Microsoft Word - 1. Costa Pladevall_DONE_1-10 (1).docx EuroAmerican  Journal  of  Applied  Linguistics  and  Languages   Special  Issue,  Volume  7,  Issue  1,  February  2020,  1-­‐10   ISSN  2376-­‐905X     DOI  http://dx.doi.org/10.21283/2376905X.11.202   www.e-­‐journall.org     © Costa 2020. This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.       Introduction  to  the  Special  Issue:  Learners’  outcomes  and  effective   strategies  in  early  second  language  learning         FRANCESCA  COSTAa  &  ELISABET  PLADEVALL-­‐BALLESTERb   aUniversità  Cattolica  di  Milano/Brescia   bUniversitat  Autònoma  de  Barcelona         Received  8  June  2019;  received  in  revised  form  28  September  2019;  accepted  1  November  2019   ABSTRACT EN As early second language learning is increasingly considered fundamental in children’s development and as early language learning programmes are encouraged both at institutional and societal levels, research has expanded in scope from a narrow focus on age to examine the interplay between variables affecting language learning. In this introductory article to the special issue, we first provide an overview of the field of early second and foreign language learning and how it has changed over the last few years. Next, we report challenges and strategies that should be tackled both in research and in pedagogical practices. These include teacher education and use of teaching strategies, the use of multilingual practices, bilingual and CLIL programmes and teachers’, students’ and parents’ beliefs about language learning at an early age. We conclude with an overview of the articles and book reviews included in this special issue. Key words: EARLY L2 LEARNING, YOUNG LEARNERS, CHALLENGES, STRATEGIES, CLASSROOM PRACTICE ES A medida que se ha ido reconociendo el lugar central que ocupa la adquisición temprana de segundas lenguas en el desarrollo de los niños y los programas de aprendizaje temprano de lenguas han adquirido relevancia institucional y social, la investigación en este campo ha empezado a prestar atención a otros factores más allá de la edad. En esta introducción, ofrecemos una visión panorámica del campo y de cómo ha cambiado en los últimos años, para luego pasar a describir una serie de retos y estrategias que la investigación y las prácticas pedagógicas deberían abordar. Éstas incluyen la formación de los profesores y el uso de estrategias docentes, el uso de prácticas multilingües en el aula, los programas bilingües y CLIL y las creencias de los profesores, los estudiantes y los padres acerca del aprendizaje de lenguas en una edad temprana. Este artículo se cierra con una panorámica de los artículos y reseñas incluidos en este número especial. Palabras clave: ADQUISICIÓN TEMPRANA DE L2, APRENDICES JÓVENES, RETOS, ESTRATEGIAS, PRÁCTICAS DOCENTES IT Dato che l’apprendimento precoce di una lingua seconda è considerato fondamentale nello sviluppo dei bambini e i programmi di insegnamento precoce sono incoraggiati sia a livello istituzionale sia a livello sociale, la ricerca in questo senso si è spostata dall’età come unico fattore di analisi per andare verso la varietà di fattori che entrano in gioco e influenzano il processo di apprendimento delle lingue in questo contesto. In questo articolo introduttivo del volume offriamo una panoramica di studi sull’apprendimento precoce delle lingue per poi descrivere una serie di sfide e strategie che la ricerca e la pratica pedagogica dovrebbero dipanare. Tra queste vi sono: la formazione dei docenti e il loro uso di strategie didattiche, l’uso di pratiche multilingui in classe, i programmi bilingui e il CLIL e le opinioni dei professori, degli studenti e dei genitori in merito all’apprendimento delle lingue in età precoce. Questo articolo chiude con una panoramica degli articoli e recensioni inclusi in questo numero speciale. Parole chiave: ACQUISIZIONE PRECOCE DI L2, GIOVANI APPRENDENTI, SFIDE, STRATEGIE, PRATICHE DIDATTICHE   *  Francesca  Costa,  Università  Cattolica  di  Milano/Brescia                  francesca.costa@unicatt.it   COSTA  &  PLADEVALL-­‐BALLESTER   E-­‐JournALL  7(1)  (2020),  pp.  1-­‐10 2   1.  Early  second  and  foreign  language  learning   The  introduction  of  second  or  foreign  language  learning  programmes  in  early  education  has  become   common   practice   worldwide   despite   children’s   little   progress   and   modest   quantifiable   achievements,   particularly   in   low  exposure  contexts  (Bland,  2015;  García  Mayo,  2017;  Garton  &  Copland,  2019;  Nikolov  &   Djigunovic,  2011;  Rokita-­‐Jaśkow  &  Ellis,  2019).  The  introduction  of  additional  or  foreign  languages  (FL/L2),   notably  English,  for  young  learners  (YLs)  in  primary  schools  and  very  young  learners  (VYLs)  in  pre-­‐schools  is   claimed  to  have  entered  “a  global  phase,  thereby  astronomically  increasing  the  number  of  children  involved”   (Johnstone,  2019,  p.   16).   