Volume 4, Issue 1, 2019Volume 4, Issue 1, 2019 Enugu State University of Science & Technology Journal of Social Sciences F SO C IY ET NIS CER E AV NI DN U T EE CT HAT N S O U LOG GU YNE Journal of Social Sciences Published by the Faculty of the Social Sciences published by Faculty of Social Sciences Enugu State University of Science & Technology www.esutjss.com Editor-In-Chief Prof. Oby Omeje Managing Editor Barnabas E. Nwankwo, Ph.D Associate Editor Nicholas Attamah, Ph.D EJSS, Volume 4, Issue 1, 2019 1 A Sociological Analysis of Violent Crimes in Nigeria with emphasis on Armed Robbery in Enugu Metropolis Ngwu Leonard Ugwu (Ph.D) Department of Sociology/Anthropology Enugu State University of Science and Technology (ESUT) Email: ngwuleonard@gmail.com Abstract The frequent cases of violent crimes that continually result in innumerable losses of lives and property very much affects greater number of people in Enugu Metropolis in particular and Nigeria in general. Armed robbery, for instance, is the activities of sub-cultural groups which generates fear and insecurity in the victim. The armed robber is one armed with any firearm or offensive weapon or is in company of any person so armed to rob the property of another against his will. The robbers are frequently migratory, emotionally maladjusted and lack family attachment and possess insecure feelings about recognition. The study set out to identify factors responsible for the persistent increase of armed robbery activities in Enugu metropolis, the impact of the measures put in place to reduce the menace and factors militating against its effectiveness. The findings of the study showed that the rate of crime of armed robbery in Enugu Metropolis has increased. It was also found that the desire to make quick money, economic, social and political realities of Nigeria society are the major causes of armed robbery in the Metropolis. Recommendations on how to reduce the current rate of armed robbery in Enugu metropolis in particular and Nigeria in general were recommended. Keywords: Violent Crimes, Armed Robbery, Enugu Metropolis, Migration, Criminality Introduction The frequent cases of violent crime of armed robbery in contemporary societies (including Nigeria) have continued to send goose pimples down the spine of men and women every minute of the day. As social environment increase, crime also increases in the same direction thereby posing serious threat and insecurity to life and property. Thus, industrialization and social environment are linked to some extent, as cause and effect, while there is a wide-spread view that a similar relationship exists between social environment and crime (Wirth in Knox, 2005; Henslin 2007). Thus, knowledge of rural environment/rural life is necessary to help us appreciate the relationship existing between urban environment/urban life and crime. That is, rural environment/rural life is usually portrayed as natural, close to nature, stable and neighborly; associated with tradition and familiarity. For Tonnies (in Knox, 2005) in his work Gemeinschaft (Community) - the family is the basic unit of organization, social relationship is characterized by depth continuity, cohesion, and fulfillment, people are bound together; mailto:ngwuleonard@gmail.com EJSS, Volume 4, Issue 1, 2019 2 control over individual behaviour is through informal discipline of family and neighbours, while in Gesellschaft (Society) - the social relationship is based on rationality, efficiency and contractual obligations through the pattern of economic organization; large proportion of social interaction, bound together by formal ties, control over individual through impersonal and institutionalized codes. Urban environment/urban life is usually associated with “artificial”, that is, volatile and individualistic, and generally characterized in rather negative terms. Art, literature, public opinion and social theory have tended to portray cities as necessary evils, places that offer economic opportunity and accessibility to a broad spectrum of amenities but that are somehow “unnatural” – their sheer size and density leading to personal and social stress. In this regard, family life becomes more circumscribed, and extended family systems have to give way to compact, nuclear families. At the same time, social differentiation brings about a divergence of life styles, values, and aspirations, thus, weakening social consensus and cohesion and threatening to disrupt social order (Schaefer, 2005; Henslin, 2007). Loius Writh (in Knox et, al, 2005)) developed a deductive theory that was based on what he saw as the three fundamental attributes of urbanization - the increased number of people, the increased (physical) density of living and the increased heterogeneity of urban population. Each of these attributes, he believed, gives rise to a slightly different cluster of outcomes. Together, the outcomes are mutually reinforcing, generating a distinctive web of attitudes, behaviour, and social organization that characterize urbanism: a way of life that is an inevitable consequence of urbanization/social environment. However, the combined influence of increased size, density and heterogeneity of urban population would affect individual behaviour because, people had somehow to cope with a great number of variety of physical and social stimuli. Thus, people may become more withdrawn, emotionally buffered to the point where they are naturally aloof, brusque, and impersonal in their dealings with others. Furthermore, the general loosening of interpersonal bonds through these adaptive behaviours tends to leave people unrestrained, so that ego- centered and unconventional behaviours are fostered. They are left unsupported in times of crisis, leaving them vulnerable to neurosis, alcoholism, suicide or some form of deviant behaviour such as armed robbery. The Problem “The character of every civilization is determined by its mode of operation” (Karl Marx 1818-1883); and “The nature of a society controls the direction of its EJSS, Volume 4, Issue 1, 2019 3 criminality”(Sims). “Crime is anti-social act that reflect current morality” (Bonger).Thus, the sudden migration of people from various rural areas to Enugu metropolis gave no room for a planned city life. This condition has resulted in severe shortages in housing accommodation. To worsen the situation, general traditional values and norms which held people together in traditional settings appear to have been eroded in this process. However, people acquire material culture (type of food, housing, mode of dress, technology, and so forth), and non-material culture such as behavioral patterns, forms of organization, ideas, values, perspectives that originate in or are distinctive of the city. These influences of social environment result in increase in broken homes and various forms of individualized organized deviant behaviors. In this regard, the rapid population growth and upsurge in social environment might have brought along with it, certain negative effects like personal disorganization, mental break down, delinquency and crime (Wirth in Knox, 2005; Henslin, 2007). The upsurge of violent crimes such as armed robbery in Enugu Metropolis and in many parts of the country, “has become so frightening in its dimension that some concern citizens have wondered whether the nation is under siege (Banjoko, 1998). Thus, the National Bureau of statistics (2017) posits that crime statistics on reported offences reflected that a total of 125,790 cases were reported in 2016. Offences against property has the number of cases reported with 65,397 of such cases reported. Offence against persons recorded 45,554 cases reported while, offences against lawful authority and local acts recorded the least with 12,144 and 2,695 cases recorded respectively. Lagos state has the highest percentage share of total cases reported with 36.08% and 45,385 cases