50 © 2020 Adama Science & Technology University. All rights reserved Ethiopian Journal of Science and Sustainable Development e-ISSN 2663-3205 Volume 7 (2), 2020 Journal Home Page: www.ejssd.astu.edu.et ASTU Research Paper The Status of Guidance and Counseling Service in Ethiopian Science and Technology Universities Kumsa Donis Likisa  and Jeylan Aman Tura School of Humanities and Social Science, Adama Science and Technology University, P. O. Box 1888, Adama, Ethiopia Article Info Abstract Article History: Received 19 December 2019 Received in revised form 23 April 2020 Accepted 16 May 2020 The main objective of this study was to explore the current status of guidance and counseling service in Adama Science and Technology University (ASTU) and Addis Ababa Science and Technology University (AASTU). By setting relevant criteria, the study attempted to identify the most appropriate model of guidance and counseling services for the study population. The main sources of information were six guidance personnel and 333 graduating students of the two universities. The guidance personnel were purposefully included in the study, while the students were selected randomly. To gather information from the respondents, questionnaires were developed based on the theories and circumstances affecting the provision of guidance and counseling in Ethiopia. Interviews with guidance and counseling unit heads were also used to substantiate the data obtained through the questionnaires. In the analysis of data, qualitative description of information from the open-ended questions and interviews were made. Data obtained from close-ended questions were converted to statistics such as frequency and percentage and quantitatively interpreted. The study reveals that there is lack of effective institutional student counseling, guidance policy, programs, and facilities. There is also lack of awareness among the student population on the availability of guidance and counseling service in their campus and its benefits. It further highlights that there is lack of confidence in guidance and counseling service to solve students’ academic, career, personal, social, and psychological problems. Overall, there is low status of guidance and counseling service in alleviating students’ problems. On the basis of the findings, some criteria in the selection of a model relevant to the Ethiopian context were set. A model was developed and reviewed for two rounds by experts before it is taken for granted using Delphi method. Suggestions for further investigation were also made. Keywords: University Students Guidance and counseling services Guidance program Resources 1. Introduction Guidance and counseling is an interaction process co-joining the counselee who is vulnerable and needs assistance and the counselor who is trained and educated to give this assistance. Its goal is to help the counselee learn to deal more effectively with himself/herself and the reality of his/her environment (Mubanga, 2014). Guidance and counseling services aim at the personal, social, educational, and vocational development (Collin,  Corresponding author, e-mail: kumsalikisa@yahoo.com https://doi.org/10.20372/ejssdastu:v7.i2.2020.166 2007; Gatua, 2014) and self-actualization of individuals (Kepceoglu, 1994) who have normal mental health (Korkut, 2004). Guidance and counseling services help in self-awareness, opportunity awareness, decision- making skills, and transition skills (Watts et al., 1996; Lussier, 2005; Koul, 2006). Njeri (2007) identified that the success of guidance and counseling program depends on administrators, teachers, http://www.ejssd.astu.edu/ mailto:kumsalikisa@yahoo.com https://doi.org/10.20372/ejssdastu:v7.i2.2020.xxxxxx Kumsa Donis and Jeylan Aman Ethiop.J.Sci.Sustain.Dev., Vol. 7 (2), 2020 51 and parents’ support as well as allocation of adequate resources. Students’ awareness of the role and importance of counseling contributes to the success of counseling services. If counselors had little training in guidance and counseling services, guidance and counseling program would face a number of challenges including lack of specific time allocation to guidance and counseling activities and lack of commitment of the actors. A successful guidance program contributes to students’ active engagement in learning and reduces negative outcomes such as failure, repetition, and dropout rate (Collins, 2007; Mikaye, 2012). Thus, the provision of guidance and counseling in a university is not a matter of option; rather, it is a vital aspect of education that enables students to gain the maximum benefit from the education system, to make healthy interaction with their environment, and to be effective in meeting their various needs. However, the existing guidance and counseling services in higher learning institutions are found to be mostly nominal. A study by Appiah (2013) on Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology (KNUST) and Ashesi University College in Kenya indicated that both institutions have instituted guidance and counseling units to address the immediate and future needs of their students and to ensure the academic excellence of their students. However, at KNUST, the guidance and counseling approach and delivery was not motivating enough and the service was not as effective as anticipated. Similarly, in Ethiopia, in spite of the pressing need and the efforts made to rethink of provision of guidance, it appears that the existing guidance practice is not serving its desired purpose as needed. Guidance and counseling services are largely inadequate due to absence of comprehensive guidance model and professionally qualified guidance counselors, lack of attention of universities to the program, high student- counselor ratio, and inability of universities to respond to individual students in distress (Yirgalem, 2013). Yilfashewa (2011) also confirmed that, in Ethiopia, there is a lack of systematically organized guidance in universities. Limited attention has been given to academic, personal/social, and career guidance. Guidance and counseling program could not support students’ acceptable behavior and promote emotional maturity, personality development, self-responsibility, creativity, and ability to solve problems. Lack of students’ sufficient knowledge on the role of guidance and counseling, and role ambiguity, overwhelming workload and lack of continuous professional development by counselors (Bunce & Willower, 2001; Brigman & Campbell, 2003), lack of facilities