In   the  European   context,  most   countries  have  established   the  mandatory   starting   age  of  FL  learning  at  7  years  or  less  (Enever,  2011;  Eurydice,  2017).  This  widespread  implementation  of  early   language   teaching   is   encouraged   in   several   policy   documents,   including   the   Conclusions   of   the   Barcelona   Presidency   (2002),   the   reports   from   the   Commission   of   the   European   Communities   (2003)   and   the   consecutive   Eurydice   reports   (Eurydice,   2006,   2012,   2017).   These   documents   are   informed   by   a   socioeconomic  rationale,  namely  the  necessity  for  the  school  curriculum  to  keep  pace  with  the  requirements   of   a   globalised   world,   where   knowing   different   languages,   in   particular   English,   offers   a   competitive   advantage  (Enever  &  Moon,  2009).  Language  acquisition  studies   in   immersion  or  second   language  contexts   provide   a   psycholinguistic   justification,   according   to   which   an   early   start   results   in   potentially   better   language   learning   outcomes.   Yet   age   is   just   one   of   the   factors   at   play   and   an   early   start   alone   does   not   guarantee   any   advantages   if   the   learning   context   and   the   learning   conditions   are   not   favourable   (Enever,   2015;   Johnstone,   2009).   Research   should   therefore   focus   on   exploring   those   contexts   that   are   indeed   successful   to   determine  which   factors   contribute   to   improving   early   language   learning   experiences   among   teachers  and  learners  (Garton  &  Copland,  2019).     A   number   of   advantages   for   early   second   language   learning   have   been   identified,   namely   the   development  of  positive  attitudes  towards  foreign  languages  (Johnstone,  2009),  the  development  of  language   awareness   strategies,   children’s  natural   tendency   to  communicate  and  play   (Halliwell,  1992),  more   time   to   learn,  the  development  of  multicultural  identities,  and  reduced  anxiety  (Johnstone,  2002;  2009).  According  to   Pinter  (2006),  children  in  their   first  years  of  schooling  understand  meaningful  messages  but  do  not  display   analytic  skills.  They  also  have  low  awareness  of  themselves  as  language  learners  and  of  the  language  learning   process,  and  their  literacy  skills  are  only  emerging.  With  limited  knowledge  of  the  world,  they  enjoy  fantasy,   imagination   and  movement.   Older   children   in   the   upper   stages   of   primary   school   are  more   analytic,   have   well-­‐developed   literacy   skills,   are   aware   of   others’   viewpoints,   and   have   knowledge   of   the   world   and   an   interest  in  real-­‐life  issues.  Two  of  the  earliest  research  reports  on  early  second  language  learning  outlined  a   number   of   conditions   for   success   (Blondin   et   al.   1998;   Edelenbos,   Johnstone,   &   Kubanek,   2006),   and   subsequent   research   reviews   contributed   to   an   understanding   of   factors   fostering   early   language   learning   (Enever,   2011;   Enever   &   Lindgren,   2016;   Garcia   Mayo,   2017;   Nikolov   &   Djigunovic,   2011).   As   these   researchers   noted,   the   amount   of   exposure   inside   and   outside   school   should   be   increased,   parental   involvement  should  be  guaranteed,  class  size  should  ideally  be  reduced,  teachers  should  possess  an  advanced   linguistic  proficiency  level,  methodologically  appropriate  training  should  be  provided,  and  continuity  should   be  ensured  from  one  educational  level  to  the  next.  Additionally,  YLs  need  to  be  provided  with  meaningful  and   enjoyable  tasks,  as  well  as  opportunities  to  communicate  through  purposeful,  real,  here-­‐and-­‐now  experiences   (Cameron,   2001;   Muñoz,   2007;   Nunan,   2011;   Pinter,   2011,   2014),   all   of   which   encourage   motivation   in   language   learning.  Most   importantly,   the  development  of  realistic  objectives  and  the  use  of  age-­‐appropriate   methodological  tools  are  key  to  enhancing  the  potential  benefits  of  an  early  start  (Bland,  2015;  García  Mayo,   2017).   The  growing  number  of  early  second  and  foreign  language  teaching  programmes  has  been  paralleled   by  an   increase   in   research  contributions,  particularly  over   the  past   ten  years.  