recorded. FCT Abuja and Delta state followed closely with 10.48% and 13,181 and 6.25% and 7,867 cases recorded respectively. Kastina State has the lowest percentage share of total cases reported with 0.10% and 120 cases recorded. Abia and Zamfara states followed closely with 0.29% and 364 and 0.38% and 483 cases recorded respectively (NBS, 2017). It is pertinent to state that this research is interested in offence against properties which are those offences against human belonging, properties of any kind e.g. stealing, receiving stolen properties, obtaining property by false pretence, robbery, burglary and house breaking (NBS, 2017). However, the total offence against property in the 36 states and Abuja in 2016 was 65,397 with Lagos coming first with (22,885) (34.99%), second (2,375) ( 3.63%) FCT, (9350) ( 14.30%), Ondo (1,934) (2.96%), Plateau (1,938) (2.96%), Uyo (1,752) (2.68%), EJSS, Volume 4, Issue 1, 2019 4 Bauchi (1,713) (2.62%), Enugu (1,094) (1.67%) among others. The least were Abia (113) (0.17%) and Kastina (65) (0.10%) respectively. Moreso, no day passes in Enugu State without a record in the newsprints, media, witnesses, victims reporting of the same gory tale on the menace of armed robbery in the state. For instance, the Police Public Relation Officer, SP Ebere Amaraizu reported of the killing of a notorious armed robber, Ogbonna Casmir (Punch Newspaper – https://punch.ng.com). He further reported on 5th September, 2019 – 2 armed robbers specialized in car snatching arrested; 3rd May 2019 Nine armed robbers arrested with AK 47 rifle (Daily Post); 25th July 2019, one arrested (PM News); 31st May 2019, two arrested (The Guardian); 4th May, 2019, two arrested (Thisday News). The incidence are innumerable and a daily occurrence of inhuman activities with horrible outcome of death, maiming, loss of properties and cash increases on daily basis. Crime fatalities in Nigeria (June 2006-September 2015) recorded 72 serious cases of armed robbery (Ukoji, et. al., 2016). Findings show that armed robberies have become the dominant crime in Nigeria, contributing to about 50% of an overall 8,516 deaths in 3,840 total incidence, between June 2006 and September, 2015 nationwide. Lagos, Rivers, Ogun, Benue and Imo State were reported as the most affected crime states (www.nigeriawatch.org>Ukoji,2016). However, in the effort to reduce the upsurge of crime of robbery, the Federal Government of Nigeria promulgated the Armed Robbery and Firearms (Special Provision) Decree No. 47 of 1970 in which death penalty or long prison sentences for offenders was the central point. Similarly, the Criminal Code Law CAP 30 Revised Law of Enugu State of Nigeria 2004, Vol. II in Chapter 35: 1116 stipulates life imprisonment for offenders. The government further strengthened the efforts of the police force by supplying new patrol vehicles and other logistics like information gadgets, modern weapons, and so forth. The police were also empowered to shoot the robbers at sight while they are engaged in the act or suspected to be on the run. As if these measures were not enough, there exists other Para- military units, probably, more energized groups like the “Highway Surveillance Patrol”, “Operation Fire for Fire”, “Special Anti-Robbery Squad (SARS)” and so forth, to complement the efforts of the police. In spite of all these harsh measures, armed robbery does not appear to have declined or to have become less violent. Rather, indications from the police, media, victims and witnesses are that it is not only on the increase but has become extremely violent (Igbo, 2001). https://punch.ng.com/ EJSS, Volume 4, Issue 1, 2019 5 In view of the foregoing, this research work intends to answer the following research questions: RESEARCH QUESTIONS i. What are the factors responsible for the current rate of armed robbery in Enugu Metropolis. ii. What has been the impact of the measures put in place to reduce the incidence of armed robbery in Enugu Metropolis? iii. What are the factors militating against the reduction of the incidence of armed robbery in Enugu Metropolis? OBJECTIVES The objectives of the research is to identify factors responsible for the current rate of armed robbery in Enugu metropolis and the impact of the measures put in place to reduce the incidence of armed robbery in the metropolis. Furthermore, the research will examine those factors militating against the reduction of the incidence of armed robbery in Enugu metropolis. Finally, the research work will profer suggestions for the individuals and groups on taking precaution to avoid criminal victimization as well as the need for collective effort to curb the increasing rate of armed robbery in Enugu metropolis in particular and Nigeria in general. EVALUATING SOCIAL STRUCTURE THEORIES: Social Structure Theories see delinquent subculture as resulting from ‘strains’ in the lives of those involved. When these strains become pertinent, the formation of delinquent subcultures invariably, starts to represent a way of coping with the problems associated with them. Cohen (in Tierney, 2009) in his work ‘Delinquent Boys’ had some similarities with Merton’s version of Strain Theory. Cohen and Merton link the source of strains to the nature of American Society itself, although, Cohen’s work can be distinguished from Merton in three important ways. First, while Merton explored the deviant reactions of the individual to strain, Cohen explored group reactions in the shape of sub-cultures. Second, whereas Merton emphasized the instrumental motivations behind deviant reactions (that is, they were directed at achieving material rewards), Cohen argued that typical adolescent delinquency is malicious and non-instrumental (involving, for instance, fighting and criminal damage). And third, unlike Merton, Cohen introduced a psychological dimension to his theory what he calls EJSS, Volume 4, Issue 1, 2019 6 psychogenic factors. Therefore some boys, do to psychogenic factors, are seen as being more likely to turn to delinquency than others. Although, Cohen was quick to point out that not all lower-class boys engaged in delinquency, and that middle-class boys were not immune to its attractions, he did nonetheless see delinquency as ‘typically’ concentrated among lower-working-class boys. In Cohen’s account, this results from the way in which status is ascribed to individuals in American society. It is, he observed, a society dominated by mainstream or middle-class standards relating to such things as educational prowess, demeanor and speech against which all individuals are judged. Compared with other sections of society, the home and family background of lower- class boys and indeed, the entire milieu in which they grow up is seen as culturally deficient, thus, their socialization fails to provide sufficient resources to compete on equal terms in the status stakes. As a consequence, and usually coinciding with early adolescence, such boys experience “status frustration”. However, the central point of Cohen’s theory is that the lower-class boys do value middle-class status, and are concerned about ‘the contempt or indifference of others (in Tierney, 2007) the lower-class boys faced if they fail to achieve it. When this happens, the boys experience, in Cohen’s words, a ‘problem of adjustment’. For the delinquent boys, reaction formation which is a psychological concept, refers to a situation where the failure to achieve something that is desired (for example, the middle- class status) leads to an individual vehemently rejecting what had previously been an object of desire. According to Cohen, the strength of feeling is so strong that the subculture is in fact a contra-culture, which its norms and values are inversions of middle-class norms and values, and towards which there is now extreme hostility. The delinquent activities associated with the subculture fighting, criminal damage, and so forth, express