and resources, and inadequate training of counselors are the other problems impeding the provision of guidance and counseling services in Ethiopia. Additionally, there are no policy guidelines on the use of guidance and counseling services. Furthermore, lack of students’ awareness of the presence of guidance and counseling service and unfavorable attitude held by students towards seeking help determines how effectively counseling resources are used. A study by Yilfashewa (2011) on Haramaya University revealed that the students do not have adequate knowledge of the guidance and counseling services offered by educational institutions and nearly 52% of the participants perceive that guidance and counseling services have never reduced students’ academic, vocational, social, and personal stresses. Yirgalem (2013) also indicated that the school community had poor awareness about the presence of guidance and counseling services at their schools. While students who tend to seek help are more likely to benefit from counseling, those who are doubtful of the importance of counseling are likely to enjoy little or no benefits from the service. A study by Adane (2016) on the status of utilization of school guidance and counseling services in Sidama Zone Secondary Schools in Ethiopia indicated a high counselor student ratio in the study areas and lack of awareness on the part of students about the service in their school. As stated earlier, most of the research carried out on the role of guidance and counseling service (e.g., Yirgalem, 2013, Selam, 2014 and Adane, 2016) focus on high school and none has attempted to develop a model for guidance and counseling service. Based on findings from various studies and the researchers’ personal observations, it is evident that some of the problems of students that need counseling intervention are low self -concept, lack of proper study skills, lack of time management skills, and inability of students to cope with various school challenges. Other Kumsa Donis and Jeylan Aman Ethiop.J.Sci.Sustain.Dev., Vol. 7 (2), 2020 52 problems are underutilization of the service, counselors’ professional incompetence due to lack of continuous professional development, lack of policy direction, and lack of institutional support and commitment. In Ethiopia, there is a tendency to rely on traditional (non- professional) advisors. According to Endrerud and Charinet (2004), in Ethiopia, youngsters get guidance and advice on their educational and social problems from older people, family members, and friends. Religious institutions such as churches and mosques are also responsible in offering guidance services for their followers. Compared to the long history of Ethiopian education, the service of guidance counseling in Ethiopian schools and higher learning institutions is at infantile stage. The service is offered mainly in secondary schools. It appears that guidance and counseling services at universities are not significantly contributing to students’ educational, vocational, and personal/social development. Muango and Joel (2012) indicated that lack of functional guidance and counseling contributes to indiscipline, drug abuse, immoral behavior, cheating in examination, unwanted pregnancies, rebellion, and maladjustment. The two science and technology universities under investigation are no exception in this regard. The stumbling blocks that prevail in Ethiopian universities manifest themselves also in the two institutions. The main objective of this study is, therefore, to examine the status of guidance and counseling services in ASTU and AASTU and develop relevant model that can be used by the two universities. Conceptual framework This study was based on the premise that there cannot be students’ adjustment in a university without effective guidance and counseling services. In order for guidance and counseling to be effective, universities should have clear guidance policy and strategies, trained guidance and counseling personnel, and required facilities provided for guidance and counseling activities. Besides the need for employing counselors’ and developing students’ positive attitude towards guidance and counseling services, the university administration itself should have a positive attitude towards the program and support provision of guidance and counseling services by allocating appropriate budget and assigning competent human power. Moreover, both male and female counselors should be employed as the sex of the counselor is likely to matter most for clients seeking counselors’ support. Counselors’ workload should be considered duly as it can also affect proper implementation of guidance and counseling service. There are two methods used for guidance and counseling in universities, namely, group/peer counseling and individual counseling. Group counseling has an advantage over individual counseling in developing social skills so that students share experience and try out new styles with other members of the group. Therefore, methods of counseling also interact with family factors, environmental factors, and personal factors to determine the level of students’ adjustment in a university setup. Quality guidance and counseling services contribute to high level of students’ adjustment. Figure 1 shows issues that need guidance and counseling interventions. The counselor can either use group, peer or individual counseling to counsel students that have problems emanating from family, environment, and personal factors. Successful provision of educational, vocational, and social/personal guidance and counseling service depends on guidance policy, facilities and counselors’ qualification. 2. Research Design and Methodology 2.1. Research design This study used descriptive survey research design with mixed research approach that combines quantitative and qualitative research methods. Mixed research method was used to obtain a more substantive picture regarding the complex nature of guidance and counseling services in students’ adjustment (Williams, 2007). The decision to make use of this method was to generalize the findings from the sample to the entire population. The qualitative research method is principally aimed at obtaining verbal data to add meaning to numbers by exploring the meanings that people attach to their experience. Qualitative research takes the form of a detailed and value-laden inquiry that focuses on the discovery, the processing, and the making of meanings Kumsa Donis and Jeylan Aman Ethiop.J.Sci.Sustain.Dev., Vol. 7 (2), 2020 53 Figure 1: Conceptual framework of the study rather than on measuring the extent in terms of quantity (Denzin & Lincoln, 1994). For the purpose of this study, views and perceptions of the heads of guidance and counseling officers in the two institutions were gathered and examined. 