Microsoft Word - 7. Panzavecchia_DONE_108-123 (1) (1) (1).docx


EuroAmerican	
  Journal	
  of	
  Applied	
  Linguistics	
  and	
  Languages	
  
Special	
  Issue,	
  Volume	
  7,	
  Issue	
  1,	
  February	
  2020,	
  108-­‐123	
  
ISSN	
  2376-­‐905X	
  	
  
DOI	
  http://dx.doi.org/10.21283/2376905X.11.184	
  
www.e-­‐journall.org	
  	
  

© Panzavecchia 2020. This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. 

	
   	
  
	
   Language	
  use	
  in	
  the	
  primary	
  classroom:	
  Maltese	
  teachers’	
  views	
  on	
  

multilingual	
  practices	
  
	
  
	
  

	
  
MICHELLE	
  PANZAVECCHIA	
  &	
  SABINE	
  LITTLE	
  

University	
  of	
  Sheffield	
  
	
   	
  
	
   Received	
  27	
  April	
  2019;	
  received	
  in	
  revised	
  form	
  9	
  July	
  2019;	
  accepted	
  29	
  September	
  2019	
  

 
ABSTRACT 

EN Recent global migration trends and an increase in worldwide human mobility are currently contributing to unparalleled challenges 
in the area of literacy and education within multicultural and multilingual societies (Leikin, Schwartz, & Tobin, 2012). Malta, a small 
island in the Mediterranean, is one country currently seeking ways in which to adapt to the realities of today’s diverse classrooms. 
This paper details original research into Maltese teachers’ perceptions and practices in multilingual classrooms. Following a brief 
overview of Malta's language history and educational system, we draw on the experiences of eight bilingual primary school 
teachers through in-depth, semi-structured interviews. Recent demographic changes in Malta necessitate a paradigm shift in 
education. With Malta’s challenges mirrored at global level, this study makes an important contribution to understanding the issues 
faced by educators and children, exploring pathways towards an equitable and socially just education for all.  
 
Key words:	
   MULTILINGUAL EDUCATION, MULTILINGUAL TEACHING PRACTICES, TRANSLANGUAGING, PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT, 
INITIAL TEACHER EDUCATION 
 

ES Las tendencias migratorias recientes y el aumento de la movilidad en todo el mundo están contribuyendo al desafío sin paralelo en el 
área de la educación y la alfabetización dentro de sociedades multiculturales y multilingües (Leikin, Schwartz, & Tobin, 2012). Malta, 
una pequeña isla en el Mediterráneo, busca formas de adaptarse a las realidades de las diversas aulas de clases de la actualidad. 
Este estudio detalla investigación original en la percepción y las prácticas de maestros malteses relacionadas con las aulas de clase 
multilingües. Después de una breve descripción de la historia lingüística de Malta y su sistema educativo, nos basamos en las 
experiencias de ocho maestros de escuela primaria bilingües por medio de entrevistas profundas, presenciales semiestructuradas. 
Los cambios demográficos recientes en Malta requieren un cambio de paradigma en la educación, y con los desafíos de Malta 
reflejados a nivel mundial, la investigación proporciona una contribución importante para comprender el problema al que se enfrentan 
los educadores y los niños, explorando caminos hacia una educación equitativa y socialmente justa para todos. 
 
Palabras clave: EDUCACIÓN MULTILINGÜE, PRÁCTICAS DE ENSEÑANZA MULTILINGÜES, TRANSLENGUAR, DESARROLLO PROFESIONAL, 
FORMACIÓN INICIAL DEL PROFESORADO 
 

IT Le recenti tendenze migratorie e l’aumento della mobilità a livello globale pongono sfide senza precedenti in termini di 
alfabetizzazione e istruzione nelle società multiculturali e multilingue (Leikin, Schwartz, & Tobin, 2012). Malta, una piccola isola nel 
Mediterraneo, è in cerca di soluzioni per adeguarsi alle realtà scolastiche di classi eterogenee. Questo articolo descrive in dettaglio 
una ricerca su percezioni e pratiche di insegnanti maltesi nelle classi multilingue. Dopo una breve panoramica della storia 
linguistica e del sistema educativo di Malta, attingiamo alle esperienze di otto insegnanti bilingui della scuola primaria attraverso 
interviste in profondità, semi-strutturate, faccia a faccia. I recenti cambiamenti demografici a Malta richiedono un cambio di 
paradigma nell'istruzione e, con le sfide di Malta, riflesse a livello globale, questo studio offre un contributo importante alla 
comprensione delle questioni affrontate da educatori e bambini, esplorando percorsi per un'istruzione equa e socialmente giusta 
per tutti. 
 
Parole chiave: ISTRUZIONE MULTILINGUE, PRATICHE DI INSEGNAMENTO MULTILINGUE, TRANSLANGUAGING, SVILUPPO PROFESSIONALE, 
FORMAZIONE INIZIALE DEGLI INSEGNANTI 

  

* 	
  	
  Michelle	
  Panzavecchia,	
  University	
  of	
  Sheffield	
  
	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  mpanzavecchia1@sheffield.ac.uk 



LANGUAGE	
  USE	
  IN	
  THE	
  PRIMARY	
  CLASSROOM	
  

E-­‐JournALL	
  7(1)	
  (2020),	
  pp.	
  108-­‐123 109	
  

1.	
  Introduction	
  	
  
The	
  world	
   is	
  presently	
  undergoing	
   an	
  unparalleled	
   rise	
   in	
   global	
   immigration,	
   leading	
   to	
   a	
   shift	
   in	
  

societies	
  towards	
  more	
  cultural,	
  ethnic	
  and	
  linguistic	
  diversity.	
  Human	
  mobility	
  reached	
  258	
  million	
  in	
  2017	
  
(United	
   Nations,	
   Department	
   of	
   Economic	
   and	
   Social	
   Affairs,	
   Population	
   Division,	
   2017),	
   with	
   migrants	
  
comprising	
   14%	
   of	
   the	
   population	
   residing	
   in	
   high-­‐income	
   countries,	
   an	
   increase	
   of	
   almost	
   5%	
   since	
   the	
  
beginning	
  of	
  the	
  millennium	
  (United	
  Nations,	
  Department	
  of	
  Economic	
  and	
  Social	
  Affairs,	
  Population	
  Division,	
  
2017).	
   The	
   past	
   decade’s	
   global	
   demographic	
   shifts	
   have	
   led	
   to	
   populations	
   becoming	
   increasingly	
  
linguistically	
  and	
  culturally	
  diverse.	
  This	
  diversity	
   is	
   increasingly	
  represented	
   in	
   the	
  classroom,	
  with	
  global	
  
figures	
   showing	
   that	
  multilingualism	
   in	
   schools	
   is	
   on	
   the	
   rise.	
   In	
   England,	
   for	
   example,	
   21.2%	
   of	
   primary	
  
school	
  pupils	
  are	
  exposed	
  to	
  a	
  language	
  other	
  than	
  English	
  in	
  the	
  home	
  (UK	
  Department	
  for	
  Education,	
  2018).	
  
In	
  the	
  US,	
  the	
  most	
  recent	
  census	
  in	
  2014	
  revealed	
  similar	
  numbers,	
  with	
  22%	
  of	
  the	
  school	
  population	
  (5-­‐17	
  
years	
  old)	
  speaking	
  a	
   language	
  other	
  than	
  English	
  at	
  home	
  (Camarota	
  &	
  Ziegler,	
  2015).	
  While	
  these	
   figures	
  
illustrate	
  an	
  increasing	
  trend	
  within	
  individual	
  countries,	
  gaining	
  a	
  holistic,	
  international	
  overview	
  is	
  difficult,	
  
since	
   countries	
   adopt	
   diverse	
   reporting	
   and	
   tracking	
   strategies.	
   For	
   instance,	
   some	
   countries	
   track	
   first-­‐
generation	
  migrants	
  only,	
   leading	
  to	
   issues	
  with	
  respect	
  to	
  the	
  reporting	
  of	
  multilingual	
  children,	
  due	
  to	
  an	
  
oversight	
  of	
  children	
  born	
  in-­‐country	
  to	
  migrant	
  parents	
  (European	
  Commission,	
  2019).	
  	
  

Beyond	
  counting	
  students,	
  the	
  recent	
  developments	
  regarding	
  diversity,	
  both	
  in	
  the	
  classroom	
  and	
  in	
  
society,	
   have	
   led	
   to	
   a	
   call	
   for	
   an	
   increased	
   understanding	
   of	
   and	
   engagement	
   with	
   multilingualism	
   in	
  
education.	
   Language	
   ideologies	
  which	
   advocate	
   the	
   strict	
   separation	
  of	
   languages	
   are	
  now	
  making	
  way	
   for	
  
more	
   flexible	
  practices	
   including	
   translanguaging,	
  which	
  supports	
   the	
  concept	
  of	
   fluid	
   language	
  repertoires	
  
that	
  human	
  beings	
  naturally	
  utilize	
  as	
  a	
  communicative	
  tool,	
  depending	
  on	
  context	
  or	
  circumstances	
  (García	
  
&	
  Kleyn,	
  2016;	
  Sabino,	
  2018).	
  Within	
  the	
  classroom,	
  however,	
   these	
  practices	
  are	
  still	
   in	
  their	
   infancy,	
  with	
  
many	
   teachers	
   reporting	
   insecurity	
   when	
   it	
   comes	
   to	
   the	
   teaching	
   of	
   multilingual	
   students	
   (Tinsley	
   and	
  
Board,	
   2016).	
   A	
   look	
   at	
   the	
   international	
   figures	
   highlights	
   the	
   need	
   to	
   understand	
   more	
   about	
   the	
  
complexities	
  of	
  multilingualism	
  in	
  the	
  classroom,	
  in	
  particular,	
  the	
  need	
  for	
  research	
  with	
  practising	
  teachers	
  
who	
  are	
  called	
  upon	
  to	
  implement	
  national	
  education	
  policies,	
  which	
  are	
  frequently	
  operating	
  on	
  insufficient	
  
or	
   unclear	
   data	
   (European	
   Commission,	
   2019;	
   Tinsley	
   and	
   Board,	
   2016).	
   This	
   study	
   uses	
   Malta	
   as	
   one	
  
example	
  of	
  the	
  larger	
  global	
  trend	
  of	
  diversity,	
  addressing	
  the	
  following	
  research	
  questions:	
  

	
  
-­‐ In	
  which	
  ways	
   are	
  Maltese	
   primary	
   school	
   teachers	
   supporting	
  multilingual	
   students	
  within	
   their	
  

classroom	
  environments?	
  	
  
-­‐ What	
   are	
   these	
   teachers’	
   current	
   practices	
   and	
   perceptions	
   of	
   using	
   flexible	
   language	
   pedagogies	
  

such	
  as	
  translanguaging	
  in	
  bilingual	
  and	
  multilingual	
  classrooms?	
  	
  
	
  

The	
   present	
   study	
   focuses	
   on	
   participants’	
   perceptions	
   of	
   bilingual	
   and	
   multilingual	
   classrooms,	
  
together	
  with	
  their	
  views	
  and	
  practices	
  related	
  to	
  translanguaging	
  pedagogies.	
  Findings	
  from	
  the	
  study	
  aim	
  to	
  
contribute	
  to	
  the	
  growing	
  understanding	
  of	
   teachers’	
  practices	
  and	
  requirements	
  related	
  to	
  diversity	
   in	
  the	
  
classroom,	
   highlighting	
   the	
   need	
   for	
   more	
   qualitative	
   research	
   to	
   explore	
   necessary	
   changes	
   to	
   both	
  
educational	
  policy	
  and	
  practice.	
  

