Volume 9 Number 2, 2024 Faculty of Social Sciences, Enugu State University of Science And Technology EDITOR-IN-CHIEF Prof. Nicholas Attamah MANAGING EDITOR Prof. Barnabas Nwankwo PUBLISHED BY ENUGU STATE UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCES & HUMANITIES 488 Clicktivism and the #EndBadGovernance Campaign in Nigeria: Analyzing the Impact of Digital Activism on Political Mobilization *1Odunlami Olusegun Abimbola 2Oluyemi Abimbola Adekemi 3Gbadebo Saeed Adetola 1,3Department of Mass Communication, Abraham Adesanya Polytechnic, Ijebu-Igbo, Ogun State 2Department of Mass Communication, Crawford University, Igbesa, Ogun State *Corresponding E-mail: oolusegun1975@gmail.com +2348033962609 Abstract This study aimed to assess the effectiveness of clicktivism as a tool for political engagement in the #EndBadGovernance movement in Nigeria, addressing the challenges of sustaining civic participation and achieving tangible political outcomes through digital activism. Anchored on Habermas’ public sphere theory and Castells' network society theory, the study employed a survey design by focusing on social media users in Ado-Odo/Ota Local Government Area of Ogun State - a region characterised by its high population density and active online political discourse. A sample size of 384 respondents, determined through the use of Cochran’s formula, was selected through purposive sampling to capture those actively engaged in online activism. Data collection was conducted via structured questionnaire administered through google forms, and the analysis utilised descriptive statistics. The findings revealed that while clicktivism significantly enhances political engagement and awareness, its impact on long-term civic participation and political change is mixed, with notable concerns about inclusivity. The study concludes that clicktivism is most effective when combined with traditional activism. The study recommended, among others that, activists and organisers should develop strategies that move beyond online engagement, integrating digital actions with on-the-ground efforts to ensure that clicktivism leads to tangible political changes; and that, efforts should be made to reach and involve a more diverse demographic, particularly those in rural areas and older generations, by providing digital literacy training and expanding access to technology. Keywords: clicktivism, digital activism, #EndBadGovernance, political engagement, civic participation, Social media. 1. Introduction Clicktivism has emerged as a digital form of activism, leveraging the extensive reach and convenience of the internet to advance social causes. It involves online actions such as signing petitions, clicking the "like" button on activism-related content, sharing images, videos, and texts, as well as clicking links to show engagement with social movements. Clicktivism, although often criticised for its superficial nature, has proven effective in raising awareness and mobilising support for various campaigns, especially in regions where traditional avenues for activism may be limited. In Nigeria, this phenomenon played a critical role in the mobilisation and agitation of the #EndBadGovernance movement, which sought to address the systemic failures and inefficiencies prevalent in the Nigerian political landscape. The rise of clicktivism is inextricably linked to the increased access to digital technology and social media platforms, especially among the youth. In Nigeria, the rapid adoption of platforms like X (formerly, Twitter), Facebook, and Instagram has allowed activists to circumvent the limitations of conventional media and directly engage with a wider audience. This aligns with mailto:oolusegun1975@gmail.com 489 the observations of Oyebode, Balogun, and Okeowo (2023), who noted that social media has become a crucial tool for political mobilisation in Africa, particularly among the younger generation. The #EndBadGovernance campaign exemplifies this, as it utilised social media platforms to amplify voices, create momentum, and sustain pressure on political leaders. By clicking, sharing, and interacting with digital content, Nigerian citizens actively participated in the movement, reflecting the power of clicktivism to foster civic engagement. The #EndBadGovernance campaign, a broader offshoot of the #EndSARS movement, gained significant traction through digital platforms. Although #EndSARS initially focused on police brutality, particularly by the Special Anti-Robbery Squad (SARS), the campaign expanded to address deeper issues of governance, such as corruption, inefficiency, and neglect of citizens' welfare. As Olusegun, Ekechukwu, and Afolayan (2022) argue, the transition from street protests to online activism reflects a shift in how social movements are organised and sustained. In this context, clicktivism enabled Nigerians, especially the youth, to not only