Edited  volumes  on   research-­‐ informed   practice   (Bland,   2015;   García   Mayo,   2017;   Moon   &   Nikolov,   2000;   Mourão   &   Lourenço,   2015;   Murphy  &  Evangelou,  2016;  Nikolov,  2009;  Philp,  Oliver,  &  Mackey,  2008;  Rokita-­‐Jaśkow  &  Ellis,  2019;  among   others),   research  methods   (Enever  &  Lindgren,  2017;  Pinter  &  Zandian,  2014),  assessment   (Nikolov,  2017;   Prosic-­‐Santovac  &  Rixon,  2019),  teacher  education  (Zein  &  Garton,  2017)  and  global  policies  (Enever  &  Moon,   2009),   special   issues   on   young   learners   (Enever  &   Lindgren,   2016;   Copland  &  Garton,   2014),  monographs   (Murphy,  2014;  Pinter,  2011)  and  handbooks  (Garton  &  Copland,  2019)  all  contribute  to  expanding  research   on   instructed   early   language   learning.   However,   the   teaching   and   learning   strategies   and   the   outcomes   of   early   language   teaching   policies   in   pre-­‐primary   and   primary   school   settings   remain   under-­‐researched   in   comparison   to   other   age   groups   (i.e.,   university   learners   or   adolescent   learners)   and   same   age   groups   in   INTRODUCTION   E-­‐JournALL  7(1)  (2020),  pp.  1-­‐10 3   second  language  or  immersion  settings  (Collins  &  Muñoz,  2016)  and  their  findings  from  studies  on  the  latter   groups  cannot  be  extended  to  YLs  on  account  of  age  and/or  context-­‐related  differences.         2.  Challenges  and  strategies  in  early  second  and  foreign  language  learning   There   is   a   need   for  more   research   on   the   challenges   and   teaching   and   learning   strategies   in   early   second  language  learning  contexts  and  further  studies  can  contribute  to  bridging  the  gap  between  research,   classroom  pedagogy,  and  expected  outcomes.  One  of   the  great  challenges   that   research  on  YLs  still   faces   is   teacher  education  and  the  use  of  pedagogical  strategies  employed  by  instructors  in  their  classroom  discourse   and   practice.   As   Zein   and   Garton   (2017)   emphasize,   research   on   teacher   education   is   still   limited   and   unfocused   (Grenfell,   2014)   and   mostly   generates   small-­‐scale   descriptive   studies.   Language-­‐related,   methodological   teacher   training   is   crucial   to   the   development   of   effective   pedagogical   strategies   and   L2   literacy  skills.  At  the  primary  school  level,  teachers  may  justify  their  self-­‐perceived  inadequate  proficiency  in   English  by   the   fact   that   they   are   expected   to   equip   young   learners  with  basic   vocabulary   and   grammatical   structures  as  opposed  to  content.  However,  the  communicative  approach,  which  must  certainly  be  used  with   young  learners,  requires  high  competence  on  the  part  of  the  teacher,  who  often  represents  the  single  source   of   input   (Bondi,   2001;   Jiménez   Raya   &   Hewitt,   2001).   Pronunciation   should   be   given   careful   attention   (Edelenbos  et  al.,  2006)  due  to  its  importance  in  enhancing  phonetic  awareness  in  learners.  Precisely  because   of  doubts  about   their   language  competence,   teachers  at   the  early   learning  stage  may  rely  on  grammar  as  a   dependable  source  of  L2  knowledge:  “[T]eachers  who  are  less  confident  in  their  English  proficiency,  or  who   feel  pressure  to  teach  towards  an  examination,  will  tend  to  opt  for  more  traditional  instruction,  even  if  this  is   not  mandated  by  the  syllabus  itself”  (Parker  &  Valente,  2019).  However,     young   learners   need   to   be   surrounded   by   and   participate   in   meaningful   discourse   in   the   foreign  language,  and  it  would  not  be  conceptually  appropriate  for  grammar  to  be  explicitly   taught  as  formal,  explicit  rules  in  young  learner  classrooms  to  children  under  the  age  of  8  or   9  years.  (Cameron,  2001,  p.  110)      Nevertheless,   as  Cameron  also  acknowledges,   it   is  desirable   for   teachers   to  be  aware  of  grammar-­‐ based  as  well  as  of  form-­‐focused  teaching  tools  so  that  they  can  make  the  most  of  the  learners’  readiness  to   more   formal   language   learning   or   to   call   young   learners’   attention   to   grammatical   features   present   in   the   different  sources  of  input  they  are  exposed  to,  such  as  songs  or  stories.  An  additional  strategy  to  be  reinforced   with  young   learners   is   the  development  of  L2   literacy   skills.  As  Cameron  notes   (2001),   “[F]rom   their   early   infancy,  children  are  involved  in  using  writing  and  reading:  for  example,  when  they  are  helped  to  write  their   name  on  a  birthday  card   to  a   friend  or  when   they   look  at   story  books  with  adults”   (p.  124).   