Microsoft Word - 8. Waddington _7.1.docx


EuroAmerican	
  Journal	
  of	
  Applied	
  Linguistics	
  and	
  Languages	
  
Special	
  Issue,	
  Volume	
  7,	
  Issue	
  1,	
  February	
  2020,	
  124-­‐144	
  
ISSN	
  2376-­‐905X	
  	
  
DOI	
  http://dx.doi.org/10.21283/2376905X.11.188	
  
www.e-­‐journall.org	
  	
  

© Waddington 2020. This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. 

	
   	
  
	
   Motivating	
  self	
  and	
  others	
  through	
  a	
  whole-­‐school	
  storytelling	
  project:	
  

Authentic	
  language	
  &	
  literacy	
  development	
  
	
  
	
  

	
  
JULIE	
  WADDINGTON	
  	
  
University	
  of	
  Girona	
  

	
   	
  
	
   Received	
  1	
  May	
  2019;	
  received	
  in	
  revised	
  form	
  22	
  July	
  2019;	
  accepted	
  11	
  October	
  2019	
  

 
ABSTRACT 

EN This study reports on a whole-school project carried out with preschool and primary children, taking a whole-language approach to 
literacy development, through a storytelling methodology which uses authentic picturebooks and peer modelling. This article presents 
the results of an exploratory mixed methods study conducted over a three-year period with the older (10-12-year-old) participants in the 
project (N=27). Within an action research framework, data was collected from field notes of classroom observations, video recorded 
sessions, questionnaires and interviews with students and teachers. The study aims to assess the motivational effect of the storytelling 
project on learners, identify the learning outcomes generated and identify strategies that were particularly effective in generating such 
outcomes. Through a process-oriented approach, the findings verify the motivational effect of the storytelling project. These findings 
also help bridge the gap between theory and practice in motivational research and contribute to the growing body of literature on the use 
of authentic picturebooks in the L2 classroom and the potential benefits of peer modelling. 
 
Key words:	
   STORYTELLING WITH PICTUREBOOKS, PEER MODELLING, READING, AUTHENTICITY, EARLY FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING, 
PRESCHOOL AND PRIMARY 
 

ES Este estudio presenta un proyecto whole-school implementado con alumnado de educación infantil y primaria. El proyecto, basado en 
un enfoque de lenguaje integral, emplea una metodología storytelling con álbumes ilustrados auténticos y un uso estratégico de 
modelaje por pares. Este artículo expone los resultados de un estudio de métodos mixtos realizado con los/las participantes más 
mayores (10-12 años, N = 27) durante un periodo de tres años. En el marco de la investigación-acción, los datos recopilados provienen 
de observaciones y grabaciones en el aula, cuestionarios y entrevistas con estudiantes y docentes. El estudio evalúa el efecto 
motivador del proyecto e identifica los resultados del aprendizaje y las estrategias que han demostrado ser eficaces en la producción 
de estos resultados. Desde un enfoque orientado al proceso, los hallazgos verifican el efecto motivador en el alumnado. Estos 
resultados ayudan a reducir la distancia entre la teoría y la práctica en la investigación motivacional, a la vez que contribuyen a la 
literatura sobre el uso de álbumes ilustrados auténticos en la clase de L2 y los beneficios del modelaje por pares. 
 
Palabras clave: STORYTELLING CON ÁLBUMES ILUSTRADOS; MODELAJE POR PARES; LECTURA; AUTENTICIDAD; APRENDIZAJE DE IDIOMAS 
EXTRANJEROS EN EDADES TEMPRANAS; EDUCACIÓN INFANTIL Y PRIMARIA 
 

IT Questo studio presenta un progetto che ha coinvolto un’intera scuola e i bambini della scuola dell'infanzia e della scuola primaria. 
Il progetto si basa sia sull'approccio whole language per lo sviluppo dell’alfabetizzazione attraverso la metodologia dello 
storytelling con l'uso di libri illustrati autentici e del peer modelling. Questo articolo presenta i risultati di una ricerca condotta con 
metodi misti che ha coinvolto i bambini più grandi (10-12 anni, N = 27) nell'arco di tre anni. Nel quadro della ricerca-azione, ho 
raccolto dati scaturiti da osservazioni in classe e sessioni videoregistrate, questionari e interviste con studenti e insegnanti. 
L’obiettivo dello studio è valutare l'effetto motivazionale del progetto di storytelling sui discenti, individuare i risultati di 
apprendimento e le strategie rivelatesi efficaci nel produrre tali risultati. Attraverso un approccio orientato al processo, i risultati 
verificano l'effetto motivazionale dello storytelling e uniscono la teoria e la pratica nella ricerca motivazionale contribuendo alla 
letteratura sull'uso di libri illustrati autentici nelle classi di L2 e i potenziali benefici del peer modelling.  
 
Parole chiave: STORYTELLING CON LIBRI ILLUSTRATI, PEER MODELLING, LETTURA, AUTENTICITÀ, APPRENDIMENTO PRECOCE DELLA LINGUA 
STRANIERA, SCUOLA DELL'INFANZIA E SCUOLA PRIMARIA.             

  
  

* 	
  	
  Julie	
  Waddington,	
  University	
  of	
  Girona	
  
	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  julie.waddington@udg.edu 



A	
  WHOLE-­‐SCHOOL	
  STORYTELLING	
  PROJECT	
  

E-­‐JournALL	
  7(1)	
  (2020),	
  pp.	
  124-­‐144 125	
  

1.	
  Introduction	
  	
  
Within	
  a	
  whole	
  language	
  approach	
  to	
  literacy	
  development	
  (Galda,	
  Liang,	
  &	
  Cullinan,	
  2016;	
  Martinez	
  

&	
  McGee,	
  2000),	
  reading	
  is	
  not	
  regarded	
  as	
  a	
  separate	
  skill	
  to	
  be	
  developed	
  once	
  the	
  basics	
  of	
  the	
  language	
  
have	
   been	
   acquired;	
   instead,	
   it	
   is	
   conceived	
   as	
   a	
   critical	
   part	
   of	
   the	
   language	
   learning	
   process	
   itself.	
  
Furthermore,	
  and	
   from	
  a	
  socio-­‐constructivist	
  approach	
   to	
   learning,	
   this	
  process	
   is	
  an	
  active	
  undertaking	
   in	
  
which	
   we	
   learn	
   language	
   by	
   using	
   it	
   (Bruner,	
   1983)	
   in	
   interactive	
   experiences	
   involving	
   social	
   and	
  
collaborative	
   exchanges	
   with	
   others	
   (Vygotsky,	
   1978).	
   Authentic	
   children’s	
   literature	
   can	
   provide	
   a	
   rich	
  
starting	
   point	
   for	
   interactive	
   storytelling	
   sessions	
   by	
   engaging	
   children’s	
   interest	
   on	
   the	
   one	
   hand	
   and	
  
encouraging	
  emerging	
  literacy	
  skills	
  on	
  the	
  other	
  (Brand,	
  2006;	
  Campbell,	
  2001;	
  Martinez	
  &	
  McGee,	
  2000).	
  	
  

This	
   paper	
   reports	
   on	
   a	
   whole-­‐school	
   project	
   that	
   connected	
   literacy	
   development	
   with	
   foreign	
  
language	
  learning	
  by	
  aligning	
  L3	
  learning	
  with	
  strategies	
  already	
  found	
  to	
  be	
  effective	
  in	
  promoting	
  learning	
  
and	
   development	
   in	
   L1	
   and	
   L2.	
   The	
   project	
   was	
   implemented	
   in	
   a	
   rural	
   preschool/primary	
   school	
   in	
  
Catalonia	
  where	
  Catalan	
  is	
  the	
  main	
  language	
  of	
  instruction	
  (L1)	
  and	
  Spanish	
  is	
  learned	
  as	
  an	
  L2.	
  While	
  actual	
  
usage	
  and	
  knowledge	
  of	
  these	
  two	
  languages	
  depends	
  on	
  the	
  home	
  environment	
  of	
  each	
  student,	
  the	
  school	
  
context	
   provides	
   students	
   with	
   an	
   education	
   that	
   aims	
   to	
   develop	
   competence	
   in	
   both	
   languages	
  
(Departament	
   d’Ensenyament,	
   2015b,	
   2016).	
   In	
   addition,	
   and	
   in	
   line	
   with	
   curricular	
   guidelines,	
   students	
  
begin	
  to	
  learn	
  English	
  as	
  a	
  foreign	
  language,	
  referred	
  to	
  here	
  as	
  L3	
  (Departament	
  d’Ensenyament,	
  2015a).	
  	
  

Consistent	
  with	
  regular	
  practice	
  in	
  the	
  region,	
  children	
  in	
  the	
  preschool	
  programme	
  (ages	
  3-­‐5)	
  have	
  
their	
   own	
   annex	
   within	
   the	
   school	
   compound.	
   This	
   enables	
   teachers	
   from	
   different	
   educational	
   stages	
   to	
  
maintain	
  close	
  contact	
  and	
  coordinate	
  activities	
  bringing	
  children	
  from	
  preschool	
  and	
  primary	
  education	
  (6-­‐
12	
  years	
  old)	
  together.	
  Capitalizing	
  on	
  this	
  situation,	
  the	
  school	
  places	
  considerable	
  emphasis	
  on	
  peer-­‐to-­‐peer	
  
work	
   and	
   coordinated	
   activities	
   in	
  which	
   older	
   children	
   become	
   role	
  models	
   for	
   their	
   younger	
   peers.	
   The	
  
primary	
  school’s	
  L1/L2	
  literacy	
  programme	
  includes	
  regular	
  activities	
  in	
  which	
  older	
  children	
  read	
  stories	
  to	
  
their	
  peers,	
   including	
  students	
   from	
  the	
   lower	
  years	
  of	
  primary	
  and	
   the	
  younger	
  children	
   in	
   the	
  preschool.	
  