hostility and importantly, provide a source of status for the boys. Cloward and Ohlin (1960) writing on the American sub-cultural strain theory also draw example from the work of Merton and Sutherland as well as introducing ideas from Durkheim. A common thread running through the work of Merton, Cohen, and Cloward and Ohlin is the strain arising from thwarted ambition, within the context of a society that promises, though fails to deliver equality of opportunity. Following Durkheim, the assumption is that in the absence of strain, that is, in a meritocracy where reward matches ability, the likelihood of delinquent behaviour would be reduced accordingly. EJSS, Volume 4, Issue 1, 2019 7 Unfortunately, as they pursue the part of meritocracy, they experience strain arising from the fact that achieving success is not based simply on one’s ‘ability’ but on other factors such as having the right contacts or accent or social background. These factors places the boys in a significantly disadvantaged position which, according to Cloward and Ohlin (and reflecting ideas from Durkheim and Merton), creates for some, a strong sense of moral injustice and anger, to the extent that they react by ceasing to be committed to the norms and values of middle-class society. Interestingly, Cloward and Ohlin further their analysis by arguing that the world of deviant subcultures mirrors that of conventional society, in that, it exhibits its own structural inequalities. Criminal subcultures are associated with more tightly organized lower-class neighbourhoods, where, adult criminals keep the younger delinquents in check (for example, by controlling conflict between gangs in order to prevent their largely property crime activities coming to the attention of a wider audience). Violent subcultures are therefore, found in more disorganized neighbourhoods where these control are significantly less effective. Mays (in Tierney, 2009) argued that the area itself constituted a subculture characterized by norms and values strongly at variance with those of the rest of the city. The youngsters brought up in the area to a greater or lesser extent engaged in delinquency, which was seen as a normal outcome of their socialization into the delinquent norms and values of the area. The boys, according to Downes (in Tierney, 2009) were essentially conformists in that they conform to the cultural values in which they were immersed, rather than rebels against society. Sub-cultural theories of delinquency have attracted a number of criticism as summed up by Heidensohn (1989): i. they tend towards deterministic explanations, that is, the belief that what you do and what happens to you are cause by things that you cannot control and in effect, passively internalizing delinquent values. ii. the tendency towards deterministic explanations is connected to a lack of attention being paid to conformity: why do others, living in the same social environment, avoid internalizing delinquent values? iii. while, Cohen’s version of strain theory avoids this, other sub-cultural theories generally conceptualize delinquent youth lacking in moral regulation, as if they lived in anomic enclaves, untouched by the wider society and conventional values and so on. EJSS, Volume 4, Issue 1, 2019 8 Generally, critics of social structure theories believe that “we cannot be sure that it is lower-class culture itself that promotes crime and not some other forces operating in society. Residence in urban areas alone is not sufficient to cause people to violate the law (Kornhauser, 1978). Lower-class areas seem to have higher crime rates because residents are arrested and prosecuted by agents of the justice system who, as members of the middle-class, exhibit class bias (Tittle, 1983). Even if the higher crime recorded in lower – class areas are valid, it is still true that significant majority of the lower class are not criminals and that a relatively small proportion of the population commits most crimes. LIFE IN CITIES IN RELATION TO CRIME COMMITTANCE Durkheim (in Knox, et al., 2005) believed that the transition from mechanical to organic solidarity as the dominant form of social organization was a result of three factors- the number of people involved in urban settings, density of urban residential settings and the dynamism of cities which its existence in urban life might break down, leading to anomie. The norms of personal and social behaviour become so weak that some people become socially isolated, confused, or uncertain about how to behave, while others tend to challenge or ignore social conventions with an increase in deviant behavior. In contrast to Tonnies and Durkheim views, Georg Simmel believed that all social relationships and forms of social organization stem from basic human derives, interests, and psychic states. In this regard, people enter into relationships in pursuit of a variety of objectives: survival acquisitiveness, status, power, erotic and spiritual instincts. By implication, lives which people acted out amid tensions and conflicts between their individual creativity and the various institutionalized forms of social interaction and social organization have evolved in order to fulfill generalized human needs. . Similarly, writing from the same perspective as Tonnies and Durkheim, drawing heavily but selectively on the ideas of Simmel and strongly influenced by colleagues in the Chicago School of Human Ecology, Wirth, developed a deductive theory based on three fundamental attributes of urbanization as, increased number of people, density of living and increased heterogeneity of urban populations. The outcome of these variables are mutually reinforcing, generating a distinctive web of attitudes, behaviour and social organization that characterized urbanism: a way of life that is an inevitable consequences of urbanization/social environment. EJSS, Volume 4, Issue 1, 2019 9 The combined influence of increased size, density and heterogeneity of urban populations would affect individual behavior because people had somehow to cope with a great number and variety of physical and social stimuli. Wirth argued that city life leads people to become more withdrawn, emotionally buffered to the point where they become naturally aloof, brusque; and impersonal in their dealings with others, the general loosening of interpersonal bonds through this adaptive behavior tend to leave people unrestrained; so that ego-centred and unconventional behaviors are fostered. They are left unsupported in times of crisis, leaving them vulnerable to neurosis, alcoholism, suicide, or some form of deviant behavior. Wirth believed that the use of formal control (criminal codes supported by police forces, welfare agencies, and so forth) can never adequately replace a communal order based on consensus and the moral strength of small primary groups. As a result, urbanism brings a loosening of the social fabric, allowing ego-centered and unconventional behavior to flourish and allowing personal crises to generate into social problems. This implies that urban life characterized by norm conflicts, rapid social change, increased mobility of the population, emphasis on materialism and individualism and sharp decline in intimate communication will flourish. This is because people coming from various walks of life carry their individual behavior patterns to the urban areas which often lead to conflict of norms with serious implications for law violation. SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT AND ARMED ROBBERY Early studies of rural and urban crime rates indicate that the urban crime environment (such as in slum) has been a fertile ground for crime and criminality over the years. According to Shelley (1981), the process of urbanization/social environment and the accompanying industrialization has had a considerable impact on crime committance in urban centres. Such early studies invariably, indicate that urban areas are more criminogenic than the rural areas because of the increased opportunities for crime in the city particularly armed robbery. Similarly, many classic studies in criminology, for example, Newman (1979); Sampson (in Siegel 2007) Burgess (in Henslin, 2007) identified the ‘urban crisis’ in one form or another as the “crowded slum of the inner city.’’ Newman for instance, believed that “the run-down industrial areas, the shifting population that lives in these areas and the lack of recreational facilities are related to many forms of crimes.” Sampson (1995) on his part believed “there is evidence that a subculture of violence may be found in areas that EJSS, Volume 4, Issue 1, 2019 10 experience concentrated poverty and social disorganization.” Empirical evidence shows that violent crime rates such as armed robbery are highest in urban areas where sub-cultural values support teenage gangs whose members typically embrace use of violence (Kane, 2005). In other words, the slum areas of the city which are characterized by inferior living conditions and rundown facilities are the homes of prostitutes, homeless men and women, juvenile delinquents as well as adult criminals. According to Shelley (1981), most of the children who grew up in slums appear to subscribe to the “slum culture” and thus, develop sub-culture that encourages illegal behavior. In Enugu metropolis for example, the urbanization/social environment that emerged as a result of industrialization, economic activities, political and administrative headquarters and the vestiges of the civil war were felt in the increase in crime rate, particularly armed robbery. To this and similar studies, there is a strong relationship between urbanization/social environment and crime of armed robbery. Furthermore, robbery, according to the Federal Bureau of Investigation (2000) is “taking or attempting to take anything of value from the care, custody or control of a person or persons by force or threat of force or violence and/or by putting the victim in fear”. The Nigeria Armed Robbery and Firearms (Special Provision) Decree No.47 of 1970 defined armed robbery as “one armed with any firearm or offensive weapon or is in company of any person so armed to rob the property of another against his will”. Igbo (1998) contended that the armed robbers in Nigeria for example, blame their actions on the “mismanagement of the Nigerian economy which has given rise to massive unemployment”. The robbers accused the “rich and the politicians of scandalous conspicuous consumption and insensitivity to the hardship and suffering of the poor and the less privileged”. Igbo believed that “all these have serious consequences for high rate of armed robbery”. Other factor influencing armed robbery includes poverty, social inequalities, drugs, alcoholism, political unrest and quest for quick wealth. Armed robbery as defined earlier is the activities of an “in-group conforming to the ethics of their group”. Igbo (1998) posits that: Armed robbery is inevitable in a society which encourages free enterprise and private accumulation of wealth and where wealth is highly valued and glorified. The powerful minority of the population “basks” in their ill-gotten wealth with utter contempt for and neglect of the poverty and deprivation of the mass majority, and where this mass majority feels cheated, frustrated and marginalized from the process of accumulation… EJSS, Volume 4, Issue 1, 2019 11 There is evidence that such situation as observed above tend to encourage crime particularly, armed robbery. Yusuf Alli (2009) quoting from the report of the National Bureau of Statistics (2008) based on armed robbery cases reported to the police as at the end of 2007 stated the armed robbery occurrence in Nigerian states in 2007: Oyo (224); FCT (172); Imo (176); Rivers (145); Cross River (137); Kano (108); Ogun (107). Others are: Gombe (27); Benue (27); Plateau (26); Kwara (25); Sokoto (24); Jigawa (16); Kebbi (20); and Yobe (20). Also, Abia (89); Adamawa (96); Akwa Ibom (88); Anambra (96); Bauchi (41); Bayelsa (54); Borno (41); Delta (63); Ebonyi (51); and Edo (79). Still, others are: Ekiti (85); Kaduna (40); Kastina (31); Kogi (41); Nasarawa (36); Niger (32); Ondo (58); Osun (51); Taraba (80) and Enugu (44). The source in the NBS who spoke in confidence with ‘The Nation Newspaper’ said the figures are “the current official records which any institution or person could work with (www.naraland.forum.com). Sourced 29th January, 2018. These young people are ready to kill and dispossess people of their money and property because, the elders have not shown enough good examples; especially when we consider how wealthy Nigerians lavish money at wedding, burial, naming ceremonies, birthday and send-off parties as well as opening of new houses. It is very discouraging and revolting to watch the rich spend such money among the many under privileged. In this regard, the society or social environment tends to dictate man’s actions, socializes him and fashions him into either a savage or a civilized person, imbued with civilized conducts. According to Mba-Afolabi, et. al., (1996): “It is a situation where we now have two extreme classes, the very rich and the very poor. People at the bottom want to get to the top and those at the top are desperate to remain there”. However, survival is one root of the robbers’ desperation and another is to join the class of the rich for which the society pours all reverence. Invariably, such odious and harsh social system has turned the whole country into a jungle where desperation and survival are the game. From the foregoing discussion, it is obvious that there is a relationship between social environment and crime. Social Environment connotes the consequences of urbanization.. In Enugu metropolis for example, the population was 138,457 in 1963. In 1991, the population rose to 465,072 (70.23% increase). Similarly, in 2006, the population rose again to 722,664 (35.64% increase from the period 1991 to 2006) (National Population Census, 2006). The population rose to 740,468 (projected) in 2007 (2.40% increase) and 764,392 (projected) in 2008 (3.13% increase) (Enugu State Economic Planning Commission Projections, 2008). http://www.naraland.forum.com/ EJSS, Volume 4, Issue 1, 2019 12 Also, with a growth rate of 3.18% increase per annum, the population of Enugu Metropolis rose to 814, 584 (projected) in 2010 and 840, 488 (projected) in 2011 (Enugu State Economic Planning Commission Projections 2009-2011). In the same direction, the rate of armed robbery cases increased in the urban city from 55 (10.66%) in 2003; 66 (12.79%) in 2004 and 55 (10.66%) in 2005. Others are: 44 (8.53%) in 2006; 37 (7.17%) in 2007; 52 (10.08%) in 2008; 58 (11.24%) in 2009 and 64 (12.40%) in 2010. Thus, the 2.13% and 3.49% fall in 2006 and 2007 could be attributed to the intensified efforts of the police to abate crime of armed robbery; and most importantly, recruitment of jobless youth into political thuggery by the politicians for the general elections of 2007. It would appear reasonable therefore, contended Christiansen (1960) to assume that the “cultural process of urbanization/social environment have negative influence on the capacity to lead a law-abiding life”. . Armed robbery is “without doubt the most violent and dreaded crime in contemporary Nigeria”. Igbo (1989) summarized the situation by contending that: … No other crime in Nigeria has generated so much fear and feeling of insecurity; no other crime has mobilized fierce and bitter (but ‘guarded’) public opinion against it; and no other crime has received so much attention and ruthlessness from the government of Nigeria as armed robbery. Thus, armed robbery as explicated in this literature, has become the most disturbing social problem to be solved generally in Nigeria and Enugu Metropolis in particular. There is evidence