EJ 4.1 Garcia 1-19


EuroAmerican	
  Journal	
  of	
  Applied	
  Linguistics	
  and	
  Languages	
  
E-­‐JournALL,	
  Volume	
  4,	
  Issue	
  1,	
  July	
  2017,	
  pages	
  1-­‐19	
  
ISSN	
  2376-­‐905X	
  	
  
DOI	
  http://dx.doi.org/10.21283/2376905X.6.86	
  
www.e-­‐journall.org	
  	
  
	
  

	
  

	
  
	
  

                                                
*	
  Contact:1pg289@camden.rutgers.edu	
  
	
  
©	
  García	
  2017.	
  This	
  work	
  is	
  licensed	
  under	
  a	
  Creative	
  Commons	
  Attribution	
  4.0	
  International	
  License.	
  

 Implementing	
  concept-­‐based	
  instruction	
  in	
  the	
  heritage	
  language	
  
classroom:	
  	
  A	
  pedagogical	
  proposal	
  

	
  
	
  
 

 	
  	
  PRÓSPERO	
  N.	
  GARCÍA*1	
  
Rutgers	
  University,	
  Camden	
  

 
 Received	
  31	
  January	
  2017;	
  received	
  in	
  revised	
  form	
  31	
  May	
  2017;	
  accepted	
  7	
  June	
  2017 

 
ABSTRACT 

EN Framed within a Sociocultural Theory of Mind approach to Second Language Learning and Development (Lantolf & Poehner, 
2014), this article presents a pedagogical proposal for implementing concept-based instruction (C-BI) in the Spanish heritage 
language (HL) classroom in order to promote the development and internalization of the grammatical concept of aspect. 
Although aspect has been found to be particularly troublesome for heritage language learners (Montrul, 2009; Silva-Corvalán, 
1994), few studies have focused on teaching conceptual development of verbal aspect in the HL classroom. This paper 
contributes to filling this gap by proposing an innovative pedagogical design aimed at providing HL students with the 
opportunity to generate and transform a conceptual understanding of aspect through conscious interaction in significant, 
coherent, and systematic ways. 
 
Key words:  CONCEPT-BASED INSTRUCTION, ASPECT, HERITAGE LANGUAGE LEARNERS, SPANISH, SOCIOCULTURAL THEORY 
 

ES Enmarcado dentro de la teoría sociocultural de la mente aplicada al desarrollo y aprendizaje de segundas lenguas (Lantolf y 
Poehner, 2014), este artículo expone una propuesta pedagógica dirigida a la implementación de la instrucción basada en 
conceptos (C-BI, por sus siglas en inglés) en el aula de español como lengua de herencia (español LH ), con el fin de 
promover el desarrollo e interiorización conceptual del aspecto gramatical. Aunque se ha comprobado que el aspecto entraña 
una especial dificultad en los aprendices de LH (Montrul 2009; Silva-Corvalán, 1994), no hay, por el momento, propuestas 
específicas sobre cómo enseñar a desarrollar conceptualmente el aspecto verbal en el aula de LH. El presente trabajo 
contribuye a llenar este vacío, proponiendo un diseño pedagógico innovador, enfocado en proporcionar a los aprendices de 
LH la oportunidad de desarrollar y transformar su comprensión del aspecto verbal a través de una interacción consciente y 
significativa con el concepto y una presentación del concepto coherente y sistemática. 
 
Palabras clave:  INSTRUCCIÓN CONCEPTUAL, ASPECTO, APRENDICES DE LENGUA DE HERENCIA, ESPAÑOL, TEORÍA SOCIOCULTURAL 
 

IT Questo articolo si inquadra all’interno della teoria socioculturale della mente in relazione all’acquisizione della seconda lingua 
(Lantolf & Poehner, 2014). Il lavoro presenta una proposta pedagogica per l'impiego dell’Insegnamento basato su concetti (C-
BI) nell'ambito della classe di spagnolo come lingua ereditaria (SLE), al fine di promuovere lo sviluppo ed internalizzazione del 
concetto grammaticale dell’aspetto verbale. Sebbene si è visto che l'aspetto verbale è particolarmente difficile per studenti di 
SLE (Montrul, 2009; Silva-Corvalán, 1994), scarseggiano studi che si concentrino sull'insegnamento dello sviluppo concettuale 
dell'aspetto verbale nella classe di SLE. Questo testo contribuisce a colmare questa lacuna proponendo un innovativo disegno 
pedagogico volto a fornire agli studenti di SLE l'opportunità di generare e trasformare una comprensione concettuale 
dell'aspetto verbale attraverso la comunicazione consapevole in modi significativi, coerenti e sistematici.  
 
Parole chiave:	
   INSEGNAMENTO BASATO SU CONCETTI, ASPETTO VERBALE, STUDENTI DI LINGUE EREDITARIE, SPAGNOLO, TEORIA 
SOCIOCULTURALE 



GARCÍA	
  	
  

E-­‐JournALL	
  4(1)	
  (2017),	
  pp.	
  1–19	
  
	
  

2	
  

1.	
  Introduction	
  
The	
  number	
  of	
  Spanish	
  speakers	
  in	
  the	
  United	
  States	
  has	
  grown	
  exponentially	
  in	
  the	
  past	
  20	
  years.	
  

According	
   to	
   the	
   latest	
  American	
  Community	
   Survey,	
   13.1%	
  of	
   the	
   country’s	
   population	
   speaks	
   Spanish	
   at	
  
home,	
  making	
   it	
   the	
  most	
  popular	
  non-­‐English	
   language	
  among	
  people	
  aged	
  5	
  or	
  older	
  (US	
  Census	
  Bureau,	
  
2014).	
   In	
   the	
   face	
   of	
   this	
   reality,	
   American	
   higher	
   education	
   has	
   slowly	
   adopted	
   a	
   series	
   of	
   measures	
   to	
  
promote	
  the	
  integration	
  of	
  heritage	
  bilinguals	
  in	
  college	
  classrooms	
  across	
  the	
  country	
  (for	
  a	
  comprehensive	
  
overview,	
   see	
   Fairclough	
   &	
   Beaudrie,	
   2016).	
  What	
   started	
   as	
   the	
   implementation	
   of	
   remedial	
   courses	
   for	
  
Spanish-­‐speaking	
  students	
  more	
  than	
  30	
  years	
  ago	
  (Valdés,	
  1997)	
  has	
  gradually	
  evolved	
  into	
  the	
  creation	
  of	
  
programs	
  with	
   elaborated	
   curriculum	
   guidelines	
   and	
   learning	
   objectives	
   geared	
   toward	
   heritage	
   language	
  
learners	
  (HLLs),	
  defined	
  as	
  “individuals	
  .	
  .	
  .	
  who	
  are	
  raised	
  in	
  homes	
  where	
  a	
  non-­‐English	
  language	
  is	
  spoken,	
  
(or	
  who)	
  speak	
  or	
  merely	
  understand	
  the	
  HL,	
  and	
  are	
  to	
  some	
  degree	
  bilingual	
  in	
  English	
  and	
  the	
  HL”	
  (Valdés,	
  
2001,	
  pp.	
  37-­‐38).	
  

One	
   of	
   the	
   most	
   significant	
   changes	
   to	
   take	
   place	
   in	
   this	
   setting	
   was	
   the	
   understanding	
   that	
   the	
  
psychological	
   and	
   linguistic	
   processes	
  behind	
  heritage	
   language	
   (HL)	
   acquisition	
  differ	
   in	
   some	
  ways	
   from	
  
those	
   operating	
   in	
   second	
   language	
   (L2)	
   acquisition	
   (Montrul,	
   2002,	
   2009,	
   2011;	
   Valdés,	
   2005).	
   This	
  
reconceptualization	
   of	
   heritage	
   language	
   learners	
   brought	
   about	
   the	
   transformation	
   of	
   one-­‐size-­‐fits-­‐all	
  
models	
   to	
   meet	
   the	
   needs	
   of	
   this	
   highly	
   diverse	
   student	
   body	
   (Beaudrie,	
   2011).	
   If	
   we	
   consider	
   Valdés’s	
  
definition	
   of	
  HLL,	
   given	
   at	
   the	
   end	
   of	
   the	
   previous	
   paragraph,	
   it	
   is	
   easy	
   to	
   see	
   that	
  HLLs	
   constitute	
   a	
   very	
  
heterogeneous	
   community,	
   comprised	
   of	
   learners	
   with	
   varying	
   degrees	
   of	
   proficiency	
   and	
   literacy	
   in	
   the	
  
heritage	
  language.	
  As	
  Carreira	
  (2012)	
  pointed	
  out,	
  the	
  interaction	
  of	
  students’	
  diverse	
  linguistic	
  profiles	
  with	
  
socioaffective	
   factors	
   (i.e.	
   level	
   of	
   identification	
   with	
   the	
   Latino	
   community	
   or	
   confidence	
   regarding	
   their	
  
linguistic	
  abilities)	
  calls	
  for	
  a	
  differentiated	
  approach	
  to	
  language	
  teaching.	
  	
  

In	
  this	
  paper,	
  I	
  present	
  a	
  pedagogical	
  sequence	
  for	
  implementing	
  concept-­‐based	
  instruction	
  (C-­‐BI)	
  in	
  
the	
  heritage	
   language	
  classroom,	
  and	
   I	
  argue	
   that	
   the	
  adoption	
  of	
   this	
  model	
  provides	
   instructors	
  with	
   the	
  
framework	
   needed	
   to	
   effectively	
   promote	
  HLL’s	
   cognitive	
   and	
   linguistic	
   development	
   through	
  meaningful,	
  
transformative	
  activity.	
  Within	
  this	
  conceptual	
  approach,	
  the	
  implementation	
  of	
  different	
  instructional	
  tools	
  
and	
   activities—such	
   as	
   written	
   and	
   oral	
   reflections	
   (verbalizations),	
   visual	
   models,	
   and	
   communicative	
  
scenarios—creates	
  opportunities	
  for	
  heritage	
  learners	
  to	
  understand	
  complex	
  categories	
  of	
  meaning	
  through	
  
conscious	
  and	
  contextualized	
  manipulation	
  of	
  concepts	
  (García,	
  in	
  press).	
  

	
  
2.	
  Understanding	
  Spanish	
  heritage	
  language	
  learners	
  

The	
   growing	
   number	
   of	
   heritage	
   speakers	
   (HS)	
  who	
   enroll	
   in	
   Spanish	
   classes	
   looking	
   to	
   improve	
  
their	
   knowledge	
   of	
   the	
   heritage	
   language	
   raises	
   the	
   question	
   of	
   whether	
   their	
   grammars	
   and	
   linguistic	
  
experience	
  are	
  comparable	
  to	
  those	
  of	
  L2	
  learners.	
  Montrul	
  (2012)	
  argues	
  that	
  beyond	
  differing	
  age	
  of	
  onset	
  
of	
   bilingualism,	
   variations	
   in	
  HL	
   and	
  L2	
   learners’	
   settings	
   of	
   initial	
   acquisition	
   (naturalistic	
   vs.	
   instructed),	
  
modes	
   of	
   input	
   (aural	
   vs.	
   aural	
   and	
   written),	
   and	
   frequency	
   of	
   input	
   (more	
   vs.	
   less	
   activation)	
   make	
   the	
  
groups	
   fundamentally	
   different.	
   Additionally,	
   unlike	
   their	
   L2	
   counterparts,	
   HS	
   generally	
   undergo	
   a	
   certain	
  
degree	
  of	
  attrition	
  and	
  reanalysis	
  in	
  their	
  home	
  language	
  due	
  to	
  a	
  wide	
  range	
  of	
  factors,	
  including	
  incomplete	
  
acquisition	
  (Montrul,	
  2011),	
  low	
  levels	
  of	
  literacy	
  (Pascual	
  y	
  Cabo	
  &	
  Rothman,	
  2012),	
  and	
  lack	
  of	
  activation	
  of	
  
the	
  heritage	
  language	
  (Putnam	
  &	
  Sánchez,	
  2013).	
  Prolonged	
  contact	
  with	
  the	
  majority	
  language	
  (English,	
   in	
  
the	
  United	
  States)	
  from	
  an	
  early	
  age	
  is	
  also	
  likely	
  to	
  modulate	
  HS’	
  control	
  of	
  certain	
  grammatical	
  properties	
  in	
  
the	
  home	
   language	
  (Montrul,	
  2011;	
  Pascual	
  y	
  Cabo	
  &	
  Rothman,	
  2012;	
  Putnam	
  &	
  Sánchez,	
  2013).	
  Aspectual	
  
contrasts—the	
   focus	
  of	
   this	
  proposal—are	
  particularly	
  problematic	
   in	
   the	
  case	
  of	
  HL	
  grammar,	
  as	
   they	
  are	
  
believed	
  to	
  be	
  mastered	
  around	
  the	
  ages	
  of	
  6;0-­‐7;0	
  in	
  monolingual	
  speakers	
  (Montrul,	
  2002),	
  the	
  time	
  when	
  
HS	
  begin	
  schooling	
  in	
  English	
  and	
  often	
  undergo	
  a	
  shift	
  in	
  language	
  dominance	
  (i.e.	
  from	
  Spanish	
  to	
  English).	
  
If	
   schooling	
   is	
   not	
   also	
   provided	
   in	
   the	
   HL,	
   reduced	
   input	
   and	
   decreased	
   use	
   of	
   Spanish	
   can	
   prompt	
   a	
  
reanalysis	
   of	
   preterite/imperfect	
   contrasts,	
   following	
   English-­‐like	
   patterns	
   in	
  which	
   the	
   preterite	
   assumes	
  
two	
  aspectual	
  values:	
  [±perfective]	
  (Montrul,	
  2002,	
  2009,	
  2011;	
  see	
  section	
  4.1	
  for	
  more	
  details).	
  

