322 The Effects of Equal Employment Opportunity on Organizational Productivity: a Case Study of Enugu State Ministry of Finance, State Secretariat, Enugu Ugwu, C.U. Department of International Relations and Personnel Management, Caritas University, Amorji Nike, Enugu Abstract This study sets out to investigate the effects of equal employment opportunity on organizational productivity at the Enugu State Ministry of Finance, located at the State Secretariat, Enugu. The survey research design was adopted for the study. The population of the study comprise the entire eighty (80) staff of the Ministry. The Taro Yameni’s formula was used to draw a sample size of sixty seven (67) which included the senior, intermediate and junior staff of the Ministry. The instrument for data collection was the questionnaire. The validity of the instrument was ensured through the supervisor’s corrections which were effected by the researcher as directed. The reliability of the instrument was tested through the test-retest method and the result was consistent each time. A total of sixty-seven (67) questionnaire were printed and personally distributed to the respondents by the researcher, out of which sixty (60) were correctly completed and returned, hence, this number (60) became our new sample size. The data generated through the questionnaire were analyzed in percentages. The formulated hypotheses were tested with the chi-square (X2) statistical formula at 0.05 level of significance. Some of the major findings include that equal employment opportunity increases organizational productivity, boosts employee morale and above all, improves organizational harmony and tranquility. Sequel to the findings, it was recommended that Enugu State Ministry of Finance and indeed other public and private organizations should enshrine equal employment opportunity in their employment policy and ensure its implementation to the letter. Keywords: employment, productivity, retirement, unemployment, Introduction Background of the study Equal employment opportunity presupposes that everybody irrespective of gender, race, religions, denomination or even disability should be given equal treatment with respect to employment and terms and conditions of employment. Unequal or unfair discrimination in workplaces has generated a lot of controversy as the discriminated group usually agitated against their unfair treatment or resorted that despite the existence of equal employment opportunity, law in the constitution, many employers still discriminate against applicants on the basis of sex, religion, race or disability. Erik et al., (2006), in their study on whether women are discriminate against through sticky floor or glass ceiling, found that women suffer a lot from sticky floor and glass discrimination. Glass ceiling is an unfair practice of not allowing a woman to rise to the apex of their career in workplaces. The study also revealed that women with little children face the largest gender discrimination in the employment career. This is just one of the many evidences that testify to the fact that the females are more discriminated against than their male counterparts. In Nigeria 323 also similar evidences abound for instance, Yusuf (1998) pointed out that contrary to their male counterparts, women face a number of discriminations of such as not being wanted for a particular position, denial of promotion and half payment of leave allowance. During recruitment, women encounter discrimination arising from the erroneous belief that they cannot handle certain jobs as men. Women are believed to be prone to lateness and frequent permissions as a result of issues arising from their child bearing and rearing responsibilities. Women face a lot of discrimination terms of delayed promotion, glass ceiling policies, denials of certain allowances and fringe benefits such as housing, tax, health, and education allowances including payment of half leave bonus in the past. In Nigeria, women in the civil service were paid half leave allowance while their male counterparts received full. In several instances, they were denied tax allowances for children and dependent relatives, thereby making them to pay higher taxes than their male counterparts on the belief that their husbands must have received such allowances even though some of their husbands might have died or might not even be in paid employment. This is a clear indication that unfair employment discriminations can occur in diverse forms. Abbas, Hameed and Waheed (2011), revealed that unequal employment discrimination may exist in various dimensions which include hiring discrimination, differences in salary and wages, discriminations in promotion and inequity related to differences in fringe benefits provided to different gender. Thus, gender discrimination as pointed that by equal employment opportunity commission (2004) has been on the increase over the years as the number of law suits and the monetary awards to the plaintiffs of these suits have not declined. Although, not all forms of workplace discrimination generates much attention, the fact remains that there is no equal employment opportunities in work organizations. BRIEF HISTORY OF THE ORGANIZATION Enugu State Ministry of Finance dates back to the colonial era and metamorphosized from the Eastern Nigeria Region Ministry of Finance, through East Central State Ministry of Finance down to old Anambra State Ministry of Finance and finally to present status of Enugu State Ministry of Finance. Equal employment opportunities occur because of personal values, perceptions and outdated, traditional views