that no state in the contemporary Nigeria is spared from the ravages of armed robbery menace. Most people, particularly the rich felt helpless and can no longer rely on the security arrangements and assurances of the police. The thought and possibility of one becoming “the next victim” of armed robbery seems to generate a pervasive atmosphere of fear, anxiety, insecurity and restlessness among the general population of Nigeria (Igbo, 1998). As a result, many Nigerians then engage their own private guards; private houses are built to serve as a miniature “prisons” with solid walls and protective fences, iron-gate and burglar-proofs to barricade windows and doors. These methods had in the past, caused several deaths in the invent of fire out break because of the inability of the occupants to open the multiple barricades as fast as possible. EJSS, Volume 4, Issue 1, 2019 13 Invariably, with death penalty and long-term imprisonment hanging over their neck, armed robbers have become more violent in a desperate attempt to eliminate all traces of incriminating evidence against them, whether such evidence is with victims, witnesses or law enforcement agents. As Aguda (1986) rightly pointed out: “brutal punishments escalate brutal crimes and brutal crimes escalate brutal punishments, thus, creating a never- ending spiral of brutalization of the whole society”. Although, John Conklin (cited in Siegel, 2007) identified criminal types of robbers as the opportunist robbers, addict robbers, alcoholic robbers and the professional robbers; this paper found interest in the professional robbers because the group operate in tandem with the violent career criminals that is the focus of this research. The professional robbers are those frequently single, migratory, narcissistic, intelligent, quick-witted and emotionally maladjusted. They lack family attachments and possess insecure feelings about recognition and so forth. (Roebuck, 1967). Professional robbers thrive on conflict, excitement and troubles. Peace and tranquility appears to disturb them. They are physically fit, vigorous, restless, energetic and rebellious and natural trouble makers in a penal setting. The robbers have sense of organization, timing, ability to take into account unforeseen events. In victim preference, they would consider banks, loan companies, super markets, drug stores, bar, liquor stores, gas stations – a fair ranking of victims in descending order of profit. The professional robbers frown on the robbers who rob individual and consider them “amateur” “hotheads” and “bums” and so forth. Each successful operation binds the gang further and provides the stimulating motives for continued involvement. The robbers do not think in terms of apprehension, although they are aware of the possibility, it is always a remote awareness. Richard Wright et. al., (1997) in their view, maintained that armed robbers are motivated by a pressing need for cash. Many robbers careen from one financial crisis to the next prompted by their endless quest for stimulation and thrills, they partied, gambled, drank and abused substances until they were broke. The career, however, promises upward social mobility; but the robbery ostensibly to finance legitimate business, opens a motel or to enable a trip to start anew, is always hindered by the style of life they live. He never translates his economic gain into objects of legitimate social worth or more conventional style of life. Sutherland (1937) in his work The Professional Thief advanced some rules of the professional robbers. These rules become a formal code of ethics subscribed to by the robbers much like other codes of conduct among legitimate professional groups. These codes of EJSS, Volume 4, Issue 1, 2019 14 conduct found among groups of professional robbers are presumed to have universal applicability to professional criminal groups (Einstadier, 1967). These rules according to Sutherland include: i. Gains being equally shared among associate and once robbery is discussed with any amount of seriousness, all present consider themselves involved. ii. There is need for common understanding among the gang when a member is arrested. They help the arrested member by sharing the expenses of litigation; while the arrested member is expected to keep his mouth shut no matter the pressure. iii. Robbers, as a rule, do not reveal too much about themselves to each other, yet, there are “understanding” for a common goal. iv. There are no special rules of etiquette that governs robbery group conduct. The need of the moment dictates the method of operation. v. Members of the gang are not hold responsible for events which they cannot control. Thus, fate is deemed to control the robber’s destiny. This is because, robbery, no matter how well planned, always present the possibilities of uncontrollable hazards and uncertainty. vi. No member of the gang should cut in on another member group. “Cramping the style” of another group is forbidden, unless on emergency. METHODS: This work adopted a cross-sectional survey research design. This method ensured that the researcher collects his data at a particular time or period from a selected sample to describe a large population at that particular point in time. The method was employed because it enabled the researcher to use the sample drawn to represent the diverse elements of the population under study. The area of study was Enugu Metropolis including, Abakpa- Nike, Ogbete (Coal Camp), Ogui-Urban (known as Ogui Urban Jungle), Uwani and Independence Layout. However, the population of the area of study was 922,336 (Enugu State Economic Planning Commission Projections, 2010-2011). Invariably, the population of the five clusters according to the 2006 Official Census Record stands at 178,364 or 19.34% of the total population of Enugu Metropolis. The sampling technique which involved to a large extent, the cluster and systematic sampling methods were used to select the clusters, streets and respondents. One thousand (1000) questionnaire were administered. The structured questionnaire made of thirty-seven items were used to obtain information for the study. In a EJSS, Volume 4, Issue 1, 2019 15 nutshell, nine hundred and seventy(970) questionnaires were validly completed and returned which is about 97% of the total number distributed across all segments of the population from 18 years and above. Chi-square (X2) was adopted to test the hypotheses at .05 level of significance. The formula for Chi-square (X2) is computed using the formula:   FE FEFO X 2 2   DF = (R-1) (C-1) FO = Observed frequencies FE = Expected frequencies DF = Degree of Freedom R = Row C = Column TESTING OF HYPOTHESES Decision Rule: Reject Ho if X2 calculated is greater than X2 tabulated, accept if otherwise. Hypothesis 1 Ho: There is no significant relationship between social environment and incidence of armed robbery in Enugu metropolis. H1: There is a significant relationship between social environment and incidence of armed robbery in Enugu metropolis. Views of Respondents on Current Rate of Armed Robbery Activities in Enugu Metropolis by Factors Responsible for it. Views of responde Factors responsible for it Unemploy Prostituti Loss of Broken Slum Rapid Total EJSS, Volume 4, Issue 1, 2019 16 nts ment on traditional social control homes conditions growth in populatio n Freq % Freq % Freq % Freq % Freq % Freq % Freq % Yes 400 (79.37%) 69 (75.82%) 53 (61.09%) 84 (78.51%) 108 (78.83%) 35 (67.31%) 749 (77.22%) No 104 (20.63%) 22 (24.18%) 26 (32.91%) 23 (21.49%) 29 (21.17%) 17 (32.69%) 221 (22.78%) Total 504 (51.96%) 91 (9.38%) 79 (8.14%) 107 1.03%) 137 (14.12%) 52 (5.37%) 970 (100%) Sources: Computed by the researcher using data collected from the field. df =6 p = 0.05 X2 Calculated =485 X2 Tabulated =293.906 The outcome of the research as presented above was further subjected to Chi-Square (X2) test in order to ascertain the