	
  
2.1.	
  General	
  approaches	
  to	
  teaching	
  and	
  evaluating	
  HLLs	
  in	
  the	
  Spanish	
  classroom	
  

Given	
  the	
  differences	
  between	
  HS	
  and	
  L2	
  learner	
  grammars,	
  the	
  teaching	
  of	
  HLLs	
  should	
  involve	
  the	
  
adoption	
  of	
  specialized	
  techniques	
  that	
  take	
  into	
  consideration	
  the	
  affective	
  and	
  linguistic	
  needs	
  of	
  this	
  group	
  
of	
  students.	
  The	
  field	
  of	
  Spanish	
  heritage	
  language	
  (SHL)	
  education	
  has	
  traditionally	
  focused	
  on	
  two	
  key	
  areas	
  
of	
  the	
  HL	
  classroom:	
  the	
  implementation	
  of	
  fair	
  assessment	
  tools	
  capable	
  of	
  evaluating	
  such	
  a	
  heterogeneous	
  



IMPLEMENTING	
  CONCEPT-­‐BASED	
  INSTRUCTION	
  	
  

E-­‐JournALL	
  4(1)	
  (2017),	
  pp.	
  1–19	
  
	
  

3	
  

student	
   population	
   and	
   the	
   development	
   of	
   effective	
   instructional	
   methods	
   dedicated	
   to	
   the	
   teaching	
   of	
  
grammar	
   and	
   other	
   aspects	
   of	
   language.	
   Regarding	
   the	
   former,	
   Beaudrie	
   (2012,	
   2016)	
   and	
   Potowski	
   and	
  
Carreira	
  (2004)	
  propose	
  that	
  placement	
  exams	
  and	
  classroom	
  assessments	
  should	
  be	
  as	
  individualized	
  and	
  as	
  
flexible	
   as	
   possible.	
   As	
   Carreira	
   (2012)	
   showed,	
   this	
   can	
   be	
   achieved	
   by	
   setting	
   up	
   ongoing	
   formative	
  
assessments	
  throughout	
  the	
  semester,	
  which	
  allow	
  for	
  close	
  monitoring	
  of	
  HLL’s	
  progress	
  and	
  the	
  adaptation	
  
of	
   classroom	
   practices	
   to	
   better	
   suit	
   their	
   needs.	
   Regarding	
   instructional	
   methods,	
   the	
   pioneering	
  
investigations	
  of	
  Montrul	
   and	
  Bowles	
   (2010)	
  and	
  Potowski,	
   Jegerski,	
   and	
  Morgan-­‐Short	
   (2009)	
   tackled	
   the	
  
difficult	
   task	
  of	
   examining	
  whether	
   grammatical	
   instruction	
  would	
   foster	
  HLLs’	
   development	
   following	
   the	
  
patterns	
  reported	
   in	
  L2	
  acquisition	
  (Norris	
  &	
  Ortega,	
  2000;	
  Russell	
  &	
  Spada,	
  2006).	
  Although	
  the	
  results	
   in	
  
both	
   studies	
   indicated	
   that	
   HLLs	
   showed	
   significant	
   gains	
   in	
   comprehension	
   and	
   production	
   after	
   being	
  
exposed	
  to	
  several	
  treatments,	
  it	
  was	
  not	
  clear	
  how	
  different	
  approaches	
  (processing	
  instruction,	
  traditional	
  
techniques)	
  had	
  affected	
  their	
  performance.	
  Consequently,	
  Bowles	
  (2011)	
  and	
  Correa	
  (2011a)	
  proceeded	
  to	
  
analyze	
  the	
  role	
  of	
  explicit	
  and	
  implicit	
  knowledge	
  in	
  HL	
  development,	
  evaluating	
   learners’	
  abilities	
  using	
  a	
  
wide	
   range	
   of	
   experimental	
   tasks.	
   Data	
   from	
   these	
   investigations	
   showed	
   that,	
   when	
   compared	
   to	
  
proficiency-­‐matched	
   L2	
   learners,	
  HLLs	
   exhibited	
   better	
   results	
   in	
  measures	
  where	
   explicit	
   knowledge	
  was	
  
not	
  needed.	
  	
  	
  

The	
  studies	
   summarized	
   thus	
   far	
   suggest	
   that	
   the	
  development	
  of	
   complex	
  grammatical	
  notions	
   in	
  
HLLs	
  can	
  benefit	
   from	
  grammatical	
   instruction,	
  but	
   that	
  acquisition	
   is	
  highly	
  dependent	
  on	
  HLLs’	
  ability	
   to	
  
build	
   upon	
   pre-­‐existing	
   knowledge.	
   Two	
   specific	
   approaches	
   that	
   attempt	
   to	
   capitalize,	
   therefore,	
   on	
   pre-­‐
existing	
  knowledge,	
  by	
  implementing	
  instructional	
  techniques	
  focused	
  on	
  the	
  links	
  between	
  mind,	
  language,	
  
and	
  society,	
  are	
  Systemic	
  Functional	
  Linguistics	
  (SFL)	
  (Halliday,	
  1993,	
  1998,	
  2004)	
  and	
  Sociocultural	
  Theory	
  
(SCT)	
   (Lantolf	
   &	
   Thorne,	
   2006).	
   Within	
   SFL,	
   the	
   work	
   of	
   Colombi	
   and	
   collaborators	
   has	
   explored	
   the	
  
academic	
  and	
  linguistic	
  development	
  of	
  HLLs	
  (Achugar	
  &	
  Colombi,	
  2008;	
  Colombi,	
  2006,	
  2009;	
  Schleppegrell	
  
&	
   Colombi,	
   2008).	
   From	
   a	
   systemic-­‐functional	
   perspective,	
   language	
   learning	
   is	
   understood	
   as	
   a	
   social	
  
process	
   where	
   grammar	
   plays	
   a	
   central	
   role,	
   especially	
   in	
   more	
   advanced	
   uses	
   of	
   language	
   (Achugar	
   &	
  
Colombi,	
  2008).	
  The	
  majority	
  of	
  these	
  studies	
  have	
  been	
  primarily	
  dedicated	
  to	
  the	
  teaching	
  and	
  development	
  
of	
   two	
  areas	
   in	
  the	
  HL	
  classroom:	
  register	
  (academic/scientific	
  vs.	
   informal)	
  and	
  dialects	
  (standard	
  vs.	
  non-­‐
standard	
   varieties).	
  While	
   these	
   topics	
   provide	
  HLLs	
  with	
   the	
   opportunity	
   to	
   develop	
   the	
   skills	
   needed	
   to	
  
achieve	
  advanced	
  biliteracy	
  (Colombi	
  &	
  Harrington,	
  2012),	
  they	
  do	
  not	
  address	
  specific	
  grammatical	
  notions	
  
that	
   might	
   also	
   be	
   problematic	
   for	
   HLLs.	
   And	
   while	
   the	
   development	
   of	
   grammatical	
   concepts	
   has	
   been	
  
examined	
   from	
   other	
   theoretical	
   perspectives,	
   in	
   this	
   paper,	
   I	
   propose	
   an	
   approach	
   to	
   HS	
   grammar	
  
development	
   using	
   an	
   SCT	
   approach	
   to	
   language	
   learning	
   and	
   development.	
   The	
   next	
   section	
   reviews	
   the	
  
main	
  tenets	
  of	
  the	
  SCT	
  approach,	
  as	
  well	
  as	
  the	
  most	
  relevant	
  investigations	
  dedicated	
  to	
  the	
  implementation	
  
of	
  concept-­‐based	
  instruction	
  (C-­‐BI),	
  an	
  innovative	
  approach	
  focused	
  on	
  the	
  teaching	
  of	
  grammar	
  concepts	
  in	
  
the	
  language	
  classroom.	
  

	
  
3.	
  Concept-­‐based	
  instruction:	
  A	
  sociocultural	
  approach	
  to	
  aspectual	
  development	
  in	
  
the	
  HL	
  classroom	
  

Vygotsky’s	
   (1978)	
   cultural-­‐historical	
   theory	
  of	
   human	
   consciousness	
   is	
   the	
  basis	
   of	
   a	
   sociocultural	
  
approach	
  (SCT)	
  to	
  the	
  study	
  of	
  second	
  and	
  heritage	
  language	
  development	
  (see	
  Lantolf	
  &	
  Poehner,	
  2014	
  for	
  a	
  
general	
  overview).	
  	
  One	
  of	
  Vygotsky’s	
  fundamental	
  claims	
  is	
  that	
  the	
  human	
  mind	
  is	
  mediated;	
  that	
  is,	
  human	
  
beings	
   do	
   not	
   interact	
   directly	
   with	
   the	
   world,	
   but	
   through	
   physical	
   and	
   psychological	
   tools	
   (Lantolf	
   &	
  
Thorne,	
  2006).	
  Mediation,	
   then,	
   indicates	
  that	
  conscious	
  human	
  activity	
   is	
  guided,	
  shaped,	
  and	
  transformed	
  
by	
  material/physical	
  (i.e.	
  a	
  hammer,	
  a	
  phone,	
  a	
  pen)	
  and	
  psychological/symbolic	
  (i.e.	
  speech,	
   literacy,	
   logic,	
  
geometry,	
   music,	
   etc.)	
   tools	
   and	
   artifacts.	
   In	
   his	
   theory	
   of	
   concept	
   formation,	
   Vygotsky	
   (1986)	
   makes	
   a	
  
distinction	
   between	
   two	
   types	
   of	
   knowledge:	
   everyday	
   concepts	
   (learned	
   through	
   observation	
   and	
  
characterized	
   by	
   being	
   highly	
   contextualized,	
   based	
   on	
   empirical	
   observation	
   and	
   subjective	
   to	
   concrete	
  
practice)	
   and	
   scientific	
   concepts	
   (largely	
   abstract	
   and	
   systematic	
   in	
   nature,	
   and	
   generally	
   learned	
   in	
  
educational	
   settings).	
   Everyday	
   concepts	
   typically	
   emerge	
   from	
   a	
   bottom-­‐up	
   reasoning	
   developed	
   from	
  
empirical	
  observation	
  and	
  lack	
  the	
  malleability	
  to	
  be	
  transferred	
  to	
  other	
  contexts	
  (Vygotsky,	
  1986).	
  In	
  other	
  
words,	
   learners	
   construct	
   these	
   notions	
   from	
   specific	
   experiences	
   and	
   internalize	
   them	
   through	
   abstract	
  
thinking.	
   However,	
   while	
   spontaneous	
   concepts	
   facilitate	
   the	
   internalization	
   of	
   new	
   knowledge,	
   they	
   are	
  
difficult	
  to	
  generalize	
  due	
  to	
  their	
  lack	
  of	
  systematicity	
  (Wertsch,	
  2007).	
  In	
  the	
  L2/HL	
  classroom	
  this	
  is	
  seen	
  
in	
   learners’	
   and	
   teachers’	
   use	
  of	
   “rules	
   of	
   thumb”,	
  which	
  use	
  observations	
   and	
   situated	
   contexts	
   to	
   engage	
  



GARCÍA	
  	
  

E-­‐JournALL	
  4(1)	
  (2017),	
  pp.	
  1–19	
  
	
  

4	
  

with	
  complex	
  grammatical	
  notions	
  (García,	
  2014;	
  Negueruela	
  &	
  Lantolf,	
  2006;	
  van	
  Compernolle,	
  2014).	
  This	
  
type	
   of	
   simplified	
   rules	
   includes	
   recommendations	
   such	
   as	
   “always	
   use	
   the	
   imperfect	
   in	
   Spanish	
  when	
   an	
  
action	
  is	
  repeated	
  in	
  the	
  past”,	
  or	
  “use	
  preterite	
  when	
  an	
  action	
  happens	
  only	
  once”	
  (see	
  Whitley,	
  2002	
  for	
  a	
  
complete	
   review).	
   The	
   main	
   consequence	
   of	
   employing	
   this	
   type	
   of	
   everyday	
   knowledge	
   in	
   the	
   language	
  
classroom	
   is	
   that	
   learners	
   often	
   fail	
   to	
   see	
   its	
   limited	
   functionality,	
   and	
   they	
   tend	
   to	
   apply	
   rules	
  
indiscriminately	
   in	
  a	
  wide	
  variety	
  of	
   contexts	
   (García,	
  2012;	
  Negueruela	
  2003;	
  Negueruela	
  &	
  Lantolf	
  2006;	
  
van	
  Compernolle	
  2014).	
  

Vygotsky	
  (1986)	
  claimed	
  that	
  higher	
  forms	
  of	
  human	
  thinking	
  (e.g.	
  reasoning,	
  logical	
  deduction)	
  are	
  
mediated	
   by	
   scientific	
   concepts,	
   due	
   to	
   their	
   high	
   levels	
   of	
   abstraction,	
   systematicity,	
   and	
   de-­‐
contextualization,	
  allowing	
  learners	
  to	
  consciously	
  manipulate,	
  transform,	
  and	
  apply	
  this	
  type	
  of	
  knowledge	
  
to	
   multiple	
   contexts	
   (García,	
   in	
   press).	
   Hence,	
   pedagogical	
   approaches	
   within	
   this	
   framework	
   place	
   their	
  
focus	
   in	
   teaching	
  scientific	
   (i.e.	
  abstract	
  and	
  systematic)	
   linguistic	
  concepts	
   to	
  mediate	
  heritage	
  and	
  second	
  
language	
  learners’	
  internalization	
  of	
  complex	
  categories	
  of	
  meaning	
  such	
  as	
  mood,	
  voice,	
  tense,	
  or,	
  in	
  the	
  case	
  
of	
  the	
  present	
  work,	
  aspect.	
  In	
  other	
  words,	
  an	
  SCT	
  pedagogical	
  approach	
  to	
  the	
  SHL	
  and	
  L2	
  classrooms	
  sees	
  
learners	
   as	
   sense-­‐making	
   beings	
   and	
   focuses	
   on	
   putting	
   in	
  motion	
   a	
   coherent	
   and	
   systematic	
   approach	
   to	
  
foster	
   learners’	
   ability	
   to	
   consciously	
   manipulate	
   scientific	
   concepts	
   as	
   tools	
   to	
   mediate	
   their	
   mental	
   and	
  
communicative	
   activity	
   (Lantolf,	
   2011,	
   p.	
   24).	
   The	
   Vygotskyan	
   notion	
   of	
   using	
   scientific	
   concepts	
   as	
  
mediational	
   tools	
   for	
   understanding	
   and	
   creating	
   meaning	
   in	
   the	
   teaching-­‐learning-­‐development	
   process,	
  
developed	
   further	
   in	
   Davydov’s	
   (1999,	
   2004)	
   germ	
   cell	
   model	
   and	
   Gal’perin’s	
   (1989,	
   1992)	
   Systemic-­‐
Theoretical	
   Instruction	
   (see	
   Stetsenko	
   &	
   Arievitch,	
   2010	
   for	
   a	
   complete	
   analysis	
   of	
   both	
   methods),	
   is	
  
considered	
  to	
  be	
  the	
  basis	
  of	
  C-­‐BI.	
  
	
  
3.1.	
  Defining	
  concept-­‐based	
  instruction	
  

As	
  it	
  name	
  indicates,	
  C-­‐BI	
  is	
  a	
  pedagogical	
  approach	
  where	
  learners	
  actively	
  interact	
  with	
  concepts	
  in	
  
a	
   significant,	
   coherent,	
   and	
   systematic	
  manner	
   to	
   create	
   new	
  meanings	
   in	
   their	
   second/heritage	
   language.	
  
While	
  the	
  materialization	
  and	
  transformation	
  of	
  conceptual	
  understandings	
  is	
  deemed	
  essential	
  to	
  promote	
  
linguistic	
  development	
  (Negueruela	
  &	
  García,	
  2016),	
  communicative	
  activity	
  and	
  language	
  reflection	
  through	
  
categories	
   of	
  meaning	
  play	
   a	
   fundamental	
   role	
   in	
   the	
   classroom.	
  As	
   a	
   result,	
   a	
   basic	
   C-­‐BI	
   sequence	
   always	
  
intertwines	
  the	
  understanding	
  and	
  development	
  of	
  theoretical	
  concepts	
  through	
  didactic	
  models	
  with	
  the	
  use	
  
of	
  verbalizations	
  (Negueruela,	
  2003,	
  p.	
  224).	
  	