2.2. Study population and sampling The study population was students of Ethiopian Science and Technology Universities. Multistage sampling technique was used to get the required study participants. First, schools/colleges were selected randomly; then, departments were selected using simple random sampling, and students within these departments were selected using simple random sampling technique using an official roster of the selected departments. The number of study participants in each department was determined by their proportion in the study population. The heads of guidance and counseling units and counselors in both universities were also included in the sample. Accordingly, 192 out of 1804 students from ASTU and 141 out of 1405 students from AASTU were selected. A total of 6 counselors were included in the sample. The two heads of guidance and counseling service unit were selected using availability sampling technique. 2.3. Data gathering instruments To gather information from the informants, self- reporting questionnaires with close ended and open ended questions were developed taking into account the context of the study, guidance and counseling theories and practices. The questionnaire for guidance and counseling personnel focuses on guidance policy and/or guideline, guidance program, resources for guidance and counseling program, and challenges in the implementation of guidance and counseling service. The questionnaire comprises structured questions. It would enable the researchers to get relevant and consistent information about the current practices and challenges associated with the provision of guidance and counseling service. The questionnaire was validated by three psychology instructors before it was pilot tested and used as data collection tool for this study. The pilot study was conducted on 36 fifth year students prior to utilization of the instrument to collect data for the main study. Following the pilot study, amendment was made on some items of the questionnaire. Cronbach's alpha coefficient was used to measure reliability of the questions. Cronbach's alpha coefficients for the questionnaire exceed 0.80 for attention of the universities to guidance and counseling service and challenges of guidance and counseling service parts. Accordingly, reliability for attention of the universities to guidance and counseling service is 0.949, and it is 0.962 for challenges of guidance and counseling service. The high reliability of the items indicates the high level of dependability of the instrument to get the required information from the respondents. In addition to the questionnaire, interview was used as data collection tool to obtain information from two heads of guidance and counseling service unit in the two universities. 2.4. Data collection procedure The data were gathered from students in a door-to- door situation by identifying their dormitories. For the purpose of data collection, four data collectors (two from each university) were recruited and trained for data Guidance and counseling program  Education/career counseling  Psycho-social counseling  Psychological counseling  Counsellors’ professional qualification  Students and counsellors’ attitude  Support from the university  Gender and workload of the counselor  Guidance policy  Facilities Students’ adjustment Independent variables Intervening variables Dependent variables Kumsa Donis and Jeylan Aman Ethiop.J.Sci.Sustain.Dev., Vol. 7 (2), 2020 54 collection. They spent three to four days in data collection. Interview was made on a face-to-face basis by the researcher using leading interview questions. 2.5. Methods of data analysis The data collected through the questionnaire were organized and analyzed using descriptive statistics such as frequency, and percentage. In the analysis of data from the open-ended questions and interviews, the data were first transcribed and then organized into emergent themes, categories, and sub-categories. Finally, they were integrated with quantitative data analysis. 3. Results and Discussions 3.1. Results 3.1.1. Students’ awareness and confidence in guidance and counseling service The selected students were asked whether they are aware of the availability of guidance and counseling service in their respective university, location of the service center, and the type of service offered and their tendency to seek support from the service. Accordingly, their responses to the items are shown hereunder. As we can see from Table 1, more than half (54.6%) of the respondents have reported that they are not aware of the availability of guidance and counseling service and 75.3% of them do not have information on the location of the guidance and counseling office. Similarly, the majority (67.3%) of the respondents is not aware of the service offered and 75.3% do not have the interest to seek guidance and counseling service. These results indicate that an important ground has not been laid for the effective implementation of guidance and counseling service. Awareness creation about the benefits of guidance and counseling service and motivating students to seek the service in case they are socially, behaviorally and academically challenged is found to be negligible. Subsequently, the vast majority (91.7%) of students have never sought guidance and counseling service. Only a total of 8.3% sought guidance and counseling service from one to five times. This problem may be attributed to students’ lack of awareness of the availability of guidance and counseling service and the type of service offered, and their lack of interest to seek guidance and counseling service. Whenever they seek guidance and counseling service, some of their reasons are related to family problems, academic problems, peer pressure, problem in time management, inability to get psychological support from academic and administrative staffs, exam anxiety, feeling of helplessness, stress due to different socio-economic problems like regionalism, biases and discriminations, and instability in social interaction. It was further observed that most of the students (63.3%) do not feel comfortable to discuss their problems with counselors. Students