strength of the observed relationship. The Chi-Square (X2) subsequently proved that the calculated Chi-Square 485 at 0.05 level of significance is more than the tabulated Chi-Square of 293.906. Therefore, the substantive hypothesis which states that: There is no significant relationship between the social environment and the incidence of armed robbery is rejected while the H1 is accepted at P =0.05. This implied that there is a significant relationship between social environment and incidence of armed in Enugu Metropolis. Test Statistics Unemployment Prostitutio n Loss of traditional social control Broke n homes Slum condition Rapid growth in population Chi-Square 173.841 24.275 9.228 34.776 45.555 6.231 Df 1 1 1 1 1 1 Asymp. Sig. .000 .000 .002 .000 .000 .013 Hypothesis 2 EJSS, Volume 4, Issue 1, 2019 17 Ho: There is no significant relationship between the new measures put in place for combating armed robbery and the high rate of armed robbery activities in Enugu Metropolis. H1: There is a significant relationship between the reduction in the rate of armed robbery in the Metropolis and the new measures put in place for combating armed robbery. Views of Respondents on the Measures put in place for combating armed robbery and the rate of armed robbery activities in Enugu Metropolis Measure put in place for combating armed robbery in the Metropolis Views of Respondents on the effectiveness of the measures Yes No Total Frequency % Frequency % Frequency % Operation Fire for Fire 19 (13.57%) 74 (8.92%) 93 (9.59%) Special Anti- Robbery Squad (SARS) 14 (10%) 182 (21.93%) 196 (20.21%) Neighbourhood Watch 80 (57.15%) 370 (44.58%) 450 (46.39%) Highway Surveillance Patrol 8 (5.71%) 56 (6.75%) 64 (6.59%) Hiring Private Guards 12 (8.57%) 71 (8.55%) 83 (8.56%) Building high walls with steel iron gates 7 (5%) 77 (9.27%) 84 (8.66%) Total 140 (14.43%) 830 (85.57%) 970 (100%) Sources: Computed by the researcher using data collected from the field. df =6 p = 0.05 X2 Calculated = 485 X2 Tabulated= 499.689 The result of the observations above weres also subjected to the Chi-Square (X2) Test. This test as presented above shows that the value of the calculated Chi-Square of 485 is less than the value of tabulated Chi-Square of 499.689. Therefore, the substantive hypothesis which states that: There is no significant relationship between the new measures are put in place for combating armed robbery and the high rate of armed robbery is upheld and H1 hypothesis which says that: There is a significant relationship between the reduction in the rate of armed robbery in the Metropolis and the new measures put in place for combating EJSS, Volume 4, Issue 1, 2019 18 armed robbery is rejected at P = 0.05. This implied that there is no much outstanding improvement in reduction in the rate of armed robbery activities irrespective of the introduction of new measures such as Neighbourhood Watch, Special Anti-Robbery Squad (SARS), Armoured Personnel Carrier (APC) and so forth. Test Statistics Operation fire for fire Special anti- robbery squad Neighbour hood watch Highway surveillance patrol Hiring private guard Building high wall with steel iron gate Chi-Square 32.527 144.000 186.889 36.000 41.940 58.333 df 1 1 1 1 1 1 Asymp. Sig. .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 Hypothesis 3 H0: There is no significant relationship between the lack of reduction of the incidence of armed robbery in Enugu Metropolis and the type of equipment available to the police. H1: There is a significant relationship between the type of equipment available to the police and the reduction of the incidence of armed robbery in Enugu Metropolis. Views of Respondents on effective combat of crime of armed robbery by views of Respondents on the type of equipment not available to the police. Equipment not available to the police Views of Respondents on the effective combat of armed robbery Yes No Total Freq % Freq % Freq % Sophisticated weapons 293 (48.03%) 172 (47.78%) 465 (47.94%) New vehicle 272 (44.59%) 160 (44.44%) 432 (44.54%) Communication gadgets 45 (7.38%) 28 (7.78%) 73 (7.52%) Total 610 (62.89%) 360 (37.11%) 970 (100%) Sources: Computed by the researcher using data collected from the field. df = 3 p = 0.05 X2Calculated = 485 EJSS, Volume 4, Issue 1, 2019 19 X2 Tabulated = 64.482 To determine the strength of this relationship, the result was further subjected to Chi- Square (X2) Test. The Chi-Square (X2) subsequently proved that the calculated Chi-Square of 485 at 0.05 level of significance is more than the tabulated Chi-Square of 64.482. Therefore, the substantive hypothesis which states that: There is no significant relationship between the lack of reduction of the incidence of armed robbery in Enugu metropolis and the type of equipment available to the police is rejected, while H1 hypothesis is accepted. The result obtained in this test is akin to the statement made by some security experts that “with the sophisticated nature of the weapons used by the robbers, it would be difficult for the police to effectively tackle them without the support of Amoured Personnel Carrier (APC). This implied that the lack of reduction of armed robbery in Enugu Metropolis is directly related to the type of equipment available to the police. Test Statistics Sophisticated Weapons New Vehicle Communication Gadgets Chi-Square 31.486 29.037 3.959 df 1 1 1 Asymp. Sig. .000 .000 .047 2. STATISTICS: Difference between actual and theoretical: the difference between results obtained through theoretical calculation and those obtained through observation residual. DISCUSSIONS 1. It is apparent from the above that the desire to make quick money or the acquisition of wealth is one of the major causes of armed robbery in Enugu metropolis. Similarly, the political and economic structures of the country which generates massive corruption, poverty, deprivation, unemployment, hunger and hopelessness among Nigerians, all combine to make crime, particularly armed robbery an attractive option for the individuals. EJSS, Volume 4, Issue 1, 2019 20 2. The call for re-structuring of the country’s socio-economic and political values and norms has not been appreciated. The Nigerian socio-economic system favours the rich minority and produces a poor majority. Put in another way, the situation is made worse by the existence in the same society of a few excessively wealthy and affluent individuals who live in opulence among the underprivileged ones. Such situations tend to encourage variety of criminalistic responses, one of which may be armed robbery. Thus, this situation underscores the Anomic/Strain Theory of Robert K. Merton which forms the theoretical framework for this study. 3. Corruption in the Police Command in-charge of crime control is another major handicap. There have been reported cases of the police acting in collusion with the criminal gangs. In this regard, a bewildered citizenry no longer knows where to run to. By implicating the police in criminal activities, the shortcomings of the police have led some persons to questions the credibility of the police force. 4. Rapid population growth and upsurge in urbanization/social environment causes increase in the incidence of armed robbery in Enugu Metropolis. Poverty and slum conditions contribute immensely to the incidence of crime of armed robbery in Enugu metropolis. 5. The indices of urbanization/social environment such as slum conditions, unemployment, inadequate housing, loss of traditional social control, over-population, crime, broken homes and so forth, on social and moral relationship between homes or persons of different classes in the society contributed heavily to armed robbery and other crimes in Enugu metropolis. 6. Findings show that the new means of transportation as used by contemporary armed robbers include, motor cycles popularly known as “Okada” which are on the increase and the reasons are that it facilitates an easy–get–away, and can be easily disposed off or hidden. Little wonders then, that in most cities, the authorities have imposed a blanket ban on “Okada” operators totally or between some hours. 