This	
  established	
  practice	
  has	
  generated	
  positive	
  results	
  for	
  the	
  school,	
  particularly	
  in	
  promoting	
  the	
  following	
  
learning	
  outcomes:	
  positive	
  attitudes	
  toward	
  reading,	
  effective	
  oral	
  communication	
  skills,	
  and	
  interpersonal	
  
and	
  intrapersonal	
  competence.	
  These	
  results	
  support	
  the	
  theoretical	
  arguments	
  advanced	
  in	
  favour	
  of	
  using	
  
peer	
  modelling	
   in	
   education,	
   particularly	
   seeing	
   as	
   it	
   stimulates	
  positive	
   self-­‐efficacy	
  beliefs	
   (Artino,	
   2012;	
  
Bandura,	
  1977).	
  On	
  such	
  accounts,	
  observing	
  peers	
  carrying	
  out	
  what	
   is	
  perceived	
   to	
  be	
  a	
  challenging	
   task	
  
encourages	
   learners	
   to	
   believe	
   that	
   they	
  will	
   also	
   be	
   able	
   to	
   achieve	
   similar	
   goals	
   in	
   the	
   future.	
   Given	
   the	
  
consistently	
   positive	
   results	
   obtained	
   using	
   peer	
   modelling	
   strategies	
   in	
   L1/L2	
   literacy	
   development,	
   the	
  
school	
   decided	
   to	
   implement	
   a	
   new	
   project	
   replicating	
   some	
   of	
   the	
   aspects	
   of	
   the	
   peer-­‐to-­‐peer	
   reading	
  
programme,	
  while	
  adapting	
   it	
   to	
   the	
  challenges	
  of	
   introducing	
  an	
  L3	
   (i.e.,	
  English),	
  as	
  explained	
   in	
   the	
   first	
  
sub-­‐section	
  (Context)	
  of	
  the	
  Methodology	
  described	
  below.	
  	
  

In	
   the	
   first	
   instance,	
   the	
   project	
   aimed	
   to	
   generate	
   similar	
   outcomes	
   to	
   those	
   resulting	
   from	
   the	
  
L1/L2	
  programme	
  (i.e.,	
  positive	
  attitudes	
  to	
  reading,	
  effective	
  oral	
  communication	
  skills,	
  and	
  interpersonal	
  &	
  
intrapersonal	
   competence),	
  while	
   also	
   aiming	
   to	
   promote	
   positive	
   attitudes	
   toward	
   the	
   foreign	
   language.	
   I	
  
carried	
   out	
   an	
   initial	
   study	
   focusing	
   on	
   the	
   attitudinal	
   aspect	
   of	
   the	
   programme.	
   Within	
   a	
   qualitative	
  
framework,	
   the	
   study	
   explored	
   the	
   effect	
   of	
   the	
   project	
   on	
   the	
   students’	
   emerging	
   self-­‐concepts	
   as	
   foreign	
  
language	
   learners	
   and	
   assessed	
   changes	
   in	
   self-­‐efficacy	
  beliefs	
   prior	
   to	
   and	
   after	
   completion	
  of	
   the	
  project	
  
(Waddington,	
   2019).	
   Results	
   from	
   this	
   previous	
   study	
   highlighted	
   the	
   way	
   in	
   which	
   debilitating	
   learner	
  
attributions	
   often	
   impeded	
   the	
   emergence	
   of	
   positive	
   foreign	
   language	
   self-­‐concepts.	
   Three	
   main	
  
explanations	
   for	
   low	
   self-­‐efficacy	
   levels	
   emerged:	
   perceived	
   weaknesses	
   in	
   communication	
  
skills/comprehensibility,	
   anxieties	
   about	
   pronunciation/accent	
   and	
   identity-­‐related	
   issues/competing	
  
languages.	
  Results	
  showed	
  significant	
  increases	
  in	
  self-­‐efficacy	
  beliefs	
  after	
  project	
  implementation	
  and	
  more	
  
positive	
  attitudes	
   toward	
   foreign	
   language	
   learning.	
  These	
   initial	
  results	
  encouraged	
  the	
  school	
   to	
  continue	
  
with	
  the	
  project	
  and	
  to	
  include	
  it	
  as	
  a	
  permanent	
  feature	
  of	
  their	
  language	
  and	
  literacy	
  programme.	
  	
  

The	
  study	
  presented	
  in	
  this	
  paper	
  aims	
  to	
  build	
  on	
  the	
  findings	
  of	
  the	
  previous	
  study	
  by	
  focusing	
  on	
  
the	
   effects	
   of	
   the	
   whole-­‐school	
   and	
   whole	
   language	
   literacy	
   programme	
   on	
   learners.	
   Specifically,	
   and	
   as	
  
discussed	
  in	
  detail	
  in	
  the	
  Methodology	
  section,	
  the	
  study	
  aimed	
  to:	
  	
  
	
  

-­‐ assess	
  the	
  motivational	
  effect	
  of	
  the	
  reading	
  project	
  on	
  learners,	
  	
  	
  
-­‐ identify	
  the	
  learning	
  outcomes	
  generated,	
  and	
  
-­‐ identify	
  strategies	
  observed	
  to	
  be	
  particularly	
  effective	
  in	
  generating	
  the	
  observed	
  outcomes.	
  



WADDINGTON	
  

E-­‐JournALL	
  7(1)	
  (2020),	
  pp.	
  124-­‐144 126	
  

2.	
  Theoretical	
  perspectives	
  and	
  literature	
  review	
  
2.1.	
  Language	
  and	
  literacy	
  development	
  	
  	
  

Considering	
   the	
   development	
   of	
   reading	
   as	
   part	
   of	
   a	
   student’s	
   global	
   development	
   presents	
  
challenges	
  that	
  go	
  well	
  beyond	
  language,	
  as	
  emphasised	
  by	
  Gail	
  Ellis	
  (2010)	
  in	
  a	
  paper	
  that	
  focused	
  on	
  lower	
  
secondary	
  school	
  students	
  (ages	
  11-­‐14).	
  The	
  main	
  challenges	
  Ellis	
  highlights	
  are:	
  the	
  mixed	
  levels	
  of	
  language	
  
skills	
   and	
   knowledge,	
  which	
   can	
   vary	
   considerably	
  within	
   a	
   group;	
   the	
  maintenance	
   of	
   learner	
  motivation	
  
over	
   extended	
   periods	
   of	
   time;	
   the	
   selection	
   of	
   age-­‐appropriate,	
   but	
   linguistically	
   accessible	
  material,	
   and	
  
students’	
   role	
   in	
   selecting	
   such	
  material;	
   the	
  development	
  of	
   effective	
   reading	
   strategies;	
   the	
   cultivation	
  of	
  
positive	
  attitudes	
  and	
  self-­‐confidence;	
  and	
  the	
  development	
  of	
  active	
  citizens.	
  In	
  relation	
  to	
  this	
  latter	
  point,	
  
Ellis	
   also	
   places	
   considerable	
   emphasis	
   on	
   the	
   need	
   to	
   build	
   ‘communities	
   of	
   readers’	
   and	
   to	
   create	
  
opportunities	
   for	
   students	
   to	
   share	
   their	
   reading	
   experiences	
  with	
   each	
   other.	
   Summing	
  up	
   the	
   challenges	
  
presented,	
  two	
  principle	
  lines	
  of	
  action	
  emerge:	
  

	
  
-­‐ selecting	
  appropriate	
  and	
  motivating	
  reading	
  material,	
  and	
  
-­‐ providing	
  ideal	
  motivational	
  conditions	
  while	
  developing	
  learning	
  strategies.	
  	
  

	
  
2.2.	
  Motivation	
  

The	
   question	
   of	
   motivation	
   and	
   the	
   development	
   of	
   effective	
   learning	
   strategies	
   is	
   particularly	
  
relevant	
   to	
   the	
   focus	
   of	
   this	
   present	
   study.	
   Influenced	
   by	
   behaviourist	
   approaches,	
   early	
   theories	
   of	
  
motivation	
   in	
  education	
   tended	
   to	
  emphasise	
   the	
   transitive	
  nature	
  of	
   learning,	
  understanding	
   the	
   teacher’s	
  
role	
  as	
   that	
  of	
  a	
  motivator	
  and	
  key	
  agent	
   responsible	
   for	
  stimulating	
  student	
   learning	
   (Williams,	
  Mercer,	
  &	
  
Ryan,	
   2016).	
   Increasing	
   attention	
   to	
   the	
   learner’s	
   central	
   role	
   in	
   the	
   learning	
   process	
   and	
   to	
   the	
   need	
   to	
  
increase	
  learner	
  participation	
  and	
  autonomy	
  from	
  early	
  ages	
  (Ellis	
  &	
  Ibrahim,	
  2015)	
  has	
  led	
  to	
  the	
  emergence	
  
of	
  more	
   situated	
   and	
   complex	
   approaches	
   to	
  motivation	
   (Dörnyei	
  &	
  Ushioda,	
   2009),	
   focusing	
  more	
   on	
   the	
  
learner,	
   and	
   suggesting	
   that	
   the	
   mere	
   application	
   of	
   external	
   stimuli	
   is	
   not	
   enough.	
   Despite	
   theoretical	
  
advances	
   in	
  this	
   field,	
  several	
  authors	
  have	
  highlighted	
  the	
  gap	
  between	
  theory	
  and	
  practice	
  (Lasagabaster,	
  