do not want to share their problems with counselors may be because of lack of trust on confidentiality of personal issues, and lack of confidence in whether guidance and counseling service solve their problems. There is a belief among students that counselors in the two universities cannot easily understand students’ problems and devise ways of tackling their psychological problems. The fact that previous counseling services had not been exemplary in their effectiveness on students’ behavioral change may have also contributed to students’ low interest in the service. Table 1: Students’ awareness of availability of guidance and counseling service (N = 333) No. Item Response Percent 1. Awareness of availability of guidance and counseling service Yes 45.4 No 54.6 2. Information on the location of guidance and counseling office Yes 24.7 No 75.3 3. Awareness of service offered Yes 32.7 No 67.3 4. Tendency to seek guidance and counseling service Yes 24.7 No 75.3 Kumsa Donis and Jeylan Aman Ethiop.J.Sci.Sustain.Dev., Vol. 7 (2), 2020 55 The majority of students didn’t have confidence in guidance and counseling services in positively influencing their academic performance (54.3%), dealing with their troubles and challenges in improving academic performance (57.4%), improving their interpersonal relations (54.6%), and solving all sorts of psychological problems (59.3%). As a whole, the overall students’ confidence in the benefits of guidance and counseling services is low. One of the students from AASTU articulated: “…I have experienced all sorts of psychological problems, but none of them were fixed with counseling. They were fixed by faith. I am a better person now not because of counseling but because of Jesus. The truth is I am who I am now because of Christ.” Another student from AASTU also stated, “To tell the truth, if there were a strong counseling in AASTU, I would be effective in my education. For a long time, starting from 1st year 2nd semester, I have been in a very stressful, depressed, and self-hating situation”. Consistent with students’ unfavorable opinion about current counseling service, counselors in the two universities indicated that fewer than 100 students participate in the university guidance and counseling program per year. They hold the view that many students are not interested in guidance and counseling service. For instance, a participant had the following to say during the interview session: In spite of the availability of the service …, most students are not interested in seeking the service. I think sometimes students are embarrassed to ask for help. Despite the availability of counseling services in universities, only a small number of university students (0.5% to 1%) who experience psychological distress seek professional counseling(participant 2). Table 2: Attention of the Universities to guidance and counseling service (N = 333) Response Percent Yes 22.8 No 77.2 Total 100.0 The respondents were asked whether or not the universities take guidance and counseling service seriously. The majority of respondents (77.2%) feel that the two universities never take guidance and counseling service seriously. Universities take guidance and counseling service as auxiliary rather than as their key duties and responsibilities. Similarly, guidance personnel attested that inadequate attention is given to guidance and counseling services and no sufficient time is allocated to the guidance and counseling service. They have not taken any short training, refreshment courses, workshops, and other upgrading programs. All of them corroborated that they are not encouraged to engage in research activities to integrate theory and practice in guidance and counseling service. Regarding the budget allocation, interviewee 2 stated “The University does not take guidance and counseling seriously as indicated by lack of budgetary allocation and facilities.” Similarly, participant 1 revealed that “Ineffectiveness of guidance and counseling services was caused by lack of support by administration, inadequate funds, and lack of clear guidance policy.” Table 3: Major guidance and counseling services provided (N = 333) From Table 3, it is possible to understand that guidance and counseling service that is mainly provided is educational guidance (63.9%), followed by psychological guidance (16.4%). This implies that attention is not given to career and social guidance, which is also important in students’ selection of career paths, adjustments, and academic success. Interview participant 2 also expressed that “Educational guidance related to learning difficulties and time management and solving interpersonal conflict is emphasized to some extent. On the contrary, assisting students in department choice, learning about careers, choosing a career, job finding, and contacting job- related agencies, and organizing incoming speakers and arranging visits to outside events are ignored.” Interview participant 1 also revealed that “More attention was given to academic achievement of the students rather than any other area. Psychological and social guidance that promotes peace of the mind to create good chances for Type of guidance and counseling service provided Percent Career guidance 9.0 Educational guidance 63.9 Psychological guidance 16.4 Social guidance 10.2 Other 0.6 Total 100.0 Kumsa Donis and Jeylan Aman Ethiop.J.Sci.Sustain.Dev., Vol. 7 (2), 2020 56 concentration in learning and that is useful in producing students who are disciplined and visionary in life is ignored.” He also elaborated that “vocational guidance, information services, placement services, consultancy and research services, appraisal services, evaluation, follow-up and referral services exist only nominally.” One of the interviewed counselors also articulated the issue as follows: In spite of the fact that duties of university counselors include providing instruction on psychological and social issues, attention was not given to vocational guidance, counseling, early intervention, and special needs services. Negligible attention was given to maintain academic standards and set goals for academic success, train students on study habits, time management and social skills, maintain students’ discipline, and identify their interests, strengths, and aptitudes through assessment. The existing guidance and counseling service is not helping students resolve personal or interpersonal problems either through group or individual counseling as there is lack of guidance and counseling model (interview participant 1). 