7. In the past armed robbers attack people’s home much, reason being that people keep big monies in the house because they do not trust the bank that collapses often. But now people do have confidence in the bank by putting their money in the bank and leaving it for a very long period. In the alternative, the new technique which the robbers use is kidnapping. Most armed robbers have come to understand that when they kidnap someone that is very dear to someone and give the family of the kidnapped the price to pay, the family will do everything within their powers to meet up with the demand. In EJSS, Volume 4, Issue 1, 2019 21 some cases you see kidnappers demanding for hundreds of million naira and they are paid. When compared to the old system of going to the house or the bank, you will see that even when they rob there, they might risk going there and not finding money at all. So, most armed robbers have taken to kidnapping as a new tactics. The robbers also operate on the high ways carrying Point Of Sale (POS) for the victims to transfer money from their account into the fake bank account where the robbers cash the money immediately. 8. Also, we see people who make lot of money from cheating and deceiving people from the internet. Another modern technique is that they go with connections and they have influential men backup (in government or crime control agencies). That is why even when some of them are caught, they release them the next day. It takes someone of very high connection/backup to achieve that. 9 The present-day armed robbers in their new methods move in a platoon of 20 – 30 persons, unlike the former 2 – 5 gang – member. Thus, this number of robbers, with the type of arsenals in their possession, could dislocate and intimidate any law enforcement agents within that vicinity, giving the robbers enough time to torment and humiliate their victims to their satisfaction. With such intimidating number, any reprisal attack is bound to fail, unless there is immediate reinforcement which in Nigeria context, could take more than 2-3 hours before reinforcement arrives. By then, the robbers might have done all they needed and left. 10. Further more, one major push-pull factors to the upsurge of armed robbery in contemporary Enugu metropolis in particular, and Nigeria in general is the bias development in favour of urban centres at the expense of rural settlements. Second, there is a male / female difference in armed robbery participation. Although both men and women are now involved in armed robbery, the study revealed that more than 80.59% of the armed robbers are men. However, 82.99% attributed it to environment while about 54.12% said that those within the age range of 18-33 are more involved in perpetuating this crime. Furthermore, 74.22% of the respondents were of the view that the measures put in place to reduce crime of armed robbery had impact on its reduction and 46.49% scored Neighbourhood Watch the most effective in such reduction. Similarly, 47.94% of the respondents believed that the police do not have sophisticated weapons to contrast those carried by the robbers. In this regard, 63.20% believed that the police will perform better if they were well equipped. Finally, 78.45% of the respondents said that the EJSS, Volume 4, Issue 1, 2019 22 government has not done enough to reduce the current rate of armed robbery and in the alternative, 48.23% suggested that government should provide employment opportunities for the youths. CONCLUSION Crime particularly, armed robbery in our society have continued to be at its frequent rate. This increased heavily as a result of industrialization and urbanization/social environment and on the other hand, poses serious threat and insecurity of life and property to man. However, urbanization/social environment which is characterized by rapid population growth, slums, unemployment and crime contributed immensely to the incidence of armed robbery in Enugu Metropolis. Invariably, in evaluating the findings of this research work, it is pertinent to note that crime is not a natural phenomenon that consists of inevitable episodes which cannot be foreseen or guarded against. The truth is that we address these horrendous tendencies with cosmetic and half-hearted approach. For example, evidence abound that we have not properly addressed the issue of diversifying our economy in areas like, labour intensive agriculture and establishment of industries to provide job opportunities for the youths. In addition, we have not considered the importance of re-structuring our socio-economic and political values to curb the “get-rich-at-all-cost” mentality and so forth. Most Nigerian youth engage in armed robbery to achieve wealth or to make money, mostly because the approved means of attaining this goal legitimately is not reachable. Modernization through urbanization/social environment and industrialization also brought with it changes in the value system. Therefore, things that were highly valued in the past, such as, morality, sacredness of human life, and so forth, are no longer of great importance today. The experiences in our cities show that there is weak social control mechanism which is an off-shoot of culture conflict. In the normal growth of our culture from single to complex, social differentiation occurs. This in turn produces different social groupings, each with its own values and its lack of understanding of the values of other groups, thereby turning the entire society into a jungle where anything goes. In the words of Aguda (1986), “brutal punishment (denial) escalates brutal crimes and brutal crimes escalate brutal punishments, thus, creating a never-ending spiral of brutalization of the whole society”. EJSS, Volume 4, Issue 1, 2019 23 Since the findings from the study can be given as many interpretations as we can find, the results from the study clearly indicates that there is need for action on issues concerning crime in our society. This is because in Nigeria, armed robbery is marked aggression by the robbers and generates fear and insecurity in the victim. To the victim, life is shrouded in uncertainty, for, in the robber’s drug confused brain, a pull of the trigger, life is extinct. This situation is experienced daily in most of the armed robbery operations in our society. It was on this premise that the paper among others, recommends that: 1. There should be visible surveillance presence as a deterrent to criminal activities by increasing the offenders perception of the risk of being caught. A proactive policing strategies such as, intensive police and neighborhood/vigilante patrol can instill fear into potential criminal in crime prone area. 2. Neighborhood watch/vigilante group programmes can help to reduced opportunities for crime. One way of doing this is to create signs of occupancy (such as, red-lighted-lanterns on the strategic positions in the community, street etc; intermittent sounding of metal/wooding gong and other danger signs) indicating an invisible presence of people, particularly, security agents as well as activities indicating that the property is actively protected. Other home security measures (such as, fencing the house, security light, burglary proof protecting windows and doors etc) could make it harder for criminal to gain access to the property. Also when the property is marked with an inscription of initials, etc removes the benefits of theft by making it harder to dispose off stolen goods. 3. Increased police detection, supported by the community through giving information that may lead to the incapacitation of offenders since activities reported by citizen can help the police make arrests and gain conviction. 