Great Britain, Ghana, 

Senegal, Cote d' Ivoire and France, November 29-December 20, 1988, to the 

Committee on Foreign Affairs, US House of Representatives” (Washington D.C.: 

US Government Printing Office) (2013). 

 

United States Agency for International Development (USAID)“Nigeria Economic 

Performance Assessment 2006” USAID, Abuja (2006). 

 

US International Co-operation Organization “Urban Population-Environment Dynamics 

in the Developing world: Case studies and Lessons Learned,” Committee for 

International Cooperation in National Research in Demography (CICRED), Paris 

(2006). 

 

Dollard, J., Miller, N. E., Doob, L. W., Mowrer, O. H., & Sears, R. R. “Frustration and 

aggression”. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press (1939). 

 

Eroukhmanoff, C., “Securitization Theory: https://www.e-ir.info//securitisation-theory-

an-introduction/. E-International Relations (2018): ISSN 2053-8626. World Bank 

“Report on Accelerated Development in sub-Saharan Africa: an agenda for action” 

(Washington, D.C.: World Bank) (2011).https://www.lindaikejisblog.com › 

2020/12 › first-lady-disappear-to-Dubai-cites-insecurity. https://www.bbc.com › 

pidgin › world-55344636 Where is Aisha Buhari now: Nigeria First Lady go 

Dubai? - Dis ... 

 

  
 

 