express dissatisfaction with the state of governance but also to engage in a collective demand for systemic change. Clicktivism plays several critical roles in the campaign for social causes like #EndBadGovernance. Firstly, it enables widespread dissemination of information. In an era where traditional media outlets in Nigeria are often subject to state control or censorship, social media provides a relatively freer space for the circulation of alternative narratives (Ajibola & Uche, 2022). Social media users shared content highlighting instances of government inefficiency, corruption, and police brutality, which resonated with a broader audience and encouraged more people to engage with the campaign. The ease of sharing such content means that even those who may not attend physical protests can still contribute to the movement through their online engagement. Secondly, clicktivism facilitates the creation of a digital public sphere where issues of governance can be debated and scrutinised. According to Adebayo, Chukwuma, and Ikenna (2023), social media platforms serve as alternative spaces for political discourse in Nigeria. The hashtag #EndBadGovernance provided a rallying point for discussions on the failures of governance in Nigeria. Through likes, shares, and comments, users were able to express their opinions, challenge the status quo, and collectively demand better governance. This digital public sphere contributed to sustaining the momentum of the movement long after the initial street protests had subsided, ensuring that the conversation around governance reform continued. Moreover, clicktivism offers a low-risk entry point for political engagement. As highlighted by Nwosu and Okeke (2022), many Nigerians, particularly those living in politically repressive environments, may be hesitant to participate in physical protests due to fear of government retaliation. Clicktivism allows individuals to participate in social movements without exposing themselves to physical harm or legal repercussions. This form of engagement is particularly appealing to youths who may lack the resources or organisational capacity to engage in more traditional forms of activism. The #EndBadGovernance movement benefited from this, as the online mobilisation allowed a much broader section of society to become involved. Despite criticisms that clicktivism is a shallow form of engagement, evidence from the #EndBadGovernance campaign suggests otherwise. According to Kenechi and Madu (2023), while clicking, liking, or sharing content may appear trivial, it plays a vital role in amplifying the reach of a campaign and maintaining its visibility. The widespread use of hashtags like #EndBadGovernance ensured that the movement remained part of the national conversation, even after physical protests ended. Furthermore, as noted by Ifeoma and Bolaji (2023), the 490 global attention garnered by the movement was largely driven by online engagement, with international organisations and influencers amplifying the message of Nigerian activists. Thus, clicktivism has become a significant force in the mobilisation for social causes in Nigeria, particularly in the context of the #EndBadGovernance movement. By enabling information dissemination, fostering a digital public sphere, and offering a low-risk form of political participation, clicktivism has contributed to the success of the campaign. Although it may not replace traditional forms of activism, its role in modern social movements cannot be understated. The digital activism seen during the #EndBadGovernance campaign reflects the growing power of social media as a tool for political engagement and highlights the potential for clicktivism to drive meaningful social change in Nigeria. Statement of the Problem This study aims to address several critical issues regarding the role of clicktivism in the agitation of the #EndBadGovernance campaign in Nigeria. There is a general lack of empirical evidence assessing the effectiveness of clicktivism as a form of political engagement in the Nigerian context. While numerous studies have examined the broader impact of digital activism globally, the specific influence of online actions like liking, sharing, and signing petitions in fostering real political change in Nigeria remains underexplored (Ogunbiyi & Adeyemi, 2023). This study seeks to fill this gap by providing a nuanced understanding of how clicktivism has contributed to sustaining the #EndBadGovernance movement and its potential to influence policy and governance reforms. There is a significant gap in the literature regarding the long-term effects of clicktivism on social movements in Nigeria. Previous studies often focus on short-term outcomes, such as the mobilisation of protests or the visibility of campaigns on social media (Bakare & Williams, 2023). However, few studies have examined whether clicktivism leads to