It   is   therefore   natural  and  possible  to   focus  on  early   literacy   in  a  second  language  when  the  teacher   is  adequately  trained   and  the  children  are  ready  to  carry  out  this  kind  of  activity.   The   use   of   multilingual   practices   and   instructional   strategies   in   class   is   another   crucial   and   challenging   area   of   research   to   be   explored.   This   includes   the   use   of   the   L1   by   children   and   teachers   in   second/foreign   language   learning   and   translanguaging   strategies   in   early   education.  Multilingual   practices   seem  to  contribute  to  a  positive  and  motivating  learning  environment  while  still  developing  the  children’s  L1   (Garrity,  Aquino-­‐Sterling  &  Day,  2015;  Gort  &  Sembiante,  2015;  Schwartz  &  Gorbatt,  2018).  A  belief  persists   that  multilingual  pedagogies  should  be  avoided  in  order  to  expose  learners  as  much  as  possible  to  the  target   language.  This  vision,  however,  is  linked  to  traditional  monolingual  ideologies  (Cook,  2001;  Lin,  2015;  Prada   &   Nikula,   2018)   that   can   make   teachers   sometimes   feel   uneasy   when   they   use   other   languages   for   pedagogical  purposes.     Bilingual   education   and  CLIL  programmes   are   also   a   source   of   concern   in   early   language   learning,   since  it  is  thought  that  young  learners  might  not  be  prepared  to  learn  and  consolidate  content  through  an  L2   or  a  FL  if  their  level  of  the  target  language  is  limited.  However,  linguistic  development  should  proceed  parallel   to  that  of  content  and  therefore,  if  content  and  language  are  properly  integrated  and  one  assists  the  other,  the   above-­‐mentioned  concern  should  not  arise.  More  than  anything  else,  the  real  problem  concerns  CLIL  teacher   training,  especially  in  early  learning  contexts  (Mair,  forthcoming).  At  this  stage,  training  can  be  advantageous   (Ioannou-­‐Georgiou  &  Pavlou,  2011)  provided  that  certain  success  factors  are  considered  (i.e.,  not  neglecting   pupils’  L1,  preparing  competent  teachers  with  adequate  training,  having  permanent  teaching  staff,  involving   parents,  and  developing  suitable  materials  for  this  kind  of  methodological  approach  [Navés,  2009]).  However,   these  considerations  are  often  overlooked,  which  brings  fewer  advantages  and  limits  tangible  outcomes.   COSTA  &  PLADEVALL-­‐BALLESTER   E-­‐JournALL  7(1)  (2020),  pp.  1-­‐10 4   A  further  challenge  to  include  in  the  research  agenda  is  parents’  and  teachers’  beliefs  and  misbeliefs   about  language  learning  in  general  and  their  children’s  language  learning  process.  As  Ellis  and  Rokita-­‐Jaśkow   (2019)  observe,  teachers’  and  parents’  beliefs  “have  tremendous  influence  on  their  expectations  of  the  aims   of   language   learning,   how   languages   should   be   taught   and   assessed,   how  much   progress   children   should   make  and  what  achievements  can  be  expected”  (p.  242).  Beliefs  should  be  further  explored  as  a  tool  to  delve   into   how   the   stakeholders’   affective   stance   may   influence   the   process   of   early   second   language   learning.   These  beliefs   and  misbeliefs  need   to  be  made  explicit   so   that   they  can  be  explored,  drawing  on   theoretical   underpinnings  and  experimental  data,  and  can   inform  the  examination  of  what  young   learners  can  do  with   language  and  how  their  linguistic  development  proceeds.   Only  through  sound  research  and  a  continuous  link  between  research  and  classroom  practice  can  the   aforementioned  research  challenges  regarding  early  language  learning  be  overcome.  This  is  in  part  the  aim  of   this   special   issue,   which   explores   learners’   outcomes   and   effective   teaching   strategies   from   a   variety   of   perspectives  and  research  methods,  involving  a  range  of  L1s  and  target  languages.     3.  This  special  issue   Given  the  gaps  in  the  literature  and  the  unanswered  questions  concerning  several  of  the  challenges   and  teaching  and   learning  strategies  outlined  above,   this   issue   focuses  mainly  on  two  closely-­‐related  areas:   the  strategies  to  adopt  in  early  second  and  foreign  language  learning  and  the  extent  to  which  those  strategies   lead   to   observable   or   verifiable   outcomes.   In   this   sense,  we   have   aimed   at   investigating   the   efficiency   and   appropriateness   of   early   second   language   teaching   and   the  most   effective   teaching-­‐learning   strategies   (as   suggested  by  Enever  &  Lindgren,  2017;  Murphy,  2014).  