4. In addition, the success of community policing must be based on unity of purpose and avoidance of strangers policing strangers’. On the contrary, a community whose members are not united may not succeed in implementing community policing programmes because sabotage and/or an insider criminal network will undermine the apprehension of intruders and crime control. 5. There should be police post and police/army road blocks in all the high ways to ward off criminal hide-out and hijacking travelers vehicle to rob them. The police-public relation should be encouraged to have smooth process of information. COMMENTS EJSS, Volume 4, Issue 1, 2019 24  The abstract needs a rework to capture the method used in data collect and the findings  The key words must be reworked  There must be a style of writing for a journal article, this is not thesis, the author has to follow the format of the journal and reduce the words to between 2000 to 5000 words maximum, and reduce pages to at most 15 pages  The literature is old and the author can afford to update his literature to meet the cureent trend of crime, I expected to see crime statistics from the police in the last two years at least.  It was difficult linking his theoretical framework with the literature and his hypothesis  It is difficult to establish the citation format the author is using, APA is normally the accepted format  It is not clear the respondents that answered the 1000 questionnaires, it makes the methodology clumsy. The methodology must be clearly stated, sampling procedures, population, etc. This is a journal article. This section must be reworked  The presentation of findings is so confusing too  Discussion of finding is never put in numbers please it has to be reworked  The paper is fair for publication if he can rework all issues raised REFERENCES Adegbite, C. (2011). “Confession of an Undergraduate Armed Robber”, Daily Sun, August 27:32. Afolabi, F., & Obioha R. (1996) “Police Score Operation Sweep High”, The Vanguard, September 3:17. Banjoko, D. (1998) “Joining Hands To Combat Crime:, The Daily Champion, March 28:8. Brownfield, D. (1986), “Social Class and Violent Behaviour”, Criminology 24:421-438. Burgess, E.W. (2007) “The Growth of the City: An Introduction to a Research Project” in Henslin, J.M., Sociology: A Down-To-Earth Approach, (8TH ed.) New Jessey: Allyn and Bacon Publishing Inc.: 604. Christiansen, K.O. (1960), International Review of Criminal Policy, No. 16 (October): New York: United Nations: 3. EJSS, Volume 4, Issue 1, 2019 25 Cloward, R. & L.E. Ohlin (1960), Delinquency and Opportunity: A Theory of Delinquent Gangs, New York: The Free Press of Glen Dike, M. & Oji, C. (2011), “Police Parade Constable For Robbery”, Daily Sun, May 5:29. Durkheim, E. (2005). “Suicide” in Knox, P.L and McCarthy, L., Urbanization: An Introduction to Urban Geography, (2nd ed). New Jersey: Pearson Educational Inc: 381 381. Ezeani, E.O. (2001) “Contending Theoretical Perspectives on Global Urbanization” in Ezeani E.O. and Elokwa N.N., Issues in Urbanization and Urban Administration in Nigeria, Enugu: Jamoe Enterprises (Nigeria):1 Federal Bureau of Investigation (2001), Crime in the United States 2000, Washington D.C.: US Government Printing Office. Folaranmi, F. (2011), “Confusion Over Suspects Paraded In Yenagoa”, Daily Sun, May 5:16. Goring, C. (1913), The English Convict: A Statistical Study, London: His Majesty’s Stationery Office. Heidensohn, E.M. (1989). Crime and Society. Basingstoke: Macmillan Henslin, J.M. (1999), Sociology, Massachusetts: Allyn and Bacon: 205. Henslin, J.M. (2007), Sociology: A Down-To-Earth Approach (8th ed.), New Jersey: Allyn and Bacon Pub. Inc.: 604. Ibereme, D. & Jumoke Uji (2011), “Hoodlums Attacks from Empty Building”, The Guardian, March 14. Igbo, E.U.M. (1989) “Armed Robbery In Nigeria: A Study of Convicted Offenders at Enugu Prison in Anambra State of Nigeria”. An Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, University of Nigeria, Nsukka. Igbo, E.U.M (2007), Introduction to Criminology Nsukka: University of Nigeria Press Igbo, E.U.M. (2001), “Nigeria Armed Robbery Problem” in Rwomire, A. (ed.) Social Problems in Africa: New Visions, London: Praeger Publishers, 88 Post Road, Westport, C.T.: 174. Igbo, E.U.M (2001). “Urbanization and Crime in Nigeria” in Ezeani, E.O. and Elekwa, N.N., Issues in Urbanization and Urban Administration in Nigeria, Enugu: Jamoe Enterprises (Nigeria): 205. Igbo, E.U.M. (1998), “Pen Robbery: A Justification for Armed Robbery in Nigeria” In Journal of Liberal Studies: 117-120. Isa Sanusi & Osai Ojigho (2017), “Amnesty International: Boko Haram murdered more than 20,000 people through suicide bombing and left 2.6 million homeless” (https://www.vanguardngr.com/2017/11/boko-haram-mubi attack-deplorable- deadliest-civilians-since 2017) Retrieved 12th February, 2018. https://www.vanguardngr.com/2017/11/boko-haram-mubi%20attack-deplorable-deadliest-civilians-since%202017 https://www.vanguardngr.com/2017/11/boko-haram-mubi%20attack-deplorable-deadliest-civilians-since%202017 EJSS, Volume 4, Issue 1, 2019 26 Kane, R.J. (2005), “Compromised Police Legitimacy as a Predictor of Violent Crime in Structurally Disadvantaged Communities”, Criminology 43:469-499. Knox, P.L., & L. Mccarthy (2005), Urbanization: An Introduction to Urban Geography (2nd ed.), New Jersey: Perason Education Inc.: 9-24, 382. Kornhauser, R. (1978), Social Sources of Delinquency, Chicago: University of Chicago Press: 75. Mays, J.B. (2009). “Growing Up in the City: A Study of Juvenile Delinquency in an Urban Neigbourhood” in Tierney, J., Perspective in Criminology, Glasgow: Bell and Bain Ltd: 141 Nigeria Police Force (2011) “Enugu State Official Crime (Records) Statistics, Criminal Investigation Department (CID) Enugu. Obikeze, D.S. (1990), Methods of Data Analysis in the Social and Behavioural Sciences; Enugu: Auto-Century Publishing Co. Ltd. Oji, C. (2011) “Our Ordeal: Newly-Wedded Couple Narrates Seeing ‘Hell’ In Hoodlums’ Hideout”, Daily Sun, June 23:28. Olise, A. and D. Ibemere (2011) “Unease As Robbers Break Calm”, The Guardian, March 11:12. Sampson, R. & W.J. Wilson (1995), “Toward a Theory of Race, Crime and Urban Inequality”, in Hogan, John and Ruth Peterson, (eds.) Crime and Inequality, Standford, C.A.: Standford University Press: 51. Sellin, T. (2007), “Culture Conflict and Crime”, in Siegel L.J. Criminology, Theories, Patterns and Typologies (9th Ed.) Canada: Thomson Learning Inc.: 198. Siegel, L.J. (2007) Criminology Theories, Patterns and Typologies (9th ed.) Canada: Thomson Learning Inc.: 18. Simmel, G. (2005). “The Metropolis and Mental Life”, in Knox, P.L and McCarthy L; Urbanization: AN Introduction to Urban Geography, (2nd ed.) New Jersey: Pearson Educational Inc: 381. Tittle, C. (1983) “Social Class and Criminal Behaviour: A Critique of the Theoretical Foundations” Social Forces 62:334-358. Tierney, J. (2009), Key Perspective in Criminology, Glasgow Bell and Bain Ltd: 45- Tonnies (2005) “Community and Society”, in Knox, P.L and McCarthy, L., Urbanization: An Introduction to Urban Geography, (2nd ed.) New Jersey: Pearson Educational Inc: 381. Ugwuoke, C.U. (2010), Criminology: Explaining Crime in the Nigerian Context; Nsukka: Great AP Express Publishers Ltd: 83. EJSS, Volume 4, Issue 1, 2019 27 Ukoji, V. N. and Okolie-Osemene, J. (2016). “A Study of Crime Reporting in Nigeria” Univeristy of Ibadan, Ibadan, Uyo State, Nigeria. Wirth, L. (2005) “Urbanism as a Way of Life” in Knox, P.L. and McCarthy, L., Urbanization: An Introduction to Urban Geography, (2nd Ed.), New Jersey: Pearson Education Inc.: 382-83. Wolfgang, M.E. & Ferrancuti (1979), “The Subculture of Violence” in Newman, G., Understanding Violence, New York: G.B. Lippincott Company: 100. Yusuf, A. (2009) “Oyo, Imo, Ogun, Others Lead in Armed Robbery in Nigeria”, Report of the National Bureau of Statistics (NBS) in www.naira landforum.com. Accessed September 29, 2017. Page 1