	
  
2.	
  The	
  Maltese	
  context	
  

Malta	
   is	
   a	
   small	
   island	
  nation	
   in	
   the	
  middle	
   of	
   the	
  Mediterranean	
   Sea,	
  with	
   an	
   area	
   of	
   246	
   square	
  
kilometres.	
  Neighboured	
   by	
   Italy	
   and	
   Libya,	
   the	
  Maltese	
   islands	
   boast	
   of	
   a	
   rich	
   history	
   that	
   has	
  witnessed	
  
many	
   a	
   foreign	
   rule.	
   As	
   part	
   of	
   their	
   historical	
   legacy,	
   the	
  Maltese	
   people	
   have	
   lived	
  within	
   the	
   reality	
   of	
  
multilingualism	
   for	
  many	
  centuries	
  as	
   the	
   linguistic	
   traits	
  of	
   the	
   island’s	
   inhabitants	
  were	
   influenced	
  by	
  an	
  
assortment	
  of	
  different	
  languages,	
  with	
  Arabic,	
  Latin,	
  Sicilian,	
  Italian,	
  French,	
  English	
  and	
  Maltese	
  spoken	
  on	
  
the	
   island	
   throughout	
   the	
   years.	
   As	
   part	
   of	
   Malta’s	
   British	
   colonial	
   heritage,	
   the	
   English	
   language	
   was	
  
introduced	
   in	
  schools	
   in	
  1833,	
  eventually	
  replacing	
   Italian	
  as	
   the	
  country’s	
  official	
   language,	
  whilst	
  Maltese	
  
was	
   recognized	
   as	
   an	
   official	
   language	
   alongside	
   English	
   in	
   1934	
   (Brincat,	
   2011;	
   Camilleri	
   Grima,	
   2013b;	
  
Frendo,	
   1988).	
   Notwithstanding	
   its	
   Semitic	
   origins,	
   the	
   Maltese	
   language	
   is	
   written	
   in	
   Latin	
   script	
   and	
   is	
  
essentially	
  a	
  hybrid	
  of	
  Arabic,	
  English	
  and	
  Italian	
  (Vella,	
  2012).	
  The	
  Maltese	
  vernacular	
  includes	
  a	
  plethora	
  of	
  
English	
   vocabulary	
   and	
   expressions,	
   whilst	
   code-­‐switching	
   is	
   a	
   ubiquitous	
   and	
   natural	
   part	
   of	
   local	
  
communication	
   (Camilleri	
   Grima,	
   2013b).	
   Most	
   Maltese	
   people	
   are	
   bilingual	
   to	
   some	
   extent,	
   however	
   the	
  
level	
   of	
   proficiency	
   varies	
   considerably	
   amongst	
   individuals,	
   depending	
   on	
   their	
   language	
   backgrounds,	
  



PANZAVECCHIA	
  &	
  LITTLE	
  

E-­‐JournALL	
  7(1)	
  (2020),	
  pp.	
  108-­‐123 110	
  

preferences	
  and	
  contexts	
  (Farrugia,	
  2016).	
  The	
  Maltese	
   language	
   is	
  spoken	
  by	
  over	
  95%	
  of	
  Maltese	
  people,	
  
whilst	
  over	
  85%	
  speak	
  English	
  (Camilleri	
  Grima,	
  2016).	
  Italian	
  is	
  also	
  spoken	
  by	
  many	
  Maltese	
  people,	
  albeit	
  
to	
  varying	
  degrees	
  of	
  fluency.	
  This	
  is	
  due	
  to	
  the	
  countries’	
  geographical	
  proximity	
  and	
  the	
  influence	
  of	
  Italian	
  
television	
  stations,	
  which	
  are	
  popular	
  amongst	
  Maltese	
  households	
  (Caruana,	
  2013).	
  	
  

In	
  spite	
  of	
  the	
  small	
  size	
  of	
  the	
  island,	
  there	
  appears	
  to	
  be	
  a	
  linguistic	
  divide	
  according	
  to	
  locality,	
  as	
  
inhabitants	
   of	
   certain	
   parts	
   of	
  Malta	
   such	
   as	
   Sliema,	
   St.	
   Julian’s,	
   and	
   the	
   surrounding	
   areas	
   tend	
   to	
   speak	
  
English	
  more	
  fluently,	
  whilst	
  those	
  hailing	
  from	
  Southern	
  areas	
  are	
  usually	
  perceived	
  to	
  be	
  more	
  proficient	
  in	
  
Maltese.	
  The	
  Constitution	
  of	
  Malta	
  recognizes	
  both	
  Maltese	
  and	
  English	
  as	
  official	
   languages,	
  and	
  Maltese	
  is	
  
also	
  one	
  of	
  the	
  official	
   languages	
  of	
  the	
  European	
  Union.	
  The	
  population	
  of	
  Malta	
  stood	
  at	
  475,700	
  in	
  2017,	
  
signifying	
   the	
   largest	
   relative	
   increase	
   in	
  population	
   in	
  Europe	
  during	
   this	
  year	
   (+32.9	
  per	
  1000	
  residents)	
  
(Eurostat,	
   2017).	
   Paradoxically,	
   in	
   the	
   same	
   year,	
   the	
  Maltese	
   islands	
   had	
   the	
   lowest	
   birth	
   rate	
   in	
   Europe	
  
(Eurostat,	
   2017).	
   This	
   indicates	
   that	
   globalization	
   and	
   intensifying	
   migration	
   trends	
   are	
   seeing	
   asylum	
  
seekers	
   and	
   refugees	
   entering	
  Malta	
   in	
  unprecedented	
  numbers,	
   since	
   the	
   island	
   is	
   presently	
   considered	
   a	
  
symbolic	
   gateway	
  between	
  Africa	
  and	
  Europe.	
  Moreover,	
  Malta’s	
   accession	
   to	
   the	
  European	
  Union	
   in	
  2004	
  
has	
   also	
  brought	
   about	
  many	
  EU	
  citizens	
  benefitting	
  of	
   their	
   free	
   right	
  of	
  movement	
  within	
  other	
  member	
  
states	
   (International	
   Organization	
   for	
   Migration,	
   2016).	
   Despite	
   Malta’s	
   multilingual	
   and	
   multicultural	
  
history,	
   this	
   sudden	
  and	
  rapid	
  demographic	
   shift	
   is	
  nonetheless	
  giving	
   rise	
   to	
  unprecedented	
  challenges	
  as	
  
the	
   island’s	
   inhabitants	
   are	
   striving	
   to	
  welcome	
   and	
   provide	
   for	
   the	
   ever-­‐increasing	
   number	
   of	
   foreigners	
  
within	
   their	
   society	
   and	
   educational	
   settings.	
   As	
   a	
   result,	
   classrooms	
   that	
   were	
   previously	
   bilingual	
   are	
  
increasingly	
  multilingual	
  (Farrugia,	
  2017;	
  Scaglione	
  &	
  Caruana,	
  2018).	
  This	
   transformation	
   is	
  proving	
  to	
  be	
  
positive	
   and	
   enriching	
   on	
   many	
   levels,	
   though	
   educators	
   are	
   also	
   struggling	
   with	
   issues	
   pertaining	
   to	
  
language	
  use,	
  for	
  which	
  they	
  do	
  not	
  feel	
  sufficiently	
  trained.	
  	
  	
  

	
  
3.	
  Malta’s	
  multilingual	
  classrooms	
  

Malta’s	
   educational	
   system	
   is	
   an	
   integral	
   part	
   of	
   its	
   British	
   colonial	
   legacy,	
   and	
   hence	
   built	
   on	
   the	
  
British	
  Educational	
  system.	
  Maltese	
  families	
  have	
  the	
  choice	
  of	
  enrolling	
  their	
  children	
  into	
  state,	
  parochial,	
  
or	
  private	
   schools,	
  where	
  both	
  Maltese	
  and	
  English	
   languages	
  are	
   taught	
   concurrently	
   from	
  pre-­‐school.	
  All	
  
other	
   subjects	
  are	
   taught	
   in	
  English,	
  Maltese,	
  or	
  a	
  variety	
  of	
  both	
   (depending	
  on	
  school	
  policy),	
  with	
   code-­‐
switching	
   featuring	
   regularly	
   during	
   the	
   majority	
   of	
   lessons.	
   The	
   large	
   part	
   of	
   reading	
   and	
   writing	
   is	
  
conducted	
   in	
  English,	
   due	
   to	
   the	
   greater	
   availability	
   of	
   English	
   textbooks	
   over	
   those	
   in	
  Maltese.	
  A	
   third	
   or	
  
fourth	
  language	
  is	
  introduced	
  to	
  students	
  during	
  the	
  end	
  of	
  their	
  primary	
  school	
  years	
  or	
  in	
  their	
  first	
  year	
  of	
  
senior	
   school.	
   Malta’s	
   language	
   policy	
   endorses	
   bilingual	
   and	
   multilingual	
   development	
   as	
   it	
   encourages	
  
young	
  students	
  to	
  adopt	
  positive	
  attitudes	
  towards	
  English,	
  Maltese,	
  and	
  other	
  languages	
  (Malta	
  Ministry	
  of	
  
Education	
  and	
  Employment,	
  2015).	
  	
  

The	
  population	
  of	
  non-­‐Maltese	
  students	
  in	
  schools	
  has	
  doubled	
  over	
  a	
  span	
  of	
  4	
  years,	
  from	
  1,890	
  in	
  
2012	
   to	
  4,289	
   in	
  2016	
  ((NSO,	
  National	
  Statistics	
  Office	
   -­‐	
  Malta,	
  2018).	
  This	
  means	
   that	
  Maltese	
  schools	
  are	
  
witnessing	
  a	
  rapid	
  and	
  inevitable	
  transformation	
  from	
  bilingualism	
  to	
  multilingualism,	
  which	
  is	
  mirrored	
  in	
  
other	
  countries	
  across	
  Europe,	
  particularly	
  higher-­‐income	
  nations	
  (European	
  Commission,	
  2019).	
  Since	
  this	
  
demographic	
  shift	
  is	
  a	
  rapid	
  and	
  unprecedented	
  one,	
  Maltese	
  teachers	
  do	
  not	
  feel	
  sufficiently	
  equipped	
  with	
  
the	
   necessary	
   skills	
   required	
   to	
   meet	
   the	
   challenges	
   which	
   multilingualism	
   and	
   multiculturalism	
   in	
   the	
  
classroom	
   inevitably	
   create.	
   Teachers	
   are	
   presently	
   faced	
   with	
   students	
   in	
   class	
   who	
   are	
   required	
   to	
  
comprehend	
   and	
   communicate	
   in	
   both	
  Maltese	
   and	
   English	
   in	
   order	
   to	
   access	
   the	
   curriculum,	
  whilst	
   also	
  
striving	
  to	
  preserve	
  their	
  mother	
  tongue,	
  which	
  is	
  an	
  integral	
  part	
  of	
  their	
  identity	
  (Micallef	
  Cann	
  &	
  Spiteri,	
  
2014).	
  This	
   is	
  proving	
   to	
  be	
  problematic	
   for	
   teachers	
  and	
  students	
  alike,	
  especially	
   in	
  cases	
  where	
  migrant	
  
children	
   do	
   not	
   speak	
   any	
  Maltese	
   or	
   English	
   at	
   all.	
   Additionally,	
   this	
   predicament	
   is	
   also	
   contributing	
   to	
  
family	
  pressures,	
  as	
  many	
  are	
  faced	
  with	
  the	
  intricacies	
  of	
  negotiating	
  language	
  use	
  within	
  their	
  host	
  country	
  
(Little,	
  2017).	
  	
  

Another	
  challenge	
  is	
  a	
  shift	
  in	
  educational	
  paradigms	
  within	
  teacher	
  training	
  for	
  which	
  Malta	
  is	
  not	
  
yet	
  sufficiently	
  prepared.	
  Language	
  education	
  needs	
  to	
  respect	
   linguistic	
  heritage	
  whilst	
  preparing	
  children	
  
for	
  a	
  globalised	
  world,	
  and	
  there	
  seems	
  to	
  be	
  a	
  gap	
  in	
  research	
  and	
  professional	
  training	
  in	
  the	
  field	
  at	
  a	
  local	
  
level.	
   As	
   a	
   result	
   of	
   this,	
   initial	
   teacher	
   education	
   programmes,	
   together	
   with	
   continuous	
   professional	
  
development	
  sessions	
  for	
  experienced	
  educators,	
  are	
  still	
  not	
  adequately	
  addressing	
  these	
  issues,	
  and	
  hence	
  
teachers	
  are	
  striving	
  to	
  meet	
  the	
  needs	
  of	
  the	
  linguistically	
  and	
  culturally	
  diverse	
  pupils	
  in	
  their	
  classrooms	
  
through	
   personal	
   empathy,	
   rather	
   than	
   professional	
   skill	
   (Scaglione	
   &	
   Caruana,	
   2018).	
   This,	
   again,	
   is	
  
representative	
   across	
   Europe,	
   with	
   teacher	
   training	
   for	
   the	
   integration	
   of	
   migrant	
   students	
   being	
  



LANGUAGE	
  USE	
  IN	
  THE	
  PRIMARY	
  CLASSROOM	
  

E-­‐JournALL	
  7(1)	
  (2020),	
  pp.	
  108-­‐123 111	
  

comprehensively	
   monitored	
   in	
   Spain,	
   France,	
   Cyprus,	
   Latvia,	
   Luxembourg	
   and	
   Serbia	
   only	
   (European	
  
Commission,	
   2019).	
   Educators	
   need	
   to	
   be	
   trained	
   to	
   maximise	
   the	
   potential	
   of	
   multilingualism	
   and	
  
multiculturalism	
   for	
   the	
   benefit	
   of	
   all	
   their	
   students	
   alike.	
   This	
   can	
   be	
   achieved	
   through	
   innovative	
  
pedagogies	
   including	
   translanguaging,	
   programmes	
   that	
   support	
   the	
   conservation	
   of	
   the	
  Maltese	
   language,	
  
programmes	
   that	
   promote	
   the	
   universal	
   value	
   of	
   English,	
   and	
   structures	
   offering	
   ample	
   support	
   for	
   the	
  
children’s	
  own	
  cultural	
   identity	
  and	
   linguistic	
  heritage.	
   Involving	
   families	
   in	
   their	
   children’s	
  education	
  may	
  
also	
  be	
  a	
  way	
  of	
  celebrating	
  and	
  valuing	
  student	
  diversity.	
  Moll	
  (2015)	
  states	
  that	
  in	
  today’s	
  globalised	
  world	
  
we	
   need	
   to	
   “[engage]	
   teachers	
   strategically	
   with	
   their	
   cultural	
   environments	
   for	
   teaching	
   –	
   an	
   absolute	
  
necessity	
  in	
  today’s	
  rapidly	
  changing	
  sociocultural	
  contexts	
  of	
  schooling”	
  (p.	
  114).	
  