about men and women. Attitudes toward equal employment opportunity can normally be traced back to the roots of certain segments of society. Much of the inequality is attributed to stories such as a woman being made from man’s rib and societal practices such as dowries paid to fathers by prospective husbands to purchase their daughters to be wives. Countless literary references are made to females being the fairer, weaker sex and males being the strong, invincible hunters of the world. The combined power of these societal and religious beliefs left little room for equitable thinking for centuries (Damewood, 2013). Okome (2005), posits that equal employment opportunity dates back to the era of pre- colonial rule. The origins of structures of inequality that lead to discrimination against women are therefore found in pre-colonial societies with predominantly male-dominant social systems. However, they were institutionalized as a new legal structure – “Native Law and Customs” – during colonial rule. Customs such as child marriage, betrothal and widowhood rites have their origins in the pre-colonial era, as did genital operations (Okome, 2005). These customs arose within a given social context that may never be understood today because of the ideological 324 shift that occurred with colonization and the passage of time. The imposition of colonialism involved the construction of a system where women had less opportunity to participate in administration (Okome, 2005). In addition, an economic system was instituted where men had more opportunities than women for meaningful participation, a legal system was introduced wherein women lost some of the benefits open to them in pre-colonial societies, and a religious system was imposed which deprived women of their pre-colonial power and authority. More males than females had access to the educational system, and the dominant form of Islam in the North was protected despite its discrimination against women. These elements of institutionalized male dominance were in no small measure due to Victorians’ ideology, in which women were generally restricted from full participation in the public sphere. Equal employment opportunity and violence against women are global phenomena as old as human history. Women’s rights are the freedom and entitlement of women of human rights without discrimination or violation. Women’s rights are rights inherent in nature and guaranteed by law. Therefore equal employment opportunity and violence against women are contrary to fundamental human rights, equity, natural justice and good governance (Anaeme, 2012). Kelan (2009), in a study on gender biasness wrote extensively on the fact that women over the years have improved in several ways to meet up with the men, however the gender gap remains. She explained that gender-quake is disturbing gender terms and relations dramatically. It looks like western well developed countries are well aware of this issue but don’t like to address gender biasness and inequality among male and female employee. According to Kelan (2009) twenty five years ago women were still second class citizens in the workplace; they had very few rights and could be sacked from their job simply because of the demands of pregnancy. Women were seen as mothers and housewives, but not business professionals. However, women of today are standing up and being counted. They work in the Army, on oilrigs, and have rebuilt damaged satellites in space. Being a woman no longer excludes you from doing any job carried out by a male. Young women enjoy having their own income and are choosing to fulfill their career ambitions instead of or before they consider having a family. Mullins (2012) pointed out that in some developing countries, girl children are seen as the household servants, this is because when a boy is born in most developing countries, friends and relatives exclaim congratulations. A son means insurance, he will inherit his father’s property and get a job to help support the family. When a girl is born, the reaction is very different. Some women weep when they find out their baby is a girl because to them, a daughter is just another expense. Her place is in the home, not in the world of men. In some parts of India, it’s traditional to greet a family with a new-born girl by saying; “the servant of your household has been born”. He went further to say however that women who have had some schooling are more likely to get married later, survive childbirth, have fewer and healthier children, and make sure their own children complete school. They also understand hygiene and nutrition better and are more likely to prevent disease by visiting health care facilities. Without downplaying the importance of the steps taken in the last decades toward a better representation of women in decision making positions, both statistical and experimental data show that there is still a long way until their representation in managerial positions will 325 reflect their involvement in the workforce. Gender issues related to the differences of male and female were pinpointed in decade of 1950s, but highlighted as an important issue in management and organizational studies in between 1980s and 1990s. The duration between these two periods recognized the gender effects in different studies. Hearn and Parkin (1987) emphasized on female issues in those organizations who are dominated by male. Within the household, women and girls can face discrimination in the sharing out of household resources including food, sometimes leading to higher malnutrition and mortality indicators for women (Hearn & Parkin, 1987). At its most extreme, gender discrimination can lead to son preference, expressed in sex selective abortion or female feticide. In the labour market, unequal pay, occupational exclusion or segregation into low skill and low paid work limit women’s earnings in comparison to those of men of similar education levels. Women’s lack of representation and voice in decision making bodies in the community and the state perpetuates discrimination; in terms of access to public services, such as schooling and health care, or discriminatory laws. In the Middle Ages according to English Common Law, all property which a wife held at the time of marriage became a possession of her husband. Eventually English courts forbid a husband’s transferring property without the consent of his wife, but he still retained the right to manage it and to receive the money which it produced. Badawi (1971), this continued during the 19th century when women began to agitate for the right to vote (suffrage) and participate in government and law making. In the subsequent decades women’s rights again became an important issue and by the 1960s the movement was called “feminism” or “women’s liberation”. Empirical Review This study considers implicit bias based theories of gender discrimination in the legal profession and details the empirical study, conducted and delineates the seriousness of the problem by providing a statistical overview of gender disparities in the legal profession. It then examines scholarship linking implicit gender stereotypes to gender disparities in the legal profession. It notes that although much legal scholarship hypothesizes that gender stereotypes (particularly those linking women to the home or family, questionable workplace character traits, or low status jobs) play a pernicious role in subordinating women, none have tested the hypothesis empirically. This study begins by reviewing the few empirical studies that have investigated continuing gender disparities in the legal profession. These studies have tested a variety of worthy hypotheses, such as the connection between masculine job descriptions and subsequent hiring, but have yet to examine the potential role of implicit gender bias in the legal profession. The study also provides the particulars of the empirical study that was conducted, from methods to results. It describes in detail the law student participants we recruited and the materials we used in the study. The results confirm implicit gender biases among law students, but simultaneously offer hope that some of these biases may be resisted (The National Association of Women Lawyers and The NAWL Foundation, 2009). The study also provides a roadmap for future research on implicit gender bias in the legal profession and considers the implementation of debiasing measures and also concludes. Gender Stereotype and the Legal Profession 326 The Statistics: Startling statistics document the disappointing state of gender equality among high-level attorneys. According to a 2009 report by the National Association of Women Lawyers, women are grossly underrepresented in leadership roles in the legal profession. The report, which tracked the progress of women in the nation’s largest 200 firms, found that only six percent of firms have women managing partners, fifteen percent of firms have at least one woman on their management committee, and fewer than sixteen percent of firm equity partners are women. Furthermore, males comprise the highest paid partners at ninety-nine percent of the nation’s top firms. This underrepresentation is particularly startling considering that law schools have been graduating equal numbers of women and men over the past two decades. The number of women in leadership roles in the nation’s courts and law schools is only slightly better than in the private sector. Statistics show that less than thirty percent of judges in federal and state courts are women, including federal district court judges (25%), federal appeals court judges (29%) and state court judges (26%). Within the leadership of legal academia, the gender gap is similarly stark. In 2008-2009, for example, there were four times more male than female law school deans. In addition, women held less than thirty percent of coveted tenure track and tenured faculty positions (29%). The numbers make clear that the gender gap amongst leaders in the legal profession persists, and does so in an alarming fashion. Yet there is no scholarly consensus for the reasons behind the disparities. In the next subsections, we focus on a leading explanation – that implicit gender stereotypes lead to the continued subordination of women in the legal profession (The National Association of Women Lawyers and The NAWAL Foundation, 2009). Statement of the problem Inequality in employment opportunities has been the bane of most economy. Economic growth has been dragged down because of discrimination in workplaces. Equal employment opportunities will ensure the recruitment of best skills and talents into an organization’s workforce thereby enhancing its productivity and profitability and economic growth since individuals are endowed with different talents irrespective of gender, ethnic origin, religion or physical handicap. It is believed that women are more honest and less prone to corruption or embezzlement of public fund, yet they are denied the opportunity of leadership in many organizations. Despite the existence of equal employment opportunity (EEO) laws, organizations discretely apply unfair practices and injustice in their employment policies as women rarely rise to the top as chief executive of their organizations. The effects of these unfair discriminations in employment range from lower productivity to increased ethnic friction, low employee morale and low quality of output (Sharma, 2013). On the other hand, an organization without a good leadership is synonymous to a ship in the high sea without a captain as both human and material resources will be wasted despite their scarcity. It should be noted that when management creates a turbulent work environment as a result of unequal employment in workplaces, morality drops, productivity decreases and the prospects for organizational survival becomes precarious. 