Doiz,	
  &	
  Sierra,	
  2016;	
  Ryan,	
  2016;	
  Waddington,	
  2018).	
  In	
  particular,	
  they	
  suggest	
  that	
  comprehensible	
  guides	
  
are	
  needed	
  to	
  support	
  teachers	
  as	
  they	
  endeavour	
  to	
  appropriately	
  and	
  effectively	
  incorporate	
  motivational	
  
strategies	
  within	
   their	
  practice,	
   in	
  a	
  way	
   that	
  places	
   the	
   learner	
  at	
   the	
  centre	
  of	
   the	
  process.	
   It	
   is	
  with	
   this	
  
practical	
   focus	
   in	
   mind	
   that	
   Ellis	
   (2010)	
   presents	
   Dörnyei’s	
   process-­‐oriented	
   approach	
   to	
   motivation	
  
(Dörnyei,	
   2001)	
   as	
   an	
   effective	
   organisational	
   tool	
   for	
   her	
   own	
   study	
   on	
   motivating	
   secondary	
   school	
  
students	
  to	
  read.	
  The	
  approach	
  helps	
  identify	
  strategies	
  corresponding	
  to	
  different	
  components	
  of	
  a	
  holistic	
  
and	
   learner-­‐based	
   model	
   of	
   motivation:	
   1)	
   creating	
   basic	
   motivational	
   conditions,	
   2)	
   generating	
   initial	
  
motivation,	
   3)	
   maintaining	
   and	
   protecting	
   motivation,	
   and	
   4)	
   encouraging	
   positive	
   retrospective	
   self-­‐
evaluation.	
  For	
  Dörnyei	
  (2001),	
  successful	
  language	
  teaching	
  practice	
  must	
  pay	
  attention	
  to	
  all	
  components,	
  
including	
  the	
  development	
  of	
  effective	
  strategies	
  to	
  address	
  the	
  different	
  components	
  and	
  subcomponents	
  of	
  
the	
  model.	
  Nevertheless,	
  a	
   recent	
  study	
  exploring	
  how	
  primary	
  school	
   teachers	
  understand	
  and	
   implement	
  
motivational	
  strategies	
  in	
  the	
  foreign	
  language	
  classroom	
  shows	
  a	
  different	
  picture	
  (Waddington,	
  2018):	
  the	
  
majority	
   of	
   strategies	
   reported	
   correspond	
   to	
   the	
   third	
   category	
   of	
  maintaining	
   and	
   protecting	
  motivation,	
  
with	
  the	
  emphasis	
  being	
  on	
  the	
  resources	
  used	
  and	
  their	
  presentation	
  by	
  the	
  teacher	
  as	
  strategies	
  to	
  break	
  
the	
  monotony	
   of	
   classroom	
   events	
   or	
   increase	
   the	
   attractiveness	
   of	
   tasks.	
   Although	
  participants	
   in	
   the	
   study	
  
(primary	
   school	
   teachers)	
   make	
   some	
   references	
   to	
   strategies	
   related	
   to	
   creating	
   the	
   basic	
   motivational	
  
conditions	
   and	
   generating	
   initial	
   motivation,	
   these	
   are	
   exceptional	
   and	
   generally	
   under-­‐developed.	
   Finally,	
  
while	
  teachers	
  demonstrated	
  high	
  awareness	
  of	
  the	
  need	
  to	
  encourage	
  students	
  and	
  keep	
  them	
  motivated,	
  no	
  
specific	
   examples	
   were	
   reported	
   of	
   strategies	
   used	
   to	
   encourage	
   positive	
   self-­‐evaluation.	
   The	
   findings	
  
therefore	
   confirm	
   the	
   thesis	
   advanced	
   by	
   previous	
   authors	
   that	
   work	
   is	
   needed	
   to	
   develop	
   more	
   holistic	
  
approaches	
  to	
  motivation	
  and	
  to	
  close	
  the	
  gap	
  between	
  theory	
  and	
  practice.	
  The	
  findings	
  also	
  reveal	
  an	
  over-­‐
emphasis	
   on	
   attractive	
   resources	
   and	
   a	
   generalised	
   view	
   that	
   having	
   fun	
   equates	
   with	
   being	
   motivated.	
  
Although	
  fun	
  and	
  enjoyment	
  clearly	
  have	
  their	
  place	
  in	
  learning—especially	
  early	
  learning—they	
  need	
  to	
  be	
  
situated	
  and	
  understood	
  within	
  an	
  approach	
  that	
  attends	
  to	
  all	
  aspects	
  of	
   learning,	
  as	
  highlighted	
  by	
  Diana	
  
England	
   (2017)	
   in	
   a	
   recent	
  newsletter	
   calling	
   for	
   a	
  more	
   critical	
   approach	
   to	
   ‘having	
   fun’	
   in	
  young	
   learner	
  
ELT.	
  	
  
	
  
	
  



A	
  WHOLE-­‐SCHOOL	
  STORYTELLING	
  PROJECT	
  

E-­‐JournALL	
  7(1)	
  (2020),	
  pp.	
  124-­‐144 127	
  

2.3.	
  Authentic	
  reading	
  material:	
  picture	
  books	
  	
  
Regarding	
  the	
  selection	
  of	
  appropriate	
  and	
  motivating	
  reading	
  material,	
  like	
  other	
  authors	
  discussed	
  

in	
  more	
  detail	
  below,	
  Ellis	
  (2010)	
  advocates	
  the	
  use	
  of	
  authentic	
  material	
  to	
  bridge	
  the	
  gap	
  between	
  pupils	
  
moving:	
   from	
   primary	
   to	
   secondary,	
   from	
   storytelling	
   (listening)	
   to	
   independent	
   reading	
   and	
   increased	
  
reader	
   involvement,	
   from	
  reading	
   to	
   learn	
  English	
  and	
  reading	
   in	
  English	
   for	
  pleasure,	
   from	
  teacher-­‐led	
  or	
  
controlled	
  work	
  to	
  pupil	
  led	
  work,	
  from	
  teacher-­‐selected	
  books	
  to	
  pupil-­‐selected	
  books	
  and	
  reading	
  choices,	
  
among	
  other	
  transitions.	
  In	
  this	
  particular	
  case	
  (i.e.,	
  with	
  a	
  lower	
  secondary	
  school	
  focus),	
  authentic	
  denotes	
  
material	
   designed	
  primarily	
   for	
   literary	
   as	
   opposed	
   to	
   language	
   learning	
  purposes	
   and	
   includes,	
   but	
   is	
   not	
  
limited	
  to,	
  novels,	
  joke	
  books,	
  storybooks	
  and	
  factual	
  books.	
  In	
  the	
  primary	
  and	
  pre-­‐primary	
  school	
  context,	
  
authentic	
  reading	
  material	
  is	
  often	
  associated	
  with	
  the	
  use	
  of	
  picture	
  books,	
  a	
  genre	
  that	
  is	
  gaining	
  increasing	
  
acceptance	
  despite	
  initial	
  resistance	
  prompted	
  by	
  the	
  common	
  assumption	
  that	
  such	
  books	
  are	
  for	
  babies	
  and	
  
toddlers	
   and	
   in	
   spite	
   of	
   the	
   scarce	
   attention	
   given	
   to	
   picture	
   book	
   scholarship	
   (Mourão,	
   2017).	
   As	
   in	
   the	
  
previous	
   secondary	
   school	
   case,	
   the	
   term	
   authentic	
   when	
   used	
   in	
   relation	
   to	
   picturebooks	
   denotes	
   the	
  
prioritising	
   of	
   artistic/literary	
   criteria	
   and	
   highlights	
   the	
   fact	
   that	
   the	
   material	
   has	
   not	
   been	
   created	
   or	
  
abridged	
   in	
   any	
   way	
   for	
   language	
   learning/teaching.	
   The	
   significance	
   of	
   this	
   point	
   lies	
   not	
   only	
   in	
   the	
  
distinction	
   that	
   can	
   be	
   found	
   between	
   controlled	
   or	
   graded	
   language	
   and	
   ungraded	
   or	
   real	
   language	
   use.	
  
Instead,	
  and	
  as	
  discussed	
  at	
  length	
  by	
  Mourão	
  (2016),	
  the	
  significance	
  lies	
  in	
  the	
  authentic	
  language	
  use	
  that	
  
such	
  material	
  generates.	
  