  

Its	
   focus	
   on	
   development	
   as	
   a	
   conceptual	
   process	
   is	
   precisely	
   what	
   makes	
   C-­‐BI	
   different	
   from	
  
mainstream	
  pedagogical	
   approaches.	
  While	
   traditional	
  models	
   of	
   L2	
   and	
  HL	
   instruction	
   expect	
   students	
   to	
  
acquire	
   forms	
   first	
   and	
  meanings	
   second	
   (for	
   example,	
   learning	
   verbal	
  morphology	
   related	
   to	
   the	
   Spanish	
  
preterite	
  and	
  imperfect	
  first,	
  and	
  then	
  their	
  respective	
  uses),	
  C-­‐BI	
  focuses	
  on	
  teaching	
  categories	
  of	
  meaning	
  
and	
   explaining	
   how	
   they	
   are	
   connected	
   to	
   forms	
   in	
   context	
   (van	
   Compernolle,	
   2014).	
   In	
   summary,	
   a	
   C-­‐BI	
  
approach	
   to	
   language	
   teaching	
  and	
  development	
   is	
  based	
  on	
   three	
  basic	
  principles.	
  First	
  and	
   foremost,	
   the	
  
quality	
   of	
   the	
   explanation	
   given	
   to	
   the	
   students	
   matters;	
   thus	
   instructors	
   need	
   to	
   develop	
   pedagogically-­‐
adequate	
   accounts	
   of	
   the	
   phenomena	
   at	
   all	
   times.	
   Second,	
   conceptual	
   explanations	
   are	
   expected	
   to	
   be	
  
presented,	
   using	
   concise	
   visual	
   representations	
   to	
   foster	
   learners’	
   assignment	
   of	
   functional	
   value	
   in	
  
communicative	
  activity.	
  Lastly,	
  students	
  need	
  to	
  engage	
  in	
  social	
  interaction—with	
  the	
  self	
  or	
  with	
  others—to	
  
convey	
   their	
   understanding	
   of	
   a	
   particular	
   grammatical	
   notion	
   through	
  written	
   and/or	
   oral	
   verbalizations	
  
(Negueruela	
  &	
  García,	
  2016).	
  	
  	
  

Although	
  research	
  suggests	
  that	
  C-­‐BI	
  is	
  a	
  feasible	
  tool	
  to	
  support	
  learners’	
  grammatical	
  development,	
  
there	
   are	
   a	
   limited	
   number	
   of	
   publications	
   that	
   provide	
   specific	
   pedagogical	
   designs	
   detailing	
   how	
   this	
  
approach	
   could	
   actually	
   be	
   implemented	
   in	
   the	
   HL	
   classroom	
   (Aguiló	
   &	
   Negueruela,	
   2015;	
   García,	
   2012;	
  
Negueruela,	
  2003;	
  van	
  Compernolle,	
  2014;	
  Yáñez-­‐Prieto,	
  2008).	
  The	
  present	
  work	
  adds	
  to	
  the	
  literature	
  on	
  C-­‐
BI	
  by	
  proposing	
  a	
   complete	
  pedagogical	
   sequence	
   to	
  promote	
   the	
  conceptual	
  development	
  of	
  aspect	
   in	
   the	
  
SHL	
  classroom.	
  

	
  
3.2.	
  The	
  implementation	
  of	
  concept-­‐based	
  instruction	
  in	
  the	
  L2	
  classroom	
  

In	
  the	
  years	
  since	
  Negueruela’s	
  (2003)	
  groundbreaking	
  study,	
  the	
  implementation	
  of	
  C-­‐BI	
  to	
  promote	
  
the	
  development	
  of	
  categories	
  of	
  meaning	
  has	
  been	
  explored	
  in	
  a	
  wide	
  range	
  of	
  studies	
  across	
  languages.	
  For	
  
example,	
   in	
  French,	
  there	
  have	
  been	
  investigations	
  in	
   literacy	
  (Buescher,	
  2015),	
  aspect	
  (Gánem-­‐Gutiérrez	
  &	
  
Harum,	
   2011),	
   locative	
   prepositions	
   (Buescher	
  &	
   Strauss,	
   2015),	
   the	
   grammatical	
   concept	
   of	
   voice	
   (Swain,	
  
Lapkin,	
  Knouzi,	
  Suzuki,	
  &	
  Brooks,	
  2009),	
  and	
  the	
  sociopragmatics	
  of	
  self-­‐representation,	
  social	
  distance,	
  and	
  



IMPLEMENTING	
  CONCEPT-­‐BASED	
  INSTRUCTION	
  	
  

E-­‐JournALL	
  4(1)	
  (2017),	
  pp.	
  1–19	
  
	
  

5	
  

power	
  (van	
  Compernolle,	
  2014).	
  In	
  L2	
  English,	
  studies	
  have	
  examined	
  C-­‐BI	
  for	
  teaching	
  locative	
  prepositions	
  
(White,	
  2012)	
  and	
  sarcasm	
  (Kim,	
  2013);	
   in	
  L2	
  Chinese,	
   tense	
   (Lai,	
  2012)	
  and	
   topicalization	
   (Zhang,	
  2014);	
  
and	
   in	
  German,	
  declensions	
  (Walter	
  &	
  van	
  Compernolle,	
  2015).	
   In	
   the	
  Spanish	
  L2	
  classroom,	
  C-­‐BI	
  has	
  been	
  
used	
   to	
  explore	
  aspect,	
   tense,	
   and	
  mood	
   (Negueruela,	
  2003,	
  2008);	
   locative	
  prepositions	
   (Serrano-­‐López	
  &	
  
Poehner,	
   2008);	
   the	
   development	
   of	
   literary	
   metaphor	
   (Yáñez-­‐Prieto,	
   2008);	
   the	
   use	
   of	
   motion	
   events	
   as	
  
mediational	
   tools	
   for	
   giving	
   directions	
   (Aguiló-­‐Mora	
   &	
   Negueruela,	
   2015);	
   the	
   sociopragmatics	
   of	
   self-­‐
representation,	
   social	
  distance,	
   and	
  power	
  applied	
   to	
   tú/usted	
   (van	
  Compernolle,	
  Webber,	
  &	
  Gomez-­‐Llaich,	
  
2016);	
  and	
  the	
  concept	
  of	
  aspect	
  applied	
  to	
  the	
  relationship	
  between	
  Spanish	
  preterite	
  and	
  imperfect	
  tenses	
  
(Gánem-­‐Gutiérrez	
  2016;	
  García,	
  2012,	
  2014;	
  Negueruela,	
  2003;	
  Polizzi,	
  2013).	
  

Among	
   the	
   previous	
   studies,	
   Negueruela	
   (2003)	
   was	
   the	
   first	
   to	
   propose	
   a	
   well-­‐articulated	
   C-­‐BI	
  
pedagogical	
  sequence.	
  In	
  that	
  investigation,	
  he	
  worked	
  with	
  12	
  intermediate	
  Spanish	
  L2	
  learners	
  to	
  improve	
  
their	
  use	
  and	
  understanding	
  of	
  aspect.	
  After	
  being	
  exposed	
  to	
  a	
  didactic	
  design	
  similar	
  to	
  the	
  one	
  proposed	
  in	
  
this	
   article	
   (see	
   Negueruela,	
   2003	
   and	
   2006	
   studies	
   for	
   more	
   details),	
   students	
   were	
   asked	
   to	
   engage	
   in	
  
verbalization	
  activities	
  with	
  themselves	
  aimed	
  at	
  reflecting	
  on	
  and	
  promoting	
  their	
  aspectual	
  understanding.	
  
Although	
   results	
   from	
  Negueruela’s	
   intervention	
   indicated	
   that	
   learners’	
  development	
  was	
  not	
  even	
  across	
  
the	
  board,	
  there	
  appeared	
  to	
  be	
  a	
  connection	
  between	
  the	
  implementation	
  of	
  C-­‐BI	
  and	
  an	
  improvement	
  of	
  L2	
  
learners’	
  control	
  of	
  aspect.	
  	
  
	
   The	
   pedagogical	
   proposal	
   in	
   this	
   article—in	
   contrast	
   with	
   Negueruela	
   (2003)—is	
   geared	
   toward	
  
HLLs	
  and	
   suggests	
  a	
  more	
  nuanced	
   teaching	
   sequence	
   that	
   includes	
  a	
  wide	
   range	
  of	
   activities	
   tapping	
   into	
  
different	
  modalities	
  (oral	
  and	
  written)	
  and	
  involving	
  various	
  dynamics	
  (groups,	
  dyads,	
  and	
  individual	
  work),	
  
aimed	
   at	
   enhancing	
   the	
   positive	
   effects	
   of	
   C-­‐BI	
   observed	
   in	
   previous	
   research	
   and	
   at	
   promoting	
   the	
  
internalization	
  of	
  aspect	
  in	
  the	
  HL	
  classroom.	
  
	
  
3.3.	
  The	
  implementation	
  of	
  concept-­‐based	
  instruction	
  in	
  the	
  HL	
  classroom	
  

As	
  indicated	
  in	
  previous	
  sections,	
  HLLs’	
  exposure	
  to	
  the	
  home	
  language	
  occurs	
  largely	
  in	
  naturalistic	
  
settings,	
   in	
  which	
  the	
  acquisition	
  of	
  grammatical	
  notions	
  such	
  as	
  aspect,	
  mood,	
  or	
  agreement	
  emerges	
  from	
  
the	
  linguistic	
  input	
  received	
  (Montrul,	
  2009,	
  2011).	
  This	
  type	
  of	
  experience	
  with	
  the	
  heritage	
  language	
  stands	
  
in	
  contrast	
  to	
  popular	
  L2	
  pedagogical	
  models,	
  which	
  typically	
  involve	
  the	
  explicit	
  instruction	
  of	
  morphology	
  
and	
  prioritize	
  memorization	
  and	
  recognition,	
  often	
  creating	
  a	
  disconnect	
  between	
  meaning	
  and	
  form	
  (Correa,	
  
2011b).	
  Unlike	
  those	
  models,	
  C-­‐BI	
  focuses	
  in	
  the	
  development	
  of	
  complex	
  grammatical	
  notions	
  by	
  exploring	
  
the	
   semantic	
   and	
   pragmatic	
   value	
   of	
   the	
   underlying	
   concept	
   behind	
   them,	
   establishing	
   a	
   link	
   between	
  
meaning	
  and	
  form	
  in	
  the	
  last	
  stages	
  of	
  the	
  instructional	
  sequence.	
  Given	
  HLLs’	
  informal	
  experience	
  with	
  the	
  
heritage	
  language,	
  it	
  is	
  proposed	
  here	
  that	
  SCT	
  and	
  C-­‐BI’s	
  emphasis	
  on	
  meaning	
  and	
  contextualized	
  learning	
  
activity	
  is	
  more	
  in	
  tune	
  with	
  this	
  population’s	
  needs	
  as	
  language	
  learners.	
  

Despite	
   these	
   observations,	
   there	
   has	
   been	
   just	
   one	
   investigation	
   (García	
   Frazier,	
   2013)	
   that	
   has	
  
attempted	
   to	
   adopt	
   C-­‐BI	
   for	
   the	
   SHL	
   classroom.	
   The	
   objective	
   of	
   García	
   Frazier’s	
   qualitative	
   study	
  was	
   to	
  
improve	
   HLLs’	
   (N	
   =	
   6)	
   understanding	
   and	
   use	
   of	
   indicative	
   and	
   subjunctive	
   mood	
   by	
   exposing	
   the	
   HL	
  
students	
   to	
   C-­‐BI	
   instruction.	
   García	
   Frazier	
   noted	
   that,	
   before	
   adopting	
   this	
   pedagogical	
   approach,	
   the	
  
majority	
   of	
   the	
   students	
   exhibited	
   a	
   rather	
   simplified	
   perception	
   of	
   mood,	
   which	
   affected	
   their	
   oral	
   and	
  
written	
   performance.	
   In	
   her	
   study,	
   she	
   proposed	
   the	
   use	
   of	
   systemic-­‐theoretical	
   instruction	
   (STI),	
   a	
   tool-­‐
mediated	
   teaching	
   and	
   learning	
   approach	
   created	
   by	
   Gal’perin	
   (1969,	
   1989,	
   1992),	
   based	
   on	
   Vygotskyan	
  
principles.	
  As	
  noted	
  by	
  Negueruela	
  and	
  Lantolf	
   (2006),	
   “C-­‐BI	
   in	
   itself	
  does	
  not	
  constitute	
  a	
  pedagogy,	
  but	
  a	
  
theoretical	
  claim	
  about	
   the	
  appropriate	
  object	
  of	
   instruction	
   in	
  any	
  educational	
  domain”	
  (p.	
  98).	
  As	
  such,	
   it	
  
requires	
  the	
  implementation	
  of	
  concrete	
  didactic	
  models	
  (such	
  as	
  STI)	
  to	
  be	
  used	
  as	
  tools	
  for	
  cognitive	
  and	
  
linguistic	
  development.	
  Given	
  the	
  difficulty	
  García	
  Frazier’s	
  students	
  showed	
  regarding	
  the	
  notion	
  of	
  mood	
  in	
  
Spanish,	
  she	
  decided	
  to	
  use	
  Negueruela’s	
  (2003)	
  cheme	
  of	
  a	
  Complete	
  Orienting	
  Basis	
  of	
  an	
  Action	
  (SCOBA),	
  
shown	
  in	
  Figure	
  1,	
  to	
  introduce	
  aspect	
  to	
  the	
  class.	
  



GARCÍA	
  	
  

E-­‐JournALL	
  4(1)	
  (2017),	
  pp.	
  1–19	
  
	
  

6	
  

WHAT	
  IS	
  THE	
  INTENTION	
  OF	
  THE	
  SPEAKER?	
  

Does	
  he/she	
  want	
  to	
  convey	
  a	
  specific	
  a;tude	
  towards	
  a	
  
statement?	
  (influence,	
  evaluate,	
  or	
  comment)	
  

YES	
  

Use	
  SUBJUNCTIVE	
  

NO	
  

Does	
  he/she	
  want	
  to	
  convey	
  a	
  specific	
  knowledge?	
  
(repor?ng	
  or	
  asser?ng)	
  

YES	
  

Use	
  INDICATIVE	
  

	
  
	
  
	
  

	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  

	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  

	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  

Figure 1. Adaptation of the SCOBA implemented by García Frazier (2013) in her C-BI study 
	
  

García	
   Frazier’s	
   graphic	
   representation	
   was	
   designed	
   to	
   help	
   HLLs	
   visualize	
   the	
   semantic	
   and	
  
pragmatic	
   parameters	
   that	
   trigger	
  mood	
   selection	
   in	
   Spanish.	
   The	
   SCOBA	
   illustrated	
   in	
   Figure	
   1	
   not	
   only	
  
allowed	
  students	
  to	
  identify	
  the	
  meaning	
  behind	
  the	
  presence	
  of	
  indicative	
  or	
  subjunctive	
  in	
  the	
  subordinate	
  
clause	
  of	
  given	
  sentence,	
  but	
  also	
   fostered	
  the	
  use	
  of	
   this	
  knowledge	
   in	
  new	
  communicative	
  contexts.	
  After	
  
being	
  exposed	
  to	
  the	
  conceptual	
  unit	
  of	
  instruction	
  (mood)	
  by	
  means	
  of	
  the	
  SCOBA,	
  students	
  were	
  asked	
  to	
  
complete	
   a	
   series	
   of	
   written	
   activities	
   (i.e.	
   making	
   recommendations,	
   asking	
   for	
   favors,	
   etc.)	
   and	
   verbally	
  
reflect	
  on	
  their	
  modal	
  choices	
  based	
  on	
  the	
  provided	
  pedagogical	
  model	
  to	
  justify	
  their	
  choice	
  of	
  indicative	
  or	
  
subjunctive.	
   These	
   oral	
   reflections	
   (i.e.	
   verbalizations),	
   aimed	
   at	
   fostering	
   L2	
   conceptual	
   development,	
  
constitute	
  what	
  Gal’perin	
   (1969,	
   p.	
   260)	
   called	
  dialogic	
   thinking,	
   as	
   they	
   allow	
   learners	
   to	
  use	
   language	
   to	
  
socially	
  interact	
  with	
  themselves	
  by	
  using	
  the	
  concepts	
  to	
  explain	
  their	
  linguistic	
  choices.	
  In	
  García	
  Frazier’s	
  
study,	
   HLLs’	
   verbalizations	
  were	
   recorded	
   and	
   later	
   reviewed	
   by	
   the	
   instructor.	
   Once	
   these	
   activities	
   had	
  
taken	
  place,	
  HLLs	
  were	
  prompted	
  to	
  construct	
  their	
  own	
  definition	
  of	
  mood	
  based	
  on	
  their	
  experience	
  with	
  
the	
  concept.	
  The	
  analysis	
  of	
  students’	
  verbalizations	
  and	
  written	
  data	
  indicated	
  that	
  they	
  were	
  in	
  the	
  process	
  
of	
  developing	
  a	
  much	
  more	
  nuanced	
  understanding	
  of	
  Spanish	
  mood.	
  This,	
  in	
  turn,	
  resulted	
  in	
  higher	
  levels	
  of	
  
accuracy	
  in	
  their	
  use	
  of	
  indicative	
  and	
  subjunctive	
  in	
  a	
  wide	
  variety	
  of	
  contexts.	
  These	
  results	
  suggest	
  that,	
  on	
  
the	
  whole,	
   the	
   implementation	
  of	
  a	
  concept-­‐based	
  approach	
  appeared	
   to	
  be	
  beneficial	
   for	
   the	
  development	
  
and	
  maintenance	
  of	
  a	
  complex	
  grammatical	
  notion,	
  such	
  as	
  mood,	
  in	
  HLLs.	
  	