sustained civic engagement or translates into concrete political outcomes over time. This study intends to address this by analysing the impact of digital activism on the #EndBadGovernance movement beyond the initial protest phase, exploring its role in keeping governance issues in public discourse and fostering continuous political participation. Also, the effectiveness of clicktivism in politically repressive environments like Nigeria has been questioned due to concerns that online engagement may be limited to a small, urban elite with access to digital technologies, excluding large portions of the population (Uzochukwu & Nwafor, 2022). This study seeks to examine whether clicktivism genuinely represents a broad spectrum of Nigerian society or if it predominantly reflects the interests of a digitally connected minority. By investigating the demographic reach and inclusivity of clicktivism within the #EndBadGovernance movement, this research aims to provide insights into the limitations and potential biases of digital activism in Nigeria. Finally, while there is substantial research on traditional forms of activism in Nigeria, such as street protests and community organising, there is limited scholarly attention on how these forms of activism intersect with digital activism (Ibrahim & Oyekan, 2023). This study aims to bridge this gap by exploring the relationship between physical protests and online actions in the #EndBadGovernance movement. It will investigate whether clicktivism complements or competes with traditional activism, and how these different modes of engagement have collectively contributed to the movement’s goals. Research Objectives The primary aim of this study is to explore the role of clicktivism in the agitation of the #EndBadGovernance campaign in Nigeria. The specific objectives are: 491 1. To assess the effectiveness of clicktivism as a tool for political engagement within the #EndBadGovernance movement in Nigeria. 2. To examine the long-term impact of clicktivism on sustaining civic engagement and influencing political outcomes in Nigeria. 3. To investigate the demographic reach of clicktivism in Nigeria and its inclusivity within the #EndBadGovernance movement. 4. To analyse the relationship between digital activism and traditional forms of activism in the #EndBadGovernance campaign. Research Questions This study seeks to answer the following questions to achieve the objectives of the study: 1. How effective is clicktivism as a tool for political engagement within the #EndBadGovernance movement in Nigeria? 2. What is the long-term impact of clicktivism on sustaining civic engagement and influencing political outcomes in Nigeria? 3. What is the demographic reach of clicktivism in Nigeria, and how inclusive is it within the #EndBadGovernance movement? 4. How do digital activism and traditional forms of activism interact in the #EndBadGovernance campaign? 2. Literature/Conceptual Review Clicktivism Clicktivism, also referred to as digital or slacktivism, is the practice of engaging in social or political activism through minimal online actions such as clicking "like," signing petitions, or sharing content. While some critics argue that clicktivism is superficial and ineffective, recent literature highlights its significance in fostering awareness and participation in social movements. According to Adewale, Ajayi, and Musa (2023), clicktivism has redefined political engagement by enabling a broader demographic to participate in activism without the physical risks associated with traditional protests. In Nigeria, the rise of clicktivism has been observed across several movements, including the #EndSARS and #EndBadGovernance campaigns, where online interactions played a critical role in amplifying voices and mobilising collective action. This form of digital engagement has also been found to act as a stepping stone for deeper political involvement (Eze & Nnadi, 2022), particularly in environments where physical activism is curtailed by government repression. Political Engagement through Social Media Political engagement through social media is a growing area of study in the field of digital activism. Social media platforms such as Twitter, Facebook, and Instagram provide citizens with a platform to discuss, debate, and mobilise around political issues. Ibrahim and Ezeigwe (2023) assert that these platforms serve as an alternative public sphere where political actors and citizens can bypass traditional media gatekeepers to directly engage with one another. This phenomenon has been particularly pronounced in Nigeria, where access to mainstream media is often controlled by political elites. The #EndBadGovernance campaign demonstrated how social media could facilitate political discourse and foster civic participation, particularly among the youth, who are more adept at utilising digital tools (Adebisi, Okeke, & Yinka, 2023). Unlike traditional forms of political engagement that require significant time, resources, and physical presence, social media lowers the barriers to entry, making political activism more accessible to a wider audience. 