Overall,	
  picturebooks	
  are	
  not	
  just	
  authentic	
  texts	
  because	
  of	
  the	
  words	
  they	
  contain,	
  for	
  they	
  
enable	
  language	
  use	
  through	
  the	
  learners’	
   interpretation	
  of	
  the	
  pictures,	
  words	
  and	
  design,	
  
as	
  these	
  elements	
  come	
  together	
  to	
  produce	
  a	
  visual-­‐verbal	
  narrative	
  which	
  is	
  disregarded	
  
when	
  there	
  is	
  a	
  focus	
  on	
  the	
  words	
  only.	
  (p.	
  30)	
  

	
  
It	
  is,	
  then,	
  the	
  learners’	
  interpretation	
  of	
  the	
  combined	
  visual-­‐verbal	
  narrative	
  and	
  the	
  language	
  use	
  

that	
  this	
  prompts	
  that	
  is	
  particularly	
  significant	
  in	
  the	
  language	
  learning	
  process,	
  as	
  discussed	
  by	
  Sipe	
  (1998)	
  
in	
  a	
   semiotic	
  analysis	
  of	
  what	
  happens	
   internally	
  when	
   the	
   reader/listener	
   interacts	
  with	
   the	
  visual-­‐verbal	
  
narrative.	
   On	
   this	
   account,	
   and	
   within	
   the	
   classroom	
   setting,	
   the	
   picture	
   book	
   provides	
   the	
   context	
   and	
  
springboard	
  for	
  the	
  generation	
  of	
  meaningful	
  language	
  work	
  in	
  which	
  the	
  focus	
  is	
  placed	
  on	
  meaning	
  rather	
  
than	
  language,	
  and	
  the	
  aim	
  is	
  to	
  expand	
  children’s	
  listening	
  comprehension	
  skills	
  and	
  oral	
  expression	
  (Fleta,	
  
2019).	
  This	
  focus	
  is	
  closely	
  aligned	
  with	
  whole	
  language	
  approaches	
  to	
  literacy	
  development	
  in	
  L1	
  referred	
  to	
  
earlier	
  (Galda	
  et	
  al.,	
  2016;	
  Martinez	
  &	
  McGee,	
  2000),	
  which	
  promote	
  the	
  use	
  of	
  authentic	
  literature	
  (including	
  
picturebooks)	
   and	
   the	
   integration	
   of	
   reading	
   and	
   writing	
   across	
   the	
   curriculum.	
   Extending	
   this	
   argument	
  
further,	
   other	
   studies	
   emphasise	
   the	
   positive	
   relation	
   between	
   interactive	
   storytelling	
   sessions⎯with	
  
children	
  as	
  actively	
  engaged	
  listeners⎯and	
  emerging	
  literacy	
  skills	
  (Brand,	
  2006;	
  Campbell,	
  2001;	
  Martinez	
  
&	
  McGee,	
  2000).	
  	
  

In	
   the	
   context	
   of	
   second	
   language	
   learning,	
  many	
   authors	
   regard	
   storytelling	
   and	
   picturebooks	
   as	
  
much	
  more	
  than	
  one	
  of	
   the	
  multitude	
  of	
  activities	
  and	
  resources	
  available	
   to	
   the	
   language	
  teacher.	
   Instead,	
  
and	
   in	
  marked	
  contrast,	
   they	
  consider	
   the	
  storytelling	
  process	
  enacted	
  with	
  the	
  support	
  of	
  picturebooks	
  as	
  
the	
   keystone	
   that	
   enables	
   and	
   encourages	
   natural	
   language	
   acquisition	
   (Cameron,	
   2001;	
   Ellis	
   &	
   Brewster,	
  
2014;	
   Goshn,	
   2013).	
   As	
   a	
   result,	
   a	
   growing	
   body	
   of	
   scholarly	
   research	
   has	
   emerged	
   to	
   provide	
   theoretical	
  
foundations	
   to	
   justify	
   the	
   implementation	
   of	
   storytelling-­‐based	
   pedagogical	
   approaches	
   (Fleta	
   2015,	
   2019;	
  
Mourão,	
   2012,	
   2016,	
   2017),	
   and	
   to	
   provide	
   teachers	
   and	
   early	
   years	
   practitioners	
   with	
   guidelines	
   and	
  
practical	
   ideas	
   for	
   implementing	
   such	
   an	
   approach	
   (Ellis	
   &	
   Brewster,	
   2014;	
   Goshn,	
   2013;	
   Jalongo,	
   2004,	
  
2008),	
  or	
  for	
  supplementing	
  cross-­‐curricular	
  activities	
  (Nespeca	
  &	
  Reeve,	
  2003).	
  In	
  all	
  the	
  research	
  consulted,	
  
emphasis	
  is	
  placed	
  on	
  the	
  learner	
  as	
  active	
  agent	
  in	
  a	
  shared,	
  interactive	
  process.	
  While	
  the	
  importance	
  of	
  this	
  
shared	
   role	
   is	
   highlighted,	
   nevertheless,	
   in	
  most	
   cases,	
   the	
   interactions	
   are	
   conceived	
   and	
   designed	
   to	
   be	
  
teacher-­‐led,	
   with	
   an	
   emphasis	
   on	
   the	
   benefits	
   generated	
   in	
   terms	
   of	
   learner	
   comprehension	
   and	
   natural	
  
language	
  acquisition	
  (Fleta,	
  2019)	
  and	
  on	
  other	
  more	
  specific	
  skills	
  such	
  as	
  active	
  listening	
  (Jalongo,	
  2008).	
  	
  
	
  
2.4.	
  Peer	
  modelling	
  

The	
  study	
  presented	
  in	
  this	
  paper	
  considers	
  the	
  learning	
  outcomes	
  generated	
  when	
  learners	
  take	
  on	
  
the	
  teacher’s	
  role	
  and	
  become	
  the	
  leaders	
  of	
  the	
  storytelling	
  process	
  with	
  the	
  guidance	
  and	
  support	
  of	
  their	
  
teachers.	
   In	
   this	
   sense,	
   the	
   study	
   aims	
   to	
   contribute	
   towards	
   research	
   carried	
   out	
   on	
   the	
   effects	
   of	
   peer	
  



WADDINGTON	
  

E-­‐JournALL	
  7(1)	
  (2020),	
  pp.	
  124-­‐144 128	
  

modelling	
   by	
   considering	
   the	
   effects	
   on	
   the	
   learner	
  who	
   takes	
   on	
   the	
   role	
   of	
  model,	
   and	
   the	
   learner	
  who	
  
observes.	
  

Although	
   scarce	
   literature	
   is	
   available	
   discussing	
   the	
   benefits	
   of	
   peer	
   modelling	
   with	
   younger	
  
learners,	
  studies	
  with	
  older	
  learners	
  (i.e.,	
  university	
  students)	
  suggest	
  that	
  such	
  techniques	
  encourage	
  more	
  
participation	
  (Mennim,	
  2017)	
  and	
  engagement	
  (Brown,	
   Iyobe,	
  &	
  Riley,	
  2013)	
   in	
  the	
   learning	
  process,	
  while	
  
also	
   helping	
   to	
   increase	
  motivation	
   and	
   authentic	
   communication	
   among	
   students	
   (Assinder,	
   1991).	
   On	
   a	
  
more	
  cautionary	
  note,	
  results	
  of	
  a	
  study	
  inspired	
  by	
  Assinder’s	
  (1991)	
  earlier	
  findings	
  report	
  fewer	
  positive	
  
outcomes	
  and	
  warn	
  against	
  regarding	
  methods	
  as	
  universally	
  applicable	
  panaceas	
  (Spratt	
  &	
  Leug,	
  2000).	
  	
  

Taking	
   into	
   account	
   the	
  different	
   theoretical	
  perspectives	
  presented,	
   the	
   study	
   carried	
  out	
   aims	
   to	
  
contribute	
   to	
   the	
   different	
   lines	
   of	
   research	
   outlined	
   above,	
   linking	
  motivational	
   theories	
   on	
   language	
   and	
  
literacy	
  development	
  with	
  the	
  use	
  of	
  authentic	
  children’s	
  literature	
  (focusing	
  on	
  picturebooks)	
  as	
  well	
  as	
  the	
  
strategic	
  deployment	
  of	
  peer	
  modelling	
  in	
  the	
  language	
  classroom.	
  
	
  
3.	
  Methodology	
  
3.1.	
  Context	
  

The	
  storytelling	
  programme	
  was	
  designed	
  in	
  a	
  way	
  that	
  included	
  the	
  whole	
  school,	
  with	
  involvement	
  
varying	
  depending	
  on	
  the	
  educational	
  stage.	
  Figure	
  1	
  provides	
  a	
  brief	
  summary	
  of	
  the	
  activities	
  carried	
  out	
  
within	
   the	
  project,	
   as	
  well	
   as	
  a	
   short	
  description	
  of	
   the	
  general	
   aims	
  at	
   this	
  educational	
   stage	
  according	
   to	
  
curricular	
  standards	
  (Departament	
  d’Ensenyament,	
  2015b,	
  2016).	
  	
  
	
  

	
  
 

Figure 1. Stages of cyclical storytelling project 
 

	
  



A	
  WHOLE-­‐SCHOOL	
  STORYTELLING	
  PROJECT	
  

E-­‐JournALL	
  7(1)	
  (2020),	
  pp.	
  124-­‐144 129	
  

As	
   we	
   can	
   observe	
   in	
   Figure	
   1,	
   the	
   role	
   of	
   the	
   children	
   in	
   preschool,	
   first	
   cycle	
   and	
  mid-­‐cycle	
   of	
  
primary	
  school	
  was	
  to	
  listen	
  and	
  interact	
  with	
  stories	
  told	
  by	
  upper	
  cycle	
  (UP)	
  students	
  using	
  picturebooks	
  in	
  
the	
  foreign	
  language	
  (FL)	
  they	
  are	
  learning.	
  These	
  storytelling	
  sessions	
  were	
  delivered	
  during	
  the	
  third	
  term	
  
of	
  the	
  year	
  during	
  their	
  regular	
  English	
  class	
  time:	
  on	
  some	
  days,	
  instead	
  of	
  their	
  usual	
  class,	
  they	
  received	
  a	
  
visit	
  from	
  UP	
  students	
  (in	
  pairs	
  or	
  groups	
  of	
  3)	
  who	
  had	
  planned	
  a	
  session	
  according	
  to	
  the	
  routine	
  presented	
  
in	
  Figure	
  2.	
  	