  

However,	
  from	
  an	
  SCT	
  perspective,	
  development	
  of	
  conceptual	
  categories	
  proceeds	
  socially,	
  through	
  
both	
   intra-­‐personal	
   communication	
   (with	
   the	
   self)	
   and	
   inter-­‐personal	
   communication	
   (with	
   others)	
  
(Negueruela,	
  García,	
  &	
  Buescher,	
  2015,	
  p.	
  23).	
  Therefore,	
  it	
  makes	
  sense	
  to	
  incorporate	
  activities	
  that	
  not	
  only	
  
prompt	
  learners’	
  dialogic	
  thinking	
  with	
  the	
  self,	
  but	
  also	
  “communicated	
  thinking”	
  (Gal’perin,	
  1969,	
  p.	
  260),	
  
wherein	
  learners	
  aim	
  at	
  making	
  their	
  reflections	
  comprehensible	
  to	
  others	
  and	
  receive	
  mediation	
  from	
  more	
  
experienced	
  peers	
   to	
  maximize	
   their	
   learning	
  opportunities.	
   In	
   the	
   following	
   sections,	
   I	
   propose	
   a	
  detailed	
  
pedagogical	
  sequence,	
  based	
  on	
  these	
  principles,	
   for	
   implementing	
  C-­‐BI	
   in	
   the	
  HL	
  classroom	
  to	
  present	
   the	
  
concept	
  of	
  aspect.	
  	
  	
  

	
  
	
  



IMPLEMENTING	
  CONCEPT-­‐BASED	
  INSTRUCTION	
  	
  

E-­‐JournALL	
  4(1)	
  (2017),	
  pp.	
  1–19	
  
	
  

7	
  

4.	
  The	
  pedagogical	
  proposal:	
  Teaching	
  aspect	
  through	
  C-­‐BI	
  
4.1.	
  HLLs	
  and	
  the	
  acquisition	
  and	
  development	
  of	
  aspect	
  in	
  Spanish	
  

The	
   instructional	
   sequence	
  presented	
   in	
   this	
   article	
   focuses	
   on	
   the	
   grammatical	
   concept	
   of	
   aspect,	
  
more	
  specifically,	
  the	
  aspectual	
  contrasts	
  that	
  emerge	
  between	
  the	
  Spanish	
  preterite	
  and	
  imperfect	
  tenses.	
  As	
  
reported	
  in	
  previous	
  sections,	
  there	
  have	
  been	
  several	
  studies	
  dedicated	
  to	
  the	
  teaching	
  and	
  learning	
  of	
  this	
  
linguistic	
   notion	
  within	
   a	
   SCT	
   perspective	
   (Gánem-­‐Gutiérrez,	
   2016;	
   García,	
   2012,	
   2014,	
   2017;	
   Negueruela,	
  
2003;	
  Negueruela	
  &	
  Lantolf,	
  2006;	
  Polizzi,	
  2013);	
  however,	
  this	
  is	
  the	
  first	
  proposal	
  that	
  presents	
  a	
  complete	
  
pedagogical	
  sequence	
  focused	
  on	
  how	
  to	
  present	
  aspect	
  in	
  the	
  SHL	
  classroom.	
  	
  

HLLs	
  have	
  been	
  reported	
   to	
  exhibit	
  a	
  considerable	
  degree	
  of	
  attrition	
  when	
  dealing	
  with	
  aspectual	
  
contrasts	
  even	
  at	
  high	
   levels	
  of	
  proficiency	
   (Borik,	
  2013;	
  Cuza	
  &	
  Miller,	
  2015;	
  Cuza,	
  Pérez-­‐Tattam,	
  Barajas,	
  
Miller,	
  &	
  Sadowski,	
  2013;	
  Montrul,	
  2002,	
  2009,	
  2011;	
  Montrul	
  &	
  Bowles,	
  2010;	
  Montrul	
  &	
  Perpiñán,	
  2011;	
  
Montrul	
  &	
   Slabakova,	
   2003).	
  Difficulties	
   in	
   this	
   area	
   stem	
   from	
   several	
   crosslinguistic	
   differences	
   between	
  
Spanish	
   and	
   English	
   in	
   the	
   expression	
   of	
   aspect.	
   Spanish,	
   the	
   weaker	
   language	
   of	
   HLLs,	
   presents	
   a	
   very	
  
complex	
  aspectual	
  system,	
  in	
  which	
  perfectivity	
  and	
  imperfectivity	
  in	
  the	
  past	
  are	
  conveyed	
  by	
  means	
  of	
  two	
  
morphological	
  instantiations:	
  preterite	
  (1a)	
  and	
  imperfect	
  (1b).	
  

	
  
1)	
   a.	
   Estela	
   comió	
   un	
  donut	
   de	
  chocolate	
  
	
   	
   Estela	
   eat	
  	
  [3psgPRET]	
   a	
  doughnut	
   of	
  chocolate	
  
	
   	
   Estela	
  ate	
  a	
  chocolate	
  doughnut	
  

	
  
	
  	
  	
  	
  	
   b.	
   Estela	
   comía	
   un	
  donut	
   de	
  chocolate	
  
	
   	
   Estela	
   eat	
  	
  [3psgIMP]	
   a	
  doughnut	
   of	
  chocolate	
  
	
   	
   Estela	
  ate	
  a	
  chocolate	
  doughnut	
  

	
  
In	
   the	
   first	
  example	
  (1a)	
   the	
  preterite	
   form	
  comió	
   (“ate”)	
  marks	
  that	
   the	
  action	
  of	
  eating	
   is	
  seen	
  as	
  

bounded	
  by	
  the	
  speaker;	
  its	
  duration	
  has	
  a	
  clear	
  beginning	
  and	
  end.	
  In	
  the	
  second	
  example	
  (2b)	
  the	
  imperfect	
  
form	
  comía	
  (“ate”)	
  profiles	
  that	
  the	
  event	
  is	
  viewed	
  as	
  unbounded,	
  and	
  that	
  the	
  emphasis	
  of	
  the	
  action	
  lies	
  in	
  
its	
   progressiveness	
   and/or	
   habituality.	
   The	
   problematic	
   issue	
   for	
   HLLs	
   is	
   that,	
   while	
   English	
   and	
   Spanish	
  
overlap	
  in	
  their	
  expression	
  of	
  perfectivity,	
  they	
  differ	
  in	
  the	
  way	
  they	
  convey	
  imperfectivity.	
  As	
  shown	
  in	
  the	
  
second	
  example	
   (1b),	
  Spanish	
  generally	
  expresses	
  unbounded	
  events	
  with	
   imperfect	
   forms.	
  English,	
  on	
   the	
  
other	
  hand,	
  resorts	
  to	
  a	
  wide	
  variety	
  of	
  alternatives	
  to	
  convey	
  the	
  same	
  notion1.	
  

The	
   contrast	
   between	
   these	
   two	
   languages	
   causes	
   English-­‐dominant	
   HLLs	
   to	
   have	
   difficulties	
  
remapping	
   [±perfective]	
   aspectual	
   features	
   to	
   the	
   corresponding	
   tense/aspect	
   morphemes	
   in	
   their	
   home	
  
language	
  (Spanish).	
  In	
  particular,	
  many	
  studies	
  have	
  reported	
  that	
  HLLs	
  lose	
  the	
  preterite/imperfect	
  contrast	
  
in	
  favor	
  of	
  the	
  adoption	
  of	
  a	
  single	
  tense	
  (preterite)	
  to	
  convey	
  perfectivity	
  and	
  imperfectivity	
  (Montrul,	
  2002,	
  
2009,	
   2011;	
   Silva-­‐Corvalán,	
   1994).	
   In	
   addition	
   to	
   the	
   challenges	
   that	
   emerge	
   from	
   the	
  mere	
   fact	
   of	
   being	
  
bilingual,	
   mastery	
   of	
   this	
   linguistic	
   property	
   is	
   also	
   affected	
   by	
   the	
   interaction	
   of	
   the	
   inherent	
   lexical	
  
properties	
  of	
  a	
  specific	
  verb	
  (i.e.	
  lexical	
  aspect)	
  and	
  other	
  linguistic	
  components	
  that	
  extend	
  beyond	
  the	
  verb	
  
phrase,	
   such	
   as	
   temporal	
   markers	
   and	
   nominal	
   arguments	
   (Verkuyl,	
   1972).	
   If	
   we	
   focus	
   on	
   the	
   former,	
   a	
  
considerable	
  number	
  of	
   investigations	
   in	
   the	
   fields	
   of	
   first	
   and	
   second	
   language	
   acquisition	
  have	
  observed	
  
that	
  speakers	
  (monolingual	
  and	
  bilingual)	
  tend	
  to	
  express	
  congruent	
  combinations	
  of	
  lexical	
  and	
  grammatical	
  
aspect	
   (that	
   is,	
   telic	
   predicates	
   with	
   the	
   preterite,	
   and	
   atelic	
   ones	
   with	
   the	
   imperfect)	
   more	
   so	
   than	
   non-­‐
congruent	
   ones	
   (Andersen	
   &	
   Shirai,	
   1994;	
   Bardovi-­‐Harlig,	
   2000).	
   This	
   preference,	
   known	
   as	
   Primacy	
   of	
  
Aspect	
  Hypothesis	
  (PAH),	
  is	
  also	
  predicted	
  to	
  affect	
  HLLs,	
  especially	
  given	
  the	
  reinforcement	
  of	
  this	
  tendency	
  
by	
  means	
   of	
   rules	
   of	
   thumb	
   (ROTs)	
  when	
  HLLs	
   are	
   enrolled	
   in	
   a	
   language	
   class	
   (see	
   section	
   3.1	
   for	
  more	
  
information).	
  

The	
  widespread	
  presence	
  of	
   these	
   issues	
   in	
  heritage	
  Spanish	
  populations	
  underscores	
   the	
  need	
   for	
  
effective	
   pedagogical	
   interventions.	
   The	
   following	
   section	
   outlines	
   a	
   suggested	
   timeline	
   for	
   the	
  
                                                
1	
  Some	
  of	
  these	
  alternatives	
  include	
  the	
  use	
  of	
  the	
  simple	
  past	
  –i.e.	
  preterite	
  forms-­‐	
  (Estela	
  ate	
  a	
  chocolate	
  doughnut)	
  or	
  
different	
   types	
  of	
  periphrases	
   that	
   emphasize	
   either	
   the	
  habituality	
  of	
   the	
  action	
   (Estela	
  used	
   to/would	
   eat	
  a	
   chocolate	
  
doughnut)	
  or	
  its	
  progressive	
  nature	
  (Estela	
  was	
  eating	
  a	
  chocolate	
  doughnut).	
  Note	
  that	
  the	
  last	
  periphrastic	
  option	
  is	
  also	
  
available	
  in	
  Spanish	
  (Estela	
  estaba	
  comiendo	
  un	
  donut	
  de	
  chocolate),	
  but	
  the	
  auxiliary	
  verb	
  (estaba;	
  “was”)	
  appears	
  in	
  the	
  
imperfect.	
  
 



GARCÍA	
  	
  

E-­‐JournALL	
  4(1)	
  (2017),	
  pp.	
  1–19	
  
	
  

8	
  

implementation	
  of	
  a	
  C-­‐BI	
  sequence	
  and	
  provides	
  thorough	
  descriptions	
  and	
  samples	
  of	
  the	
  types	
  of	
  activities	
  
and	
  instruments	
  included.	
  

	
  
4.2.	
  Components	
  and	
  implementation	
  of	
  the	
  instructional	
  sequence	
  

It	
   is	
   important	
   to	
   note	
   that,	
   from	
   an	
   SCT	
   perspective,	
   research	
   and	
   teaching	
   are	
   not	
   seen	
   as	
   two	
  
separate	
  practices,	
  but	
  rather	
  as	
  a	
  unified	
  activity	
  (Lantolf	
  &	
  Poehner,	
  2014).	
  Consequently,	
  the	
  effectiveness	
  
of	
  any	
  type	
  of	
  pedagogical	
  decisions	
  made	
  in	
  the	
  classroom	
  should	
  be	
  examined	
  by	
  the	
  instructor	
  from	
  two	
  
different	
   perspectives:	
   that	
   of	
   a	
   practitioner	
   and	
   of	
   a	
   researcher	
   (García,	
   2012,	
   p.	
   8).	
   This	
   dialectical	
  
relationship	
  allows	
  language	
  teachers	
  to	
  put	
  into	
  practice	
  new	
  ideas	
  and	
  modify	
  previous	
  ones	
  based	
  on	
  the	
  
observation	
  and	
  careful	
  study	
  of	
  students’	
  learning	
  processes.	
  Thus,	
  although	
  the	
  implementation	
  described	
  
below	
  was	
  originally	
  designed	
  to	
  take	
  place	
  during	
  four	
  sessions	
  of	
  70	
  minutes	
  each,	
   it	
  could	
  be	
  adapted	
  to	
  
different	
  settings	
  in	
  order	
  to	
  work	
  around	
  specific	
  constraints	
  (total	
  length	
  of	
  the	
  session,	
  number	
  of	
  weekly	
  
meetings,	
  specific	
  needs	
  of	
  the	
  students,	
  etc.).	
  	