492 Civic Engagement in Digital Spaces Civic engagement in digital spaces refers to the various ways citizens use online platforms to participate in political and social processes. According to Oluwadamilola and Bankole (2022), digital spaces have increasingly become the locus for civic engagement, especially in politically repressive environments like Nigeria. These digital platforms allow citizens to organise and advocate for policy changes without the physical risks associated with street protests. The #EndBadGovernance movement is a prime example of how civic engagement has evolved within the Nigerian context, as thousands of users took to social media to voice their dissatisfaction with the state of governance (Nwachukwu & Balogun, 2022). These digital interactions have not only facilitated widespread participation but have also shifted the narrative around political activism from being solely physical to incorporating digital actions that can have a broad impact. Digital Activism and Its Impact on Governance Digital activism, including clicktivism, has a growing influence on governance, particularly in contexts where traditional activism faces limitations. In Nigeria, digital activism has opened new channels for citizens to hold the government accountable. Recent studies by Onyekwere, Obiora, and Samuel (2023) highlight that digital activism has empowered citizens by providing them with tools to organise protests, report incidents of corruption, and demand accountability. These actions have placed pressure on political leaders to address issues that may have otherwise been ignored by conventional media outlets. The impact of digital activism on governance is evident in the globalisation of local movements, as seen with the #EndBadGovernance campaign, which gained international attention due to the online activities of Nigerian activists (Ojo & Adesanya, 2023). While the long-term impact of these efforts on governance structures remains a subject of ongoing research, the immediate effects in terms of raising awareness and putting issues on the policy agenda are well-documented. Youth Mobilisation in Nigeria Youth mobilisation is another critical aspect of the #EndBadGovernance campaign, facilitated largely by digital platforms. Nigerian youth, who represent the majority of the population, have increasingly turned to social media as a space for political expression and mobilisation. As noted by Chinedu and Omolara (2022), the youth in Nigeria are often excluded from traditional political processes, making social media a valuable tool for political engagement. The #EndBadGovernance movement showcased how the Nigerian youth used digital tools to organise and demand better governance. Furthermore, Olatunji and Adeyeye (2023) argue that digital platforms have allowed Nigerian youth to form communities of interest that transcend geographical boundaries, thereby fostering a stronger, more unified front in their political demands. This digital mobilisation challenges the traditional notion that political activism is confined to physical spaces, illustrating how the youth can leverage technology to push for systemic change. The Role of Hashtags in Social Movements Hashtags have become a powerful tool in social movements, serving as both a rallying point and a means of amplifying the message of a campaign. In the case of the #EndBadGovernance campaign, the hashtag was used to consolidate various grievances under a single narrative, making it easier for people to join the conversation and engage with the movement (Uche & Madueke, 2023). Hashtags like #EndBadGovernance act as digital symbols of resistance, helping to increase the visibility of the movement while also enabling activists to track the spread and influence of their campaign. According to Okonkwo and Akinbode (2023), the strategic use of hashtags in social movements has the potential to elevate local issues to global 493 platforms, thereby drawing international attention and support. This visibility often translates into external pressure on national governments to address the concerns raised by activists. Challenges of Clicktivism Despite its growing relevance, clicktivism is not without challenges. One major criticism is that it fosters a superficial level of engagement, where individuals may feel that liking or sharing a post is sufficient for political activism (Aluko & Bello, 2023). This type of engagement, often referred to as "slacktivism," may not lead to tangible changes or sustained commitment to a cause. Research by Akintoye and Okafor (2022) highlights that while clicktivism can generate significant online buzz, its translation into