  
	
  	
  

 
Our Storytelling Circle Routine 
 
1) Welcoming/greeting the listeners and creating a relaxed atmosphere. 
2) Introducing key vocabulary/expressions and/or grammatical structures needed to follow the story.  
3) Narrating the picturebook and encouraging maximum interaction among listeners. 
4) A game or activity related to the theme of the story. 
5) Closing the session and saying goodbye. 
	
  

Figure 2. Different phases of storytelling routine. Author’s own design (see Waddington 2017) 
	
  
The	
  preparation	
  of	
  these	
  sessions	
  was	
  carried	
  out	
  during	
  the	
  first	
  two	
  terms	
  of	
  the	
  year,	
  with	
  one	
  of	
  

the	
  two	
  1-­‐hour	
  English	
  classes	
  per	
  week	
  dedicated	
  to	
  the	
  storytelling	
  project.	
  The	
  content	
  of	
  these	
  sessions	
  
grew	
   out	
   of	
   initial	
   picturebook	
   selection,	
   narrative	
   comprehension	
   (Paris	
   &	
   Paris,	
   2003)	
   and	
   text	
  
comprehension,	
   and	
   was	
   followed	
   by	
   preparation	
   of	
   a	
   storytelling	
   session	
   and	
   the	
   creation	
   of	
   related	
  
materials.	
   For	
   the	
   preparation	
   stage,	
   all	
   groups	
   followed	
   the	
   same	
   routine	
   indicated	
   in	
   Figure	
   2.	
   While	
  
students	
  were	
   familiar	
  with	
   the	
   routine	
   from	
  volunteer	
   storytelling	
   sessions,	
   a	
  video	
   recorded	
  session	
  was	
  
used	
  to	
  model	
  each	
  phase	
  and	
  to	
  provide	
  students	
  with	
  an	
  understanding	
  of	
  each	
  step	
  of	
  the	
  procedure.	
  The	
  
teacher’s	
   role	
  was	
   to	
  organise	
  and	
   facilitate	
   these	
   sessions	
   so	
  as	
   to	
  maximise	
  English-­‐speaking	
   time	
   (while	
  
allowing	
   for	
  L1	
  usage	
  when	
  appropriate),	
  provide	
  support	
  and	
  guidance	
   in	
   response	
   to	
   student	
  needs,	
   and	
  
ensure	
   that	
   they	
  progressed	
  through	
  each	
  stage	
  of	
   the	
  process.	
  Details	
  of	
  how	
  this	
  unfolded	
   in	
  practice	
  are	
  
provided	
  in	
  the	
  Findings	
  section.	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  

3.2.	
  Method	
  	
  
An	
   exploratory	
   mixed-­‐methods	
   study	
   was	
   conducted	
   over	
   a	
   three-­‐year	
   period	
   within	
   an	
   action-­‐

research	
   framework.	
   The	
   researcher	
   and	
   author	
   of	
   this	
   paper	
   worked	
   closely	
   with	
   the	
   school	
   during	
   the	
  
implementation	
  stage	
  of	
  the	
  project.	
  In	
  this	
  collaborative	
  role,	
  I	
  attended	
  regular	
  meetings	
  with	
  the	
  teachers	
  
and	
  was	
  also	
   invited	
   to	
  participate	
   in	
  different	
  class	
  sessions	
  during	
   the	
   three-­‐year	
  period.	
   I	
  attended	
  both	
  
meetings	
   and	
   classes	
   in	
   the	
   role	
   of	
   participant	
   observer,	
   where	
   participant	
   observation	
   is	
   “the	
   process	
  
enabling	
   researchers	
   to	
   learn	
   about	
   the	
   activities	
   of	
   the	
  people	
   under	
   study	
   in	
   the	
  natural	
   setting	
   through	
  
observing	
  and	
  participating	
  in	
  those	
  activities”	
  (Kawulich,	
  2005,	
  p.	
  2).	
  A	
  relation	
  of	
  mutual	
  trust	
  had	
  already	
  
been	
  built	
  with	
  the	
  school	
  through	
  the	
  researcher’s	
  previous	
  role	
  as	
  volunteer	
  storyteller	
  and	
  collaborator	
  at	
  
the	
   school.	
   As	
   a	
   result,	
   my	
   participation	
   was	
   viewed	
   as	
   natural	
   and	
   appropriate	
   within	
   this	
   context	
   by	
  
teachers	
  and	
  students	
  alike.	
  My	
  role	
  as	
  observer	
  was	
  made	
  explicit	
   in	
  different	
  ways:	
   initially,	
  by	
  providing	
  
information	
   about	
   the	
   study	
   aims	
   and	
   obtaining	
   informed	
   consent	
   from	
   teaching	
   staff	
   and	
   families	
   of	
  
participating	
  students,	
  and	
  later	
  by	
  extending	
  this	
  information	
  to	
  all	
  members	
  of	
  the	
  educational	
  community.	
  
In	
   these	
   informational	
   sessions	
   with	
   students,	
   I	
   explained	
   my	
   university	
   work	
   and	
   clarified	
   that	
   I	
   would	
  
observe	
   their	
   activities	
   and	
   record	
   information	
   relevant	
   to	
   the	
   study.	
   Following	
   recommendations	
   for	
  
conducting	
  participant	
  research	
  in	
  an	
  ethical	
  manner,	
  I	
  regularly	
  wrote	
  field	
  notes	
  publicly	
  (writing	
  in	
  situ)	
  to	
  
remind	
  participants	
  of	
  my	
  research	
  and	
  data	
  collection	
  purposes	
  (DeWalt	
  &	
  DeWalt,	
  1998).	
  This	
  form	
  of	
  close	
  
observation	
   has	
   been	
   recognised	
   as	
   particularly	
   beneficial	
   in	
   terms	
   of	
   identifying	
   non-­‐verbal	
   forms	
   of	
  
expressions	
   and	
   discovering	
   how	
   participants	
   communicate	
   with	
   each	
   other	
   (Schmuck,	
   1997),	
   and	
   for	
  
developing	
   a	
   holistic	
   understanding	
   of	
   the	
   phenomena	
   under	
   study	
   (DeWalt	
   &	
   DeWalt,	
   2002).	
   This	
   direct	
  
method	
   of	
   data	
   collection	
   was	
   also	
   supplemented	
  with	
   other	
   techniques,	
   which	
   are	
   explained	
   in	
   the	
   data	
  
collection	
  and	
  analysis	
  sections	
  below.	
  	
  	
  

	
  
	
  



WADDINGTON	
  

E-­‐JournALL	
  7(1)	
  (2020),	
  pp.	
  124-­‐144 130	
  

3.3.	
  Participants	
  	
  
The	
  study	
  takes	
  as	
  its	
  core	
  sample	
  of	
  analysis	
  the	
  children	
  enrolled	
  in	
  the	
  upper	
  cycle	
  (grades	
  5	
  and	
  

6)	
   of	
   primary	
   education,	
   while	
   considering	
   the	
   whole-­‐school	
   context	
   and	
   teacher	
   perspectives.	
   As	
   a	
   low-­‐
population	
  rural	
  school,	
  class	
  sizes	
  tend	
  to	
  be	
  small.	
  Nevertheless,	
  collecting	
  data	
  over	
  a	
  3-­‐year	
  period	
  helped	
  
increase	
   the	
   analysis	
   sample	
   to	
   a	
   total	
   of	
  27	
  participants,	
   comprising	
   three	
  heterogeneous	
   class	
   groups,	
   as	
  
shown	
  in	
  Table	
  1	
  below.	
  The	
  numbers	
  in	
  the	
  table	
  constitute	
  the	
  full	
  class	
  sizes,	
  since	
  all	
  children	
  and	
  parents	
  
agreed	
  to	
  participate	
  in	
  the	
  study.	
  

	
  
Table 1. 
Profile of study participants 
Group Females Males Age Observations 
G1 5 8 10-12* Participants during their final year of primary education. All students ages 11-12 except 

1 high-ability child (age 10) moved up a grade in the middle of primary schooling. Highly 
heterogeneous group, some students with learning and behavioural difficulties.  

G2 4 2 10-11 
11-12 

Participants during two consecutive years (5th & 6th grade of primary). Mixed academic 
abilities but cohesive group. 

G3 1 7 10-11 Participants while still in grade 5. Mixed abilities but mainly cohesive group. 
Total 10 17   
Note: Students are identified within the study according to Group + letter assigned to each student: e.g., G1a refers to the first student (from a 
randomly ordered list) from Group 1.  
	