	
  
4.	
  Translanguaging	
  

One	
   theoretical	
   lens	
   that	
   is	
   helpful	
   in	
   supporting	
   these	
   shifts,	
   both	
  within	
   classrooms	
   and	
   teacher	
  
training,	
   is	
   translanguaging.	
   A	
   theory	
   of	
   translanguaging	
   views	
   the	
   aim	
   of	
   language	
   as	
   primarily	
   as	
   a	
  
communicative	
  tool,	
  and	
  therefore	
  sees	
  shifts	
  in	
  language	
  use	
  as	
  a	
  natural	
  part	
  of	
  globalization	
  and	
  migration	
  
trends.	
  This	
  challenges	
  the	
  concept	
  of	
  societally	
  labelled	
  languages,	
  replacing	
  them	
  with	
  linguistic	
  ideologies,	
  
approaches	
   to	
   research,	
   and	
   understandings	
   of	
   speakers’	
   practices	
   which	
   view	
   languages	
   as	
  
uncompartmentalized	
   and	
   fluid.	
   The	
   idea	
   of	
   translanguaging	
  was	
   coined	
   in	
  Wales	
  where	
   it	
   originated	
   as	
   a	
  
pedagogical	
  practice	
  whereby	
  bilingual	
  students	
  were	
  provided	
  with	
   input	
   in	
  one	
   language	
  and	
  were	
  asked	
  
for	
   output	
   in	
   the	
   other	
   language	
   (Williams,	
   2002).	
   It	
   was	
   subsequently	
   researched	
   in	
   depth	
   by	
   language	
  
scholars	
   such	
   as	
   García,	
   Cenoz,	
   Baker	
   and	
   Wei,	
   amongst	
   others.	
   Translanguaging	
   refers	
   to	
   the	
   naturally	
  
occurring	
   language	
  practices	
  employed	
  by	
  bilingual	
  and	
  multilingual	
  speakers	
  which	
  consider	
   languages	
  as	
  
hybridized	
   repertoires	
   into	
   which	
   speakers	
   may	
   delve	
   as	
   necessary,	
   as	
   opposed	
   to	
   the	
   idea	
   of	
   formally	
  
separated	
  and	
  societally	
  constructed	
  systems	
  (Baker,	
  2011;	
  García,	
  2009;	
  Otheguy,	
  García,	
  &	
  Reid,	
  2015).	
  Gort	
  
and	
  Sembiante	
   (2015)	
  point	
   out	
   that	
   translanguaging	
   is	
  not	
  distinct	
   or	
  unusual,	
   but	
   rather	
   is	
   the	
   standard	
  
manner	
   in	
  which	
   bilinguals	
   communicate	
  within	
  multilingual	
   communities,	
   since	
   “bilinguals	
   pragmatically	
  
draw	
  on	
   their	
  entire	
   linguistic	
   repertoires	
   to	
  maximize	
  understanding	
  and	
  performance	
  across	
  a	
  variety	
  of	
  
contexts,	
  to	
  shape	
  experiences,	
  and	
  to	
  make	
  sense	
  of	
  the	
  world”	
  (p.	
  8).	
  

Although	
  translanguaging	
  is	
  a	
  naturally	
  occurring	
  practice	
  amongst	
  multilingual	
  speakers,	
  educators	
  
need	
  to	
  be	
  competent	
  in	
  utilizing	
  it	
  strategically.	
  They	
  must	
  also	
  be	
  aware	
  of	
  the	
  importance	
  of	
  distinguishing	
  
between	
   language	
   as	
   a	
   learning	
   and	
   communicative	
   tool,	
   and	
   language	
   which	
   is	
   used	
   for	
   assessment	
  
purposes.	
  Translanguaging	
  encourages	
  the	
  strategic	
  shifting	
  between	
  these	
  two	
  languages	
  during	
  instruction	
  
time,	
   depending	
   on	
   the	
   circumstances	
   and	
   the	
   requirements	
   of	
   the	
   task	
   involved.	
   Teachers	
   may	
   thus	
  
encourage	
   students	
   to	
   draw	
   from	
   their	
   entire	
   linguistic	
   repertoire	
   during	
   brainstorming	
   sessions,	
  
discussions,	
  debates	
  or	
  oral	
  presentations,	
  whilst	
  the	
  use	
  of	
  the	
  target	
   language	
  would	
  be	
  promoted	
  for	
  the	
  
publishing,	
   presentation	
   or	
   a	
   final	
   written	
   product,	
   or	
   for	
   assessment	
   purposes.	
   Merging	
   and	
   extending	
  
naturally	
  occurring	
   language	
  practices	
  such	
  as	
  translanguaging	
  into	
  pedagogical	
  strategies	
  may	
  thus	
  be	
  one	
  
way	
   forward	
  within	
   our	
   ever	
   increasing	
   linguistically	
   and	
   culturally	
   diverse	
   societies,	
   in	
   order	
   to	
   ensure	
   a	
  
truly	
  inclusive	
  and	
  equitable	
  education	
  for	
  all	
  (Cenoz,	
  2017;	
  García,	
  2005;	
  Scaglione	
  &	
  Caruana,	
  2018).	
  

Using	
   translanguaging	
   pedagogies	
   may	
   hence	
   help	
   to	
   mitigate	
   challenges	
   within	
   multilingual	
   and	
  
multicultural	
   classrooms,	
   and	
   the	
   judicious	
   use	
   of	
   language	
  mixing	
  may	
   enable	
   children	
   to	
   reach	
   their	
   full	
  
potential	
  as	
  they	
  feel	
  free	
  to	
  naturally	
  think,	
  feel,	
  discuss	
  and	
  communicate	
  in	
  the	
  language	
  or	
  languages	
  they	
  
feel	
  most	
   comfortable	
   in	
   (Beres,	
   2015;	
   García	
   &	
  Wei,	
   2014).	
   Translanguaging	
   practices	
   in	
   class	
   encourage	
  
children	
   to	
   participate	
   and	
   interact	
   further	
   during	
   lessons,	
   since	
   they	
   may	
   feel	
   less	
   self-­‐conscious	
   when	
  
drawing	
   on	
   their	
   entire	
   linguistic	
   repertoire	
   as	
   a	
   resource	
   (Park,	
   2013).	
   Translanguaging	
   also	
   enables	
  
students	
   to	
   tap	
   into	
  both	
   their	
   creative	
  and	
  critical	
   skills,	
  whilst	
  bending	
   the	
  norms	
  of	
   traditional	
   language	
  
use,	
   as	
   they	
   make	
   use	
   of	
   all	
   their	
   linguistic	
   resources	
   to	
   inquire,	
   discuss	
   or	
   express	
   views	
   (Wei,	
   2011).	
  
Additionally,	
   translanguaging	
   pedagogy	
   can	
   facilitate	
   curriculum	
   access,	
   whilst	
   also	
   supporting	
   students’	
  
mastery	
  of	
  language	
  (Durán	
  and	
  Henderson,	
  2018).	
  	
  

	
  Mifsud	
   and	
  Vella	
   (2018,	
   p.	
   94),	
   advocate	
   a	
   flexible	
   approach	
   to	
   language	
   use	
   in	
   class,	
   particularly	
  
within	
  the	
  early	
  years,	
  rather	
  than	
  employing	
  a	
  “one	
  size	
  fits	
  all”	
  model.	
  They	
  believe	
  that	
  the	
  specific	
  needs	
  of	
  
the	
   children	
   in	
   class	
   need	
   to	
   be	
   addressed	
   and	
   go	
   as	
   far	
   as	
   recommending	
   that	
   “a	
   clearly	
   agreed	
   learning	
  
contract	
  could	
  be	
  established	
  between	
  teachers	
  and	
  pupils,	
  and	
  their	
  parents,	
  relating	
  to	
  a	
  more	
  systematic	
  
alternation	
   of	
   languages	
   in	
   the	
   classroom”	
   (p.	
   93).	
   Palviainen,	
   Protassova,	
   Mård-­‐Miettinen,	
   and	
   Schwartz	
  
(2016)	
  also	
  promote	
  the	
   idea	
  of	
   flexible	
   language	
  practices	
   in	
  the	
  classroom,	
  and	
  state	
  that	
  these	
  are	
  many	
  
times	
  developed	
  naturally,	
   through	
  experience	
  and	
  over	
   time,	
   rather	
   than	
  being	
   formally	
   taught.	
  They	
  also	
  



PANZAVECCHIA	
  &	
  LITTLE	
  

E-­‐JournALL	
  7(1)	
  (2020),	
  pp.	
  108-­‐123 112	
  

state	
  that	
  traditional	
  language	
  practices	
  which	
  advocate	
  the	
  strict	
  separation	
  of	
  languages	
  are	
  making	
  way	
  for	
  
more	
  flexible	
  approaches	
  as	
  a	
  result	
  of	
  increasingly	
  diverse	
  classroom	
  populations.	
  

As	
  a	
  pedagogical	
  tool,	
  using	
  multiple	
  languages	
  for	
  learning	
  is	
  actively	
  encouraged	
  in	
  many	
  European	
  
countries,	
  such	
  as	
  Finland	
  and	
  Germany,	
  but	
  although	
  fostering	
  plurilingual	
  education	
  is	
  actively	
  encouraged,	
  
the	
  term	
  translanguaging	
  does	
  not	
  feature	
  in	
  the	
  most	
  recent	
  European	
  report	
  (European	
  Commission,	
  2019).	
  
Notwithstanding	
  similarities	
  among	
  these	
  two	
  concepts,	
  the	
  terms	
  are	
  not	
  interchangeable,	
  since	
  they	
  are	
  “at	
  
times	
   […]	
   seen	
   as	
   oppositional	
   and	
   other	
   times,	
   seemingly	
   fused	
   into	
   one	
   similar	
   framework”	
   (Vallejo	
   &	
  
Dooly,	
   2019	
   p.	
   3).	
   García	
   and	
   Otheguy	
   (2019)	
   also	
   state	
   that	
   plurilingualism	
   and	
   translanguaging	
   have	
  
different	
  socio-­‐political	
  roots	
  which	
  contribute	
  to	
  many	
  divergences	
  in	
  educational	
  practices.	
  

	
  
5.	
  The	
  present	
  study	
  

The	
  current	
  paper	
  forms	
  part	
  of	
  a	
  larger	
  study	
  which	
  focuses	
  on	
  bilingual	
  teachers’	
  identities	
  and	
  the	
  
ways	
   in	
  which	
   their	
   backgrounds	
   impact	
   their	
   perceptions	
   and	
   pedagogical	
   practices.	
   According	
   to	
   García	
  
(2009),	
   “bilingual	
   education	
   is	
   the	
   only	
   way	
   to	
   educate	
   children	
   in	
   the	
   twenty-­‐first	
   century”	
   (p.	
   5).	
   She	
  
advocates	
   the	
  development	
  of	
   “an	
   integrated	
  plural	
   vision	
   for	
  bilingual	
   education,	
  by	
  which	
  bilingualism	
   is	
  
not	
  simply	
  seen	
  as	
  two	
  separate	
  monolingual	
  codes”	
  (p.	
  5),	
  for	
  the	
  benefit	
  of	
  children	
  and	
  adults	
  worldwide.	
  
In	
  this	
  respect	
  this	
  study	
  aimed	
  to	
  explore	
  to	
  what	
  extent	
  Maltese	
  teachers	
  share	
  this	
  vision	
  and	
  put	
   it	
   into	
  
practice.	
  

The	
   impetus	
   for	
   the	
   study	
   came	
   about	
   as	
   a	
   result	
   of	
   the	
   researchers’	
   own	
   interest	
   in	
   bilingual	
  
teachers’	
   philosophies	
   and	
   pedagogies,	
   and	
   in	
   innovative	
   fluid	
   language	
   practices	
   such	
   as	
   García’s	
   (2009)	
  
concept	
   of	
   translanguaging	
   and	
   transglossia,	
   where	
   different	
   languages	
   are	
   not	
   separated	
   but	
   interrelate	
  
dynamically	
   within	
   globalised,	
   multilingual	
   communities.	
   The	
   research	
   questions	
   to	
   be	
   addressed	
   in	
   the	
  
current	
  study	
  concern	
  how	
  Maltese	
  primary	
  teachers	
  support	
  bilingual	
  and	
  multilingual	
  students	
  within	
  their	
  
classroom	
   environments,	
   together	
   with	
   their	
   current	
   practices	
   and	
   perceptions	
   of	
   using	
   flexible	
   language	
  
pedagogies	
  such	
  as	
  translanguaging.	
  Teachers’	
  voices	
  can	
  be	
  empowering	
  and	
  emancipatory,	
  as	
  their	
  insights	
  
are	
  often	
  the	
  catalyst	
  to	
  effect	
  changes	
  to	
  social	
  policy	
  and	
  practice	
  (Goodson	
  &	
  Sikes,	
  2001).	
  Hence,	
  the	
  main	
  
aim	
  of	
  this	
  study	
  is	
  to	
  shed	
  more	
  light	
  on	
  several	
  lacunae	
  in	
  current	
  translanguaging	
  practices,	
  as	
  well	
  as	
  on	
  
educators’	
  viewpoints	
  about	
  Malta’s	
  specific	
  bilingual	
  status	
  and	
  its	
  educational	
  system,	
  in	
  light	
  of	
  migration	
  
trends,	
  and	
  about	
  the	
  presence	
  of	
  additional	
  languages	
  in	
  the	
  classroom.	
  These	
  perspectives	
  add	
  significantly	
  
to	
   our	
   understanding	
   of	
   multilingual	
   pedagogy,	
   whilst	
   having	
   implications	
   for	
   the	
   improvement	
   of	
  
professional	
   practice	
   and	
   for	
   the	
   design	
   of	
   professional	
   development	
   and	
   initial	
   teacher	
   education	
  
programmes.	
  	