We  have  simultaneously  endeavoured  to  gain  insights   into  approaches  to  and  experiences  of  early  language  teaching  and  learning  across  contexts.  We  also  aim  to   bridge   the   gap   between   research   and   school   practice   (as   suggested   by   Zein,   2019)   and   to   inform   the   development  of  effective  educational  practices  and  policies. This   special   issue,   which   includes   seven   articles,   therefore   contributes   to   the   growing   body   of   research   on   early   second   language   learning   and   teaching   at   pre-­‐primary   and   primary   school   levels.   In   so   doing,   it   seeks   to   shed   light   on   teaching/learning   strategies   and   related   outcomes   that   remain   under-­‐ researched.  To  this  end,  the  contributions  consider  a  variety  of  school  contexts  across  the  world,  the  range  of   approaches   used   within   them,   different   onset   ages,   and   different   programme   lengths   and   intensities.   The   issue   also   covers   a   range   of   target   languages,   L1s,   and   topics   related   to   the   various   strategies   and   related   outcomes:   the   importance   of   longitudinal   or   pseudolongitudinal   studies   in   early   language   learning   and   assessment;   effective   strategies   for   the   transition   from   pre-­‐primary   to   primary   language   teaching   and   learning  in  bilingual  schools   in  Spain;   intercultural   interactions  and  multilingual  practices  among  preschool   Arabic-­‐Hebrew  bilinguals  in  Israel;  the  use  of  the  L1  in  task-­‐based  interactions  by  Spanish/Basque  bilingual   elementary   students   studying   English   as   a   foreign   language;   the   sound/spelling   connection,   pronunciation   and   literacy  skills   in  L2  French   in   the  UK;  Maltese  teachers’  views  on  multilingual  primary  classrooms;  and   language  learning  motivation  and  literacy  in  primary  school  storytelling  projects  in  Spain.     The   articles   are   organized   as   follows   (see   the   summary   in   Table   1):   the   issue   begins   with   two   conceptually-­‐oriented   articles   (Lopriore;   Fleta),   one   in   Italian   and   one   in   Spanish,   which   reflect   on   how   research   and   practice   in   early   language   learning   are   linked   and   provide   an   overview   of   assessment   and   teaching   strategies.   The   next   article   (Krivosh  &   Schwartz)   is  written   in   English   and   examines   pre-­‐primary   language   education.   The   four   articles   that   follow,   also  written   in   English,   explore   primary   school   contexts.   Two   of   these   articles   (Martínez-­‐Adrián;   Porter)   report   quantitative   research,   whereas   the   last   two   (Panzavecchia   &   Little;   Waddington)   report   on   qualitative   research.   In   what   follows,   each   article   is   introduced  in  more  detail.     The   first   article,   “Valutare   l’apprendimento   precoce   di   una   seconda   lingua:   rilevanza   degli   studi   longitudinali,”  by  Lucila  Lopriore,  examines  the  complexity  of  assessment  and  evaluation  strategies   in  early   language  learning  and  discusses  how  these  two  aspects  have  been  investigated  in  previous  research  studies.   The  author  strongly  stresses   the  significance  of   longitudinal   research  studies  and  their  potential   impact  on   teaching  and  learning  practices  and  outcomes.     The  second  conceptually-­‐oriented  article,  “Construyendo  puentes  entre  Infantil  y  el  aula  de  Primaria   para   la   alfabetización   temprana   en   inglés,”   by   Teresa   Fleta   is   a   reflection   on   the  Comunidad   Autónoma   de   Madrid   bilingual  programmes  and  CLIL  contexts.   In  particular,   the  article  describes  how  both   teachers  and   students  can  be  better  equipped  in  language  learning.  The  author  suggests  practical  communicative  strategies   that  can  be  developed,  particularly  during  the  transition  from  preschool  to  primary  school.  These  include  the   INTRODUCTION   E-­‐JournALL  7(1)  (2020),  pp.  1-­‐10 5   development   of   phonological   skills   through   storytelling,   the   exposure   to   input   and   interaction   through   the   use  of  prefabricated  language,  and  the  development  of  early  literacy  skills.       The   first   empirical   article,   by  Ludmila  Krivosh  and  Mila  Schwartz,   “‘To  be  able   to  understand  each   other’:   Intercultural   interactions   in   the   Arabic–Hebrew-­‐speaking   preschool   in   Israel,”   explores   the   intercultural  strategies  used  by  L1  Arabic-­‐  and  L1  Hebrew-­‐speaking  children  during  their  first  year  of  Arabic-­‐ Hebrew  dual  language  education  at  pre-­‐school  in  Israel.  