  
3.4.	
  Research	
  Phases	
  
3.4.1.	
  Field	
  work/data	
  collection	
  

Data	
  were	
  collected	
  at	
  key	
  moments	
  during	
  the	
  project	
  implementation	
  from	
  both	
  teacher	
  meetings	
  
and	
  class	
  sessions.	
  In	
  terms	
  of	
  the	
  former,	
  field	
  notes	
  were	
  taken	
  at	
  the	
  regular	
  meetings	
  scheduled	
  to	
  discuss	
  
the	
   implementation	
   of	
   the	
   different	
   stages	
   of	
   the	
   programme,	
   to	
   discuss	
   progress	
   made	
   and	
   difficulties	
  
encountered,	
   and	
   to	
   share	
   in	
   the	
   final	
   assessments	
  of	
   the	
  programme	
  at	
   the	
  end	
  of	
   each	
   school	
  year.	
   Final	
  
assessments	
  identified	
  strengths	
  and	
  weaknesses	
  and	
  key	
  areas	
  for	
  improvement.	
  With	
  regard	
  to	
  classroom	
  
observations,	
  I	
  attended	
  initial	
  sessions	
  in	
  which	
  students	
  were	
  introduced	
  to	
  the	
  programme,	
  classes	
  during	
  
which	
  students	
  worked	
  on	
  the	
  preparation	
  of	
  their	
  storytelling	
  sessions,	
  sessions	
  during	
  which	
  they	
  delivered	
  
their	
  storytelling	
  sessions	
  to	
  younger	
  learners,	
  and	
  final	
  classes	
  during	
  which	
  they	
  carried	
  out	
  co-­‐assessment	
  
and	
   self-­‐assessment	
   activities.	
   In	
   addition	
   to	
   the	
   field	
   notes	
   taken	
   at	
   all	
   of	
   these	
   sessions,	
   audio	
   and	
   video	
  
recordings	
  were	
  made	
  of	
   some	
   sessions	
   to	
   supplement	
   the	
   field	
  notes	
   taken	
   and	
   to	
  provide	
  more	
  data	
   for	
  
subsequent	
  analysis.	
  Most	
  of	
  the	
  data	
  recorded	
  mixed	
  L1	
  and	
  L2	
  usage,	
  reflecting	
  the	
  flexible	
  attitude	
  toward	
  
language	
  use	
  adopted	
  during	
  the	
  classroom	
  sessions,	
  and	
  coinciding	
  with	
  recent	
  theories	
  supporting	
  the	
  need	
  
for	
  such	
  flexibility	
  in	
  foreign	
  language	
  classrooms	
  (Durán	
  &	
  Henderson,	
  2018).	
  Transcriptions	
  were	
  made	
  of	
  
these	
  recordings	
  to	
  facilitate	
  the	
  subsequent	
  data	
  analysis	
  process,	
  and	
  the	
  fragments	
  in	
  need	
  of	
  translation	
  
into	
  English	
  were	
  reviewed	
  by	
  a	
  professional	
   translator.	
  Finally,	
  data	
   from	
  a	
  questionnaire	
  administered	
  to	
  
students	
  in	
  class	
  at	
  the	
  end	
  of	
  the	
  programme	
  (after	
  the	
  assessment	
  activities)	
  were	
  also	
  collected,	
  along	
  with	
  
the	
  oral	
  comments	
  that	
  students	
  made	
  during	
  follow-­‐up	
  discussions	
  held	
  in	
  class.	
  The	
  ad	
  hoc	
  questionnaire	
  
included	
   questions	
   aimed	
   at	
   identifying	
   student	
   perceptions	
   of	
   their	
   strengths	
   and	
   areas	
   of	
   improvement	
  
during	
  the	
  preparation	
  sessions	
  and	
  during	
  the	
  actual	
  delivery	
  of	
  their	
  storytelling	
  session.	
  It	
  also	
  asked	
  them	
  
to	
  consider	
  whether	
  they	
  thought	
  the	
  listeners	
  had	
  enjoyed	
  the	
  experience	
  or	
  not,	
  how	
  this	
  made	
  them	
  feel	
  
and	
  whether	
  they	
  would	
  like	
  to	
  repeat	
  the	
  experience.	
  

	
  
3.4.2.	
  Data	
  analysis	
  	
  	
  

The	
   data	
   collected	
   was	
   subjected	
   to	
   a	
   process	
   of	
   analysis,	
   reflection	
   and	
   evaluation	
   within	
   an	
  
interpretative	
  paradigm	
  drawing	
  on	
  ‘grounded	
  theory’	
  and	
  using	
  the	
  constant	
  comparison	
  method	
  developed	
  
by	
   Corbin	
   and	
   Straus	
   (2008).	
   In	
   light	
   of	
   the	
   threefold	
   aim	
   of	
   the	
   study,	
   the	
   initial	
   focus	
   of	
   analysis	
  
concentrated	
   on	
   assessing	
   the	
   programme’s	
   overall	
  motivational	
   effect	
   on	
   participants.	
   Data	
   from	
   teacher	
  
meetings	
   were	
   analysed	
   to	
   obtain	
   a	
   global	
   sense	
   of	
   the	
   programme	
   from	
   the	
   teachers’	
   perspective.	
   This	
  
overall	
   picture	
   was	
   further	
   informed	
   by	
   the	
   analysis	
   of	
   student	
   responses	
   to	
   the	
   post-­‐intervention	
  
questionnaire	
  and	
  comments	
  from	
  follow-­‐up	
  discussions,	
  with	
  responses	
  to	
  the	
  final	
  question	
  being	
  subjected	
  
to	
   particularly	
   close	
   analysis.	
   This	
   two-­‐part	
   question	
   presented	
   students	
   with	
   a	
   dichotomous	
   “yes	
   or	
   no”	
  



A	
  WHOLE-­‐SCHOOL	
  STORYTELLING	
  PROJECT	
  

E-­‐JournALL	
  7(1)	
  (2020),	
  pp.	
  124-­‐144 131	
  

choice	
  in	
  response	
  to	
  the	
  question	
  “Would	
  you	
  like	
  to	
  tell	
  more	
  stories	
  in	
  English?”	
  After	
  choosing	
  from	
  the	
  
two	
   options,	
   students	
   were	
   then	
   asked	
   to	
   explain	
   this	
   choice	
   in	
   response	
   to	
   the	
   open-­‐ended	
   question	
  
(“Why?”).	
  Analyses	
  of	
  student	
  responses	
  to	
  this	
  question	
  thus	
  provided	
  indicators	
  of	
  a	
  quantitative	
  as	
  well	
  as	
  
qualitative	
  nature,	
  which	
  were	
   further	
   supported	
  by	
   the	
  oral	
  data	
  obtained	
   in	
   the	
   follow-­‐up	
  discussions.	
  A	
  
Framework	
  approach	
  was	
  then	
  employed,	
  characterised	
  by	
  the	
  intention	
  to	
  maintain	
  a	
  close	
  link	
  with	
  the	
  raw	
  
data,	
  while	
  developing	
  a	
  thematic	
  analysis	
  in	
  prioritising	
  the	
  research	
  questions	
  (Ritchie,	
  Lewis,	
  McNaughton,	
  
&	
  Ormoston,	
  2013).	
  In	
  the	
  first	
  instance,	
  the	
  raw	
  data	
  were	
  understood	
  to	
  be	
  all	
  data	
  that	
  could	
  help	
  assess	
  
the	
  motivational	
  effect	
  of	
  the	
  programme.	
  All	
  such	
  data	
  were	
  thus	
  extracted	
  and	
  grouped	
  together,	
  following	
  
an	
   open	
   coding	
   procedure	
   (Corbin	
   &	
   Strauss,	
   2008)	
   to	
   help	
   break	
   down,	
   compare,	
   conceptualise	
   and	
  
categorise	
   the	
  data	
   in	
   line	
  with	
   the	
  primary	
  goals	
  of	
   the	
   study.	
  By	
  way	
  of	
   example,	
   some	
   initial	
   codes	
   that	
  
helped	
  to	
  organise	
  the	
  data	
  included:	
  helping	
  others	
  (to	
  capture	
  cases	
  in	
  which	
  students	
  reported	
  that	
  helping	
  
their	
  younger	
  peers	
  motivated	
  them	
  to	
  make	
  an	
  effort,	
  or	
  in	
  which	
  teachers	
  reported	
  on	
  the	
  effects	
  of	
  seeing	
  
students	
  help	
  each	
  other);	
  making	
  individual	
  choices	
  (when	
  students	
  or	
  teachers	
  explicitly	
  referred	
  to	
  being	
  
given	
  choices	
  and	
  what	
  this	
  meant	
  to	
  them);	
  and	
  devising	
  motivational	
  strategies	
  (when	
  students	
  or	
  teachers	
  
explained	
   actions	
   taken	
   to	
   engage	
   and	
   maintain	
   the	
   interest	
   and	
   participation	
   of	
   listeners).	
   This	
   coding	
  
process	
   was	
   conducted	
   manually	
   and	
   then	
   subjected	
   to	
   a	
   process	
   of	
   validation	
   to	
   ensure	
   reliability.	
   Two	
  
external	
  experts	
  in	
  the	
  area	
  of	
  childhood	
  language	
  education	
  were	
  asked	
  to	
  review	
  the	
  codes.	
  Their	
  feedback	
  
helped	
   to	
   validate	
   the	
   process	
   on	
   the	
   one	
   hand,	
   while	
   also	
   providing	
   constructive	
   criticism,	
   which	
   was	
  
incorporated	
   into	
   the	
   final	
   stage	
   during	
  which	
   the	
   codes	
  were	
   further	
   organised	
   by	
   adding	
  more	
   options,	
  
merging	
  options,	
  and	
  gradually	
  transforming	
  the	
  raw	
  data	
  into	
  more	
  useful	
  data,	
  as	
  described	
  below.	
  	