327 Objectives of the study The main objective of this study is to ascertain effect of equal employment opportunity on organizational productivity. Specifically, the study aims to; 1. Investigate the effects of equal employment opportunity on organizational productivity. 2. Determine the effects of inequality and unfairness in employment practices and policies in organizations. 3. Examine the effects of unequal employment opportunity on female workers and disabled worker’s morale and in the workplace. 4. Assess the organization’s employment policy on equal employment opportunity guiding its recruitment exercises. Research Questions This study will be guided by the following research questions: 1. What are the effects of equal employment opportunity on organizational productivity? 2. What are the effects of inequality and unfairness in employment practices and policies? 3. What are the effects of unequal employment opportunity on female workers and disabled workers’ morale and productivity in the workplace? 4. Does the organization have any equal employment opportunity policy guiding its recruitment exercises? Research hypotheses Hypothesis is a tentative or predictive solution to the research problem. Based on the objectives of the study and the research questions posed, the following hypothesis has been formulated to guide our investigation: Ho: Equal employment opportunity does not ensure ensures competence and high productivity in organizations. H1: Equal employment opportunity ensures competence and high productivity in organizations. Ho: Inequality and unfairness in employment practices and policies does not lead to employee apathy, low morale and low productivity in organizations. H1: Inequality and unfairness in employment practices and policies lead to employee apathy, low morale and low productivity in organizations. Ho: Unequal employment opportunity does not negatively affect female workers and disabled workers moral and productivity in the workplace. H1: Unequal employment opportunity negatively affects female workers and disabled workers moral and productivity in the workplace. Ho: The organization does not have employment policy guiding its recruitment exercises. H1: The organization has employment policy guiding its recruitment exercises. Significance of the study This study examines the effects of equal employment opportunity on organizational productivity. It is believed that the findings would be highly beneficial to employers of labour in their recruitment and selection decisions. 328 It will also be of interest to policy makers and legislators to make policies and laws that would ensure equal employment opportunity to all job applicants. Human resource managers would find the outcome of the study very useful as a guide to the practice of human resource management especially in the recruitment and selection processes. Scope of the study The scope of this study which is the geographical area of the study covers the Enugu State Ministry of Finance which situates at the Enugu State Secretariat Complex. Research design Research design is a blueprint or a plan on how data for the research will be obtained. This study will apply the survey research design. Survey research design is the study of a sample drawn from the population which is large enough to become the representative of the population after which the findings will be generalized to the entire population. The stratified random sampling will be used to ensure that each strata of the staff of the organization are proportionately represented. The area of this study is the Enugu State Ministry of Finance, situated at the State Secretariat in Enugu. Area of study refers to the geographical area covered by the study. It could be on organization, education, or political zone. Population of the study The population of this study comprises the entire eighty (80) staff of the Enugu State Ministry of Finance at the State Secretariat. Population of the study refers to the target group which the researcher intends to investigate. The Enugu State Ministry of Finance staff includes all staff in their outstations known as Sub-Treasuries located at the three geo-political zones of the state, namely Enugu East, Enugu North and Enugu Senatorial zones. Sample size and sampling techniques A sample size according to Shapiro (2008) refers to the number of units drawn from the population from which the data for the study would be gathered. The stratified random sampling technique would be used to ensure that the various strata of the population namely male and female, junior, intermediate and senior staff were proportionate size, thus: n = N 1+N(e)2 Where n = Sample size sought N = Population size e = Level of significant error at 5% or 0.05 I = Constant Therefore n = 80 1+80 (0.05)2 n = 80 1+80 (0.0025) n = 80 329 1+ 0.2 n = 80 1.2 n = 66.6 n = 67 Sources of data The data for this study would be generated through the primary and secondary sources. The primary