The  authors  also  investigate  how  preschool  teachers   foster  these  intercultural  strategies  in  the  classroom  environment  and  suggest  how  early  bilingual  education   might  contribute  to  outcomes  in  the  acculturation  process  in  the  classroom.  Observational  and  interview  data   with   teachers   (N   =   2)   and   children   (N   =   29)  were   collected   over   one   academic   year   and   revealed   several   crucial  teacher  strategies  to  encourage  intercultural  interactions  and  a  number  of  acculturation  strategies  of   both  L2  experts  and  novice  L2  learners.       The  contributions  that  follow  are  quantitative  in  nature.  María  Martínez  Adrián’s  article,  “The  use  of   previously  known  languages  and  target  language  English  during  task-­‐based  interaction:  A  pseudolongitudinal   study  of  primary-­‐school  CLIL  learners,”  examines  a  very  relevant  strategy  in  early  language  learning:  the  use   of   Basque/Spanish   (previously   known   languages)   and   English   (target   language)   in   primary   school   CLIL   learners   (N   =   90)   in   year   5   and   6.   The   outcomes   of   the   pseudolongitudinal   study   reveal   that   the   use   of   previously  known  languages  is  greater  in  older  students,  but  that  both  groups  display  similar  use  of  the  target   language  except   for  metalanguage.  Martínez-­‐Adrián’s  article   confirms  how  children  make  natural  use  of   all   their  multilingual  linguistic  repertoires,  but  at  the  same  time  suggests  a  greater  use  of  target  language-­‐based   strategies.   “Learning   French   sound/spelling   links   in   English   primary   school   classrooms,”   by   Alison   Porter,   focuses  on  the  combined  use  of  systematic  explicit  phonics  and  communicative,  meaning-­‐based  strategies  in  a   23-­‐week  French  as  a  foreign  language  programme.  The  sample  comprises  45  students  (with  a  sub-­‐sample  of   23)   who   completed   pre-­‐,   post-­‐   and   delayed   post-­‐tests   requiring   them   to   read   aloud   in   sentences.   The   multiple-­‐source  statistical  analysis  revealed  that,  in  general,  when  reading  a  card  with  a  familiar  word  aloud,   the  children  made  slow  but  statistically  significant  progress  both  during  and  immediately  after  the  FL  phonics   teaching   programme.   They   were   unsurprisingly   more   successful   reading   familiar   words   than   unfamiliar   words.   Porter   highlights   another   very   important   observation,   namely   the   fact   that   L1   literacy   tends   to   correlate  with  FL  literacy.   Teachers’  perspectives  are  addressed  by  Michelle  Panzavecchia  and  Sabine  Little  in  their  article,  “The   Language  of  Learning  –  Maltese  teachers’  views  on  bilingual  and  multilingual  primary  classrooms,”  in  which   they   focus   on   teachers’   multilingual   perceptions   and   strategies   at   the   primary   level   in   Malta.   Data   were   collected  by  means  of   in-­‐depth   interviews  with  8   teachers  who  expressed   interest   in  multilingual  practices   but  at  the  same  time  felt  the  need  for  more  training  on  how  to  use  translanguaging  as  a  pedagogical  strategy.   The  pedagogical  outcomes  of   this  study  shed  light  on  the  need  to  provide  guidelines  for  the  growing  global   multilingual  society.   The  final  article,  by  Julie  Waddington,  “Motivating  self  and  others  through  a  whole-­‐school  storytelling   project:   authentic   language   &   literacy   development,”   aims   to   explore   the   motivational   effect   and   literacy   development   of   storytelling   teaching   strategies   on   27   learners   in   the   upper   cycle   of   primary   school.   This   exploratory  qualitative  study  was  carried  out  over  a  period  of  three  years  and  analysed  data  from  field  notes   of   classroom   observations   and   video   recorded   sessions,   questionnaires   and   interviews   with   students   and   teachers.  The  storytelling  project  included  the  use  of  authentic  picture  books  and  peer  modelling.  Outcomes   suggest   that   the   reading   project   promoted   group   collaboration,   a   positive   attitude   towards   reading,   and   a   growing   awareness   of   how   successful   communication   can   be   achieved.   The   author   also   highlights   a   discrepancy   between   students’   and   teachers’   views   on   their   performance   and   the   students’   self-­‐reported   difficulties  in  using  the  foreign  language.   