  

	
  
5.1.	
  The	
  participants	
  

Data	
   from	
   eight	
   primary	
   school	
   teachers,	
   each	
   with	
   over	
   ten	
   years	
   teaching	
   experience	
   were	
  
collected	
   through	
   in-­‐depth	
   semi-­‐structured	
   interviews	
   (two	
   per	
   participant).	
   Three	
   teachers	
   were	
   chosen	
  
from	
  state	
  schools,	
  another	
  three	
  from	
  church	
  schools,	
  and	
  two	
  from	
  private	
  independent	
  schools	
  (of	
  which	
  
there	
  are	
   fewer	
   in	
  Malta).	
  Choosing	
  state,	
  church	
  and	
  private	
   independent	
  schools	
  enabled	
  the	
  gathering	
  of	
  
teachers’	
   perspectives	
   as	
   they	
   might	
   vary	
   by	
   school	
   context,	
   which	
   differ	
   significantly	
   in	
   Malta	
   (Camilleri	
  
Grima,	
   2013a).	
   The	
   teachers	
   also	
   had	
   diverse	
   language	
   and	
   schooling	
   backgrounds,	
   in	
   order	
   to	
   be	
   able	
   to	
  
compare	
  patterns	
  related	
  to	
  home	
  and	
  educational	
  backgrounds.	
  Participants	
  also	
  taught	
  at	
  different	
  ends	
  of	
  
the	
  primary	
   spectrum,	
   i.e.	
   early	
  and	
   junior	
  years,	
   to	
  gain	
   insight	
  on	
  how	
   teaching	
  methods	
  and	
  viewpoints	
  
may	
   or	
   may	
   not	
   vary	
   depending	
   on	
   age	
   group	
   taught.	
   Participants	
   included	
   seven	
   females	
   and	
   one	
   male	
  
teacher,	
  a	
  ratio	
  that	
  is	
  representative	
  of	
  the	
  gender	
  imbalance	
  within	
  the	
  teaching	
  profession,	
  where	
  female	
  
teachers	
  are	
  largely	
  over-­‐represented	
  in	
  primary	
  education	
  in	
  the	
  EU	
  (Eurostat,	
  2017).	
  Ages	
  ranged	
  from	
  late	
  
thirties	
  to	
  late	
  fifties,	
  and	
  participants	
  hailed	
  from	
  different	
  parts	
  of	
  Malta,	
  which	
  also	
  influenced	
  their	
  spoken	
  
language	
  of	
  preference.	
  Despite	
  diverse	
  backgrounds	
  and	
  school	
  contexts,	
  the	
  participants	
  were	
  nonetheless	
  
relatively	
   homogeneous	
   in	
   that	
   they	
   were	
   all	
   experienced	
   and	
   all	
   directly	
   involved	
   in	
   the	
   topic	
   being	
  
researched	
  (Goodson	
  &	
  Sikes,	
  2001).	
  Table	
  1	
  offers	
  an	
  overview	
  of	
  the	
  teachers,	
  each	
  of	
  whom	
  has	
  been	
  given	
  
a	
  pseudonym	
  to	
  protect	
  their	
  identity.	
  

For	
  the	
  purpose	
  of	
  the	
  current	
  paper,	
  key	
  quotes	
  were	
  selected	
  from	
  the	
  interviews	
  and	
  excerpts	
  will	
  be	
  
provided	
   in	
   the	
   Results	
   section	
   (section	
   6)	
   in	
   order	
   to	
   highlight	
   the	
   perceptions	
   and	
   practices	
   of	
   the	
  
participants	
  in	
  the	
  study.	
  	
  

	
  



LANGUAGE	
  USE	
  IN	
  THE	
  PRIMARY	
  CLASSROOM	
  

E-­‐JournALL	
  7(1)	
  (2020),	
  pp.	
  108-­‐123 113	
  

Table 1 
Participants’ information 
Participant Age Education Teaching Experience Year Group 
Diana 37 BA, MA Church school, 13 years Early years (years 1 and 2) 
Elaine 48 BA, MA Church school, 13 years Junior years (years 4, 5, and 6) 
Jonathan 36 BA State school, 12 years Junior years (year 6) 
Laura 43 BA Various state schools, 11 years Early years (year 2) 
Liliana 59 BA Private school, 24 years Early years (years 1 and 2), year 3 for 

past 10 years 
Mandy 40 BA, MA Church school, 14 years Early years (years 1 and 2); currently 

subject teaching (English) in junior 
school (year 6) 

Maria 40 BA, MA Private school, 16 years Junior years (year 6) 
Ingrid 42 BA, MA in progress TEFL, 4 years; state school, 10 years Junior years (year 4) 

	
  
5.2.	
  Methods	
  	
  

We	
  used	
  a	
  narrative	
   inquiry	
  approach,	
   through	
  semi-­‐structured	
   life	
  history	
   interviews,	
  which	
  were	
  
analysed	
   thematically,	
   as	
   this	
   approach	
   gave	
   the	
   participants	
   the	
   opportunity	
   to	
   relate	
   the	
   untold	
   stories	
  
pertaining	
   to	
   their	
   bilingual	
   identities,	
   which	
   in	
   turn	
   affected	
   their	
   perceptions	
   and	
   pedagogical	
   practices	
  
(Goodson	
   &	
   Sikes,	
   2001).	
   The	
   semi-­‐structured	
   interview	
   comprised	
   a	
   set	
   of	
   32	
   questions.	
   The	
   first	
   part	
  
focused	
  on	
   the	
   teachers’	
  own	
   identities	
  and	
   life	
  histories,	
  whilst	
   the	
  second	
  part	
   focused	
  on	
   their	
  views	
  on	
  
language	
  pedagogies	
  within	
  bilingual	
  and	
  multilingual	
  educational	
  settings.	
  Richness	
  of	
  the	
  in-­‐depth	
  data	
  was	
  
favoured	
  over	
  quantity	
  or	
  broadness,	
  since	
  the	
  aim	
  of	
  the	
  study	
  was	
  to	
  gain	
  insight	
  into	
  teachers’	
  perspectives	
  
about	
  language	
  use,	
  while	
  learning	
  about	
  their	
  teaching	
  experiences	
  that	
  currently	
  underpin	
  their	
  philosophy	
  
of	
   education	
   (Goodson	
   &	
   Sikes,	
   2001).	
   In	
   the	
   words	
   of	
   Goodson	
   (1981),	
   “in	
   understanding	
   something	
   so	
  
intensely	
  personal	
  as	
  teaching,	
  it	
  is	
  critical	
  we	
  know	
  about	
  the	
  person	
  the	
  teacher	
  is”	
  (p.	
  69).	
  

Data	
  were	
  collected	
  through	
  semi-­‐structured,	
  one-­‐to-­‐one	
  interviews,	
  which	
  were	
  held	
  over	
  a	
  period	
  
of	
  six	
  months.	
  Each	
  participant	
  was	
  interviewed	
  twice	
  with	
  a	
  break	
  of	
  several	
  weeks	
  in	
  between	
  interviews.	
  
Participants	
  were	
  made	
  aware	
  of	
   the	
  confidential	
  nature	
  of	
   the	
   interview.	
  Despite	
  being	
  a	
   small	
   island,	
   the	
  
information	
   provided	
   is	
   generic	
   enough	
   to	
   facilitate	
   anonymity,	
   and	
   the	
   EU	
   General	
   Data	
   Protection	
  
Regulation	
  (GDPR)	
  was	
  strictly	
  adhered	
  to	
  when	
  conducting	
  this	
  study.	
  The	
  interviews	
  were	
  audio	
  recorded	
  
and	
   transcribed.	
   Member	
   checking	
   allowed	
   for	
   a	
   level	
   of	
   both	
   validation	
   and	
   further	
   engagement	
   of	
  
participants	
  with	
  the	
  study	
  (Birt,	
  Scott,	
  Cavers,	
  Campbell,	
  &	
  Walter,	
  2016;	
  Lincoln	
  &	
  Guba,	
  1985).	
  Participants	
  
were	
  invited	
  to	
  read	
  and	
  comment	
  on	
  transcripts	
  between	
  and	
  after	
  each	
  set	
  of	
  interviews.	
  This	
  verified	
  that	
  
the	
   researcher’s	
   interpretation	
   of	
   the	
   participants’	
   perspectives	
   was	
   truthful	
   and	
   accurate,	
   and	
   further	
  
facilitated	
  clarification	
  of	
  any	
  parts	
  of	
  the	
  interview	
  transcripts	
  which	
  were	
  inaudible	
  or	
  unclear.	
  	
  	
  

A	
  thematic	
  analysis	
  approach	
  was	
  chosen	
  in	
  order	
  to	
  gain	
  insight	
  into	
  the	
  participants’	
  personal	
  and	
  
professional	
  lives,	
  as	
  to	
  better	
  understand	
  their	
  views,	
  their	
  pedagogical	
  practices	
  and	
  the	
  motives	
  preceding	
  
them.	
  Collated	
  data	
  was	
  organised	
   according	
   to	
   similarities,	
   differences	
   and	
  other	
   issues	
   and	
   colour	
   coded	
  
accordingly.	
   Overlapping	
   themes	
   were	
   reviewed	
   and	
   refined	
   whilst	
   emerging	
   ones	
   were	
   divided	
   into	
   sub	
  
themes.	
   The	
   main	
   themes	
   emerging	
   in	
   view	
   of	
   the	
   current	
   paper	
   included	
   the	
   demographic	
   changes	
   in	
  
Maltese	
   classrooms,	
   challenges	
   experienced	
   by	
   teachers	
   in	
   view	
   of	
   rapidly	
   shifting	
   student	
   populations,	
  
attitudes	
  towards	
  multilingual	
  and	
  multicultural	
  classrooms,	
  teacher	
  training	
  needs,	
  language	
  use	
  in	
  class	
  and	
  
recommendations	
   for	
   change.	
   For	
   the	
   purpose	
   of	
   the	
   present	
   paper,	
   we	
   focus	
   only	
   on	
   data	
   pertaining	
   to	
  
participants’	
  perceptions	
  and	
  pedagogical	
  practices	
  related	
  to	
  multilingual	
  classrooms.	
  	
  

The	
   four	
   criteria	
   identified	
  by	
  Lincoln	
   and	
  Guba	
   (1985)—credibility,	
   transferability,	
   dependability,	
  
and	
  confirmability—were	
  pivotal	
  during	
  the	
  design	
  of	
  this	
  study	
  in	
  order	
  to	
  ensure	
  that	
  the	
  results	
  were	
  both	
  
reliable	
   and	
   credible.	
   Credibility	
   was	
   ensured	
   through	
   an	
   honest	
   and	
   precise	
   account	
   of	
   the	
   participants’	
  
experiences,	
  whilst	
  transferability	
  was	
  achieved	
  as	
  findings	
  may	
  be	
  applied	
  within	
  other	
  similar	
  educational	
  
contexts.	
  Dependability	
  was	
  sought	
  through	
  member	
  checking,	
  and	
  confirmability	
  was	
  attained	
  through	
  being	
  
fully	
  aware	
  of	
  researcher’s	
  own	
  biases,	
  assumptions	
  and	
  beliefs	
  which	
  may	
  taint	
  the	
  research	
  process.	
  	
  	
  

	
  
	
  



PANZAVECCHIA	
  &	
  LITTLE	
  

E-­‐JournALL	
  7(1)	
  (2020),	
  pp.	
  108-­‐123 114	
  

6.	
  Results	
  
All	
   the	
   educators	
   teaching	
   in	
   state	
   and	
   private	
   schools	
   voiced	
   their	
   concerns	
   about	
   the	
   ever-­‐

increasing	
  number	
  of	
  foreign	
  children	
  in	
  class.	
  As	
  Ingrid	
  explains,	
  	
  
	
  

Excerpt	
  1.	
  Ingrid	
  -­‐	
  Number	
  of	
  foreign	
  children	
  in	
  class	
  
…	
  the	
  intake	
  is	
  changing.	
  Every	
  year	
  we	
  see	
  a	
  larger	
  number	
  of	
  foreign	
  children.	
  We	
  have	
  children	
  from	
  Africa,	
  
Bulgaria,	
  Russia,	
  Serbia,	
  Italy,	
  the	
  UK	
  for	
  example.	
  Sometimes	
  they	
  are	
  not	
  even	
  fluent	
  in	
  English	
  and	
  can	
  just	
  
string	
  a	
  few	
  phrases	
  together	
  …	
  it’s	
  not	
  easy	
  to	
  teach	
  these	
  children.	
  