data would be generated through the questionnaire, personal observations and interviews with the respondents. The secondary data would be generated from books, journals, newspapers and magazines as well as the internet. Instrument for data collection The questionnaire forms our instrument for data collection. The questionnaire was designed in two-sections. Section A sought information on the bio-data of the respondents while section B comprised questions reflecting the study objective, research questions and the formulated hypothesis. Validity and reliability of the instrument Validity refers to the ability of the instrument to accurately measure what it intends to measure while reliability refers to the consistency of the instrument in replicating results of what it has measured by the supervisor’s corrections made as to the content and format of the instrument thereby ensuring both its content and face validity. The reliability of the instrument was tested through the test-retest method whereby the researcher administered the instrument to a set of respondents and re-administered it to some respondents after two weeks and the results were consistent. Method of data collection The researcher personally administered the questionnaires to the respondents, waited and collected them immediately after completion, ensuring a hundred percent return. Method of data analysis The generated data were presented in frequency distribution table, converted into simpler percentages and presented in tables. The hypotheses were tested with the chi-square statistical tool as follows: X2 = ∑(O – E)2 E Where X2 = Chi-square O = Observed frequency E = Expected frequency ∑ = Summation The degree of freedom (DF) = (r – I) (C – I) Where r = number of rows c = number of columns I = constant 330 The measurement was done under 5% or 0.05 level of significant error. This implies that the probability of errors expected in the statement of the hypothesis were 5% or 0.05. This statistical tool is simple to apply and best suited for testing the research questions and the hypotheses. Decision rule 1. Reject null hypothesis (Ho) if calculated value of X2 is greater than the table value and accept the alternative hypothesis (H1). 2. Accept null hypothesis (Ho) if calculated value of chi-square (X2) is less than the table value and reject the alternative hypothesis. Testing of hypotheses The data analyzed and interpreted will be used to test our stated hypotheses. The chi- square statistical formula will be used to test the hypotheses. The chi-square (X2) formula is stated thus: X2 = ∑(O – E)2 E Where ∑ = Summation O = Observed frequency E = Expected frequency Degree of freedom (DF) = 0.05 (r – I) (C – 1) r = row c = column Level of significance = 0.05 Decision Rule 1. If the value of the chi-square calculated is greater than the chi-square value from the statistical table, we reject the null hypothesis and accept alternative hypothesis. (X2 cal > X2 tab, reject (Ho) and accept (H1). 2. If the value of the chi-square calculated is less than the chi-square value from the statistical table, we reject the alternative hypothesis (H1) and accept the null hypothesis (Ho). (X2 cal < X2 tab, reject (H1) and accept (Ho). Test of hypothesis one Null Hypothesis (Ho): Equal employment opportunity does not allow both genders to climb to the top hierarchy in organizations. Alternative Hypothesis (H1): Equal employment opportunity allows both genders to climb to the top hierarchy in organizations. Table 1 This hypothesis will be tested using the analyzed data in table 4.6 in answer to question 6 of the questionnaire. Variables O E O – E (O – E)2 (O – E)2 E Strongly Agree 48 12 36 1,296 108 331 Agree 6 12 -6 36 3 Undecided 0 12 -12 144 12 Strongly Disagree 0 12 -12 144 12 Disagree 6 12 -6 36 3 Total 60 138 Source: Fieldwork, 2021 E = 60 = 12 5 X2 cal = 138 X2 tab = 9.49 Decision Rule earlier stated was that 1. If X2 cal is greater than X2 tab, we reject null hypothesis (Ho) and accept alternative hypothesis (H1). 2. If X2 cal is less than X2 tab, we reject alternative hypothesis (H1) and accept null hypothesis (Ho). From our calculations above, it quite clear that X2 cal being 138 is greater than X2 tab which is 9.49. Therefore, obeying the decision rule, we are to reject the null hypothesis (Ho) which stated that equal employment opportunity does not allow both gender to climb to the top hierarchy in organizations and accept the alternative hypothesis (H1) which stated that it does. We therefore conclude that equal employment opportunity allows both genders to climb to the top hierarchy in organizations. Hypothesis Two Null Hypothesis (Ho): Inequality and injustice does not lead to low productivity, low morale and apathy by the affected employees. Alternative Hypothesis (H1): Inequality and injustice leads to low productivity, low morale and apathy by the affected employees. Table 2 This hypothesis will be tested using the data analyzed in table 4.11 with respect to question 11 on the questionnaire. Variables O E O – E (O – E)2 (O – E)2 E Strongly Agree 42 12 30 900 75 Agree 18 12 6 36 3 Undecided 0 12 -12 144 12 Strongly Disagree 0 12 -12 144 12 Disagree 0 12 -12 144 12 Total 60 114 Source: Fieldwork, 2021 X2 cal = 114 X2 tab = 9.49 Decision Rule earlier stated was that 1. If X2 cal is greater than X2 tab, reject null hypothesis (Ho) and accept alternative hypothesis (H1). 