In   addition   to   the   aforementioned   research  articles,   this   special   issue   also   includes   reviews  of   two   recent  publications  in  the  field  of  early  language  learning.  First,  Andrea  Huerta  Bon  provides  a  critical  reseña   in   Spanish  of   Janet  Enever   and  Eva  Lindgren’s  Early   Language  Learning   in   School   Contexts:   Complexity   and   Mixed  Methods   (2017).  Then  Alberta  Novello  offers  a  recensione   in   Italian  of   Subhan  Zein  and  Sue  Garton’s   Early  Language  Learning  and  Teacher  Education  (2019).         COSTA  &  PLADEVALL-­‐BALLESTER   E-­‐JournALL  7(1)  (2020),  pp.  1-­‐10 6   Table 1 Summary of full-length articles in this special issue of E-JournALL Author/s Title Context Type of article Language Country Lucilla Lopriore Valutare l’apprendimento precoce di una seconda lingua: rilevanza degli studi longitudinali Pre-primary and primary Overview Italian International Teresa Fleta Construyendo puentes entre Educación Infantil y Primaria para la enseñanza bilingüe en inglés Pre-primary and primary Overview Spanish Spain Ludmila Krivosh and Mila Schwartz “To be able to understand each other": Intercultural interactions in the Arabic–Hebrew-speaking preschool in Israel Pre-primary Empirical/Qualitative English Israel María Martínez- Adrián The use of previously known languages and target language English during task-based interaction: A pseudolongitudinal study of primary-school CLIL learners Primary Empirical/Quantitative English Spain Alison Porter Learning French sound/spelling links in English primary school classrooms Primary Empirical/Quantitative English United Kingdom Michelle Panzavecchia, Sabine Little The Language of Learning: Maltese teachers’ views on bilingual and multilingual primary classrooms. Primary Empirical/Qualitative English Malta Julie Waddington Motivating self and others through a whole-school storytelling project: authentic language & literacy development Primary Empirical/Qualitative English Spain     4.  Concluding  comments  and  future  research   This   issue   addresses   several   of   the   most   debated   teaching/learning   strategies   in   early   language   learning  and  their  outcomes.  Together,  the  articles  in  this  volume  clearly  suggest  that  two  of  these  strategies   should  be   considered   essential   in   early   language   learning   contexts:   the  use  of  multilingual  practices   (in   all   their   forms,   from   translanguaging   at   the   micro   level   to   bilingual   education   at   the   macro   level)   and   the   development   of   children’s   L2   literacy   skills   in   reading   (with   particular   attention   to   pronunciation)   and   writing.     The  special  issue  sought  to  encompass  both  quantitative  and  qualitative  research  with  a  longitudinal   or  pseudolongitudinal  design  and  including  whenever  possible  all  actors  and  educational  levels  (pre-­‐primary   and  primary)  in  early  second  language  learning.  This  objective  was  widely  achieved  since  the  papers  focus  on   parents,  students,  teachers  and  institutions,  often  triangulating  data  to  gain  a  more  complete  perspective.  At   the  same  time,  the  special  issue  intended  to  provide  an  overview  of  studies  on  different  contexts,  which  was   partly  achieved,  even  though  the  studies  mainly  focused  on  the  diverse  European  context  (Spain,  Italy,  Malta,   UK),  with  only  one  study  examining  on  a  non-­‐European  context  (Israel).   All   of   the   topics   and   strategies   initially   proposed   in   the   call   for   papers—teacher   discourse   and   its   effects   on   language   learning   outcomes,   effective   teaching   strategies   with   a   focus   on   reading   aloud   and   theater-­‐based  activities,  systematic  synthetic  phonics  outcomes,  textbooks  and  materials  analysis,  diversity  in   teaching  pedagogies  according  to  different  cultural  contexts,  strategies  for  special  needs  students,  assessment   (with  a  particular   focus  on  assessment   for   learning  and  error   correction),   content   and   language   integrated   learning  (CLIL)  in  early  learning  contexts,  and  bilingual  education  in  early  learning—have  been  addressed  in   some  way  by  the  articles  in  the  issue,  with  two  exceptions.  None  of  the  articles  explore  the  use  of  drama  as  an   effective  teaching  strategy  and  none  explores  strategies  for  special  needs  children,  despite  the  fact  that  these   represent  important  topics  that  remain  underexplored.  