  

	
  
3.4.3.	
  Presentation	
  of	
  findings	
  

Ultimately,	
  in	
  the	
  final	
  stage	
  of	
  analysis,	
  I	
  adopted	
  Ellis’	
  (2010)	
  approach	
  in	
  her	
  study	
  on	
  motivating	
  
secondary	
   school	
   students	
   to	
   read,	
  which	
  entails	
  organising	
  and	
  presenting	
   the	
  data	
  analysed	
  according	
   to	
  
the	
   four	
   components	
   of	
   Dörnyei’s	
   process-­‐oriented	
   approach	
   to	
   motivation	
   (2001).	
   The	
   four	
   components	
  
presented	
   the	
   findings	
   in	
   a	
   cohesive	
   and	
   organised	
   manner,	
   while	
   attending	
   to	
   the	
   main	
   study	
   goal	
   of	
  
assessing	
  the	
  motivational	
  effect	
  of	
  the	
  reading	
  project	
  on	
  learners.	
  Thus,	
  after	
  presenting	
  the	
  overall	
  picture	
  
obtained	
   from	
   the	
   initial	
   analysis	
   (see	
   overview),	
   the	
   useful	
   data	
   obtained	
   from	
   the	
   constant	
   comparison	
  
method	
  were	
  organised	
  under	
  the	
  categories	
  of:	
  1)	
  creating	
  the	
  basic	
  motivational	
  conditions,	
  2)	
  generating	
  
initial	
  motivation,	
  3)	
  maintaining	
  and	
  protecting	
  motivation	
  and	
  4)	
  encouraging	
  positive,	
  retrospective	
  self-­‐
evaluation.	
  After	
  presenting	
  these	
  findings,	
  the	
  Discussion	
  section	
  attends	
  to	
  the	
  two	
  remaining	
  study	
  aims	
  by	
  
identifying	
  and	
  discussing	
  the	
   learning	
  outcomes	
  as	
  well	
  as	
   the	
  specific	
  strategies	
   that	
  effectively	
  produced	
  
them.	
  When	
  presenting	
  the	
  findings,	
  all	
  comments	
  have	
  been	
  anonymised	
  using	
  the	
  coding	
  system	
  explained	
  
in	
  Table	
  1.	
  Furthermore,	
  and	
  due	
  to	
  the	
  disproportionate	
  gender	
  distribution	
  in	
  some	
  groups,	
  all	
  references	
  to	
  
individual	
  student	
  comments	
  are	
  made	
  using	
  feminine	
  pronouns	
  in	
  order	
  to	
  maintain	
  full	
  anonymity.	
  	
  
	
  
4.	
  Findings	
  	
  
4.1.	
  Overview	
  

The	
   mixed	
   method	
   of	
   data	
   collection	
   and	
   analysis	
   contributed	
   to	
   an	
   overall	
   picture,	
   allowing	
   for	
  
cross-­‐checking	
   between	
   teacher	
   and	
   student	
   perspectives.	
   From	
   the	
   teacher	
   perspective,	
   analyses	
   of	
   data	
  
collected	
  from	
  the	
  regular	
  meetings	
  show	
  that	
  teachers	
  report	
  considerable	
  differences	
  in	
  student	
  motivation	
  
levels	
  prior	
   to	
   and	
   following	
   the	
   implementation	
  of	
   the	
  project.	
   The	
   school’s	
   decision	
   to	
   continue	
  with	
   the	
  
project	
  and	
  to	
  incorporate	
  it	
  as	
  a	
  permanent	
  feature	
  of	
  their	
  language	
  and	
  literacy	
  programme	
  was	
  made	
  in	
  
view	
  of	
  its	
  perceived	
  motivational	
  effect	
  on	
  learners	
  and	
  the	
  positive	
  outcomes	
  generated.	
  From	
  the	
  student	
  
perspective,	
  data	
  collected	
  showed	
  a	
  general	
  consensus	
  in	
  line	
  with	
  the	
  teachers’	
  perception,	
  as	
  illustrated	
  in	
  
the	
   following	
   analyses.	
   In	
   the	
   first	
   year	
   of	
   implementation,	
   during	
   the	
   final	
   class	
   session,	
   one	
   student	
  
expressed	
  her	
  disappointment	
  that	
   the	
  project	
  had	
  not	
  been	
   implemented	
  previously,	
  since	
  this	
  meant	
  that	
  
her	
  group	
  (grade	
  6)	
  had	
  only	
  been	
  able	
  to	
  take	
  part	
   in	
  the	
  experience	
  once,	
  unlike	
  their	
  grade	
  5	
  peers	
  who	
  
would	
  be	
  repeating	
   it	
   the	
   following	
  year:	
   “it’s	
  not	
   fair,	
   they’ll	
  get	
   to	
  do	
   it	
  again”	
   (G1a).	
  This	
  disappointment	
  
was	
  shared	
  by	
  other	
  students,	
  suggesting	
  that	
  the	
  experience	
  had	
  built	
  positive	
  attitudes	
  toward	
  this	
  kind	
  of	
  
language	
  and	
  literacy	
  work,	
  and	
  had	
  overcome	
  the	
  challenges	
  described	
  by	
  Ellis	
  (2010)	
  (i.e.,	
  the	
  selection	
  of	
  
motivating	
   reading	
   material	
   and	
   the	
   provision	
   of	
   ideal	
   motivational	
   conditions	
   for	
   the	
   development	
   of	
  
communities	
   of	
   readers).	
   These	
   findings	
   are	
   further	
   supported	
   by	
   analyses	
   of	
   the	
   post-­‐intervention	
  
questionnaires,	
   in	
   which	
   nearly	
   all	
   students	
   reported	
   that	
   they	
   would	
   like	
   to	
   prepare/tell	
   more	
   stories	
  



WADDINGTON	
  

E-­‐JournALL	
  7(1)	
  (2020),	
  pp.	
  124-­‐144 132	
  

following	
   the	
   storytelling	
   circle	
   routine.	
   This	
   contrasted	
   sharply	
   with	
   responses	
   to	
   pre-­‐intervention	
  
questionnaires	
  in	
  which	
  most	
  students	
  had	
  expressed	
  clear	
  reservations	
  about	
  their	
  ability	
  to	
  complete	
  such	
  
a	
   task	
   (see	
   Waddington,	
   2019).	
   When	
   analysing	
   the	
   reasons	
   for	
   students’	
   willingness	
   to	
   repeat	
   the	
  
experience,	
  we	
  found	
  explanations	
  that	
  provide	
  an	
   initial	
  picture	
  of	
   their	
  overall	
   impression	
  of	
   the	
  value	
  of	
  
the	
  experience	
  (see	
  Table	
  2).	
  	
  The	
  reasons	
  cited	
  by	
  participants	
  included:	
  

	
  
-­‐ “Because	
  it	
  was	
  good	
  fun	
  and	
  I	
  enjoyed	
  it.”	
  
-­‐ “Because	
  it’s	
  a	
  really	
  good	
  way	
  to	
  learn	
  English.”	
  
-­‐ “Because	
  I	
  like	
  telling	
  stories	
  to	
  the	
  little	
  ones.”	
  
-­‐ “Because	
  I	
  like	
  speaking	
  English.”	
  
-­‐ “Because	
  it’s	
  been	
  enjoyable.”	
  
-­‐ “It’s	
  a	
  good	
  way	
  to	
  improve	
  your	
  English.”	
  
-­‐ “I	
  like	
  to	
  teach	
  English	
  to	
  others	
  by	
  telling	
  them	
  a	
  good	
  story.”	
  
-­‐ “Because	
  I	
  like	
  learning	
  by	
  explaining	
  things	
  to	
  my	
  classmates.”	
  

	
  
The	
  terms	
   fun	
  and	
  enjoyable	
  appear	
  repeatedly	
  during	
  the	
  analysis.	
  Nevertheless,	
  and	
  as	
  advocated	
  

by	
  England	
  (2017),	
  the	
  use	
  of	
  these	
  terms	
  seems	
  to	
  be	
  situated	
  within	
  a	
  critical	
  approach	
  to	
  having	
  fun,	
  which	
  
conceives	
   enjoyment	
   as	
   a	
   stimulus	
   to	
   learning	
  as	
  opposed	
   to	
   a	
   substitute	
   for	
   learning.	
  Thus,	
   in	
   addition	
   to	
  
regarding	
  the	
  experience	
  as	
  fun	
  and	
  enjoyable,	
   learners	
  also	
  made	
  repeated	
  references	
  to	
  the	
  way	
  in	
  which	
  
the	
  process	
  had	
  helped	
   them	
   learn	
  more	
  English,	
   emphasising	
   the	
   role	
   that	
   their	
  peers	
  have	
  played	
   in	
   this	
  
interactive	
  learning	
  process.	
  Comments	
  such	
  as	
  the	
  one	
  cited	
  above	
  (e.g.,	
  “I	
  like	
  learning	
  by	
  explaining	
  things	
  
to	
  my	
  classmates”)	
   indicate	
   that	
  peer	
  modelling	
  has	
  a	
   two-­‐way	
  effect:	
  generating	
  positive	
  outcomes	
   for	
   the	
  
learner	
   modelling	
   as	
   well	
   as	
   the	
   learners	
   being	
   modelled	
   to.	
   For	
   the	
   learner	
   modelling,	
   these	
   positive	
  
outcomes	
  are	
  not	
  only	
  detected	
  during	
  the	
  peer	
  modelling	
  activity,	
  while	
  telling	
  the	
  story	
  to	
  peers,	
  but	
  also	
  
during	
  the	
  preparation	
  stage	
  as	
  described	
   in	
  more	
  detail	
  below.	
  The	
   findings	
  confirm	
  that	
  having	
  a	
  specific	
  
audience	
  (i.e.,	
  younger	
  peers)	
  and	
  purpose	
  (i.e.,	
  to	
  tell	
  the	
  story	
  well)	
  in	
  mind	
  increases	
  learner	
  participation	
  
and	
  engagement	
  in	
  the	
  task	
  set,	
  as	
  suggested	
  by	
  previous	
  studies	
  on	
  the	
  benefits	
  of	
  peer	
  modelling	
  (Mennim,	
  
2017;	
  Brown	
  et	
  al.,	
  2013).	
  	