real-world action remains inconsistent. Additionally, the digital divide in Nigeria means that many citizens, particularly those in rural areas, are excluded from online activism due to limited access to technology (Omoruyi, 2022). This raises concerns about the inclusivity of clicktivism and whether it genuinely reflects the broader aspirations of the Nigerian populace. Digital Activism in Politically Repressive Environments In politically repressive environments like Nigeria, where traditional forms of protest can be met with state violence or suppression, digital activism offers a relatively safer avenue for political participation. According to Oluwatosin and Chukwudi (2023), social media platforms allow activists to organise, spread information, and garner support without exposing themselves to the physical risks associated with street protests. However, digital activism in such contexts is not without its risks, as governments have increasingly turned to digital surveillance and censorship to stifle dissent. The Nigerian government's response to the #EndBadGovernance campaign, which included attempts to regulate social media and cut off internet access, highlights the limitations of digital activism in repressive regimes. Yet, as Nwankwo and Olaniyi (2023) point out, even in the face of these challenges, digital activism continues to play a crucial role in challenging authoritarianism and advocating for democratic reforms in Nigeria. Theoretical Framework This paper is anchored on the Habermas’ Public Sphere Theory and Castells' Network Society Theory. Habermas’ Public Sphere Theory was propounded in 1962 by Jürgen Habermas. It emphasises the role of public spaces, both physical and virtual, where citizens can engage in rational discourse about societal issues. The major thrust of this theory is the creation of a democratic space where individuals come together to discuss and influence political actions, free from external coercion. This theory is relevant to the study because social media platforms serve as modern-day public spheres where Nigerian citizens, particularly the youth, engage in discussions about governance and mobilise for political change through clicktivism. As Adeyemi (2022) argues, the digital space created by social media in Nigeria mirrors Habermas' conception of the public sphere thereby allowing for greater citizen participation in political discourse and activism. Castells' Network Society Theory, also propounded in 1996, was introduced by Manuel Castells. It focuses on how information and communication technologies have transformed society into interconnected networks. The theory highlights the decentralisation of communication and the empowerment of individuals to create and disseminate information outside traditional power structures. This theory is particularly relevant to the #EndBadGovernance movement, where activists utilised digital networks to mobilise support and challenge governmental authority without relying on traditional media outlets (Olowokere & Adeniyi, 2022). The decentralised nature of these digital platforms aligns with Castells' view that power in the network society lies in the ability to control and influence information flows, 494 making it an essential framework for analysing the impact of clicktivism in Nigeria's political landscape. 3. Method This study employs survey research design. The population of the study comprises social media users in Ado-Odo/Ota Local Government Area of Ogun State, an area chosen due to its high population density and diverse socio-economic demographics, thus making it an ideal case for examining digital activism. Ado-Odo/Ota has witnessed significant political engagement online, particularly among youth, who are often the primary users of social media platforms. Given the difficulty in determining the exact number of social media users involved in clicktivism for this campaign, a sample size of 384 respondents was determined through the use of Cochran’s formula for sample size calculation from the population of 526,565 at 95% confidence level and 5% margin of error. Purposive sampling technique was adopted to focus on respondents who are active social media users. Data collection was conducted using structured questionnaire, specifically designed to capture respondents' engagement in online political activism and was done via google form administration of questionnaire to respondents. The data analysis was carried out using descriptive statistics to summarise and interpret the collected data, thereby ensuring clarity in understanding the patterns of digital political engagement in the local government area. 4. Findings and Analysis The study utilises descriptive statistical methods to interpret the survey responses to provide insights into the role of clicktivism in the agitation of the #EndBadGovernance campaign in Nigeria. Research Question 1: How effective is clicktivism as a tool for political engagement within the #EndBadGovernance movement in Nigeria? Table 1: Effectiveness of clicktivism as a tool for political engagement within the #EndBadGovernance movement in Nigeria Items Responses Frequency Percentage (%) 1. How often do you engage with #EndBadGovernance-related content on social media? Always 97 25 Often 115 30 Sometimes 129 34 Never 43 11 2. What type of engagement do you mostly participate in for the #EndBadGovernance movement? Liking posts 141 37 Sharing posts 97 25 Signing online petitions 71 18 Commenting on posts 75 20 3. Do you believe that your online participation in the #EndBadGovernance movement contributes to real political change? Strongly agree 89 23 Agree 147 38 Disagree 103 27 Strongly disagree 45 12 4. In your opinion, how effective is clicktivism in raising awareness about political issues like #EndBadGovernance? Very effective 93 24 Somehow effective 151 39 Not effective 93 24 Not sure 47 13 495 Source: Field Survey (2024) The data in Table 1 illustrates the effectiveness of clicktivism as a tool for political engagement within the #EndBadGovernance movement in Nigeria. Of the 384 respondents, 129 (34%) engage with #EndBadGovernance-related content "Sometimes," and 115 (30%) engage "Often," showing a significant level of interaction. The most common type of engagement is "Liking posts," with 141 respondents (37%), followed by "Sharing posts," with 97 respondents (25%). When asked if online participation contributes to real political change, 147 respondents (38%) "Agree," while 103 (27%) "Disagree." Regarding the effectiveness of clicktivism in raising awareness, 151 respondents (39%) find it "Somehow effective," indicating that while many participants believe in its efficacy, there's also a notable group that remains uncertain or less convinced. Research Question 2: What is the long-term impact of clicktivism on sustaining civic engagement and influencing political outcomes in Nigeria? Table 2: Long-term impact of clicktivism on sustaining civic engagement and influencing political outcomes in Nigeria Items Responses Frequency Percentage (%) 5. Has your involvement in the #EndBadGovernance movement encouraged you to engage in other civic activities? Yes, frequently 95 25 Yes, occasionally 123 32 No 111 29 Not sure 55 14 6. Do you feel that the momentum of the #EndBadGovernance movement has been sustained over time due to online engagement? Strongly agree 99 26 Agree 115 30 Disagree 113 29 Strongly disagree 57 15 7. How likely are you to participate in future political movements online due to your experience with the #EndBadGovernance campaign? Very likely 103 27 Likely 131 34 Unlikely 105 27 Very unlikely 45 12 8. Do you think that clicktivism has led to any tangible political outcomes in Nigeria since the #EndBadGovernance movement started? Yes 115 30 No 85 22 Somehow 139 36 Not sure 45 12 Source: Field Survey (2024) The data in Table 2 indicates the long-term impact of clicktivism on sustaining civic engagement and influencing political outcomes in Nigeria, particularly within the #EndBadGovernance movement. Of the 384 respondents, 123 (32%) indicated that their involvement in the movement has encouraged them to engage in other civic activities "Occasionally," while 95 (25%) have done so "Frequently." When asked if the momentum of the movement has been sustained over time due to online engagement, 115 respondents (30%) "Agree," though a similar proportion, 113 respondents (29%), "Disagree." Regarding future participation in political movements online, 131 respondents (34%) are "Likely" to do so, with 103 (27%) being "Very likely." On whether clicktivism has led to tangible political outcomes in Nigeria, 139 respondents (36%) believe it has done so "Somehow," while 115 (30%) affirm that it has indeed resulted in such outcomes. This data suggests that while clicktivism has a notable influence on civic engagement and political outcomes, opinions on its effectiveness are varied, with a significant number of participants recognizing some level of impact. 496 Research Question 3: What is the demographic reach of clicktivism in Nigeria, and how inclusive is it within the #EndBadGovernance movement? Table 3: Demographic reach of clicktivism in Nigeria, and how inclusive is it within the #EndBadGovernance movement? Items Responses Frequency Percentage (%) 9. Which age group do you belong to? Under 18 years 33 9% 18-25 years 121 32% 26-35 years 147 38% 36 years and above 83 22% 10. What is your level of education? Primary 47 12% Secondary 103 27% Tertiary 201 52% None 33 9% 11. Which political ward are you from? Ota 1 19 5% Ota 2 27 7% Ota 3 23 6% Sango 31 8% Atan 17 4% Ijoko 21 5% Iju 25 7% Ilogbo 19 5% Ado-Odo 1 29 8% Ado-Odo 2 27 7% Ere 15 4% Alapoti 19 5% Igbesa 25 7% Agbara 1 21 5% Agbara 2 17 4% Ketu 19 5% 12. How inclusive do you feel the #EndBadGovernance movement is across different social groups in Nigeria? Very inclusive 97 25% Somewhat inclusive 147 38% Not inclusive 109 28% Not sure 31 8% Source: Field Survey (2024) The data in Table 3 reveals the effectiveness of clicktivism as a tool for political engagement within the #EndBadGovernance movement in Nigeria. Of the 384 respondents, the majority, 147 (38%), fall within the 26-35 years age group, with 121 (32%) in the 18-25 years category, 83 (22%) being 36 years and above, and 33 (9%) under 18 years. Regarding education, 201 respondents (52%) have tertiary education, followed by 103 (27%) with secondary education, 47 (12%) with primary education, and 33 (9%) with no formal education. The political wards with the highest representation are Sango with 31 respondents (8%), Ado-Odo 1 with 29 (8%), and Ota 2 and Ado-Odo 2 both with 27 respondents (7%) each. Finally, 147 respondents (38%) believe the #EndBadGovernance movement is somewhat inclusive, 97 (25%) find it very inclusive, 109 (28%) think it is not inclusive, and 31 (8%) are not sure. 497 Research Question 4: How do digital activism and traditional forms of activism interact in the #EndBadGovernance campaign? Table 4: Relationship between digital activism and traditional forms of activism in the #EndBadGovernance campaign Items Responses Frequency Percentage (%) 13. Have you participated in any physical protests related to the #EndBadGovernance movement? Yes 129 34% No 109 28% Plan to 73 19% Not interested 73 19% 14. How do you perceive the relationship between digital activism and street protests in the #EndBadGovernance movement? Complementary 153 40% Conflicting 75 20% Independent 85 22% Not sure 71 18% 15. Do you believe that online activism has enhanced the effectiveness of physical protests? Strongly agree 103 27% Agree 117 30% Disagree 97 25% Strongly disagree 67 17% 16. Which form of activism do you believe had a greater impact on the #EndBadGovernance movement? Digital activism 129 34% Physical protests 85 22% Both equally 121 32% Not sure 49 13% Source: Field Survey (2024) The data in Table 4 illustrates the interaction between digital activism and traditional forms of activism within the #EndBadGovernance movement in Nigeria. Out of 384 respondents, 129 (34%) have participated in physical protests, 109 (28%) have not, and 73 respondents each (19%) either plan to participate or are not interested. When considering the relationship between digital activism and street protests, 153 respondents (40%) see them as complementary, while 85 (22%) view them as independent, 75 (20%) as conflicting, and 71 (18%) are not sure. Additionally, 117 respondents (30%) agree that online activism has enhanced the effectiveness of physical protests, while 103 (27%) strongly agree, 97 (25%) disagree, and 67 (17%) strongly disagree. Lastly, 129 respondents (34%) believe digital activism had a greater impact on the movement, while 121 (32%) think both forms of activism had equal impact, 85 (22%) believe physical protests were more impactful, and 49 (13%) are not sure. 5. Discussions The findings related to the first research objective, which sought to assess the effectiveness of clicktivism as a tool for political engagement within the #EndBadGovernance movement, reveal that clicktivism plays a significant but somewhat nuanced role in political engagement. The data indicates that a considerable portion of respondents (30% engaging often and 34% sometimes) interact with #EndBadGovernance content, primarily through liking and sharing posts. This suggests a high level of engagement, yet the mixed responses regarding whether such engagement translates to real political change (with 38% agreeing and 27% disagreeing) highlight a disparity between perceived and actual impact. This aligns with the critique by Aluko and Bello (2023), who argue that while clicktivism can generate substantial online buzz, its effectiveness in driving substantive political change remains questionable. The finding that many participants (39%) find clicktivism only "somehow effective" in raising awareness 498 underscores this ambiguity, suggesting that while clicktivism is useful for spreading information, its ability to mobilise tangible action may be limited. In examining the long-term impact of clicktivism on sustaining civic engagement and influencing political outcomes, the findings reveal a complex picture. A significant number of respondents (57%) have been motivated to engage in other civic activities due to their involvement in the #EndBadGovernance movement, indicating that clicktivism does foster ongoing civic participation. However, the divided opinions on whether the momentum of the movement has been sustained (with 30% agreeing and 29% disagreeing) reflect the challenges of maintaining long-term engagement through digital platforms. This finding resonates with the work of Omowumi and Bamidele (2022), who highlight the difficulty of translating online enthusiasm into sustained political action. Moreover, the fact that 36% of respondents believe clicktivism has led to tangible political outcomes suggests that while the impact of digital activism is acknowledged, it is not universally perceived as transformative. This reinforces the idea that clicktivism, while effective in the short term, may struggle to produce lasting political change without complementary offline efforts. The third objective, which investigated the demographic reach and inclusivity of clicktivism within the #EndBadGovernance movement, reveals that clicktivism predominantly engages young, educated Nigerians, particularly those aged 26-35 years and those with tertiary education. This demographic concentration suggests that while clicktivism is accessible, it may not fully represent the broader Nigerian population, particularly older adults and those with less education. The finding that a significant portion of respondents (38%) view the movement as only somewhat inclusive, with 28% believing it is not inclusive, raises concerns about the representativeness of digital activism. This observation is in line with the findings of Olaniyi and Adeola (2022), who noted that digital activism in Nigeria often reflects the interests of a relatively privileged, digitally literate minority. The demographic limitations identified in this study highlight the need for strategies that broaden the reach and inclusivity of digital activism to ensure that it reflects the diverse voices of the Nigerian populace. Finally, the study’s findings on the relationship between digital activism and traditional forms of activism within the #EndBadGovernance movement suggest a complementary dynamic between these two modes of engagement. The fact that 40% of respondents view digital and physical activism as complementary indicates that both forms of activism can reinforce each other, with online actions amplifying the impact of physical protests. This finding is consistent with the theoretical framework proposed by Castells (1996) in his Network Society Theory, which posits that digital networks can enhance the effectiveness of traditional social movements by providing new tools for organisation and mobilisation. Additionally, the significant agreement (57%) that online activism has enhanced the effectiveness of physical protests aligns with empirical studies by Balogun and Eze (2023), who argue that digital platforms can serve as crucial support mechanisms for on-the-ground activism. This suggests that a hybrid approach, combining digital and traditional activism, may be the most effective strategy for sustaining and advancing social movements in Nigeria. 6. Conclusion This study concludes that clicktivism, as demonstrated within the #EndBadGovernance movement, serves as a significant tool for political engagement in Nigeria, particularly among the youth and the digitally literate. However, while it effectively raises awareness and encourages initial involvement in social causes, its ability to drive sustained civic engagement and achieve tangible political outcomes remains varied and somewhat limited. The findings indicate that clicktivism's impact is most potent when it operates in conjunction with traditional forms of activism, suggesting that a hybrid approach is essential for achieving meaningful 499 change. Furthermore, the study highlights concerns regarding the inclusivity of digital activism, revealing a demographic skew towards younger, more educated Nigerians, which may limit the broader representativeness of such movements. Overall, while clicktivism is an influential force in contemporary political activism in Nigeria, its full potential can only be realised through strategies that enhance its reach, inclusivity, and integration with offline actions. 7. Recommendations Based on the findings of this study, the following recommendations are made: - Activists and organisers should develop strategies that move beyond online engagement, integrating digital actions with on-the-ground efforts to ensure that clicktivism leads to tangible political changes. - Efforts should be made to reach and involve a more diverse demographic, particularly those in rural areas and older generations, by providing digital literacy training and expanding access to technology. - Activists should create follow-up initiatives and ongoing campaigns to maintain the momentum generated by movements like #EndBadGovernance, ensuring that civic engagement does not wane after the initial online buzz. - Activists should deliberately coordinate online campaigns with physical protests, ensuring that digital activism supports and amplifies traditional forms of protest for greater overall impact. References Adebayo, A., Chukwuma, O., & Ikenna, E. (2023). 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