We  hope  that  these  and  other  topics  in  early  language   learning  will  be  the  subject  of  future 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francesca.costa@unicatt.it EN Francesca Costa is Associate Professor of English Language and Linguistics at the Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore of Milan. She taught English Linguistics at Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore in Milan from 2002 to 2017, Scientific English at Università degli Studi di Pavia from 2006 to 2014, and English for Primary Education at Università degli Studi di Bergamo. Since 2001 she has been involved in teaching, teacher training, and research at all levels of education. She specializes in applied linguistics and the teaching and learning of the English language at all levels of education (from primary to university) with a particular focus on Bilingual Education, CLIL, ICLHE (Integrating Content and Language in Higher Education), EMI (English-medium Instruction) and scientific English. She holds a Doctorate in Education (UK). ES Francesca Costa es Profesora de lengua y lingüística inglesas en la Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore de Milán. Ha impartido clases de lingüística inglesa en la Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore de Milán desde 2002 hasta 2017, inglés científico en la Università degli Studi di Pavia desde 2006 a 2014 e inglés para profesores de primaria en la Università degli Studi di Bergamo. Desde 2001, ha participado en actividades docentes, de formación docente y de investigación en todas las etapas educativas. Sus intereses de investigación incluyen la lingüística aplicada, el aprendizaje y enseñanza del inglés des de la educación primaria hasta la universidad con especial atención a la educación bilingüe, AICLE, ICLHE (Integrating Content and Language in Higher Education), EMI (English-medium Instruction) e inglés científico. Tiene un doctorado en Educación (UK). IT Francesca Costa è professoressa associata di Linguistica Inglese presso l’Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore. Ha insegnato Linguistica Inglese all’Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore dal 2002 al 2017, Inglese Scientifico all’Università degli Studi di Pavia dal 2006 al 2014 e Inglese per la scuola primaria all’Università degli Studi di Bergamo. Dal 2001 è convolta in attività di formazione e di ricerca a tutti i livelli di istruzione. La sua linea di ricerca comprende la linguistica applicata, l’insegnamento- apprendimento dell’inglese a tutti i livelli di istruzione (dalla primaria all’università) con un’attenzione particolare alla Bilingual Education, CLIL, ICLHE (Integrating Content and Language in Higher Education), EMI (English-medium Instruction) e l’inglese scientifico. Ha conseguito un Doctorate in Education nel Regno Unito.       Elisabet Pladevall-Ballester, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona elisabet.pladevall@uab.cat EN Elisabet Pladevall-Ballester is Associate Professor at the Departament de Filologia Anglesa i de Germanística, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Spain. Her research interests include child second and third language acquisition in bilingual immersion and instructed foreign language classroom contexts and also in CLIL primary education contexts. She currently leads the research group EFLIC (2017SGR752) (English as a Foreign Language in Instruction Contexts) and teaches English Grammar and Teaching Methodology at the undergraduate level and Instructed SLA and CLIL in the department’s MA program. ES Elisabet Pladevall-Ballester es Profesora agregada en el Departament de Filologia Anglesa i de Germanística, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Spain. Sus intereses de investigación incluyen la adquisición temprana de lenguas segundas y terceras en contextos de inmersión y en contextos de instrucción de lenguas extranjeras, así como en contextos AICLE en educación primaria. Es la coordinadora del grupo de investigación EFLIC (2017SGR752) (English as a Foreign Language in Instruction Contexts) e imparte clases de Gramática Inglesa y Metodología de la enseñanza en el programa de grado y adquisición de segundas lenguas en contextos de instrucción y AICLE en el programa de máster. IT Elisabet Pladevall-Ballester è professoressa associata nel Departament de Filologia Anglesa i de Germanística, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Spagna. I suoi interessi di ricerca includono l’apprendimento precoce delle lingue seconde e terze in contesti di immersione e in contesti di istruzione di lingue straniere così come in contesti CLIL di educazione primaria. È coordinatrice del gruppo di ricerca EFLIC (2017SGR752) (English as a Foreign Language in Instruction Contexts) e insegna Grammatica Inglese e Metodologia dell’insegnamento alla laurea triennale e Acquisizione Linguistica in contesti di istruzione e CLIL a livello di laurea specialistica.