  
	
  

Table 1  
Timeline of the pedagogical implementation 

Session Objectives and Description 
Day 1: Pedagogical intervention: CB-I and 
aspect 
 

• The students and the instructor explore their previous 
knowledge on aspect and preterite and imperfect 

• Implementation of CB-I 
 

Days 2 and 3: Practicing the use of preterite 
and imperfect  
 

• Completion of controlled activities on the use of preterite 
and imperfect (contextualized multiple choices, elicited 
narratives) 

• Communicative scenarios (Di Pietro, 1987) 
 

Day 4: Reflecting on the concept of aspect 
 

• Individual reflections and completion of activities 
• Mediated interview (student-instructor) 
 

	
   	
  
	
  

The	
  pedagogical	
  sequence	
  outlined	
  in	
  Table	
  1	
  draws	
  from	
  the	
  models	
  presented	
  in	
  García	
  (2012)	
  and	
  
García	
  and	
  Perez-­‐Cortes	
  (2017),	
  two	
  studies	
  focused	
  on	
  fostering	
  the	
  development	
  of	
  grammatical	
  categories	
  
in	
   L2	
   learners	
   and	
   HLLs	
   respectively.	
   Although	
   these	
   investigations	
   implemented	
   C-­‐BI	
   in	
   the	
   language	
  
classroom,	
  they	
  were	
  both	
  empirical	
  studies	
  that	
  focused	
  on	
  verbalization	
  data	
  obtained	
  after	
  the	
  completion	
  
of	
   several	
   experimental	
   tasks	
   and	
   they	
   both	
   sought	
   to	
   determine	
   the	
   effectiveness	
   of	
   C-­‐BI	
   and	
   dynamic	
  
assessment	
  to	
  promote	
  these	
  populations’	
  aspectual	
  development.	
  This	
  article	
  builds	
  on	
  those,	
  by	
  proposing	
  
and	
   describing	
   a	
   pedagogical	
   sequence	
   to	
   implement	
   C-­‐BI	
   in	
   the	
   heritage	
   language	
   classroom,	
   providing	
   a	
  
model	
  for	
  practitioners	
  to	
  use	
  directly	
  in	
  their	
  own	
  classrooms	
  or	
  a	
  template	
  to	
  be	
  adapted	
  according	
  to	
  their	
  
own	
  pedagogical	
  needs.	
  	
  

It	
   is	
   highly	
   recommended	
   that	
   the	
   instructor	
   begin	
   by	
   gathering	
   extensive	
   information	
   about	
   the	
  
HLLs’	
   previous	
   knowledge	
   of	
   preterite	
   and	
   imperfect	
   aspectual	
   contrasts	
   and	
   uses	
   before	
   the	
   start	
   of	
   the	
  
session.	
  Given	
  the	
  documented	
  production/comprehension	
  asymmetries	
   in	
  HLLs	
  (Hendriks	
  &	
  Koster,	
  2010;	
  
Sherkina-­‐Lieber,	
   2011)	
   and	
   their	
   sometimes-­‐limited	
  metalinguistic	
   knowledge,	
   this	
   proposal	
   advocates	
   for	
  
the	
   use	
   of	
   tasks	
   tapping	
   into	
   different	
   skills	
   (comprehension,	
   production,	
   and	
   acceptability	
   judgments)	
   to	
  
gauge	
  students’	
  underlying	
  linguistic	
  abilities.	
  During	
  this	
  evaluative	
  stage—prior	
  to	
  the	
  implementation	
  of	
  C-­‐
BI—HLLs	
  would	
  be	
   asked	
   to	
   complete	
   a	
  written	
   task	
  based	
  on	
   their	
   perceptions	
   and	
  previous	
   knowledge.	
  
They	
   would	
   be	
   prompted	
   to	
   listen	
   to	
   two	
   pairs	
   of	
   sentences	
   (also	
   be	
   presented	
   in	
   written	
   form	
   on	
   the	
  
blackboard),	
  and	
  asked	
  to	
  determine	
  whether	
  they	
  detect	
  any	
  semantic	
  difference	
  between	
  them.	
  In	
  order	
  to	
  
expedite	
  the	
  process,	
  answers	
  should	
  be	
  done	
  in	
  writing	
  and	
  handed	
  to	
  the	
  instructor.	
  For	
  example:	
  

	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  



IMPLEMENTING	
  CONCEPT-­‐BASED	
  INSTRUCTION	
  	
  

E-­‐JournALL	
  4(1)	
  (2017),	
  pp.	
  1–19	
  
	
  

9	
  

2)	
   a.	
   El	
   barco	
   llegó	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
   al	
  	
  	
  	
   puerto	
   	
  
	
   	
   The	
  	
   ship	
   arrive[3psgPRET]	
   to	
  the	
   harbor	
   	
  
	
   	
   The	
  ship	
  arrived	
  at	
  the	
  harbor	
   	
  

	
  
2)	
   b.	
   El	
   barco	
   llegaba	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  al	
  	
  	
  	
   puerto	
   	
  
	
   	
   The	
  	
   ship	
   arrive[3psgIMP]	
   to	
  the	
   harbor	
   	
  
	
   	
   The	
  ship	
  arrived	
  at	
  the	
  harbor	
   	
  
	
  
3)	
   a.	
   Mi	
   madre	
   estuvo	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  con	
  	
  	
  	
   mis	
  primos	
   	
  
	
   	
   My	
  	
   mother	
   be[3psgPRET]	
   with	
   my	
  cousins	
   	
  
	
   	
   My	
  mother	
  was	
  with	
  my	
  cousins	
   	
  

	
  
3)	
   b.	
   Mi	
   madre	
   estaba	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  con	
  	
  	
  	
   mis	
  primos	
   	
  
	
   	
   My	
  	
   mother	
   be[3psgIMP]	
   with	
   my	
  cousins	
   	
  
	
   	
   My	
  mother	
  was	
  with	
  my	
  cousins	
  

	
  
	
  

The	
   aim	
  of	
   this	
   exercise	
   is	
   two-­‐fold.	
  On	
   the	
   one	
  hand,	
   it	
   reveals	
  whether	
   students	
   are	
   sensitive	
   to	
  
aspectual	
  contrasts	
  triggered	
  by	
  the	
  use	
  of	
  preterite	
  and	
  imperfect	
  before	
  they	
  are	
  exposed	
  to	
  C-­‐BI.	
  Given	
  the	
  
diverse	
   nature	
   of	
   the	
   verbs	
   used	
   (telic	
   and	
   atelic),	
   their	
   responses	
   are	
   also	
   able	
   to	
   identify	
   any	
   potential	
  
lexical	
  constraints	
  that	
  may	
  limit	
  students’	
  aspectual	
  control.	
  On	
  the	
  other	
  hand,	
  this	
  activity	
  promotes	
  HLLs’	
  
awareness	
   of	
   perfective/imperfective	
   distinctions	
   in	
   Spanish,	
   a	
   first	
   step	
   towards	
   concept	
   formation	
   and	
  
conceptual	
  development	
  of	
  the	
  notion	
  of	
  aspect.	
  

In	
  addition	
  to	
  this	
  short	
  reflection,	
  the	
  instructor	
  would	
  also	
  ask	
  HLLs	
  to	
  write	
  a	
  couple	
  of	
  sentences	
  
explaining	
  when	
  they	
  use	
  the	
  preterite	
  as	
  in	
  (2a)	
  and	
  (3a)	
  or	
  the	
  imperfect	
  as	
  in	
  (2b)	
  and	
  (3b).	
  The	
  evaluation	
  
of	
  the	
  results	
  can	
  be	
  used	
  as	
  an	
  initial	
  assessment	
  of	
  the	
  students’	
  previous	
  knowledge,	
  as	
  well	
  as	
  a	
  potential	
  
source	
   for	
   future	
   interventions,	
   as	
   it	
   provides	
   details	
   about	
   the	
   learners’	
   potential	
   development	
   that	
   will	
  
inform	
  about	
   the	
   type	
  of	
  mediation	
  required	
   to	
   foster	
  conceptual	
  development	
  across	
   the	
  board,	
   inevitably	
  
improving	
   the	
   quality	
   of	
   the	
   teaching-­‐learning	
   process.	
   One	
   way	
   of	
   dealing	
   with	
   differences	
   in	
   learners’	
  
previous	
  knowledge	
  of	
  aspect	
  that	
  may	
  arise	
  in	
  this	
  task	
  would	
  be	
  to	
  group	
  students’	
  according	
  to	
  their	
  Zones	
  
of	
   Proximal	
   Development	
   (ZPDs)2,	
   following	
   Lipkina	
   (1994)	
   and	
   Petrovsky	
   (1985).	
   The	
   aim	
   would	
   be	
   to	
  
create	
  heterogeneous	
  groups	
  of	
  learners	
  with	
  differing	
  levels	
  of	
  control,	
  who	
  would	
  promote	
  different	
  kinds	
  
of	
  mediation	
  (inter-­‐	
  and	
  intra-­‐group	
  mediation,	
  self-­‐mediation	
  and	
  instructor-­‐group	
  mediation).	
  	
  

	
  
4.2.1.	
  Implementing	
  C-­‐BI	
  to	
  the	
  teaching	
  of	
  aspect	
  

After	
  the	
  initial	
  assessment,	
  C-­‐BI	
  is	
  then	
  implemented.	
  The	
  approach	
  to	
  C-­‐BI	
  is	
  based	
  on	
  Negueruela	
  
(2003)	
   and	
   García’s	
   (2012)	
   proposals	
   for	
   the	
   development	
   of	
   concepts	
   as	
   categories	
   of	
  meaning.	
   In	
   these	
  
studies,	
  exposure	
  to	
  coherent	
  and	
  systematic	
  didactic	
  models,	
  as	
  well	
  as	
  to	
  the	
  conscious	
  manipulation	
  of	
  the	
  
concept	
  through	
  significant	
  communicative	
  activity	
  and	
  language	
  reflection,	
  played	
  a	
  fundamental	
  role	
  in	
  the	
  
development	
  of	
  aspect.	
  These	
  principles	
  come	
  into	
  play	
  here	
  when	
  students	
  are	
  asked	
  to	
  form	
  small	
  groups	
  of	
  
3	
  or	
  4	
  and	
  to	
  share	
  the	
  working	
  definitions	
  of	
  aspect	
  they	
  had	
  created	
  during	
  the	
  previous	
  activity.	
  Although	
  
at	
   this	
   point	
   it	
   is	
   expected	
   that	
  most	
   of	
   the	
   definitions	
  would	
   rely	
   on	
   previously	
   acquired	
   rules	
   of	
   thumb	
  
and/or	
  observations,	
   it	
   is	
  beneficial	
   to	
  establish	
  a	
  dialogue	
  so	
  that	
  students	
  can	
  become	
  more	
  familiar	
  with	
  
the	
  conceptual	
  category	
  at	
  hand.	
  	
  

After	
   this	
   step,	
   HLLs	
   would	
   be	
   presented	
   with	
   a	
   SCOBA,	
   designed	
   as	
   a	
   mediational	
   tool	
   for	
  
internalizing	
   the	
   grammatical	
   concept	
   of	
   aspect	
   in	
   Spanish.	
  Based	
   on	
  Bolinger’s	
   (1991)	
   formal	
   accounts	
   of	
  
aspect,	
   and	
  Bull’s	
   (1984)	
   and	
  Whitley’s	
   (2002)	
   supporting	
   visual	
   representations,	
   the	
  model	
   suggested	
   for	
  
this	
  proposal—shown	
  in	
  Figure	
  2	
  below—consists	
  of	
  two	
  parts:	
  1)	
  a	
  short,	
  written	
  explanation	
  tackling	
  the	
  
notions	
  of	
   lexical	
   and	
  grammatical	
   aspect,	
   as	
  well	
   as	
   the	
   importance	
  of	
   the	
   speaker’s	
  perspective;	
   and	
  2)	
  a	
  
chart	
  contrasting	
  the	
  preterite	
  and	
  imperfect	
  tenses	
  using	
  visual	
  cues.	
  

                                                
2	
  If	
  we	
  follow	
  Vygotsky’s	
  (1986)	
  original	
  definition	
  of	
  ZPD	
  created	
  in	
  the	
  context	
  of	
  child	
  psychology,	
  this	
  notion	
  is	
  used	
  to	
  
determine	
  the	
  child’s	
  potential	
  cognitive	
  development,	
  as	
  indicated	
  by	
  the	
  distance	
  between	
  what	
  the	
  child	
  can	
  do	
  on	
  his	
  
own	
  and	
  what	
  can	
  do	
  with	
  the	
  assistance	
  of	
  an	
  adult	
  or	
  a	
  more	
  developed	
  individual.	
  



GARCÍA	
  	
  

E-­‐JournALL	
  4(1)	
  (2017),	
  pp.	
  1–19	
  
	
  

10	
  

Understanding ASPECT 
 
The concept of aspect indicates the speaker’s perspective on an action. That is, what is the part/action that you as 
the speaker/writer want to emphasize. 
 
Aspect is determined by two factors:  

a) Lexical aspect: based on the meaning of the verb (bounded or unbounded).  
b) Grammatical aspect: based on the context of an action (perfective or imperfective)  

 
When these two elements are combined, they can emphasize the beginning, middle, end, or completion of an 
action. The speaker’s perspective over the past action to choose between preterite and imperfect is determined by 
the following questions:  

• What part of the action is the speaker emphasizing?  
• Does the verb have bounded meaning (e.g. to fall)?  
• Where in the past is the action from our present perspective? 
 

PRETERIT IMPERFECT 
 
Indicates the beginning or end of an action or that an 
action is completed from the present perspective (our  
perception from the present). 
 

 
Profiles an action that has no boundaries 
(limits) in the past. 
 
 
 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 

                                                                                                                                                   
 

 
Salí de casa a las 6:00 (bounded event, points to the beginning 
of the action) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
El banco cerró a las 3:00 (bounded event, points to the end of 
the action) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Viví en Londres durante un año (Completed action from a 
present perspective) 
 

         
 
 
 
 
 
Juan vivía en Perú (unbounded event, we don’t 
know its beginning, end, or duration in the past)  
                                                                          
 
 
                
 
 
 
 
 
 

  Figure 2. SCOBA used during the implementation of C-BI 
	
  

present 

   ending 

present 

beginning 



IMPLEMENTING	
  CONCEPT-­‐BASED	
  INSTRUCTION	
  	
  

E-­‐JournALL	
  4(1)	
  (2017),	
  pp.	
  1–19	
  
	
  

11	
  

Following	
  the	
  presentation	
  of	
  the	
  SCOBA,	
  learners	
  should	
  be	
  given	
  some	
  time	
  to	
  explore	
  and	
  discuss	
  
the	
  materials,	
   ideally	
   in	
  heterogeneous	
   groups	
  previously	
   formed	
  according	
   to	
   their	
   ZPD	
   in	
   relation	
   to	
   the	
  
concept	
  of	
  aspect.	
  In	
  groups,	
  students	
  would	
  compare	
  their	
  initial	
  definitions	
  of	
  aspect	
  with	
  the	
  information	
  
given	
   in	
   the	
   visual	
   representation.	
   Next,	
   since	
   the	
  main	
   objective	
   of	
   the	
   didactic	
  model	
   is	
   to	
   orient	
   HLLs’	
  
performance,	
  it	
   is	
  recommended	
  to	
  have	
  a	
  phase	
  of	
  explicit	
   instruction	
  where	
  the	
  teacher	
  presents	
  the	
  new	
  
grammatical	
   notions,	
   using	
   the	
   provided	
   SCOBA.	
   Then,	
   to	
   ensure	
   that	
   the	
   learners	
   understand	
   this	
  
pedagogical	
  representation,	
  the	
  final	
  step	
  of	
  this	
  class	
  session	
  would	
  incorporate	
  a	
  practical	
  application	
  of	
  the	
  
model	
  to	
  solve	
  an	
  activity.	
  Once	
  again,	
  students	
  would	
  return	
  to	
  their	
  groups	
  and	
  would	
  be	
  asked	
  to	
  analyze	
  a	
  
narrative	
   in	
   the	
  past	
   in	
   their	
  dominant	
   language.	
   For	
   example,	
   in	
   a	
   class	
  of	
   Spanish	
  HLLs	
  whose	
  dominant	
  
language	
  is	
  English,	
  students	
  could	
  be	
  exposed	
  in	
  English	
  to	
  the	
  theme	
  song	
  of	
  “The	
  Fresh	
  Prince	
  of	
  Bell-­‐Air”3.	
  