	
  

Teachers	
   in	
   church	
  schools	
  also	
  described	
   facing	
   this	
   reality	
  but	
   somewhat	
   to	
  a	
   lesser	
  extent.	
  This	
  
may	
   be	
   because	
   children	
   are	
   enrolled	
   in	
   church	
   schools	
   through	
   a	
   ballot	
   system,	
   which	
   is	
   predominantly	
  
applied	
  for	
  by	
  Maltese	
  parents	
  who	
  wish	
  to	
  give	
  their	
  children	
  a	
  Catholic	
  education.	
  Asylum-­‐seeking	
  migrant	
  
children	
  are	
  generally	
  educated	
  in	
  state	
  schools	
  by	
  law.	
  Children	
  of	
  foreign	
  workers,	
  who	
  typically	
  come	
  from	
  
families	
  with	
   a	
   higher	
   socio-­‐economic	
  background,	
   are	
  usually	
   enrolled	
   in	
  private	
   schools.	
  Diane,	
   a	
   church	
  
schoolteacher,	
  explains	
   that	
   so	
   far	
   there	
  are	
   few	
   foreign	
  children	
  being	
  enrolled	
   in	
  church	
  schools,	
   and	
   the	
  
majority	
  of	
   these	
   children	
  usually	
  possess	
   at	
   least	
   a	
  basic	
   knowledge	
  of	
  English.	
  However,	
  Diane	
   feels	
   that	
  
church	
   schools	
   do	
   face	
   similar	
   issues	
   to	
   private	
   and	
   state	
   schools	
  when	
   it	
   comes	
   to	
  working	
  with	
  migrant	
  
children.	
  	
  

In	
  the	
  rest	
  of	
  our	
  findings,	
  we	
  focus	
  on	
  four	
  themes	
  emerging	
  from	
  the	
  data,	
  which	
  are	
  particularly	
  
pertinent	
   to	
   the	
   scope	
   of	
   this	
   paper:	
   Attitudes	
   towards	
   multilingualism,	
   strategies	
   used	
   in	
   class,	
   training	
  
needs,	
  and	
  recommendations	
  for	
  policy	
  and	
  practice.	
  

	
  
6.1.	
  Attitudes	
  towards	
  multilingualism	
  

All	
   teachers	
   had	
   complex	
   and	
   interlaced	
   views	
   on	
   the	
   use	
   of	
  multiple	
   languages	
   in	
   the	
   classroom.	
  
Some	
   of	
   these	
   views	
  were	
   based	
   on	
   personal	
   as	
  well	
   as	
   professional	
   experience.	
   For	
   example,	
   Liliana,	
   the	
  
oldest	
  participant	
  at	
  59,	
  appeared	
  to	
  be	
  adamantly	
  in	
  favour	
  of	
  full	
  immersion	
  programmes	
  in	
  class,	
  especially	
  
for	
  the	
  Maltese	
  children.	
  However,	
  witnessing	
  the	
  shift	
  from	
  bilingual	
  to	
  multilingual	
  classrooms,	
  she	
  felt	
  that	
  
alternative	
  pedagogies	
  may	
  nonetheless	
  be	
  appropriate	
  for	
  foreign	
  students.	
  	
  

	
  
Excerpt	
  2.	
  Liliana	
  –	
  Alternative	
  pedagogies	
  for	
  foreign	
  students	
  
I’m	
  not	
  in	
  favour	
  of	
  mixing	
  languages	
  …	
  my	
  grandson	
  is	
  two	
  years	
  old.	
  He	
  goes	
  to	
  playschool.	
  They	
  speak	
  to	
  
him	
  in	
  Maltese.	
  My	
  son	
  speaks	
  to	
  him	
  in	
  Maltese	
  and	
  his	
  mother	
  in	
  English.	
  I	
  can	
  already	
  see	
  how	
  mixed	
  up	
  he	
  
is	
  in	
  his	
  language	
  …	
  he	
  tells	
  me,	
  “il-­‐man	
  qiegħed	
  fil-­‐car”	
  [the	
  man	
  is	
  in	
  the	
  car]	
  …	
  he’s	
  not	
  really	
  speaking	
  in	
  
English	
  or	
  Maltese.	
   It’s	
   the	
  product	
  of	
  him	
  being	
  exposed	
   to	
   two	
   languages.	
  Foreigners	
  are	
  different.	
  When	
  
they	
  go	
  home	
  their	
  parents	
  are	
  going	
  to	
  speak	
  to	
   them	
  in	
   their	
  mother	
   tongue.	
   It	
  makes	
  more	
  sense	
  to	
  use	
  
different	
  languages	
  with	
  the	
  foreigners	
  in	
  class.	
  
	
  

Liliana’s	
  perception	
  highlights	
  both	
  a	
  desire	
  to	
  maintain	
  distinct	
   languages,	
  whilst	
  at	
  the	
  same	
  time	
  
acknowledging	
   related	
   complexities,	
   particularly	
   for	
   non-­‐native	
   speakers	
   of	
   either	
  Maltese	
   or	
   English.	
   For	
  
three	
  participants,	
  the	
  maintenance	
  of	
  the	
  Maltese	
  language	
  in	
  and	
  of	
  itself	
  was	
  a	
  genuine	
  concern.	
  Due	
  to	
  an	
  
increasing	
  proportion	
  of	
  foreign	
  children	
  in	
  class,	
  there	
  was	
  a	
  general	
  feeling	
  that	
  this	
  may	
  eventually	
  lead	
  to	
  
the	
  extinction	
  of	
  Maltese,	
  as	
  it	
  would	
  no	
  longer	
  be	
  a	
  necessary	
  form	
  of	
  communication	
  within	
  an	
  increasingly	
  
globalised	
  society.	
  	
  	
  

Below,	
   another	
   teacher,	
  Maria	
   refers	
   to	
   a	
   situation	
   in	
  which	
   half	
   of	
   the	
   students	
   have	
   at	
   least	
   one	
  
parent	
  who	
  is	
  foreign.	
  The	
  other	
  half	
  consists	
  of	
  Maltese	
  children,	
  many	
  of	
  whom	
  consider	
  English	
  to	
  be	
  their	
  
L1	
  and	
  are	
  not	
  proficient	
  in	
  Maltese.	
  	
  
	
  
Excerpt	
  3.	
  Maria	
  –	
  the	
  role	
  of	
  Maltese	
  
I	
  use	
  in	
  English	
  at	
  school	
  and	
  when	
  I’m	
  teaching,	
  many	
  times	
  because	
  of	
  the	
  number	
  of	
  foreigners	
  we	
  have,	
  
unfortunately	
  I	
  can	
  only	
  use	
  Maltese	
  during	
  Maltese	
   language	
  lessons	
  you	
  know.	
   .	
   .	
  Maltese	
   is	
  not	
  given	
  the	
  
importance	
   it	
  deserves.	
   I	
  mean,	
  we	
  expect	
   them	
   to	
   learn	
   through	
  a	
  one	
   lesson	
  a	
  day	
   slot	
   and	
   that’s	
   it.	
  And	
  
unfortunately,	
  some	
  teachers	
  will	
  speak	
  English	
  to	
  the	
  children	
  during	
  a	
  Maltese	
  lesson	
  trying	
  to	
  explain	
  it	
  in	
  
English	
  because	
  it’s	
  a	
  grammar	
  point	
  they’re	
  trying	
  to	
  put	
  across.	
   .	
   .	
   	
  children	
  will	
  learn	
  a	
  grammar	
  point	
  by	
  
rote	
  but	
  they’re	
  not	
  really	
  learning	
  the	
  language.	
  They’re	
  not	
  exposed.	
  



LANGUAGE	
  USE	
  IN	
  THE	
  PRIMARY	
  CLASSROOM	
  

E-­‐JournALL	
  7(1)	
  (2020),	
  pp.	
  108-­‐123 115	
  

Ingrid	
  spoke	
  of	
  a	
   time	
  when	
   the	
   language	
  used	
   in	
  class	
  was	
  mainly	
  Maltese,	
  except	
   for	
   the	
  English	
  
lesson.	
  This	
  is	
  now	
  changing	
  due	
  to	
  the	
  greater	
  proportion	
  of	
  English	
  speakers,	
  	
  
	
  
Extract	
  4.	
  Ingrid	
  –	
  the	
  role	
  of	
  Maltese	
  
…the	
  policy	
  seems	
  to	
  be	
  changing.	
  Qisu	
  [it	
  seems	
  as	
  though]	
  English	
  has	
  become	
  more	
  important.	
  In	
  a	
  way	
  it	
  
worries	
  me	
  because	
  I	
  feel	
  we	
  may	
  be	
  losing	
  our	
  language…	
  our	
  identity.	
  

	
  
	
  Notwithstanding	
  the	
  participants’	
  concerns	
  related	
  to	
  the	
  preservation	
  of	
  the	
  Maltese	
  language,	
  they	
  

still	
  mention	
  the	
  value	
  of	
  English	
  as	
  lingua	
  franca	
  and	
  acknowledge	
  that	
  students	
  in	
  Malta	
  are	
  fortunate	
  to	
  be	
  
given	
  to	
  the	
  opportunity	
  to	
  learn	
  the	
  language.	
  These	
  views	
  reflect	
  Malta’s	
  sociolinguistic	
  situation	
  of	
  societal	
  
bilingualism	
  without	
  diglossia,	
  where	
  the	
  two	
  official	
  languages	
  are	
  used	
  in	
  most	
  domains	
  and	
  are	
  viewed	
  as	
  
equally	
  important	
  (Camilleri	
  Grima,	
  2013b).	
  As	
  Jonathan	
  put	
  it,	
  English	
  allows	
  students	
  to	
  travel	
  and	
  to	
  study;	
  
“…	
  they	
  can	
  become	
  whatever	
  they	
  want.	
  So	
  many	
  opportunities	
  nowadays!”	
  

	
  
6.2.	
  Strategies	
  used	
  in	
  class	
  

One	
   common	
   concern	
   amongst	
   participants	
   was	
   that	
   they	
   feel	
   unsure	
   of	
   the	
   strategies	
   they	
   are	
  
employing	
   in	
   order	
   to	
   support	
   their	
  multicultural	
   students.	
   The	
  word	
   “guilty”	
  was	
  mentioned	
   by	
   different	
  
educators	
  in	
  relation	
  to	
  their	
  code-­‐switching	
  or	
  language	
  mixing	
  during	
  lessons.	
  This	
  may	
  be	
  a	
  legacy	
  of	
  past	
  
education	
  programmes	
  and	
  policies	
  such	
  as	
  the	
  National	
  Minimum	
  Curriculum	
  (1999),	
  which	
  advocated	
  the	
  
strict	
  separation	
  of	
  languages.	
  This	
  is	
  in	
  contrast	
  with	
  more	
  positive	
  views	
  on	
  plurilingual	
  strategies	
  such	
  as	
  
those	
  expressed	
  in	
  the	
  National	
  Literacy	
  Strategy,	
  which	
  refers	
  to	
  code-­‐switching	
  as	
  “an	
  essential	
  element	
  of	
  a	
  
bilingual	
  country,”	
  as	
  it	
  promotes	
  access	
  to	
  different	
  languages	
  and	
  to	
  a	
  “wide	
  and	
  varied	
  linguistic	
  heritage”	
  
(National	
  Literacy	
  Strategy	
  for	
  All	
   in	
  Malta	
  and	
  Gozo,	
  Ministry	
   for	
  Education	
  and	
  Employment,	
  Malta,	
  2014,	
  
pp.	
  28-­‐29).	
  Moreover,	
  the	
  Council	
  of	
  Europe	
  promotes	
  the	
  concept	
  of	
  a	
  plurilingual	
  society,	
  where	
  individuals	
  
have	
  competence	
  in	
  more	
  than	
  one	
  language	
  and	
  can	
  switch	
  between	
  languages,	
  according	
  to	
  circumstances	
  
(Language	
  Education	
  Policy	
  Profile	
  for	
  Malta,	
  Language	
  policy	
  unit.	
  Council	
  of	
  Europe,	
  Strasbourg,	
  2015).	
  

Some	
  teachers	
  were	
  in	
  favour	
  of	
  language	
  mixing	
  during	
  certain	
  activities,	
  such	
  as	
  brainstorming	
  and	
  
discussion,	
  if	
  the	
  end	
  focus	
  is	
  on	
  the	
  target	
  language.	
  Elaine	
  thought	
  that	
  her	
  opinions	
  on	
  language	
  mixing	
  are	
  
changing	
  over	
  time	
  in	
  order	
  to	
  be	
  in	
  line	
  with	
  the	
  requirements	
  of	
  today’s	
  classrooms,	
  and	
  she	
  expressed	
  this	
  
view:	
  

	
  
Extract	
  5.	
  Elaine	
  –	
  Language	
  of	
  instruction	
  	
  
it	
  was	
  understood…	
  me	
  included	
   ‘jiġifieri’	
   [that	
   is]...	
   that	
  total	
   immersion	
  in	
  a	
   language	
  was	
  the	
  best	
  way	
  to	
  
learn	
  it.	
  Even	
  I	
  used	
  to	
  feel	
  very	
  strongly	
  about	
  this.	
  But	
  I’m	
  not	
  sure	
  now.	
  You	
  see...	
  based	
  on	
  my	
  experience	
  I	
  
have	
  come	
  to	
  believe	
  that	
  it	
  is	
  okay	
  to	
  use	
  one	
  language	
  to	
  teach	
  another...	
  I	
  think	
  it	
  is	
  easier...	
  for	
  the	
  student...	
  
and	
  the	
  teacher.	
  Better	
  understanding...	
  less	
  frustration.	
  