332 2. If X2 cal is less than X2 tab, reject alternative hypothesis (H1) and accept null hypothesis (Ho). From our calculations above, it is obviously clear that X2 cal being 114 is greater than X2 tab being 9.49. We therefore reject the null hypothesis (Ho) which stated that inequality and injustice does not lead to low productivity, low morale and apathy by the affected employees, and accept the alternative hypothesis (H1) which stated that it does. It is therefore upheld that inequality and injustice leads to low productivity, low morale and apathy by the affected employees. Hypothesis Three Null Hypothesis (Ho): If I have my way, I would not leave my organization because I feel discriminated against because of my gender or disabilities when it comes to giving of responsibilities or promotion. Alternative Hypothesis (H1): If I have my way, I’d leave my organization because I feel discriminated against because of my gender or disabilities when it comes to giving of responsibilities or promotion. Table 3 This hypothesis will be tested using the data analyzed in table 4.15 with respect to question 15 on the questionnaire. Variables O E O – E (O – E)2 (O – E)2 E Strongly Agree 42 12 30 900 75 Agree 12 12 0 0 0 Undecided 6 12 -6 36 3 Strongly Disagree 0 12 -12 144 12 Disagree 0 12 -12 144 12 Total 60 102 Source: Fieldwork, 2021 X2 cal = 102 X2 tab = 9.49 Decision Rule earlier stated was that 1. If X2 cal is greater than X2 tab, we reject null hypothesis (Ho) and accept alternative hypothesis (H1). 2. If X2 cal is less than X2 tab, we reject alternative hypothesis (H1) and accept null hypothesis (Ho). From our calculations, it is obviously clear that X2 cal being 102 is greater than X2 tab being 9.49, hence we reject null hypothesis (Ho) which stated “if I have my way, I’d not leave my organization because I feel discriminated against on account of my gender or disabilities when it comes to giving of responsibilities or promotion, and accept the alternative hypothesis (H1). It is therefore upheld that people would leave their organizations if they are discriminated against on account of their gender or disability when it comes to giving responsibilities or promotion. 333 Hypothesis Four Null Hypothesis (Ho): My company does not have a very strict policy on equal employment opportunity. Alternative Hypothesis (H1): My company has a very strict policy on equal employment opportunity. Table 4 Variables O E O – E (O – E)2 (O – E)2 E Strongly Agree 24 12 12 144 12 Agree 24 12 12 144 12 Undecided 6 12 -6 36 3 Strongly Disagree 0 12 -12 144 12 Disagree 6 12 -6 36 3 Total 60 42 Source: Fieldwork, 2021 X2 cal = 42 X2 tab = 9.49 Decision Rule earlier stated: 1. If X2 cal is greater than X2 tab, reject the null hypothesis (Ho) and accept the alternative hypothesis (H1). 2. If the X2 cal is less than X2 tab, reject the alternative hypothesis (H1) and accept the null hypothesis (Ho). From our calculations above, it is obviously clear that the X2 cal being 42 is greater than the X2 tab being 9.49. We therefore reject the null hypothesis (Ho) which stated that my company does not have a strict policy on equal employment opportunity and accept the alternative hypothesis (H1) which stated that my company has a strict policy on equal employment opportunity. Therefore, we equally uphold that their company has a strict policy on equal employment opportunity. Summary of the findings The primary purpose of this study was to investigate the impact of equal employment opportunity on organizational productivity in the Enugu State Ministry of Finance, State Secretariat Enugu. From the results of the data analysis and the tested hypotheses, the following findings were made. That: i. equal employment opportunity in work places allows both gender to climb to the top of the hierarchy in organizations; thereby allowing both gender the possibility of heading the organization. ii. equal employment opportunity ensures the recruitment and selection of competent employees who will rise to be competent leaders in organizations. 334 iii. jobs should be given to everybody regardless of gender or incapacitation. iv. discrimination in workplaces based on gender or incapacitation is injustice against humanity which demoralizes the affected group and negatively affects their contributions to the organization. v. discrimination against persons on account of gender or incapacitation in workplaces can lead to law suits against management of organizations as it contravenes equal employment opportunity laws. vi. discrimination against persons in workplaces on account of gender or incapacitation leads to jealousy and rancur by the affected group, which can bring about industrial disharmony. vii. unequal treatment of workers on account of gender or disability leads to high rate of employee turnover as the affected group would want to leave the organization if given the opportunity. viii. the most discriminated group in work places is the female gender and the incapacitated. Conclusion From the findings and the results of the tested hypotheses, the researcher came to the conclusion that discrimination in employment as a result of gender and incapacitation seriously affects the quality of recruited and selected employees as well as imposes glass ceiling on the discriminated gender/group which implies their denial of climbing to the top hierarchy in their organizations. This situation breeds injustice and a breach on human rights which is actionable in law courts. Recommendations Based on the findings of the study, the researcher recommends that: i. employers should develop and strictly adhere to equal employment opportunity policy so as to ensure the recruitment and selection of competent employees who will in turn become competent leaders in their organizations. ii. in order to avoid endless litigations, employers