	
  

	
  
Figure 3. Fragment of “The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air” lyrics used 
in an activity during the first session.  

 
The	
  lyrics,	
  a	
  short	
  narrative	
  from	
  the	
  show,	
  “The	
  Fresh	
  Prince	
  of	
  Bel-­‐Air,”	
  would	
  be	
  analyzed	
  by	
  all	
  

the	
  members	
   of	
   the	
   group.	
   Students	
  would	
   be	
   instructed	
   to	
   underline	
   all	
   the	
   verbs	
   in	
   the	
   past	
   tense	
   that	
  
appear	
   in	
   the	
   song.	
   They	
   would	
   then	
   discuss	
   whether	
   they	
   describe	
   perfective	
   or	
   imperfective	
   actions,	
  
connecting	
   it	
   to	
   the	
   concept	
   presented	
   in	
   the	
   SCOBA	
   in	
   order	
   to	
   decide	
   whether	
   that	
   action	
   would	
   be	
  
expressed	
  in	
  the	
  preterite	
  or	
  the	
  imperfect	
  in	
  Spanish.	
  As	
  mentioned	
  earlier,	
  unlike	
  Spanish,	
  English	
  does	
  not	
  
mark	
   aspectual	
   distinctions	
   in	
   the	
  past	
  morphologically;	
   however,	
   both	
   languages	
   can	
   express	
   actions	
   that	
  
profile	
  perfective	
  or	
   imperfective	
  events	
   in	
   the	
  past.	
  This	
   type	
  of	
   comparative	
  activity	
   is	
  designed	
   to	
   foster	
  
HLLs’	
   awareness	
   towards	
   aspectual	
   distinctions	
   in	
   their	
   dominant	
   language	
   (i.e.	
   English),	
   which	
   can	
   be	
  
bridged	
   to	
   their	
   heritage	
   language	
   with	
   the	
   mediation	
   of	
   the	
   proposed	
   pedagogical	
   model.	
   Ideally,	
   the	
  
correction	
  of	
  this	
  task	
  would	
  take	
  place	
  at	
  the	
  end	
  of	
  the	
  session	
  so	
  that	
  the	
  different	
  groups	
  would	
  have	
  to	
  
justify	
   their	
   choices,	
   using	
   the	
   SCOBA,	
   in	
   front	
   of	
   their	
   peers	
   and	
   so	
   that	
   they	
   would	
   receive	
   immediate	
  
feedback	
  and	
  mediation	
  from	
  the	
  rest	
  of	
  the	
  class	
  (instructor	
  included).	
  However,	
  it	
  is	
  also	
  possible	
  to	
  resume	
  
the	
  activity	
  at	
  the	
  beginning	
  of	
  the	
  next	
  session	
  to	
  confirm	
  that	
  students	
  had	
  understood	
  the	
  material	
  or	
  have	
  
them	
  complete	
   the	
  activity	
  as	
  homework,	
  using	
   the	
  opportunity	
   to	
  have	
   learners	
  reflect	
  upon	
   their	
  choices	
  
and	
   voice-­‐record	
   their	
   rationale	
   for	
   each	
   of	
   their	
   decisions	
   with	
   the	
   support	
   of	
   the	
   previously	
   presented	
  
SCOBA.	
  This	
  verbalization	
  technique,	
  used	
  by	
  Negueruela	
  (2003)	
  to	
  foster	
  L2	
  conceptual	
  development,	
  draws	
  
from	
  what	
  Gal’perin	
  (1969,	
  p.	
  260)	
  called	
  dialogic	
   thinking,	
  as	
   it	
  allows	
   learners	
  to	
  use	
   language	
  to	
  socially	
  
interact	
  with	
  themselves	
  by	
  using	
  the	
  concepts	
  to	
  explain	
  their	
  linguistic	
  choices.	
  	
  

Lantolf	
  and	
  Poehner	
  (2014)	
  indicate	
  that	
  “concepts	
  are	
  relevant	
  for	
  the	
  formation	
  of	
  consciousness	
  
because	
   they	
   shape	
  how	
  we	
  perceive,	
  understand,	
   and	
  act	
   in	
  and	
  on	
   the	
  world”	
   (p.	
  61).	
  This	
  activity	
  helps	
  
HLLs	
  to	
  do	
  precisely	
  that.	
  While	
  the	
  use	
  of	
  HLLs’	
  dominant	
  language	
  (English)	
  is	
  generally	
  discouraged	
  in	
  the	
  
communicative	
   language	
   classroom,	
   this	
   activity	
   allows	
   students	
   to	
   explore	
  new	
  concepts	
   in	
   a	
   comfortable	
  
environment	
  and	
  create	
   interlinguistic	
  connections	
  among	
   languages	
  while	
  still	
  emphasizing	
  morphological	
  
differences	
  in	
  expression.	
  

	
  
	
  
	
  

                                                
3	
  This	
  song	
  can	
  be	
  substituted	
  by	
  another	
  song	
  or	
  text,	
  as	
  long	
  as	
  it	
  features	
  a	
  narrative	
  in	
  the	
  past.	
  As	
  mentioned	
  in	
  the	
  
proposal,	
  the	
  goal	
  of	
  this	
  activity	
  is	
  for	
  students	
  to	
  determine	
  how	
  past	
  events	
  are	
  expressed	
  in	
  their	
  dominant	
  language	
  
(English)	
  and	
  make	
  connections	
  with	
  their	
  weaker	
  one	
  (Spanish),	
  reflecting	
  upon	
  what	
  would	
  be	
  the	
  best	
  way	
  to	
  convey	
  
the	
  same	
  aspectual	
  nuances.	
  

In west Philadelphia born and raised	
  
On the playground is where I spent most of my days 
Chillin' out max, and relaxin' all cool 
And all shootin' some b-ball outside of the school 
When a couple of guys who were up to no good 
Started makin' trouble in my neighborhood 
I got in one little fight and my mom got scared 
And said you're movin' with your auntie and uncle in Bel-Air 



GARCÍA	
  	
  

E-­‐JournALL	
  4(1)	
  (2017),	
  pp.	
  1–19	
  
	
  

12	
  

4.2.2.	
  From	
  controlled	
  practice	
  to	
  communicative	
  activity	
  
Presenting	
   HLLs	
   with	
   visual	
   tools	
   and	
   representations	
   (i.e.	
   SCOBAs)	
   is	
   not	
   enough	
   to	
   foster	
   true	
  

conceptual	
  development	
  (Vygotsky,	
  1986,	
  p.	
  148).	
  In	
  order	
  to	
  bring	
  students	
  closer	
  to	
  that	
  goal,	
  they	
  need	
  to	
  
be	
  able	
  to	
  manipulate	
  and	
  transform	
  concepts	
  through	
  meaningful	
  communication,	
  a	
  process	
  that	
  García	
  (in	
  
press)	
  refers	
  to	
  as	
  conscious	
  conceptual	
  manipulation	
  (CCM).	
  At	
  this	
  stage,	
  it	
  is	
  essential	
  that	
  learners	
  engage	
  
with	
   the	
   original	
   models	
   to	
   make	
   them	
   their	
   own	
   by	
   transforming,	
   internalizing,	
   and	
   externalizing	
   them	
  
through	
  social	
  interaction	
  with	
  others	
  and	
  with	
  the	
  self	
  (Negueruela,	
  García,	
  &	
  Buescher,	
  2015).	
  In	
  the	
  second	
  
session,	
   this	
  would	
  be	
   achieved	
  by	
   exposing	
  HLLs	
   to	
   a	
  wide	
   range	
  of	
   activities	
  where	
   they	
   can	
   apply	
   their	
  
newly-­‐acquired	
  knowledge.	
  	
  

Ideally,	
  these	
  tasks	
  should	
  be	
  organized	
  from	
  more	
  to	
  less	
  structured	
  in	
  order	
  to	
  facilitate	
  students’	
  
progress	
  toward	
  conceptual	
  development.	
  A	
  suitable	
  exercise	
  to	
  start	
  this	
  process	
  would	
  be	
  a	
  multiple-­‐choice	
  
activity	
  with	
  8-­‐10	
  items,	
  wherein	
  students	
  would	
  have	
  to	
  choose	
  between	
  three	
  potential	
  answers	
  that	
  would	
  
best	
  fit	
  the	
  blank	
  provided:	
  

	
  
4)	
   Ella	
   __________	
  (ir)	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
   a	
  la	
  piscina	
   todas	
  las	
  semanas	
  
	
   She	
  	
   ___________(goINF)	
   to	
  the	
  pool	
   all	
  the	
  weeks	
  
	
   	
   	
   	
   	
  
	
   	
   a)	
  iba	
   	
   b)	
  fue	
   c)	
  ambas	
  son	
  posibles	
  
	
   	
   	
  went	
  [3psgIMP]	
   went[	
  3psgPRET]	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  both	
  are	
  possible	
  

	
  
5)	
   El	
  estudiante	
   __________	
  (comenzar)	
  	
  	
   a	
  	
  trabajar	
   a	
  	
  las	
  	
  seis	
  
	
   The	
  student	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
   ___________	
  	
  (startINF)	
  	
  	
  	
  	
   to	
  work	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
   to	
  the	
  six	
  

 
	
   	
   a)	
  comenzó	
   b)	
  comenzaba	
   c)	
  ambas	
  son	
  posibles	
  
	
   	
   	
  started[3psgIMP]	
   started[3psgPRET]	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  both	
  are	
  possible	
  

	
   	
  
As	
  illustrated	
  by	
  the	
  previous	
  examples,	
  the	
  target	
  sentences	
  feature	
  linguistic	
  characteristics	
  (such	
  

as	
  certain	
  type	
  of	
  events,	
  adverbs,	
  and	
  other	
  details	
  of	
  time	
  and	
  duration)	
  usually	
  linked	
  to	
  the	
  use	
  of	
  either	
  
preterite	
  or	
  imperfect	
  by	
  traditional	
  ROTs.	
  In	
  Question	
  4	
  this	
  was	
  achieved	
  by	
  the	
  presence	
  of	
  the	
  expression	
  
todas	
   las	
  semanas	
   (“every	
  week”),	
  generally	
  associated	
  to	
  the	
   imperfect;	
  and	
  in	
  Question	
  5	
  by	
  a	
   las	
  seis	
   (“at	
  
six”),	
   where	
   preterite	
   would	
   be	
   expected.	
   As	
   we	
   know,	
   however,	
   the	
   application	
   of	
   ROTs	
   simplifies	
   the	
  
richness	
  and	
  flexibility	
  of	
  Spanish	
  aspect,	
  which	
  would	
  actually	
  allow	
  for	
  the	
  presence	
  of	
  both	
  tenses	
  in	
  each	
  
of	
   the	
   examples.	
   The	
   objective	
   of	
   this	
   task	
   is	
   two-­‐fold.	
   On	
   the	
   one	
   hand,	
   it	
   informs	
   how	
  HLLs’	
  make	
   their	
  
aspectual	
   choices	
   (i.e.	
   by	
   observation,	
   rules	
   of	
   thumb,	
   alluding	
   to	
   the	
   concept,	
   etc.),	
   and	
   on	
   the	
   other,	
   it	
  
provides	
  learners	
  with	
  the	
  opportunity	
  to	
  manipulate	
  and	
  transform	
  the	
  conceptual	
  tools	
  provided	
  (SCOBA)	
  
to	
  orient	
  their	
  responses	
  as	
  an	
  additional	
  step	
  towards	
  conceptual	
  development.	
  

The	
   next	
   activity	
   is	
   designed	
   to	
   favor	
   the	
   communicative	
   strengths	
   present	
   in	
  HLLs	
   by	
   prompting	
  
them	
  to	
  produce	
  a	
  written	
  narration	
  in	
  the	
  past,	
  conceived	
  to	
  trigger	
  the	
  use	
  of	
  preterite	
  and	
  imperfect	
  forms	
  
in	
   context.	
   The	
   images	
   provided—based	
   on	
   a	
   short	
   comic	
   strip	
   from	
   the	
   Spanish	
   textbook	
   Dos	
   Mundos	
  
(Terrell,	
  Andrade,	
  Egasse,	
  &	
  Munoz,	
  2002,	
  p.	
  422)—depict	
  a	
  sequence	
  of	
  events	
  where	
  Miguel,	
  a	
  young	
  bike-­‐
rider	
   is	
   accidentally	
   run	
  over	
  by	
  a	
   car,	
   then	
   taken	
   to	
   the	
  hospital	
  where	
  he	
   is	
   seen	
  by	
   the	
  doctors	
  until	
   he	
  
recovers	
  from	
  his	
  injuries.	
  	
  

This	
  task,	
  which	
  would	
  be	
  revisited	
  during	
  the	
  last	
  session,	
  allows	
  learners	
  to	
  produce	
  preterite	
  and	
  
imperfect	
   forms	
   in	
   a	
   contextually-­‐rich	
   environment;	
   however,	
   it	
   still	
   lacks	
   the	
   meaningfulness	
   and	
  
communicative	
  value	
  needed	
  to	
  foster	
  internalization	
  (Gal’perin,	
  1969).	
  The	
  next	
  activity,	
  based	
  on	
  DiPietro’s	
  
(1987)	
  scenarios,	
  provides	
  a	
  strategic	
   interaction	
  approach	
  to	
   language	
  pedagogy.	
  These	
  types	
  of	
  scenarios	
  
are	
  comprised	
  of	
  three	
  interconnected	
  stages—preparation,	
  performance,	
  and	
  debriefing—and	
  allow	
  for	
  the	
  
implementation	
  of	
  communicative	
  activity	
  and	
  language	
  reflection	
  in	
  the	
  classroom.	
  In	
  contrast	
  to	
  traditional	
  
role-­‐playing,	
   DiPietro’s	
   proposal	
   includes	
   a	
   dramatic	
   element	
   where	
   students	
   have	
   different	
   agendas	
   and	
  
where	
  none	
  of	
   the	
   learners	
  know	
  the	
  other’s	
   role	
   in	
   the	
  scenario.	
  These	
  characteristics	
  generate	
  situations	
  
with	
   a	
   “communicative	
   meaning-­‐making	
   improvising	
   quality”	
   (Negueruela,	
   2003,	
   p.	
   226),	
   which	
   is	
   often	
  
lacking	
  in	
  traditional	
  role-­‐playing	
  activities.	
  Figure	
  5	
  shows	
  this	
  activity.	
  