3.1.2. Challenges in the provision of guidance and counseling service There are different challenges emanating from different sources and hampering the effective implementation of guidance and counseling service. In this study, attempts have been made to identify the challenge from various perspectives. The following section discusses challenges as indicated by the students. Besides problems pointed out in Section 3.1.1, there are challenges that obstruct the provision of guidance and counseling service. More than 50% of the respondents in all cases have reported the existence of challenges in student guidance and counseling practices. The first three very serious challenges as reported by the participants are students’ reluctance to take guidance and counseling correction seriously (66%), lack of knowledge on the benefits of guidance and counseling service (63.3%), and unsuitability of the location of the counseling office for privacy or confidentiality (56.5%). Students’ feeling that they do not have time to use guidance and counseling service has also apparently contributed to challenges in the implementation of guidance and counseling service. According to interview participant 2, “Guidance and counseling service is not helping in managing students’ behavior, reducing tensions and strikes in the university, realizing their mistakes, and developing positive attitudes towards the university.” He further elaborated that “there should be a shift from an ancillary, crisis-oriented service to a proactive, comprehensive guidance and counseling service that includes preventative and responsive activities and designed to meet the needs of the students it serves.” Formulating a guidance policy and proper guideline has a desirable influence on the implementation of guidance and counseling service. However, the six guidance personnel maintained that their universities have no clear policy or guideline on how to employ guidance and counseling service in contributing to students’ learning and adjustment. The universities have no legal instruments promoting different aspects of guidance and counseling service. It seems that the guidance and counseling service in the universities tends to be voluntary rather than mandatory. There is no clear direction on whether guidance and counseling service should be given as a discrete course, or integrated with other courses, or as extended program through special activities. Table 4: Challenges of guidance and counseling service (N = 333) No. Item Response Yes (%) No (%) 1. Lack of knowledge on the benefits of guidance and counseling service. 63.3 36.7 2. Students’ unwillingness to discuss their problems with counselors. 57.4 42.6 3. Inconvenience of the location of the office for privacy or confidentiality 56.5 43.5 4. Failure of students to take guidance and counseling correction seriously 66.0 34.0 5. Lack of time to use guidance and counseling service. 50.0 50.0 6. Lack of private room for guidance and counseling. 59.0 41.0 7. Others 29.9 70.1 Kumsa Donis and Jeylan Aman Ethiop.J.Sci.Sustain.Dev., Vol. 7 (2), 2020 57 The two interviewed heads of guidance and counseling service units unanimously agreed that there is no policy guideline at university level on how the university could use guidance and counseling to manage students’ behavior. Besides the absence of guidance and counseling policy/guideline, the budget allocated for the guidance program was inadequate, and the program is not effective enough to address students’ educational, vocational and social/personal problems. All of the guidance personnel confirmed absence of a guidance curriculum designed to assist students to develop knowledge and skills appropriate for their personal, social and intellectual development. There are no computer programs and online services in students’ academic, personal-social, and career planning. There are also no peer counseling and mediation programs aimed to impact students’ misbehavior and reduce conflicts. The establishment of guidance program should be backed by allocation of appropriate resources. However, except on the availability of full-time counselors and office equipment, the majority of guidance personnel agreed on unavailability of resources for guidance and counseling program. The unavailable materials and resources include relevant software, audio and visual materials (resources), psychometric tests, student inventory, a handbook for different occupations, and so on. The interviewed heads of guidance and counseling units also agreed on the scarcity of resources which are meant for guidance and counseling services. Lack of cooperation from administration and fellow staff members, lack of private counseling office (since two or more counselors share the same office), lack of funds/ budget to sponsor guest speakers and to attend workshops, inadequate number of counselors (1:1200 ratio), absence of guidelines, lack of counselors’ practical experience and motivation to render guidance and counseling service are the challenges encountered in implementing guidance and counseling service in the two universities. It was also found out that counselors lack professional experience, motivation, commitment, diligence, and willingness to support students as required. The other hindering factors in the implementation of guidance and counseling service are the fact that none of the guidance personnel were engaged in research activities to integrate theory and practice in guidance and counseling service. Inconvenient location of the counseling office is also found to be an issue of concern. Both ASTU and AASTU counseling offices are located near a library and along students’ walkways. The interviewed guidance personnel confirmed that lack of policy and guidance program/curriculum, lack of awareness among the student community, inadequate resources, lack of cooperation from university management and teachers, and lack of commitment from counselors have obstructed effective implementation of guidance and counseling service. Consequently, students could not develop appropriate social skills and a sense of belongingness to the university. This is manifested by bullying other students, disrespect for teachers, fighting, unwillingness to confess wrongdoings, theft, sexual harassment, damaging university property, and participating in student unrest. Counselors are not also effective in preventing students from disciplinary problems such as aggressive and hostile behaviors, violent behaviors, committing crime, and many other inappropriate behaviors. Hardly ever have they used counseling in their respective university to improve students’ academic achievement, reduce test anxiety, prevent students from dropping out of university, and reduce classroom disruptive behaviors, indiscipline or disturbances so as to enable them to focus on the teaching-learning process. In general, the guidance and counseling service is not designed in a way that addresses all students’ academic, personal, social, and career needs. Specifically, 1) In Ethiopian Science and Technology Universities, there is ineffective institutional student counseling service characterized by absence of guidance policy, ineffective programs, scarce facilities, and generally poor provisions. . 