	
  
Ingrid	
   spoke	
   of	
   a	
   time	
   when	
   she	
   used	
   to	
   have	
   a	
   Maltese	
   speaking	
   and	
   an	
   English-­‐speaking	
   doll	
  

present	
  in	
  class	
  during	
  language	
  lessons:	
  
	
  

Extract	
  6.	
  Ingrid	
  –	
  Code-­‐switching	
  while	
  teaching	
  
These	
  dolls	
  did	
  not	
  understand	
  the	
  other	
  language	
  allura	
  [so]	
  this	
  meant	
  that	
  the	
  children	
  could	
  not	
  speak	
  in	
  
the	
  other	
  language.	
  So,	
  I	
  strongly	
  believed	
  in	
  this	
  and	
  that’s	
  how	
  I	
  used	
  to	
  teach.	
  Now	
  I	
  think	
  the	
  situation	
  is	
  
changing.	
   We	
   need	
   to	
   adapt.	
   I	
   think	
   switching	
   between	
   languages	
   is	
   not	
   so	
   harmful	
   really	
   if	
   it	
   helps	
   the	
  
children	
  understand	
  better.	
  I	
  mean	
  even	
  for	
  the	
  foreigners	
  …	
  thing	
  is	
  where	
  do	
  you	
  draw	
  the	
  line	
  then?	
  Is	
  this	
  
causing	
  confusion?	
  
	
  

Although	
   Diana	
   tried	
   to	
   use	
   visuals	
   as	
   much	
   as	
   possible	
   during	
   language	
   lessons,	
   she	
   did	
   use	
   code-­‐
switching	
   or	
   translating	
   with	
   children	
   “who	
   look	
   at	
   [her]	
   blankly.”	
   She	
   also	
   mentioned	
   using	
   what	
   she	
  
considered	
  to	
  be	
  her	
  third	
  language	
  in	
  class	
  when	
  the	
  need	
  arose:	
  	
  

	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  



PANZAVECCHIA	
  &	
  LITTLE	
  

E-­‐JournALL	
  7(1)	
  (2020),	
  pp.	
  108-­‐123 116	
  

Extract	
  7.	
  Diana	
  –	
  Using	
  any	
  language	
  as	
  a	
  resource	
  
Last	
  year	
  I	
  had	
  an	
  Italian	
  boy.	
  They	
  did	
  not	
  understand	
  Maltese	
  or	
  English.	
   I	
  used	
  to	
  communicate	
  with	
  the	
  
parents	
   in	
   Italian.	
  With	
   the	
   child	
   I	
   used	
   to	
  use	
   Italian	
   just	
   to	
  make	
  him	
   feel	
   at	
   ease.	
   For	
   example,	
  when	
  he	
  
walked	
  in,	
  I	
  used	
  to	
  tell	
  him	
  “buon	
  giorno	
  come	
  stai	
  oggi?”[good	
  morning	
  how	
  are	
  you	
  today?]	
  but	
  only	
  so	
  that	
  
he	
  feels	
  at	
  ease	
  and	
  he	
  settles	
  down	
  in	
  class.	
  

	
  
Elaine	
   believed	
   that	
   when	
   students	
   are	
   free	
   to	
   use	
   their	
   native	
   language,	
   this	
   engages	
   them	
  

academically,	
   as	
   “using	
   their	
   native	
   language	
   as	
   a	
   tool	
   to	
   learn	
   a	
   second	
   language	
   helps	
   them	
   learn	
  more	
  
effectively”.	
   She	
   recalled	
   her	
   own	
   schooling	
   years	
   when	
   students	
   were	
   made	
   to	
   learn	
   foreign	
   languages	
  
through	
  full	
  immersion	
  practices,	
  

	
  
Extract	
  8.	
  Elaine	
  –	
  When	
  I	
  was	
  a	
  student	
  
.	
  .	
  .	
  I	
  found	
  it	
  extremely	
  difficult	
  to	
  cope.	
  Instead	
  of	
  trying	
  to	
  use	
  the	
  cues	
  to	
  learn	
  it,	
  I	
  completely	
  switched	
  off	
  
when	
   it	
   came	
  to	
   that	
   lesson.	
  For	
  me,	
   it	
  was	
  as	
  good	
  as	
  nothing…	
  perhaps	
  even	
  worse,	
  because	
   I	
   remember	
  
being	
  very	
  frustrated…	
  not	
  to	
  mention	
  that	
  I	
  barely	
  learnt	
  anything	
  in	
  three	
  years!	
  

	
  
Participants	
  also	
  reported	
  drawing	
  on	
  digital	
  literacy	
  and	
  technology	
  in	
  order	
  to	
  overcome	
  language	
  

barriers.	
   Jonathan	
   was	
   one	
   of	
   several	
   participants	
   highlighting	
   the	
   use	
   of	
   technology	
   to	
   mitigate	
  
communication	
  problems	
  in	
  the	
  classroom:	
  

	
  
Extract	
  9.	
  Jonathan	
  –	
  Multimodal	
  communication	
  
We	
  use	
  signs	
  and	
  pictures,	
  visuals,	
  Google	
  translate…	
  I	
  think	
  it’s	
  easier	
  nowadays	
  with	
  the	
  Internet.	
  I	
  also	
  ask	
  
the	
   children	
   themselves	
   to	
   help	
   me.	
   Children	
   have	
   this	
   special	
   gift	
   of	
   communication.	
   They	
   manage	
   to	
  
communicate	
  with	
  each	
  other	
  in	
  spite	
  of	
  the	
  language	
  barriers.	
  It	
  is	
  amazing.	
  

	
  
Ingrid	
  stated	
   that	
   in	
  a	
   rapidly	
  changing	
  digital	
  world	
   teachers	
  need	
   to	
  keep	
  abreast	
  with	
   the	
   latest	
  

developments	
  and,	
  
	
  

Extract	
  10.	
  Ingrid	
  –	
  Digital	
  literacy	
  
work	
   on	
  ways	
   to	
   leverage	
   [children’s]	
   amazing	
   technology	
   skills.	
   I	
  mean	
   digital	
   literacy	
   is	
   very	
   important	
  
today.	
  Perhaps	
  we	
  are	
  not	
  channelling	
  the	
  children’	
  skills	
  in	
  the	
  right	
  direction.	
  It’s	
  not	
  easy.	
  Sometimes	
  they	
  
know	
  more	
  than	
  us.	
  Plus,	
  things	
  are	
  constantly	
  changing.	
  It’s	
  difficult	
  to	
  keep	
  up.	
  

	
  
Maria	
  also	
  mentioned	
  the	
  use	
  of	
  technology,	
  particularly	
  the	
  internet,	
  in	
  order	
  to	
  enable	
  all	
  children	
  

to	
   access	
   the	
   curriculum.	
   She	
   also	
   highlighted	
   the	
   need	
   for	
   teachers	
   to	
   be	
   creative	
   in	
   order	
   to	
  meet	
   their	
  
students’	
  diverse	
  needs:	
  

	
  
Extract	
  11.	
  Maria	
  –	
  Non-­‐verbal	
  communication	
  
You	
   simplify	
   instructions,	
   you	
   use	
   the	
   board,	
   power	
   points,	
   you	
   use	
   pictures	
   you	
   know	
  …	
   you	
   try	
   and	
  use	
  
actions,	
   there	
  are	
   times	
  when	
  you	
  have	
   to	
  change	
   if	
   the	
  book	
  gives	
  you	
  verbs	
   for	
  example	
  which	
  are	
  really	
  
difficult	
   to	
   conjugate	
   I	
  might	
   change…	
   instead	
  of	
   “to	
  whatever…”	
   I	
  use	
   “to	
  drink”	
  …	
   “to	
  write”,	
  where	
   I	
   can	
  
mime.	
  Something	
  that	
  is	
  more	
  tangible	
  for	
  them.	
  

	
  
The	
  teachers	
  interviewed	
  displayed	
  creativity	
  and	
  innovation	
  in	
  their	
  strategies,	
  sharing	
  their	
  unique	
  

perspective	
  on	
  multilingual	
  development.	
  The	
   fact	
   that,	
   in	
   such	
  a	
  historically	
  multilingual	
   context,	
   teachers	
  
still	
  felt	
  uncertain	
  about	
  their	
  teaching	
  demonstrates	
  the	
  need	
  for	
  greater	
  attention	
  to	
  teacher	
  training	
  in	
  this	
  
context.	
  

	
  
6.3.	
  Training	
  needs	
  

	
   The	
  participants	
  in	
  this	
  study	
  demonstrated	
  a	
  willingness	
  to	
  implement	
  the	
  practices	
  required	
  within	
  
today’s	
  rapidly	
  changing	
  sociocultural	
  contexts.	
  However,	
  their	
  responses	
  held	
  an	
  element	
  of	
  uncertainty	
  and	
  
they	
  all	
  voiced	
   the	
  need	
   for	
   further	
  guidance.	
  Diane	
  strongly	
  believed	
   that	
   teacher	
   training	
  and	
  continuous	
  
development	
  programmes	
  do	
  not	
  adequately	
  address	
  teachers’	
  needs	
  in	
  the	
  area	
  of	
  multilingual	
  classrooms,	
  
and	
  hence	
  educators	
  are	
  often	
  in	
  a	
  dilemma.	
  She	
  told	
  us,	
  



LANGUAGE	
  USE	
  IN	
  THE	
  PRIMARY	
  CLASSROOM	
  

E-­‐JournALL	
  7(1)	
  (2020),	
  pp.	
  108-­‐123 117	
  

Extract	
  12.	
  Diane	
  –	
  Code-­‐switching	
  while	
  teaching	
  
We	
  were	
  taught	
  that	
  if	
  we	
  used	
  another	
  language	
  it	
  was	
  a	
  huge	
  mistake,	
  we	
  would	
  confuse	
  the	
  children.	
  That	
  
is	
  the	
  general	
  perception,	
  I	
  think.	
  As	
  a	
  teacher,	
  I	
  do	
  allow	
  it	
  sometimes,	
  but	
  I	
  do	
  question	
  it.	
  I	
  feel	
  guilty.	
  I	
  ask	
  
myself	
   is	
   it	
   ok?	
   I	
   think	
  we	
  need	
   to	
   be	
   told	
   that	
   it	
   is	
   ok.	
   Even	
   for	
   the	
   new	
   teachers	
   following	
   the	
   course	
   at	
  
university.	
  We	
   need	
   to	
   tell	
   them	
   that	
   it	
   is	
   ok	
   to	
   use	
   different	
   languages	
   sometimes	
   to	
   a	
   certain	
   extent.	
   In	
  
practice	
  if	
  you	
  think	
  about	
  it,	
  it	
  is	
  what	
  we	
  really	
  do.	
  We	
  do	
  code-­‐switch,	
  although	
  we	
  do	
  encourage	
  the	
  use	
  of	
  
one	
  language…	
  it	
  is	
  instinctive	
  to	
  use	
  both	
  sometimes.	
  

	
  
Laura	
   also	
   stated	
   that	
   she	
   wished	
   to	
   learn	
   more	
   about	
   innovative	
   teaching	
   methods	
   before	
  

implementing	
  them	
  in	
  class,	
  
	
  

Extract	
  13.	
  Laura	
  –	
  Innovative	
  methods	
  
I	
  feel	
  I	
  do	
  not	
  know	
  enough	
  about	
  these	
  new	
  methods.	
  I	
  follow	
  what	
  I	
  feel	
  is	
  right	
  …	
  I	
  think	
  the	
  fact	
  that	
  more	
  
children	
  are	
  coming	
  to	
  school	
  with	
  different	
  language	
  backgrounds	
  might	
  require	
  some	
  changes	
  really	
  but	
  I’m	
  
not	
  quite	
  sure	
  what	
   is	
  allowed	
  and	
  what	
   isn’t	
  …	
  what	
  works	
  and	
  what	
  doesn’t.	
  There	
  are	
  so	
  many	
  different	
  
opinions	
  on	
  this	
  and	
  things	
  are	
  constantly	
  changing.	
  We	
  are	
  told	
  to	
  do	
  it	
  one	
  way	
  then	
  all	
  of	
  a	
  sudden,	
  we	
  are	
  
told	
  to	
  scrap	
  the	
  whole	
  idea	
  and	
  do	
  something	
  completely	
  different.	
  It’s	
  mind	
  boggling.	
  

	
  
Jonathan	
  also	
  felt	
  that	
  further	
  training	
  is	
  necessary,	
  especially	
  in	
  the	
  realm	
  of	
  language	
  use,	
  	
  

	
  
Extract	
  14.	
  Jonathan	
  -­‐	
  Additional	
  training	
  	
  
I	
   think	
   that	
  we	
   should	
   also	
   be	
   informed	
   better	
   about	
   the	
   benefits	
   of	
   these	
   practices	
   perhaps	
   through	
   CPD	
  
sessions.	
  We	
  were	
  never	
  taught	
  about	
  this	
  at	
  university	
  …	
  anzi	
  [on	
  the	
  contrary]	
  we	
  were	
  always	
  told	
  never	
  to	
  
mix	
  languages	
  

	
  
The	
   teachers’	
   uncertainty	
   and	
   struggles	
   highlight	
   the	
   need	
   for	
   a	
   more	
   organised	
   approach	
   to	
  

continued	
  professional	
  development,	
  ensuring	
  that	
  not	
  only	
  newly	
  trained	
  teachers	
  gain	
  adequate	
  skills	
   for	
  
working	
   in	
  multilingual	
   settings,	
   but	
   that	
   currently	
   practising	
   teachers	
   can	
   update	
   their	
   skills	
   in	
   line	
  with	
  
global	
  changes.	
  