	
  
	
  



IMPLEMENTING	
  CONCEPT-­‐BASED	
  INSTRUCTION	
  	
  

E-­‐JournALL	
  4(1)	
  (2017),	
  pp.	
  1–19	
  
	
  

13	
  

Original Activity  Translation 
Situación – Dos amigos se encuentran para tomar un café. Uno de 
lleva saliendo con su novio/a más de un año . El gran problema es 
que están discutiendo todo el día y la semana pasada tuvieron una 
gran pelea.    
 

Situation: “Two best friends meet for coffee. One of 
them has been seeing his/her boyfriend/girlfriend for 
more than a year. The big problem is that they’re 
always arguing, and last week they had a big fight. 

Estudiante A: Estás muy enfadado/a con tu novio/a y le cuentas a 
tu mejor amigo/a tu versión de la discusión y le explicas porque está 
discusión fue diferente de las anteriores. Le pides a tu mejor 
amigo/a que te aconseje lo que deberías hacer. 
 

Student A: “You are very angry with your boyfriend 
and tell your best friend your version of the 
discussion, explaining why it was different from the 
previous ones. You ask your best friend to advise you 
on what to do next. 

Estudiante B: Tu mejor amigo/a te cuenta la discusión que tuvo con 
su novio/a la semana pasada. Tú estás cansado/a de escucharle 
hablar siempre de sus problemas de pareja y le recomiendas que 
rompa con su novio/a basándote en tus experiencias de pareja 
anteriores. 

Student B: Your best friend tells you about the 
discussion he/she had with her/his boyfriend/girlfriend 
last week. You are tired of listening to him/her talk 
about their relationship problems and recommend that 
they break up based on your previous experiences. 

Figure 5. Sample of García’s (2012) design of a scenario (DiPietro, 1987) for strategic interaction	
  
	
  

The	
   implementation	
   of	
   this	
   task	
   would	
   be	
   staged	
   as	
   follows:	
   First,	
   HLLs	
   go	
   through	
   a	
   short	
  
“preparation”	
  process	
  in	
  small	
  groups,	
  where	
  they	
  receive	
  instructions	
  about	
  their	
  role	
  and	
  the	
  context	
  they	
  
will	
  be	
  working	
  on.	
  Once	
  this	
  phase	
  is	
  completed,	
  each	
  group	
  performs	
  their	
  scenario	
  in	
  front	
  of	
  their	
  peers,	
  
who	
   in	
   turn,	
   take	
   notes	
   regarding	
   the	
   use	
   of	
   preterite	
   and	
   imperfect.	
   During	
   the	
   last	
   stage,	
   known	
   as	
  
“debriefing”,	
  the	
  whole	
  class	
  provides	
  feedback	
  using	
  conceptual	
  explanations	
  with	
  the	
  help	
  of	
  their	
  SCOBAs.	
  
If	
   students	
   are	
   not	
   able	
   to	
   justify	
   their	
   aspectual	
   choices	
   adequately,	
   the	
   instructor	
   would	
   provide	
   the	
  
appropriate	
  mediation	
  to	
  ensure	
  the	
  conceptual	
  explanations	
  were	
  understood.	
  	
  

As	
   argued	
   throughout	
   this	
   article,	
   one	
   of	
   the	
   keys	
   to	
   internalization	
   lies	
   in	
   fostering	
   learners’	
  
conscious	
  conceptual	
  manipulation	
  (CCM)	
  in	
  the	
  classroom,	
  allowing	
  them	
  to	
  reflect	
  upon	
  their	
  performance	
  
by	
  creating	
  new	
  abstract	
  models	
  to	
  orient	
  their	
  actions	
  (in	
  this	
  case,	
  their	
  aspectual	
  choices).	
  Although	
  the	
  2-­‐3	
  
sessions	
  described	
  so	
  far	
  provide	
  opportunities	
  for	
  HLLs	
  to	
  familiarize	
  themselves	
  with	
  the	
  concept	
  of	
  aspect	
  
with	
  the	
  help	
  of	
  the	
  SCOBA,	
  they	
  have	
  not	
  been	
  involved	
  in	
  the	
  modification	
  of	
  this	
  diagram	
  based	
  on	
  their	
  
own	
  emerging	
  understanding	
  of	
  this	
  notion.	
  This	
  appropriation	
  and	
  transformation	
  from	
  the	
  original	
  model	
  is	
  
reported	
  to	
  increase	
  learners’	
  agency	
  “to	
  the	
  extent	
  that	
  it	
  allows	
  them	
  to	
  participate	
  in	
  the	
  co-­‐construction	
  of	
  
new	
  knowledge”	
  (Stanfield,	
  2014,	
  p.	
  175).	
  Therefore,	
  the	
  last	
  session	
  would	
  be	
  dedicated	
  to	
  the	
  deployment	
  
of	
  tasks	
  that	
  emphasize	
  introspection	
  and	
  CCM,	
  while	
  still	
  exposing	
  students	
  to	
  limited	
  dialogic	
  interactions.	
  

	
  
	
  4.2.3.	
  Reflecting	
  on	
  the	
  concept	
  of	
  aspect	
  

In	
  this	
  fourth	
  and	
  final	
  session,	
  given	
  that	
  the	
  goal	
  is	
  reflection	
  on	
  the	
  part	
  of	
  the	
  learner,	
  the	
  majority	
  
of	
   the	
   activities	
   proposed	
   have	
   either	
   a	
   dyadic	
   component	
   led	
   by	
   the	
   practitioner	
   or	
   an	
   individual	
   focus.	
  
Following	
   the	
   suggestions	
   by	
   Negueruela-­‐Azarola	
   (2013)	
   and	
   García	
   (2017),	
   during	
   the	
   first	
   part	
   of	
   the	
  
session,	
   learners	
  would	
  engage	
  with	
   the	
  original	
  models	
   and	
   transform	
   them	
   to	
  appropriate	
   them	
   through	
  
conscious	
   conceptual	
   manipulation	
   in	
   social	
   interaction	
   with	
   others	
   and	
   with	
   the	
   self.	
   These	
   pedagogical	
  
models	
   then	
   not	
   only	
   become	
   a	
   useful	
   tool	
   for	
   the	
   instructor,	
  who	
   is	
   able	
   to	
   observe	
   learners’	
   conceptual	
  
development	
   in	
   the	
  making,	
  but	
  also	
   for	
   learners,	
  who	
  are	
   stimulated	
   to	
  use	
   scientific	
   concepts	
   to	
  mediate	
  
their	
  thinking.	
  	
  

Once	
  students	
  have	
  created	
  their	
  models,	
  they	
  would	
  be	
  asked	
  to	
  revisit	
  two	
  of	
  the	
  five	
  activities	
  they	
  
had	
   previously	
   completed	
   (the	
   multiple-­‐choice	
   test	
   and	
   the	
   written	
   elicited	
   narration)	
   during	
   a	
   short,	
  
mediated	
  interview	
  conducted	
  by	
  the	
  teacher.	
  The	
  main	
  objective	
  of	
  these	
  dyadic	
  interactions	
  is	
  to	
  reveal—
and	
   prompt—instances	
   of	
   conceptual	
   development	
   in	
   the	
   making	
   and	
   thus	
   to	
   provide	
   more	
   accurate	
  
information	
  about	
  HLLs’	
  progress	
  than	
  could	
  be	
  learned	
  from	
  their	
  performance	
  in	
  static	
  activities.	
  As	
  noted	
  
by	
  García	
  (2012),	
  when	
  engaged	
   in	
  verbalization	
  activities,	
   learners	
  do	
  not	
   limit	
   themselves	
   to	
   talk	
  about	
  a	
  
grammatical	
   concept;	
   instead,	
   they	
   talk	
   through	
   the	
   concept	
   to	
   solve	
   a	
   particular	
   task.	
   As	
   a	
   result,	
   these	
  
dialogic	
   interactions	
   are	
   expected	
   to	
   prompt	
   complex	
   justifications	
   for	
   students’	
   choice	
   of	
   preterite	
   and	
  
imperfect	
   in	
   specific	
   situations	
   (with	
  or	
  without	
   the	
  help	
  of	
   the	
   SCOBA),	
   inevitably	
   exposing	
   students’	
   real	
  
understanding	
  of	
  the	
  concept	
  of	
  aspect.	
  



GARCÍA	
  	
  

E-­‐JournALL	
  4(1)	
  (2017),	
  pp.	
  1–19	
  
	
  

14	
  

In	
   contrast	
   with	
   previous	
   implementations	
   of	
   C-­‐BI,	
   the	
   present	
   proposal	
   incorporates	
   students’	
  
reflections	
  (also	
  known	
  as	
  verbalizations)	
   in	
  a	
  wide	
  range	
  of	
  activities,	
   involving	
  the	
  participation	
  of	
  others	
  
(groups	
   and	
   instructor-­‐student	
   dyads)	
   as	
   well	
   as	
   themselves.	
   This	
   variety	
   of	
   classroom	
   activities	
   is	
  
particularly	
  beneficial	
  for	
  HLLs,	
  whose	
  levels	
  of	
  instructional	
  experience,	
  literacy,	
  and	
  proficiency	
  in	
  the	
  home	
  
language	
  may	
  affect	
  how	
  they	
  perform	
  in	
  different	
  types	
  of	
  tasks	
  (Carreira,	
  2012).	
  Additionally,	
  the	
  possibility	
  
of	
  receiving	
   immediate	
  mediation	
  by	
  the	
   instructor	
  and	
  by	
  peers	
  during	
  certain	
  classroom	
  activities	
   is	
  very	
  
much	
  in	
   line	
  with	
  a	
  differentiated	
  approach	
  to	
   language	
  teaching,	
  essential	
   in	
  the	
  SHL	
  classroom	
  (Beaudrie,	
  
2012,	
  2016;	
  Carreira,	
  2012).	
  	
  

	
  
5.	
  Conclusion	
  

As	
   has	
   been	
   discussed	
   throughout	
   this	
   paper,	
   two	
  main	
   ideas	
   form	
   the	
   basis	
   of	
   C-­‐BI	
   for	
   the	
   SHL	
  
classroom:	
  Vygotsky’s	
  (1986)	
  theory	
  of	
  concept	
  formation	
  and	
  Negueruela’s	
  (2003)	
  recommendations	
  for	
  the	
  
design	
  and	
  implementation	
  of	
  pedagogical	
  models	
  focused	
  on	
  language	
  development	
  as	
  the	
  internalization	
  of	
  
categories	
   of	
   meaning.	
   Grounded	
   in	
   those	
   sociocultural	
   principles,	
   this	
   paper	
   has	
   presented	
   a	
   didactic	
  
sequence	
   aimed	
   at	
   the	
   development	
   of	
   the	
   grammatical	
   concept	
   of	
   aspect,	
   as	
   a	
   meditational	
   tool	
   for	
  
understanding	
  and	
  gaining	
  control	
  over	
   the	
  heritage	
   language.	
  A	
  Vygotskian	
  approach	
  to	
   language	
   learning	
  
and	
  development	
  proposes	
  that	
  properly	
  organized	
  learning	
  creates	
  and	
  promotes	
  conceptual	
  transformation	
  
through	
  socially	
  mediated	
  and	
  significant,	
  goal-­‐oriented	
  activity	
  (Lantolf	
  &	
  Poehner,	
  2014).	
  This	
  is	
  precisely	
  
what	
  has	
  been	
  proposed	
  in	
  the	
  present	
  article:	
  learners	
  consciously	
  engage	
  with	
  a	
  grammatical	
  concept	
  as	
  a	
  
tool	
  for	
  thinking,	
  both	
  intrapersonally	
  or	
  interpersonally,	
  fostering	
  awareness	
  of	
  new	
  conceptual	
  categories	
  in	
  
the	
  heritage	
  language.	
  This	
  process	
  of	
  engaging	
  with	
  concepts	
  and	
  actively	
  using	
  them	
  with	
  others	
  in	
  social	
  
interaction	
   is	
   indeed	
   the	
   origin	
   of	
   conceptual	
   intra-­‐action,	
   leading	
   to	
   language	
   learning	
   and	
   development	
  
(Negueruela-­‐Azarola,	
  García,	
  &	
  Buescher,	
  2015).	
  The	
  implementation	
  of	
  C-­‐BI	
  in	
  the	
  SHL	
  classroom	
  presented	
  
in	
   this	
  paper	
   emphasizes	
   the	
   importance	
  of	
   all	
   these	
   sociocultural	
   elements,	
   including	
   the	
   crucial	
   role	
   of	
   a	
  
properly-­‐organized	
  instruction	
  in	
  the	
  shaping,	
  development,	
  and	
  internalization	
  of	
  grammatical	
  notions.	
  This	
  
paper	
  provides	
  practitioners	
  with	
  instructional	
  tools	
  to	
  foster	
  the	
  development	
  of	
  grammatical	
  categories	
  of	
  
meaning	
   for	
   HLLs.	
   While	
   this	
   work	
   only	
   presents	
   a	
   proposal	
   for	
   putting	
   C-­‐BI	
   into	
   practice	
   in	
   the	
   HL	
  
classroom,	
  a	
  detailed	
  discussion	
  of	
  empirical	
  data	
  related	
  to	
  the	
  implementation	
  of	
  this	
  pedagogical	
  sequence	
  
can	
  be	
  found	
  in	
  García	
  &	
  Perez-­‐Cortes	
  (2017).	
  	
  

An	
  SCT	
  approach	
  to	
  HL	
  education	
  sees	
  HLLs	
  as	
  socio-­‐historical	
  beings	
  whose	
  agency	
  and	
  identity	
  are	
  
mediated	
   by	
   their	
   experiences	
   and	
   social	
   interactions,	
   both	
   inside	
   and	
   outside	
   of	
   the	
   classroom	
   (García,	
  
2014).	
  As	
  such,	
   it	
   seems	
   imperative	
   to	
  move	
  away	
   from	
  traditional	
  pedagogical	
  models	
  based	
  on	
  rules	
  and	
  
repetition	
   and	
   to	
   embrace	
   those	
   that	
   empower	
   learners	
   and	
   foster	
   their	
   agency	
   as	
   they	
   co-­‐construct,	
  
transform,	
   and	
   co-­‐own	
   their	
   learning	
   experiences.	
   Through	
   C-­‐BI,	
   teachers	
   also	
   become	
   mediators	
   who	
  
provide	
   the	
   sense-­‐making	
   tools	
   and	
   significant	
   teaching-­‐learning	
   activity	
   that	
   allows	
   learners	
   to	
   be	
   active	
  
participants	
  in	
  the	
  classroom.	
  	
  

	
  
	
  
	
  

References	
  
	
  
Achugar,	
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  &	
  Colombi,	
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of	
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advanced	
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Aguiló-­‐Mora,	
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complexities	
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Kioko	
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Andersen,	
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Acquisition	
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IMPLEMENTING	
  CONCEPT-­‐BASED	
  INSTRUCTION	
  	
  

E-­‐JournALL	
  4(1)	
  (2017),	
  pp.	
  1–19	
  
	
  

15	
  

Beaudrie,	
   Sara	
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   Research	
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   Spanish	
   heritage	
   language	
   programs	
   in	
   the	
   United	
  
States.	
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   Beaudrie	
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  Spanish	
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States:	
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Press.	
  

Beaudrie,	
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Education,	
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Beaudrie,	
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In	
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Amsterdam,	
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Borik,	
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   Gradual	
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   Providing	
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experimental	
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Bowles,	
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   Measuring	
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   and	
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  What	
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learners	
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Buescher,	
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  Developing	
  Second	
  Language	
  Narrative	
  Literacy	
  Using	
  Concept-­‐Based	
  Instruction	
  
and	
  Division-­‐of-­‐Labor	
  Pedagogy	
  (doctoral	
  dissertation).	
  The	
  Pennsylvania	
  State	
  University,	
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Park,	
  Pennsylvania.	
  