2) Guidance and counseling service is not organized in a way that ensures students’ welfare, adjustment and success. 3) Some of the hindrances in effective implementation of guidance and counseling services in ASTU and AASTU are student’s lack of awareness on the availability of guidance and counseling service and their negative perception and lack of confidence in guidance and counseling services in positively influencing their success, enabling them to deal with Kumsa Donis and Jeylan Aman Ethiop.J.Sci.Sustain.Dev., Vol. 7 (2), 2020 58 their troubles and challenges, and solving other sorts of their psychological problems. Lack of commitment from university management, absence of capacity building schemes, insufficient resources, and lack of clear guidance and counseling policy and/or guideline are the other problems that impede the implementation of guidance and counseling service. 3.2. Discussion This study was aimed at examining the status of guidance and counseling service and its contribution to students’ adjustment in ASTU and AASTU. In this section, the research findings generated from both quantitative and qualitative data are discussed in the light of the research objectives. When appropriate, the discussion is also made by relating the findings of the study to the literature, both local and international. 3.2.1. Effectiveness of institutional student counseling, guidance policy, programs, and facilities The way guidance and counseling service is organized matters in its effectiveness. Consistent with Selam (2014), Yirgalem (2013), Adane (2016), Yilfashewa (2011), Majoko (2013), and Pereira and Rekha (2017), this study also reveals that there is lack of effective institutional student counseling, guidance policy, programs, and facilities part of provisions. The majority of student respondents feel that the two universities’ management considers guidance and counseling service as auxiliary activity rather than as its major obligation. Similarly, the guidance personnel of both institutions revealed that inadequate attention is given to guidance and counseling services by university management, and there is lack of cooperation from fellow staff members. The guidance personnel were not given opportunity to be involved in upgrading programs; reasonable amount of budget was not allocated to run the guidance program, and sufficient time was not apportioned for guidance and counseling services in the two universities. What makes the problem more severe is the fact that the two universities do not have clear policy, guidelines, strategies, written plans, and specific roles and responsibilities that are useful in employing guidance and counseling services properly to contribute to students’ learning and behavioral change. There is also absence of guidance curriculum useful in students’ academic, personal-social, and career planning, and there is no clear direction on whether guidance and counseling service should be given as a discrete course, or integrated with other courses, or offered as extended program through special activities. Consequently, there is a general lack of information and awareness about the benefits of guidance and counseling service among students. There is also students’ negative perception and lack of trust in the competence of counselors and effectiveness of the guidance and counseling services to solve their problems and counselors’ lack of professional commitment and diligence. Besides, students lack information on the location of the guidance and counseling office, and the guidance and counseling service offices both at ASTU and AASTU are located near a library and students’ walkways, a situation which makes the convenience and confidentiality of the service questionable. Furthermore, the majority of the guidance personnel agree on unavailability of useful resources and facilities for guidance and counseling program including relevant software, audio and visual materials, psychometric tests, student inventory, and a handbook on career guidance. 3.2.2. Hurdles in the implementation of guidance and counseling service In this study, a number of hurdles that have obstructed effective implementation of guidance and counseling service were identified. Besides the absence of a guidance policy and curriculum and lack of support and facilities, there is lack of awareness of students about, and reluctance in, the use of guidance and counseling services. More than half of the students are not aware of the availability of the guidance and counseling services in their respective university and the type of services offered, while the majority of them do not have the tendency to seek guidance and counseling service, and the vast majority of students acknowledge that they have actually never sought guidance and counseling service. Most of the students do not feel comfortable to discuss their problems with counselors may be because of lack of trust in confidentiality of personal issues and lack of confidence in the guidance and counseling service in solving their academic, vocational, personal, and social problems. This lack of trust and confidence of students in guidance and Kumsa Donis and Jeylan Aman Ethiop.J.Sci.Sustain.Dev., Vol. 7 (2), 2020 59 counseling service might be attributed to experience gained from prior practice. In connection with this, Ngii (2015) found that students may be motivated to, or discouraged from, seeking guidance and counseling services depending on their prior counseling experience. Those who have had sound past experience in counseling process consider it positively. On the other hand, if the student had a bad prior counseling experience, he/she will develop negative attitude