should avoid discrimination against job applicants on grounds of gender or incapacitation. iii. employers should always ensure gender equity in workplaces both in appointment and in promotion to avoid industrial disharmony and to ensure the retention of their employees who would be forced to leave the organization on account of discrimination. Implications of the findings The major implication of the findings of this study is that organizations which discriminate job applicants on groups of gender or incapacitation stand the risk of missing the best talents in their recruitment and selection processes as well high rate of staff turnover because the discriminated group would always want to quit the organization whenever the opportunity calls. Limitation of the study The researcher encountered some setbacks during the course of this study which include: 335 TIME: The researcher had limited time devoted to the work as a result of crowded lecture schedules which she had to contend with while the study was going on, which brought to bear on the time reserved for the study. FINANCE: The researcher also faced financial constraint which was occasioned by Covid-19 pandemic economic recession which affected her parents income thereby affecting the amount of money should could get from them for the execution of the project. QUALITY OF INFORMATION FROM RESPONDENTS: Despite the assurance by the researcher to the respondents over the confidentiality of their information, some of them were not honest in the information given. Suggestions for further studies The researcher does not claim to have exhaustively dealt with the topic; hence she makes the following suggestions for further studies. 1. A similar study should be carried out in other organizations, both public and private. 2. A further study should be conducted on a related topic with a larger sample size to ascertain whether similar findings could be obtained. 3. More studies could be done on “effects of inequity and injustice in employment and promotion” in organizational productivity. REFERENCES BOOKS Anaeme, F. O. (2012). “Reducing Gender Discrimination and Violence against Women through Library and Information Services”. Library Philosophy and Practices (e- journal). Paper 765:http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/libphilprac/765. Aniekwu, N. O. (2006). The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women and the Status of Implementation on the Right to Health Care in Nigeria.: www.wcl.american.edu/hrbrief/13/3ijeoma.pdf Asika, N. (1991). Research Methodology in the Behavioural Science. Longman Nigerian Plc. Balatchandirane, G. (2007). Gender Discrimination in Education and Economic Development: A Study of Asia. Institute of Developing Economics, Japan External Trade Organization. V.R.F Series, 426(16). Breeze Magazine – Wednesday (2012). The Issue of Gender Inequality in Nigeria. Catalyst: Catalyst Quick Take: Sex Discrimination and Sexual Harassment. New York: Catalysts, 2012. Catalyst (2004). Women and Men in U.S. Corporate Leadership: Same workplace different realities? New York: Catalyst. http://www.wcl.american.edu/hrbrief/13/3ijeoma.pdf 336 Cotter, D. A., Hermsen, J. M., Ovadia, S. and Vanneman, R. (2001). ‘The Glass Ceiling Effect’, Social Forces, 80 (2), 655-682 (CEDAW) Introduction. United Nations. Available: http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/cedaw/text/econvention.htm. Debopriya, B. (2011). ‘Gender Discrimination in the workplace’ Available at http://www.buzzle.com/articles/genderdistrimination. Dipboye & Colella, (2005). ‘Discrimination at work, the Psychological and Organizational Bases’. Routledge Press, London, 1-2. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (2004). EEOC Litigation Statistics, FY 1992 through FY 2003. Retrieved October, 23, 205 from http://www.eeoc.gov/stats/litigation.html. Ezejelue, A. C. & Ogwo, O. E. (1990). Basic Principles in Managing Research Projects, Onitsha: African Fep Publishers Limited. Flippo, E. B. (1984). Personnel Management. New York: McGraw Hill Book Company. Gregory, R. F. (2003). ‘Women and Workplace Discrimination: Overcoming Barriers to Gender Equality’. Rutgers University Press, America. 5-10. Grohol, M. (2009). Gender Discrimination in the Workplace. Psych Central News Editor. Habib, Z. (2000). Through the Brick Wall and the Glass Ceiling: Women in the civil services in Bangladesh. Gender, Work and Organization, 7(3), 197-209. Hearn, J. & Parkin, W. (1987). ‘Sex at Work: The Power and Paradox of Organizational Sexuality’. New York: St. Martins Press, 20-24. http://smallbusiness.chron.com/genderdifferencewithintheworkplace. Hauksdohir, E. (2008). ‘Gender Discrimination in the European Union – Equal Pay for Work of Equal Value’. Aarhus School of Business, 12. Isah, M. A. (2005). Gender Issues in Nigeria’s Irrigation Agriculture. Nig. J. Pol. Sci. Jan – Dec., 10, 1-2. 208-212, Jobsite UK (Worldwide) Limited. Mayhew, R. (2010). ‘Factors that influence employee job satisfaction. Morris, B., Bonamici, K., Kaufman, S. M., & Neering, P. (2005). How Corporate America is Betraying Women? Fortune. 