	
  
6.4.	
  Participants’	
  recommendations	
  for	
  policy	
  and	
  practice	
  

All	
   participating	
   educators	
   stated	
   that	
   Malta	
   is	
   currently	
   undergoing	
   a	
   major	
   paradigm	
   shift	
   in	
  
education,	
  mainly	
   as	
   a	
   result	
   of	
   the	
  demographic	
   changes	
  on	
   the	
   island.	
  They	
  were	
   all	
   in	
   agreement	
   about	
  
how	
  inadequate	
  their	
  own	
  teacher	
  training	
  was	
  in	
  view	
  of	
  these	
  challenges,	
  and	
  that	
  they	
  were	
  “winging	
  it”	
  on	
  
many	
  levels.	
  They	
  all	
  felt	
  that	
  most	
  of	
  the	
  experienced	
  teachers	
  in	
  class	
  were	
  trained	
  during	
  a	
  time	
  when	
  the	
  
demographic	
  situation	
  in	
  Malta	
  was	
  very	
  different,	
  and	
  that	
  they	
  were	
  not	
  being	
  offered	
  the	
  right	
  support	
  or	
  
further	
   training	
   to	
  meet	
   the	
   needs	
   of	
   students	
   today.	
  Moreover,	
   they	
   believed	
   that	
   initial	
   teacher	
   training	
  
programmes	
   needed	
   to	
   be	
   restructured	
   in	
   order	
   to	
   train	
   future	
   teachers	
   appropriately	
   in	
   the	
   area	
   of	
  
multilingualism	
   and	
   multiculturalism,	
   regardless	
   of	
   teachers’	
   own	
   backgrounds.	
   Training	
   programmes	
   for	
  
both	
  initial	
  and	
  experienced	
  teachers	
  need	
  to	
  be	
  more	
  culturally	
  relevant	
  in	
  ways	
  that	
  reflect	
  the	
  sociocultural	
  
changes	
  within	
  our	
  educational	
  settings.	
  	
  

Participants	
  mentioned	
  different	
  positive	
  educational	
  initiatives	
  currently	
  being	
  introduced,	
  such	
  as	
  
the	
   introduction	
   of	
   “Ethics”	
   class	
   as	
   an	
   alternative	
   to	
   “Religion”	
   course,	
   in	
   order	
   to	
   embrace	
   multi-­‐ethic	
  
Maltese	
   classrooms.	
   Together	
   with	
   the	
   formation	
   of	
   the	
   Migrant	
   Learners’	
   Unit	
   within	
   the	
   Ministry	
   of	
  
Education	
  and	
  Employment,	
  these	
  initiatives	
  focus	
  on	
  promoting	
  the	
  inclusion	
  of	
  migrant	
  learners.	
  However,	
  
the	
  teachers	
  all	
   felt	
   that	
   there	
  should	
  be	
  more	
   focus	
  on	
  programmes	
  that	
  value	
  and	
  celebrate	
  diversity	
  and	
  
more	
  resources	
  and	
  adequate	
  training,	
  together	
  with	
  further	
  local	
  research	
  on	
  the	
  subject.	
  As	
  Mandy	
  put	
  it,	
  
“we	
   are	
   still	
   in	
   the	
   process	
   of	
   learning	
   through	
   trial	
   and	
   error,	
   rather	
   than	
   solid	
   research	
   and	
   empirical	
  
evidence.”	
  	
  

Maria	
   felt	
   that	
   human	
   resources	
   should	
   be	
   viewed	
   as	
   a	
   priority	
   and	
   that	
   language	
   maintenance	
  
programmes	
  should	
  be	
  offered	
  in	
  all	
  schools	
  in	
  order	
  to	
  celebrate	
  diversity	
  and	
  to	
  protect	
  heritage	
  languages.	
  
Diana	
   also	
   shared	
   this	
   view,	
   as	
  differentiation	
   requires	
   teaching	
   smaller	
   groups,	
   necessitating	
   the	
  need	
   for	
  
more	
  assistance	
  in	
  class.	
  In	
  this	
  regard,	
  Jonathan	
  believed	
  that	
  parental	
  involvement	
  may	
  also	
  be	
  one	
  way	
  to	
  
tap	
   into	
   the	
   community	
   as	
   an	
   invaluable	
  human	
   resource.	
  Additionally,	
   he	
   advocated	
   the	
   employment	
  of	
   a	
  
more	
  diverse	
  teacher	
  workforce	
  in	
  order	
  to	
  be	
  in	
  line	
  with	
  the	
  rapidly	
  shifting	
  classroom	
  demographics:	
  



PANZAVECCHIA	
  &	
  LITTLE	
  

E-­‐JournALL	
  7(1)	
  (2020),	
  pp.	
  108-­‐123 118	
  

Extract	
  15.	
  Jonathan	
  –	
  Heterogeneous	
  workforce	
  
I	
   also	
   think	
   that	
  we	
  need	
  more	
  multilingual	
   teachers	
  …	
  native	
  speakers	
  …	
   this	
  would	
  help	
   to	
   include	
   these	
  
children	
  in	
  this	
  multicultural	
  era.	
  I	
  mean,	
  if	
  we	
  have	
  children	
  who	
  are	
  speaking	
  different	
  languages	
  in	
  class,	
  it	
  
makes	
  sense	
  to	
  have	
  other	
  people	
  who	
  can	
  cater	
  for	
  their	
  needs.	
  

	
  
All	
  participants	
   felt	
   the	
  need	
   to	
  narrow	
  down	
  syllabi,	
   to	
  move	
  away	
   from	
   the	
   idea	
  of	
   standardized	
  

testing	
   and	
   to	
   focus	
   more	
   on	
   play-­‐based	
   activities,	
   in	
   order	
   to	
   foster	
   a	
   love	
   of	
   learning,	
   especially	
   in	
   the	
  
primary	
   years.	
   Maria	
   highlighted	
   the	
   importance	
   of	
   exposure	
   and	
   fostering	
   positive	
   attitudes	
   towards	
  
language:	
  

	
  
Extract	
  16.	
  Maria	
  -­‐	
  Exposure	
  
A	
  lot	
  of	
  it	
  is	
  about	
  getting	
  them	
  to	
  love	
  the	
  language…	
  stories,	
  singing	
  etc.	
  Grammar	
  is	
  boring.	
  A	
  lot	
  of	
  teachers	
  
think	
   that	
  because	
   they’re	
  seeing	
  blank	
   faces	
   they’re	
  not	
   retaining.	
  But	
   they’re	
  being	
  exposed…	
  we	
  need	
   to	
  
apply	
  grammar	
  in	
  context.	
  

	
  
She	
  also	
  felt	
  the	
  need	
  to	
  move	
  away	
  from	
  focusing	
  on	
  formal	
  writing	
  in	
  the	
  early	
  years,	
  saying	
  “[we	
  

should]	
  not	
  focus	
  on	
  every	
  word,	
  every	
  grammar	
  point,	
  every	
  full	
  stop,	
  capital	
  letter	
  …	
  testing	
  everything.	
  Let	
  
them	
  try	
  to	
  express	
  themselves	
  and	
  write	
  freely	
  especially	
  in	
  the	
  younger	
  years.”	
  

Ingrid	
  also	
  thought	
  that	
  making	
  the	
  lessons	
  interesting	
  and	
  play-­‐based,	
  especially	
  within	
  the	
  primary	
  
sector,	
   was	
   fundamental.	
   She	
   highlighted	
   the	
   importance	
   of	
   teaching	
   functional	
   language	
   use	
   in	
   order	
   to	
  
prepare	
   children	
   for	
   the	
   future.	
   Mandy	
   echoed	
   these	
   views,	
   stating	
   that	
   providing	
   children	
   with	
   more	
  
opportunities	
  to	
  apply	
  concepts	
  is	
  imperative,	
  “…to	
  actually	
  provide	
  children	
  with	
  an	
  education	
  that	
  would	
  be	
  
practical,	
  where	
  they	
  can	
  actually	
  put	
  the	
  language	
  into	
  use.”	
  

Diana	
  believed	
  that	
  the	
  system	
  needs	
  to	
  prioritise	
  differentiation	
  methods	
  which	
  are	
  in	
  line	
  with	
  the	
  
diverse	
  student	
  population	
  of	
  today’s	
  classrooms:	
  

	
  
Extract	
  17.	
  Diana-­‐	
  Differentiation	
  methods	
  
We	
  need	
  more	
  resources.	
  We	
  need	
  less	
  content.	
  You	
  set	
  limits	
  and	
  standards	
  yes	
  …	
  but	
  not	
  grouped	
  by	
  age.	
  
Everyone	
  gets	
  there	
  in	
  their	
  own	
  time.	
  Within	
  say	
  these	
  10	
  years	
  the	
  children	
  need	
  to	
  get	
  to	
  this…	
  they	
  need	
  
to	
  master	
  such	
  and	
  such	
  skills	
  but	
  over	
  a	
  span	
  of	
  time.	
  Each	
  child	
  at	
  their	
  own	
  pace.	
  

	
  
She	
   felt	
   that	
   teachers	
  need	
   to	
  be	
  given	
  more	
  opportunities	
   to	
   target	
  different	
  needs	
  within	
  diverse	
  

classrooms,	
   and	
   that	
   compressed	
   and	
   rigid	
   syllabi	
   do	
   not	
   lend	
   themselves	
   to	
   differentiated	
   teaching.	
   She	
  
explained	
  that	
  language	
  teaching	
  needs	
  to	
  be	
  restructured	
  according	
  to	
  level:	
  

	
  
Extract	
  18.	
  Diana-­‐	
  Differentiation	
  methods	
  
If	
  you	
  have	
  a	
  child	
  who	
  is	
  very	
  fluent	
  in	
  English	
  and	
  you	
  keep	
  on	
  teaching	
  her	
  the	
  same	
  things.	
  .	
  .	
  If	
  you	
  have	
  a	
  
Maltese	
  speaking	
  student,	
  you	
  need	
  to	
  start	
  from	
  the	
  basics.	
  So	
  even	
  though	
  the	
  children	
  have	
  the	
  same	
  age	
  
they	
  are	
  at	
  completely	
  different	
  levels.	
  

	
  
Jonathan	
  voiced	
  his	
  concerns	
  about	
  a	
  language	
  policy	
  that	
  encourages	
  bilingual	
  practice,	
  but	
  which	
  is	
  

not	
  always	
  viable	
  due	
  to	
  the	
  growing	
  number	
  of	
  foreign	
  students	
  in	
  school:	
  
	
  

Extract	
  19.	
  Jonathan	
  –	
  Bilingual	
  practice	
  
. . . this	
   is	
   so	
  difficult	
   to	
  do	
  with	
   children	
  who	
   can	
  only	
   speak	
   their	
   own	
   language.	
  We	
   tend	
   to	
  use	
   a	
   lot	
   of	
  
visuals	
  and	
  resources	
  and	
  signing	
  with	
  these	
  children.	
  But	
  it’s	
  very	
  spontaneous.	
  Some	
  of	
  these	
  children	
  have	
  
so	
  many	
  difficulties.	
  

	
  
Jonathan	
  mentioned	
  the	
  recently	
  established	
  Migrant	
  Learners’	
  Unit,	
  within	
  the	
  Ministry	
  of	
  Education	
  

and	
  Employment,	
  which	
  seeks	
  to	
  promote	
  the	
  inclusion	
  of	
  newly	
  arrived	
  learners	
  into	
  the	
  education	
  system,	
  
while	
   focusing	
   on	
   the	
   acquisition	
   of	
   linguistic	
   and	
   sociocultural	
   competences.	
  While	
   Jonathan	
   felt	
   that	
   this	
  
was	
   a	
   positive	
   initiative,	
   he	
   also	
   thought	
   that	
   it	
   operated	
   on	
   a	
   deficit	
   model	
   and	
   does	
   not	
   truly	
   celebrate	
  
linguistic	
   diversity.	
   These	
   concerns	
   are	
   mirrored	
   across	
   Europe,	
   where	
   multiple	
   levels	
   of	
   integration	
   for	
  
newly	
   arrived	
   learners	
   exist,	
   ranging	
   from	
   full	
   initial	
   separation,	
   to	
   partial	
   separation,	
   to	
   immediate,	
   full	
  
integration	
  into	
  all	
  mainstream	
  classes	
  (European	
  Commission,	
  2019).	
  Each	
  of	
  these	
  models	
  highlights	
  issues	
  



LANGUAGE	
  USE	
  IN	
  THE	
  PRIMARY	
  CLASSROOM	
  

E-­‐JournALL	
  7(1)	
  (2020),	
  pp.	
  108-­‐123 119	
  

linked	
   not	
   only	
   to	
   language	
   acquisition,	
   but	
   also	
   to	
   integration,	
   with	
   students	
   separated	
   from	
   their	
   peers	
  
sometimes	
  struggling	
  to	
  access	
  the	
  main	
  curriculum,	
  if	
  too	
  much	
  emphasis	
  is	
  placed	
  on	
  language	
  acquisition	
  
above	
  content	
  acquisition	
  (Nilsson	
  &	
  Bunar,	
  2016).	
  