towards it. Negative information about prior guidance and counseling intervention learned from significant persons and delayed changes in behavior may also be hinder students’ positive attitude towards the service. However, there are still quite many students who seek guidance and counseling services. Where they need guidance and counseling service, it was mainly for problems related to academic issues (e.g., exam anxiety), family affairs, peer pressure, time management, feeling of helplessness, stress due to different socio-political problems like regionalism and instability in social interaction, biases, and discriminations. Guidance and counseling services that are predominantly provided are educational guidance, followed by psychological guidance. It seems attention is not given to career and social guidance, which is also important in students’ selection of career paths, social adjustments, and academic success. The other hindering factors in the implementation of guidance and counseling service is the fact that guidance personnel were not engaged in research activities to integrate theory and practice, and that negligible attention was given to prevention and intervention programs in solving students’ educational, vocational, and social/personal problems. 3.2.3. Useful criteria in the selection of relevant guidance and counseling model that supports students’ adjustment The following are essential criteria that have been identified from counseling theories and findings in this study to be potentially useful in establishing a relevant guidance and counseling model in the two universities:  Identifying individual students’ problems through careful clients’ assessment, and selecting appropriate counseling techniques under the guidance of competent guidance personnel;  Keeping in mind the multiplicity of personal and environmental influences, ranging from the immediate family to the wider community;  Bringing into mind the interrelationship between guidance program and students’ adjustment;  Keeping in mind that more than one counseling approaches can fit for different students and that an individual student may demand a mix of counseling approaches for the same problem;  Being developmentally orientated and aware of the fact that counseling can be a lifelong process and involves a combination of interacting determinants;  Establishing experience sharing scheme with someone who has already solved educational, vocational, and social/personal problems; Having well established guidance policy guidance and counseling service, and ensuring that competent counsellors are assigned, awareness raising programs are in place, students have positive attitude towards the service, and university commitment and support are realized, all of which will ultimately determine students’ adjustment. 3.2.4. A model for guidance and counseling services in Ethiopian science and technology universities On the basis of the criteria extracted from the literature and the findings of the study, the following guidance and counseling service model has been developed for the Ethiopian science and technology universities. The model was developed using Delphi method (Crawford & Wright, 2016). Delphi method is useful in developing models by eliciting and refining judgments (consensus opinions) of anonymously recruited experts to avoid potential biases in the decision-making process by investigators. The steps in Delphi method are number of iterations (two rounds in the case of this study), consensus, confirmed dissensus and finally stability of results. These steps were strictly followed and the researchers served as facilitators in collecting, composing, synthesizing and redistributing their varied responses for two rounds until the experts reach agreement. Kumsa Donis and Jeylan Aman Ethiop.J.Sci.Sustain.Dev., Vol. 7 (2), 2020 60 Figure 2: Guidance and Counseling Service (GCS) Model in Ethiopian Science and Technology Universities Problem assessment  Scrutinizing drawbacks of existing approaches  Assessing existing problems, contexts and sources of individual or group problems Awareness of alternatives  Philosophies  Theories  Empirical research findings Context based thinking process  Reflective, critical and creative thinking  Decision on approach(es)to be used Valuing  Appreciate the role of guidance and counseling service  Formulating policy and developing guidelines  Resource allocation  Including guidance program in university’s plan and institutional evaluation schema  Training for counsellors  Awareness creation for students Action  Action plan, prepare contact plan and establish rapport  Commitment and use of relevant counseling approach that address students’ educational, vocational, social/personal problems to enhance their problem solving capacity  Motivating students and counsellors  Building effective individual and group counseling skills  Reflection in action Evaluation  Observation  Workshop  Reflection on and for action  Report M o ti v a ti o n : R e co g n iz e a n d m a in ta in b e st g u id a n ce a n d co u n se li n g p ra ct ic e Kumsa Donis and Jeylan Aman Ethiop.J.Sci.Sustain.Dev., Vol. 7 (2), 2020 61 Effectiveness of guidance and counseling service depends on the status of the problem and the existing context (problem assessment), available alternatives, ability to contextualize the available alternatives, the value attached to the benefits of guidance and counseling service, and feedback from evaluation of the practice. Problem assessment involves scrutinizing the drawbacks of the existing approaches and assessing the existing contexts and sources of individual or group problems. The existing approaches and status quo might not always solve all sorts of problems. Dynamic and complex problems require vibrant and timely solutions. At the same time, the magnitude and source of the problem determine the selection of a guidance approach. The selection of guidance approaches requires awareness of alternatives. The philosophical stand of the counsellor, the theoretical framework utilized taking into account the dynamicity of a guidance approach from empirical research, and policy that gives direction will all matter in the effectiveness of guidance and counseling service. In other words, philosophical belief, selected theory, counseling technique employed, understanding empirical findings, and policy directives altogether critically determine counseling outcomes. Context based thinking process/evaluation (reflective, critical, and