Buescher,	
  Kimberly,	
  &	
  Strauss,	
   Susan	
   (2015).	
  A	
   cognitive	
   linguistic	
   analysis	
  of	
  French	
  prepositions	
  à,	
  dans,	
  
and	
  en	
   and	
   a	
   sociocultural	
   theoretical	
   approach	
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   teaching	
   them.	
   In	
  Kyoko	
  Masuda,	
   Carlee	
  Arnett	
  
and	
   Angela	
   Labarca	
   (Eds.),	
   Cognitive	
   Grammar	
   and	
   Sociocultural	
   Theory	
   in	
   Foreign	
   and	
   Second	
  
Language	
  Teaching.	
  Boston,	
  Massachusetts:	
  De	
  Gruyter	
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Bull,	
  William	
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  Spanish	
  for	
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  Malabar,	
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Carreira,	
  Maria	
  (2012).	
  Formative	
  Assessment	
  in	
  HL	
  Teaching:	
  Purposes,	
  Procedures,	
  and	
  Practices.	
  Heritage	
  

Language	
  Journal,	
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  100–120.	
  
Colombi,	
   Cecilia	
   (2006).	
   Grammatical	
   metaphor:	
   Academic	
   language	
   development	
   in	
   Latino	
   students	
   in	
  

Spanish.	
   In	
   Heidi	
   Byrnes	
   (Ed.),	
  Advanced	
   language	
   learning:	
   The	
   contribution	
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   and	
  
Vygotsky	
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  London,	
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Colombi,	
   Cecilia	
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   A	
   systemic	
   functional	
   approach	
   to	
   teaching	
   Spanish	
   for	
   heritage	
   speakers	
   in	
   the	
  
United	
  States.	
  Linguistics	
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Colombi,	
   Cecilia,	
   &	
   Harrington,	
   Joseph	
   (2012).	
   Advanced	
   biliteracy	
   development	
   in	
   Spanish	
   as	
   a	
   heritage	
  
language.	
   In	
   Sara	
  Beaudrie	
  &	
  Marta	
  Fairclough	
   (Eds.),	
  Spanish	
  as	
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  heritage	
   language	
   in	
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States:	
  The	
  state	
  of	
  the	
  field	
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  241–258).	
  Washington,	
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  Georgetown	
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Press.	
  

Correa,	
   Maite	
   (2011a).	
   Advocating	
   for	
   critical	
   pedagogical	
   approaches	
   to	
   teaching	
   Spanish	
   as	
   a	
   heritage	
  
language:	
  Some	
  considerations.	
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Correa,	
  Maite	
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  Heritage	
  language	
  learners	
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  Spanish:	
  What	
  role	
  does	
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in	
   their	
   acquisition	
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   the	
   subjunctive?	
   In	
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   Ortiz-­‐López	
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  Selected	
   Proceedings	
   of	
   the	
   13th	
  
Hispanic	
   Linguistics	
   Symposium	
  (pp.	
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Project.	
  

Cuza,	
  Alejandro,	
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  Lauren	
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  The	
  protracted	
  acquisition	
  of	
  past	
   tense	
  aspectual	
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  child	
  
heritage	
  Spanish.	
  In	
  Rachel	
  Klassen,	
  Juana	
  Liceras,	
  &	
  Elena	
  Valenzuela	
  (Eds.),	
  Hispanic	
  Linguistics	
  at	
  
the	
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   Theoretical	
   linguistics,	
   language	
   acquisition	
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   language	
   contact	
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   211–230).	
  
Amsterdam,	
  Netherlands:	
  John	
  Benjamins.	
  

Cuza,	
   Alejandro,	
   Pérez-­‐Tattam,	
   Raquel,	
   Barajas,	
   Elizabeth,	
  Miller,	
   Lauren,	
   &	
   Sadowski,	
   Claudia	
   (2013).	
   The	
  
development	
  of	
   tense	
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  aspect	
  morphology	
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   and	
  adult	
  heritage	
  Spanish:	
   Implications	
   for	
  
heritage	
   language	
   pedagogy.	
   In	
   John	
   Schwieter	
   (Ed.),	
   Innovative	
   research	
   and	
   practices	
   in	
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language	
  acquisition	
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  bilingualism	
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  193–220).	
  Amsterdam,	
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  Benjamins.	
  	
  

Davydov,	
  Vasiliĭ	
  Vasilʹevich	
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  The	
  content	
  and	
  unsolved	
  problems	
  of	
  activity	
  theory.	
  In	
  Yrjö	
  Engeström,	
  
Reijo	
  Miettinen	
  &	
  Raija-­‐Leena	
  Punamki	
  (Eds.),	
  Perspectives	
  on	
  activity	
  theory	
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  40–52).	
  Cambridge,	
  
United	
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Davydov,	
   Vasiliĭ	
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   Problems	
   of	
   Developmental	
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   Experimental	
  
Psychological	
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  Translated	
  by	
  P.	
  Moxay.	
  Moscow:	
  Akademyia	
  Press.	
  



GARCÍA	
  	
  

E-­‐JournALL	
  4(1)	
  (2017),	
  pp.	
  1–19	
  
	
  

16	
  

Di	
  Pietro,	
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  Cambridge,	
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  Innovative	
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Practical	
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Gal’perin,	
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Maltzman	
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York:	
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Gal’perin,	
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Psychology,	
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Gal’perin,	
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Journal	
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Gánem-­‐Gutiérrez,	
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Spanish.	
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Gánem-­‐Gutiérrez,	
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understanding	
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García,	
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grammatical	
  concept	
  of	
  aspect	
  (doctoral	
  dissertation).	
  University	
  of	
  Massachusetts,	
  Amherst.	
  

García,	
  Próspero	
  Noé	
  (2014)	
  Verbalizing	
  in	
  the	
  Second	
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  Classroom:	
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  the	
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  of	
  Agency	
  in	
  
the	
   Internalization	
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   In	
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   Deters,	
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   Elizabeth	
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Gergana	
   Vitanova	
   (Eds.),	
   Theorizing	
   and	
   Analyzing	
   Agency	
   in	
   Second	
   Language	
   Learning:	
  
interdisciplinary	
  approaches	
  (pp.	
  213–231).	
  Bristol,	
  United	
  Kingdom:	
  Multilingual	
  Matters.	
  	
  

García,	
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  Noé	
  (in	
  press).	
  Concept-­‐Based	
  Instruction:	
  Investigating	
  the	
  role	
  of	
  Conscious	
  Conceptual	
  
Manipulation	
  in	
  L2	
  Development.	
  In	
  James	
  Lantolf	
  &	
  Matthew	
  Poehner	
  (Eds.),	
  The	
  Routledge	
  
Handbook	
  of	
  Sociocultural	
  Theory	
  and	
  Second	
  Language	
  Development.	
  New	
  York,	
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  York:	
  
Routledge.	
  

García,	
  Próspero	
  Noé	
  (2017).	
  A	
  sociocultural	
  approach	
  to	
  analyzing	
  L2	
  development	
  in	
  the	
  Spanish	
  L2	
  
Classroom.	
  VIAL	
  (Vigo	
  International	
  Journal	
  of	
  Applied	
  Linguistics)	
  14,	
  99-­‐124.	
  

García,	
   Próspero	
   Noé,	
   &	
   Perez-­‐Cortes,	
   Silvia	
   (2017).	
  Fostering	
   grammatical	
   development	
   of	
   the	
   heritage	
  
language	
  through	
  Concept-­‐Based	
  Instruction	
  and	
  verbalizing.	
  Manuscript	
  submitted	
  for	
  publication.	
  

García	
  Frazier,	
  Elena	
  (2013).	
  Concept-­‐Based	
  Teaching	
  and	
  Spanish	
  Modality	
  in	
  Heritage	
  Language	
  Learners:	
  A	
  
Vygotskyan	
  Approach	
  (doctoral	
  dissertation).	
  The	
  University	
  of	
  Massachusetts,	
  Amherst,	
  USA.	
  

Hendriks,	
  Petra	
  &	
  Koster,	
  Charlotte	
  (2010).	
  Production/comprehension	
  asymmetries	
  in	
  language	
  acquisition,	
  
Lingua,	
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  1887–1897.	
  

Kim,	
  Jiyun	
  	
  (2013).	
  Developing	
  a	
  conceptual	
  understanding	
  of	
  sarcasm	
  in	
  a	
  second	
  language	
  through	
  concept-­‐
based	
   instruction	
   (doctoral	
   dissertation).	
   The	
   Pennsylvania	
   State	
   University,	
   University	
   Park,	
  
Pennsylvania.	
  

Lai,	
  Wei	
  (2012).	
  Concept-­‐Based	
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dissertation).	
  The	
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  University	
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Lantolf,	
   James	
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   The	
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Approaches	
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  New	
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Lantolf,	
   James,	
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  Sociocultural	
   theory	
   and	
   the	
   pedagogical	
   imperative	
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education:	
  Vygotskian	
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  research/practice	
  divide.	
  London,	
  United	
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Lantolf,	
  James,	
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  Thorne,	
  Steven	
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  Sociocultural	
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  In	
  Bill	
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  Patten	
  
&	
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   Theories	
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   Language	
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   Mahwah,	
   New	
  
Jersey:	
  Lawrence	
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Lipkina,	
  A	
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  Neskol’ko	
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  k	
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  2,	
  32–35.	
  
Montrul.	
   Silvina	
   (2002).	
   Incomplete	
   acquisition	
   and	
   attrition	
   of	
   Spanish	
   tense/aspect	
   distinctions	
   in	
   adult	
  

bilinguals.	
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Montrul,	
   Silvina	
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   Knowledge	
   of	
   tense-­‐aspect	
   and	
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   heritage	
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  International	
  

Journal	
  of	
  Bilingualism,	
  13(2),	
  239–269.	
  	
  



IMPLEMENTING	
  CONCEPT-­‐BASED	
  INSTRUCTION	
  	
  

E-­‐JournALL	
  4(1)	
  (2017),	
  pp.	
  1–19	
  
	
  

17	
  

Montrul,	
  Silvina	
  (2011).	
  Multiple	
  interfaces	
  and	
  incomplete	
  acquisition.	
  Lingua,	
  121(4),	
  591–604.	
  
Montrul,	
  Silvina	
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  Is	
  the	
  heritage	
  language	
  like	
  a	
  second	
  language?	
  EUROSLA	
  Yearbook,	
  12,	
  1–29.	
  
Montrul,	
  Silvina,	
  &	
  Bowles,	
  Melissa	
  (2010).	
  Is	
  grammar	
  instruction	
  beneficial	
  for	
  heritage	
  language	
  learners?	
  

Dative	
  case	
  marking	
  in	
  Spanish.	
  The	
  Heritage	
  Language	
  Journal,	
  7(1),	
  47–73.	
  
Montrul,	
  Silvina,	
  &	
  Perpiñán,	
  Silvia	
  (2011).	
  Assessing	
  differences	
  and	
  similarities	
  between	
  instructed	
  heritage	
  

language	
   learners	
   and	
   L2	
   learners	
   in	
   their	
   knowledge	
   of	
   Spanish	
   tense-­‐aspect	
   and	
   mood	
   (TAM)	
  
morphology.	
  Heritage	
  Language	
  Journal,	
  8(1),	
  90–133.	
  

Montrul,	
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  Roumyana	
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  Competence	
   similarities	
  between	
  natives	
  and	
  near-­‐native	
  
speakers:	
  An	
  investigation	
  of	
  the	
  Preterit/Imperfect	
  contrast	
  in	
  Spanish.	
  Studies	
  in	
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Acquisition,	
  25,	
  351–398.	
  

Negueruela,	
  Eduardo	
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  Systemic-­‐theoretical	
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teaching-­‐learning	
   and	
   researching	
   L2	
   learning	
   (doctoral	
   dissertation).	
   The	
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University,	
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Negueruela,	
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development.	
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   &	
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   Sociocultural	
   theory	
   and	
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   teaching	
   of	
  
second	
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  London,	
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  The	
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grammatical	
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   The	
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Massachusetts,	
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(Ed.),	
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   Amsterdam,	
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Potowski,	
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Potowski,	
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development	
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Russell,	
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grammar:	
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Research	
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   Amsterdam,	
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   John	
  
Benjamins.	
  

	
  
	
  



GARCÍA	
  	
  

E-­‐JournALL	
  4(1)	
  (2017),	
  pp.	
  1–19	
  
	
  

18	
  

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Press.	
  

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Matthew	
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Pennsylvania.	
  

	
  
	
   	
  



IMPLEMENTING	
  CONCEPT-­‐BASED	
  INSTRUCTION	
  	
  

E-­‐JournALL	
  4(1)	
  (2017),	
  pp.	
  1–19	
  
	
  

19	
  

	
  
	
  

Próspero N. García, Rutgers University 
pg289@camden.rutgers.edu 
  
EN Próspero N. García (Ph.D., University of Massachusetts, Amherst) is Assistant Professor of Spanish applied linguistics 

at Rutgers University, Camden, United States. His research interests lie in the fields of Spanish second language 
acquisition and pedagogy, Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory of mind, second language evaluation and assessment, 
technology enhanced language learning, teacher training and development, and bilingual education. His most recent 
work explores the implementation of concept-based teaching (C-BI) for L2 and heritage language development, the role 
of learner agency in the internalization of conceptual categories, and the role of verbalization and conscious conceptual 
manipulation in the conceptualization of grammatical categories. 
 

ES Próspero N. García (Ph.D., University of Massachusetts, Amherst) es profesor titular de lingüística española aplicada 
en Rutgers University, Camden (EE. UU). Su investigación se centra en los campos de la adquisición del español como 
segunda lengua y su pedagogía, la teoría sociocultural de la mente de Vygotsky, la evaluación en segundas lenguas, el 
aprendizaje de lenguas apoyado con tecnología y la formación de profesores y su desarrollo profesional, así como la 
educación bilingüe. Su trabajo más reciente explora la implementación de la instrucción conceptual en el desarrollo de 
segundas lenguas y lenguas de herencia, el papel que desempeña la agencia del aprendiz a la hora de internalizar 
categorías conceptuales y la importancia de la verbalización y la manipulación conceptual consciente en la 
conceptualización de categorías gramaticales. 
 

IT Próspero N. García (Ph.D., University of Massachusetts, Amherst) è ricercatore di linguistica spagnola applicata presso 
la Rutgers University, Camden (Stati Uniti). I suoi interessi di ricerca riguardano l'acquisizione e la pedagogia dello 
spagnolo come seconda lingua, la teoria socioculturale della mente di Vygotsky, la valutazione della seconda lingua, 
l'apprendimento della lingua potenziato dalla tecnologia, la formazione e lo sviluppo dell’insegnante e la pedagogia 
bilingue. Il suo lavoro più recente esplora l'implementazione dell’insegnamento basato su concetti (C-BI) per lo sviluppo 
di L2 e lingue ereditarie, il ruolo dello studente nell'internalizzazione delle categorie concettuali ed il ruolo della 
verbalizzazione e della manipolazione concettuale consapevole nella concettualizzazione di categorie grammaticali.