	
  
7.	
  Conclusions,	
  pedagogical	
  implications,	
  and	
  limitations	
  

	
  Due	
   to	
   its	
  strategic	
  position,	
  Malta	
  was	
   immersed	
   in	
  a	
  variety	
  of	
   languages	
  as	
  part	
  of	
   its	
  historical	
  
legacy.	
  Most	
  Maltese	
  teachers	
  are	
  hence	
  naturally	
  adept	
  at	
  and	
  open	
  to	
  hybridising	
  languages,	
  as	
  it	
  is	
  a	
  part	
  of	
  
their	
  history	
  and	
  a	
  natural	
  way	
  of	
  communicating	
  (Panzavecchia,	
   in	
  preparation).	
  Sciriha	
  (2001)	
  states	
  that	
  
multilingualism	
  and	
  multiculturalism	
  are	
  natural	
  to	
  the	
  Maltese	
  and	
  that,	
  “what	
  is	
  essentially	
  ‘natural’	
  for	
  the	
  
Maltese	
  themselves	
  is	
  very	
  surprising	
  to	
  visitors	
  who,	
  as	
  soon	
  as	
  they	
  land	
  in	
  Malta,	
  immediately	
  perceive	
  the	
  
multicultural	
  component	
  to	
  life	
  in	
  Malta”	
  (pp.	
  36	
  –	
  37).	
  

As	
   in	
  many	
  other	
  bilingual	
  societies,	
  code-­‐switching	
   is	
  common	
  practice	
  within	
  Maltese	
  classrooms	
  
and	
  Maltese	
  teachers	
  already	
  engage	
  in	
  natural	
  translanguaging	
  practices	
  to	
  support	
  Maltese-­‐born	
  bilingual	
  
students	
  who	
  are	
   less	
  proficient	
   in	
  one	
  of	
   the	
   two	
  official	
   languages.	
  Moreover,	
  many	
  Maltese	
   teachers	
  are	
  
proficient	
   in	
   at	
   least	
   one	
   other	
   foreign	
   language	
   apart	
   from	
   their	
   two	
   official	
   languages,	
   and	
   thus	
   find	
  
themselves	
  naturally	
  shifting	
  between	
  two	
  or	
  more	
  languages	
  daily.	
  	
  

Multilingual	
   classrooms	
  are	
  on	
   the	
   increase	
  on	
   the	
   island,	
   and	
   therefore	
  Maltese	
   children	
   are	
  now	
  
being	
  exposed	
  to	
  several	
  different	
  languages,	
  other	
  than	
  English	
  and	
  Maltese.	
  This	
  is	
  enriching	
  on	
  many	
  levels	
  
as	
   educational	
   settings	
   which	
   value	
   multilingualism	
   have	
   been	
   proven	
   to	
   improve	
   children’s	
   self-­‐esteem,	
  
encourage	
   the	
   integration	
  of	
  migrant	
   students,	
   shape	
   cultural	
   identities	
  and	
  empower	
  all	
   children	
   to	
   reach	
  
their	
   full	
   potential.	
   Children	
   whose	
   home	
   languages	
   are	
   not	
   valued	
   and	
   supported	
   are	
   found	
   to	
   be	
  
disadvantaged	
   both	
   socially	
   and	
   academically	
   (OECD,	
   2012).	
   The	
   situation	
   thus	
   clearly	
   necessitates	
   more	
  
fluid	
   and	
   flexible	
   linguistic	
  practices,	
   such	
  as	
  García’s	
   (2009)	
   concept	
  of	
   transglossia,	
  which	
   focuses	
  on	
   the	
  
way	
   different	
   languages	
   interrelate	
   within	
   a	
   globalised	
   society.	
   Paradoxically,	
   Maltese	
   educators	
   still	
   feel	
  
unsure	
   about	
   how,	
   when	
   and	
   if	
   they	
   should	
   utilise	
   this	
   as	
   a	
   pedagogical	
   strategy.	
   In	
   this	
   regard,	
   the	
  
participants	
  in	
  this	
  study	
  all	
  expressed	
  the	
  need	
  to	
  be	
  given	
  more	
  formal	
  guidelines	
  on	
  how	
  to	
  deal	
  with	
  their	
  
increasingly	
  multilingual	
   and	
  multicultural	
   classrooms,	
   and	
   how	
   to	
   further	
   explore	
   their	
   spontaneous	
   and	
  
naturally	
  occurring	
  translanguaging	
  practices,	
   in	
  order	
  to	
  reach	
  out	
  to	
  migrant	
  students	
  who	
  are	
  struggling	
  
with	
   the	
   country’s	
   two	
  official	
   languages.	
  They	
  also	
   felt	
   the	
  need	
   for	
  more	
   research	
   in	
   the	
  area	
   in	
  order	
   to	
  
support	
   the	
   development	
   of	
   initial	
   teacher	
   education	
   programmes	
   and	
   specialised	
   training	
   sessions	
   for	
  
established	
  teachers.	
  	
  	
  

The	
   participants	
   also	
   advocated	
   for	
  more	
   emphasis	
   on	
   preserving	
   the	
  Maltese	
   language	
  within	
   an	
  
ever-­‐increasing	
   multilingual	
   community.	
   Moreover,	
   there	
   is	
   a	
   need	
   for	
   further	
   investment	
   in	
   language	
  
maintenance	
  programmes,	
  mother-­‐tongue	
  instruction	
  and	
  culturally	
  inclusive	
  and	
  multicultural	
  curricula	
  for	
  
immigrant	
  students,	
  so	
  that	
  every	
  child’s	
  linguistic	
  identity	
  would	
  be	
  valued	
  and	
  celebrated.	
  The	
  educators	
  in	
  
this	
  study	
  also	
  recognised	
  the	
  need	
  for	
  more	
  human	
  resources	
  which	
  would	
  enable	
  these	
  ideas	
  to	
  be	
  put	
  into	
  
practice,	
   together	
  with	
  more	
   focus	
   on	
   parental	
   involvement,	
  which	
  may	
   prove	
   to	
   be	
   an	
   interesting	
  way	
   in	
  
which	
  to	
  value	
  and	
  celebrate	
  migrant	
  children’s	
  diverse	
  identities	
  through	
  capitalising	
  on	
  families	
  as	
  valuable	
  
resources.	
  The	
  participants	
  also	
  felt	
  a	
  need	
  for	
  revising	
  course	
  syllabi,	
  and	
  for	
  educational	
  settings	
  to	
  offer	
  a	
  
more	
  play-­‐based,	
  fun	
  approach	
  in	
  order	
  to	
  foster	
  positive	
  attitudes	
  towards	
  language	
  learning.	
  They	
  felt	
  that	
  
in	
  mainstream	
  schools,	
   curricula,	
  and	
  school	
   syllabi	
  do	
  not	
  adequately	
   reflect	
   the	
  urgent	
  need	
   to	
  support	
  a	
  
diverse	
  student	
  population.	
  	
  

Malta	
  serves	
  as	
  an	
  example	
  of	
  a	
  global	
  trend,	
  with	
  countries	
  becoming	
  increasingly	
  multi-­‐ethnic	
  and	
  
multilingual.	
  The	
  need	
  for	
  a	
  paradigm	
  shift	
  in	
  education	
  is	
  becoming	
  more	
  pressing.	
  It	
  is	
  thus	
  imperative	
  that	
  
educational	
  institutions	
  support	
  today’s	
  diverse	
  students	
  through	
  viewing	
  linguistic	
  and	
  cultural	
  diversity	
  as	
  
an	
  enrichment	
  rather	
  than	
  a	
  deficit.	
  Although	
  Maltese	
  educators	
  are	
  naturally	
  predisposed	
  to	
  making	
  use	
  of	
  
two	
  or	
  more	
  languages	
  in	
  their	
  personal	
  and	
  professional	
  lives,	
  they	
  still	
  feel	
  they	
  need	
  to	
  be	
  provided	
  with	
  
formal	
   guidelines	
   and	
   training	
   programmes	
  which	
   could	
   support	
   and	
   further	
   explore	
   these	
   practices.	
   This	
  
could	
  be	
   the	
  catalyst	
   required	
   for	
   changes	
  within	
  educational	
   systems	
  which	
  would	
  meet	
   the	
  challenges	
  of	
  
today’s	
  diverse	
  schools.	
  

Although	
  there	
  is	
  a	
  vast	
  body	
  of	
  research	
  dedicated	
  to	
  multilingual	
  classrooms	
  and,	
  more	
  recently,	
  to	
  
translanguaging	
  practices,	
   there	
  seems	
  to	
  be	
  a	
  gap	
   in	
   literature	
  concerning	
   language	
   teachers’	
  perspectives	
  
and	
   thoughts	
   about	
   language	
   pedagogy,	
   which	
   we	
   aim	
   to	
   bridge	
   within	
   the	
   limitations	
   of	
   our	
   study.	
   The	
  
overall	
   findings	
   of	
   this	
   inquiry	
   offer	
   valuable	
   insights	
   into	
   teachers’	
   views	
   on	
   language	
   practice	
   within	
  
multilingual	
  classrooms,	
  however,	
  due	
  to	
  time	
  constraints	
  and	
  the	
  restricted	
  sample	
  size	
  of	
  our	
  participants,	
  



PANZAVECCHIA	
  &	
  LITTLE	
  

E-­‐JournALL	
  7(1)	
  (2020),	
  pp.	
  108-­‐123 120	
  

the	
  conclusions	
  drawn	
  from	
  this	
  study	
  are	
  not	
  representative	
  of	
  all	
  Maltese	
  teachers.	
  The	
  unique	
  views	
  and	
  
professional	
  practice	
  of	
  the	
  participants	
  in	
  this	
  study	
  may,	
  however,	
  be	
  used	
  as	
  a	
  resource	
  for	
  further	
  studies	
  
and	
   to	
   make	
   suggestions	
   for	
   future	
   practice.	
   A	
   more	
   comprehensive	
   perspective	
   and	
   further	
   research	
   on	
  
translanguaging,	
   both	
   in	
   the	
  Maltese	
   context	
   and	
   beyond,	
  would	
   provide	
   further	
   insights	
   into	
  multilingual	
  
practices	
  in	
  educational	
  settings.	
  

	
  
	
  
	
  

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LANGUAGE	
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E-­‐JournALL	
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PANZAVECCHIA	
  &	
  LITTLE	
  

E-­‐JournALL	
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  pp.	
  108-­‐123 122	
  

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LANGUAGE	
  USE	
  IN	
  THE	
  PRIMARY	
  CLASSROOM	
  

E-­‐JournALL	
  7(1)	
  (2020),	
  pp.	
  108-­‐123 123	
  

Michelle Panzavecchia, University of Sheffield 
mpanzavecchia1@sheffield.ac.uk 

  
EN Michelle Panzavecchia is an educator with many years of teaching experience in the early and middle years. She is 

also a University of Malta Visiting Lecturer with the Faculty of Education. Michelle holds a MSc in Language and 
Communication Impairment in Children from the University of Sheffield, UK and a B. Ed (Hons.) from the University of 
Malta. She is currently reading for a PhD in Bilingualism and English Language Teaching through the University of 
Sheffield, UK. 
 

ES Michelle Panzavecchia es una educadora con muchos años de experiencia docente en los años iniciales y de 
educación media. También es Catedrática visitante de la Universidad de Malta, en la Facultad de Educación. Michelle 
tiene una Maestría en Ciencias en Discapacidad del Lenguaje y Comunicación Infantil de la Unievrsidad de Sheffield, 
en el Reino Unido y una Licenciatura en Educación (con honores) de la Universidad de Malta. Actualmente está 
cursando un Doctorado en Bilingüismo y Enseñanza del Inglés de la Universidad de Sheffield, en el Reino Unido. 
 

IT Michelle Panzavecchia è un'educatrice con molti anni di esperienza nell'insegnamento negli anni iniziali ed intermedi. 
È anche docente in visita presso la Facoltà di Scienze della Formazione della University of Malta. Michelle ha 
conseguito un Master in Language and Communication Impairment in Children presso la University of Sheffield, nel 
Regno Unito, e una Laurea presso la University of Malta. Attualmente sta studiando per un dottorato in Bilinguismo ed 
Insegnamento della Lingua Inglese presso la University of Sheffield, Regno Unito. 

	
  
	
  

	
  
	
  

Sabine Little, University of Sheffield 
s.little@sheffield.ac.uk 

  
EN Sabine Little is a Lecturer in Languages Education at the University of Sheffield. Her research focuses on multilingual 

families, how they experience emotional and practical links to their various languages, and how these are involved in 
each family member’s identity construction process. Her work explores the home-school nexus and the status that 
various languages receive within local and national contexts. 

ES Sabine Little es profesora en el área de educación lingüística en la Universidad de Sheffield. Su investigación se 
enfoca en las familias multilingües, cómo experimentan los vínculos afectivos y prácticos con los distintos idiomas y su 
relación con el proceso de la construcción de la identidad de cada miembro de la familia. Su trabajo explora el nexo 
entre el hogar y la escuela y el estatus que reciben los varios idiomas dentro de los contextos locales y nacionales. 
 

IT Sabine Little è docente di Educazione Linguistica alla University of Sheffield. La sua ricerca si concentra su famiglie 
multilingue, su come vivono i collegamenti emotivi e pratici con le varie lingue e su come questi sono coinvolti nel 
processo di costruzione dell'identità di ciascun membro della famiglia. Il suo lavoro esplora il nesso tra scuola e casa e 
analizza lo status che le varie lingue acquisiscono nei contesti locali e nazionali.