11, 73-92. Nayab, N. & Scheid, J. (2010). The Crippling Effects of Workplace Discrimination. http://www.brighthub.com/office/human-resources/articles/87966.aspx. http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/cedaw/text/econvention.htm http://www.buzzle.com/articles/genderdistrimination http://www.eeoc.gov/stats/litigation.html http://smallbusiness.chron.com/genderdifferencewithintheworkplace http://www.brighthub.com/office/human-resources/articles/87966.aspx 337 Okome, M. (2003). ‘Domestic, Regional and International Protection of Nigeria Women Against Discrimination: Constraints and Possibilities’. African Studies Quarterly 6, No. 3: (online) URL: http://web.africa.ufl.edu/asq/v6/v6i3a2.htm. Onyeukwu, O. (2004). Traditional Rulers as Positive Change Agents of Gender Based Biases. In Nwankwo & Onukwube (Eds.). The gender dimensions of culture. Enugu: Fourth Dimension Publishers, 90-98. Otite, A. (2005). Women in Nigerian Politics: A case study of Ethiope East Local Government Area of Delta State. J. Nig. Govern. Pol. 1(1): 10-17 March. Robert, D. (2004). Public Administration, Politics and Change in the Principle of Government in Nigeria, Lagos: Mbeyi & Associations (Nig.) Ltd. Russell, G. & O’Leary, J. (2012). Men Get Flexible: Mainstreaming Flexible Work in Australian Business, Diversity Council of Australia. Samuel, C. (2000). ‘Race and Gender Discrimination at Work’. West View Press, Colorado,5- 6. Scire, K. (1998). ‘Final Paper: Gender Discrimination in the Workplace’. Serendip Studio, Critical Feminist Studies Web paper 4. http://serendip.brynmawr.edu/exchange/node/3658. Scott, S. (n.d). The Causes, Effects and Remedies for Gender Discrimination. Retrieved online from http://smallbusiness.chron.com/causes-effects-remedies-gender-discrimination- 10726.html October 23, 2015. Tesfaye, Y. (2010). The Effect of Discrimination on Job Performance and Job Satisfaction. Being a Dissertation presented in part requirements for Bachelors of Art (Honours) at the Wolverhampton Business School, University of Wolverhampton. Retrieve from https://www.theseus.fi/bitstream/handle/10024/38525/Tesfay YodiDissertation.pdf?sequence=1 on October 23, 2015. Trond, P., Vermund, S. & Eva, M. M. (2006). ‘Are Female Workers Less Productive Than Male Workers?’ IRLE Working Paper No. 139-06. Retrieved October 23, 2015, from http://irle.berkeley.edu/workingpapers/139-06.pdf. Uzma, S. (2004). Literacy and Women’s Identity, Proceedings of the International Conference on Social Sciences: Endangered and Engendered, Fatima Jinnah Women University, Rawalpindi, Pakistan, 84-96. JOURNALS http://web.africa.ufl.edu/asq/v6/v6i3a2.htm http://serendip.brynmawr.edu/exchange/node/3658 http://smallbusiness.chron.com/causes-effects-remedies-gender-discrimination-10726.html http://smallbusiness.chron.com/causes-effects-remedies-gender-discrimination-10726.html https://www.theseus.fi/bitstream/handle/10024/38525/Tesfay http://irle.berkeley.edu/workingpapers/139-06.pdf 338 Abbas, Q., Hameed, A. & Waheed, A. (2011). Gender Discrimination and its effect on employee performance / productivity. International Journal of Humanities and Social Science, 1 (15) Pp 170-177. Adebisi, A. (2003). ‘Selection and Formulation of a Research Problem’. Ilorin Journal of Business and Social Science, 8 (1), 145-146. Badawi, J. A. (1971). The Status of Women in Islam. Al-lttihad Journal of Islamic Studies, 8 (2). Available: http://iaislam.tripod.com/TSOWII.htm. Dickman, C. (1993). ‘Gender Differences and Instructional Discrimination in the Classroom’. Journal of Invitational Theory and Practices. 2(1). Ensher, E. A., Grant-Vallone, E. J. & Donaldson, S. I. (2001). Effects of Perceived Discrimination on Job Satisfaction, Organizational Commitment, Organizational Citizenship Behaviour and Grievances. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 12, 53-72. Erik, Bihagen, Marita Ohls (2006). The glass ceiling - where is it? Women’s and men’s career prospects in the private vs. the public sector in Sweden 1979-2000. The Sociological Review, 54(1), 20-47. Fakeye, Y., George, O., Owoyemi, O. (2012). ‘Women in Purgatory: The Case of Nigerian Women in the Boardrooms’. Asian Journal of Business and Management Sciences. 1(10), 134-150. Fatile, O., Adejuwon & David, K. (2011). ‘Gender Issues in Human Resource Management in Nigeria Public Service’. African Journal of Political Science and International Relations. 5(3), 112-119. Kaplan, D. M., Wiley, J. W. & Maertz, C. P. (2011). ‘The Role of Calculative Attachment in the Relationship between Diversity Climate and Retention’. Human Resource Management, 50(2), 271-287. Kelan, E. (2009). ‘Gender Fatigue: The Ideological Dilemma of Gender Neutrality and Discrimination in Organizations’. Canadian Journal of Administrative Sciences. 26:197-210. McFarland, D. E. (2004). ‘The NSPMC 25th Anniversary Publication (1963-1988)”. Journal of Management Education. Sage Publications. Peterson, T. & Thea T. (2006). ‘Getting the Offer: Sex Discrimination in Hiring”. Research in Social Stratification and Mobility Science Direct. 24(239-257). http://iaislam.tripod.com/TSOWII.htm 339 Qassar, A., Hameed, A., Waheed, A. (2011). International Journal of Humanities and Social Science. 1(15). Ryan & Haslam (2005). ‘The Glass Cliff: Evidence that Women are Over-Represented in Precarious Leadership Positions. British Journal of Management. 16(2), 81-90. Scott, S. (2012). ‘Gender Differences within the Workplace’. Journal on Demand Media. Susan, T., Laurie, L. (1998). Gender Discrimination and the Workplace: An Examination of Rational Bias Theory, Sex Roles. A Journal of Research, 38, 1-28. Wellee, B. & Heilman (2005). Formal and Informal Discrimination Against Women at Work, the Role of Gender Stereotypes in Dirk Steiner, Stephen W. Gilliland & Dan Skarlicki (Eds.). Research in Social Issues in Management: Managing Social and Ethical Issues in Organizations. Vol. 5. Wstport, CT: Information Age Publishers, 2005. Yusuf, N. (1998). ‘Gender Issues in Nigeria’s Industrial Relations’. Journal of Arts and Social Science, Department of Sociology, University of Ilorin. 1(1) 82-88.