creative thinking) should be made before the selection of a counseling approach. The selection of counseling approach should be accompanied by valuing/appreciating the role of guidance and counseling service. Students and university management and community at large should give appropriate weight to guidance and counseling services. The university should include these services in its timetable/calendar and institutional evaluation scheme. Formulating guidance and counseling policy, developing guidelines, and allocating resource give the necessary directions and strengths. The formulation of guidance and counseling policy and development of guidelines need to be accompanied by implementation. The implementation of guidance and counseling service requires developing an action plan, approaching users and establishing rapport with them, and applying a relevant counseling approach that enhances students’ adjustment and achievement. In this process, motivating students and counsellors, enhancing students’ problem-solving capacity, building effective individual and group counseling skills, and reflection in action and formative evaluation are important in improving the system of guidance and counseling service while it is on progress. Summative evaluation should come at the end, and it can be made through observation, user focused workshop, reflection on and for action, and report. These will give feedback to improve or change the whole system. 4. Recommendation Based on the foregoing findings from the review of the literature relevant to this study and the empirical investigation, the following recommendations are proposed, whereby the effectiveness of guidance and counseling services in students’ academic, career, and personal/social needs may be addressed more effectively in Ethiopian Science and Technology Universities.  One of the problems in effective implementation of guidance and counseling service is lack of students’ awareness about its benefits and lack of their confidence in its effectiveness to solve their personal, social, emotional, behavioral, career, and academic problems. Thus, there is a need for promoting guidance and counseling service by the counseling office using different means such as erecting promotion billboards at different parts of the university and using fliers, banners, leaflets, newspapers, brochures, and pamphlets to raise awareness of students. Providing awareness creation workshops for students, delivering well- organized and students’ need based counseling services like group or individual counseling, and guarantying confidentiality in the provision of the service are also important measures. There is a need to arrange an experience sharing program for students who are doubtful of effectiveness of guidance and counseling service to draw lessons from those who have got the service and solved their problems.  First year university life is crucial for students in their success in the succeeding years as it is a transition period from high school to university. They need to adjust themselves to the new social and academic environment. Thus, there is a need for counselors to give more attention to freshman students and focus more on prevention and Kumsa Donis and Jeylan Aman Ethiop.J.Sci.Sustain.Dev., Vol. 7 (2), 2020 62 contributing to the improvement of the quality of teaching to avoid some academic stressors using alternative approaches like IT (online counseling service), face-to-face counseling service by professionals, and student counseling committee at school/college level. Psychoanalysis, Behaviorism, Person Centered and Systems theories can be applied separately or in combination based on the context of the problem. On the basis of these theories, counselors can focus on and offer training for students on life skills, social skills, conflict management, crisis management, communication skills, effective study methods, and emerging issues and behaviors in adolescence.  The counseling offices should create professional referral centres for students with issues beyond the counselors’ capacity.  The study results showed that adequate attention was not given to guidance and counseling service by the university management, and counselors could not get adequate updating and upgrading training. Thus, universities need to give updating and upgrading training opportunities for counselors. Training sessions may focus on theories and basic counseling skills, communication skills, educational, social/personal, and career guidance and counseling, developing positive attitudes, drug addiction, adolescence behaviors, and emerging issues. University administration should also take guidance and counseling seriously and allocate sufficient budget to cater for the programs and facilities. Furthermore, university management should forge collaboration with the guidance and counseling office to improve students’ social/ emotional adjustment, warrant informed academic and career decision, avoid deviant behaviors of students to ensure discipline, and ensure mental stability and academic performance of students. Finally, the university should develop a strategy to supervise the guidance and counseling service to ensure its effectiveness in addressing academic, social/emotional, and vocational issues facing students.  Universities and counseling offices need to develop a clear policy, students’ counseling guidelines, and a handbook on professional ethics to run and manage guidance and counseling services effectively. Starting at the macro level, guidance and counseling should become an integral part of educational policy. As changes take place in students’ behaviour, the guidance and counseling policy should be readjusted, so that the program that are undertaken on the ground can provide for developing changes in students’ behaviour. In line with the identified needs in students’ behaviour, the goals on the macro level (the policy level) can be publicized and become part of the programs that are undertaken at the lower levels. The policy should contain and keep in mind such contexts as the culture of the society, the psychosocial environment, and the socioeconomic circumstances.  Finally, the researchers recommend the use of the model developed in this study in the two universities. Studies that include more universities and a larger number of participants are recommended for comparison and for generalizability purpose. Reference Adane Wako (2016). 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