  

Despite	
   the	
   overall	
   positive	
   effects	
   reported,	
   a	
   small	
   minority	
   of	
   students	
   expressed	
   negative	
  
evaluations	
  of	
  the	
  project.	
  Further	
  analysis	
  helped	
  to	
  explain	
  why	
  some	
  students	
  expressed	
  an	
  unwillingness	
  
to	
  repeat	
  the	
  experience.	
  In	
  one	
  case,	
  the	
  explanation	
  related	
  to	
  the	
  student’s	
  lack	
  of	
  interest	
  and	
  engagement	
  
in	
  school	
  life	
  in	
  general.	
  In	
  other	
  cases,	
  analyses	
  revealed	
  that	
  some	
  students	
  found	
  the	
  excessive	
  amount	
  of	
  
time	
  spent	
  on	
  the	
  project	
  (one,	
  or	
  part	
  of	
  one,	
  of	
  their	
  two	
  1-­‐hour	
  English	
  classes	
  every	
  week	
  for	
  the	
  first	
  two	
  
terms)	
   to	
   be	
   a	
   negative	
   factor,	
   thereby	
   illustrating	
   one	
   of	
   the	
   challenges	
   highlighted	
   by	
   Ellis	
   (2010)	
  
concerning	
  the	
  difficulties	
  of	
  motivating	
  children	
  over	
  extended	
  periods	
  of	
  time.	
  The	
  fact	
  that	
  this	
  finding	
  was	
  
detected	
  during	
  the	
  early	
  stages	
  of	
  implementation⎯at	
  the	
  end	
  of	
  the	
  first	
  year⎯meant	
  that	
  efforts	
  could	
  be	
  
made	
   to	
   adjust	
   the	
  pace	
  of	
   the	
  programme	
  during	
   subsequent	
   years.	
   Finally,	
   in	
   contrast	
   to	
   the	
  majority	
  of	
  
students	
  whose	
  participation	
  and	
  engagement	
   increased	
  as	
   a	
  direct	
   result	
   of	
   the	
  peer	
  modelling	
   context,	
   a	
  
small	
  minority	
  found	
  the	
  activity	
   ‘too	
  hard’	
  and	
  appeared	
  demotivated	
  by	
  the	
  experience.	
  This	
  supports	
  the	
  
findings	
  of	
  Spratt	
  and	
  Leug	
  (2000),	
  who	
  warn	
  against	
  regarding	
  methods	
  as	
  universally	
  applicable	
  panaceas.	
  
The	
   finding	
   also	
   highlights	
   the	
   need	
   to	
   exercise	
   caution	
   when	
   introducing	
   new	
   methods,	
   taking	
   care	
   to	
  
provide	
  students	
  with	
  additional	
  attention	
  and	
  support	
  whenever	
  needed.	
  	
  

This	
  overall	
  picture	
  will	
  now	
  be	
  further	
  extended	
  through	
  the	
  presentation	
  of	
  additional	
  findings	
  in	
  
relation	
   to	
   the	
   different	
   categories	
   of	
   the	
   process-­‐oriented	
   approach	
   (Dörnyei	
   2001)	
   discussed	
   above.	
   The	
  
aim	
  is	
  to	
  demonstrate	
  how	
  all	
  components	
  of	
  this	
  approach	
  are	
  addressed	
  and	
  developed	
  during	
  the	
  different	
  
experiences	
  reported.	
  	
  

4.2.	
  Creating	
  the	
  basic	
  motivational	
  conditions	
  
Under	
  the	
  first	
  component	
  of	
  the	
  process-­‐oriented	
  approach	
  to	
  motivation,	
  highlighting	
  the	
  need	
  to	
  

create	
  basic	
  motivational	
   conditions,	
   it	
   is	
   important	
   to	
   stress	
  how	
   the	
  cyclical,	
  whole-­‐school	
  project	
  design	
  
impacted	
  on	
  the	
   learner	
  experience.	
  G1a’s	
  complaint	
   that	
  “it’s	
  not	
   fair,	
   they’ll	
  get	
   to	
  do	
   it	
  again”	
  shows	
  that	
  
students	
   conceive	
   the	
   process	
   as	
   an	
   ongoing	
   project	
   involving	
   and	
   connecting	
   learners	
   from	
   different	
  
educational	
  stages,	
  as	
  illustrated	
  in	
  Figure	
  1.	
  The	
  fact	
  that	
  they	
  conceive	
  the	
  project	
  in	
  this	
  way	
  has	
  a	
  marked	
  
influence	
  on	
  their	
  learning	
  outcomes,	
  as	
  we	
  will	
  see	
  in	
  the	
  different	
  sections	
  discussed	
  below.	
  In	
  addition	
  to	
  
fostering	
  group	
  cohesiveness	
  by	
  facilitating	
  cooperative	
  group	
  work,	
  which	
  enables	
  students	
  to	
  develop	
  tasks	
  



A	
  WHOLE-­‐SCHOOL	
  STORYTELLING	
  PROJECT	
  

E-­‐JournALL	
  7(1)	
  (2020),	
  pp.	
  124-­‐144 133	
  

involving	
   different	
   levels	
   of	
   difficulty	
   (see	
  Maintaining	
   and	
   protecting	
  motivation),	
   the	
   cyclical	
   design	
   also	
  
helped	
  promote	
  cohesion	
  at	
  a	
  school-­‐wide	
  level,	
  by	
  establishing	
  a	
  context	
  in	
  which	
  learners	
  at	
  different	
  stages	
  
had	
  an	
  interconnected	
  role.	
  In	
  this	
  way,	
  students	
  gradually	
  progressed	
  from	
  the	
  early	
  stages	
  of	
  contact	
  with	
  
the	
  new	
   language	
   to	
  a	
   stage	
   in	
  which	
   they	
  became	
   the	
  ones	
  partially	
   responsible	
   for	
   this	
   initial	
   contact,	
  by	
  
telling	
  their	
  own	
  stories	
  (with	
  picturebooks)	
  to	
  their	
  younger	
  peers	
  	
  from	
  preschool,	
  first	
  cycle	
  and	
  mid	
  cycle	
  
of	
  primary.	
  This	
  context	
  therefore	
  provides	
  the	
  ideal	
  conditions	
  for	
  building	
  the	
  communities	
  of	
  readers	
  and	
  
creating	
  opportunities	
  for	
  sharing	
  reading	
  experiences,	
  which	
  is	
  crucial	
  in	
  motivating	
  children	
  to	
  read	
  (Ellis,	
  
2010).	
  According	
  to	
  their	
  teachers,	
  the	
  younger	
  (i.e.,	
  preschool)	
  learners	
  benefitted	
  considerably	
  from	
  these	
  
conditions,	
  which	
  put	
   them	
  into	
  contact	
  with	
   ‘real’	
   language	
  use	
   in	
   the	
   form	
  of	
  authentic	
  picturebooks,	
  and	
  
with	
   speakers	
   of	
   the	
   L2	
   in	
   the	
   form	
   of	
   older	
   role	
  models	
   from	
   their	
   own	
   school.	
   Terms	
   such	
   as	
   ‘real’	
   and	
  
‘authentic’	
   appeared	
   repeatedly	
   in	
   the	
   data,	
   strongly	
   suggesting	
   that	
   these	
   literary	
   experiences	
   were	
  
associated	
  with	
  meaningful	
  language	
  use,	
  as	
  indicated	
  by	
  Sipe	
  (1998)	
  and	
  Mourão	
  (2017),	
  among	
  others.	
  As	
  
the	
   children	
   progressed	
   through	
   the	
   different	
   educational	
   stages,	
   the	
   aspirational	
   effect	
   of	
   observing	
   their	
  
older	
   peers	
   began	
   to	
   emerge,	
   manifesting	
   itself	
   to	
   a	
   greater	
   or	
   lesser	
   extent	
   depending	
   on	
   the	
   individual	
  
learner.	
  Overall,	
  teachers	
  reported	
  high	
  levels	
  of	
  willingness	
  to	
  embark	
  on	
  the	
  project	
  at	
  the	
  end	
  of	
  mid-­‐cycle	
  
and	
  beginning	
  of	
  upper	
  cycle,	
  with	
  comments	
  such	
  as	
  “it’s	
  our	
  turn	
  now”,	
  revealing	
  the	
  students’	
  eagerness	
  to	
  
take	
   on	
  what	
   they	
   perceived	
   to	
   be	
   a	
   challenge	
   that	
   had	
   been	
   realised	
   by	
   their	
   predecessors.	
   The	
   fact	
   that	
  
entire	
  class	
  sessions	
  had	
  been	
  dedicated	
  to	
  the	
  storytelling	
  sessions	
  at	
  the	
  end	
  of	
  the	
  school	
  year	
  also	
  served	
  
to	
   highlight	
   the	
   importance	
   given	
   to	
   these	
   experiences	
   by	
   everyone	
   involved.	
   This	
   was	
   noted	
   by	
   the	
   new	
  
upper	
  cycle	
  students	
   in	
  comments	
  such	
  as	
  “it	
  will	
  soon	
  be	
  our	
  turn	
  to	
  tell	
  a	
  great	
   story.”	
  The	
  word	
  great	
   is	
  
emphasised	
  here	
  as	
  its	
  use	
  by	
  a	
  10	
  year-­‐old	
  highlights	
  the	
  fact	
  that	
  in	
  addition	
  to	
  assuming	
  responsibility	
  and	
  
ownership	
   for	
   the	
   task,	
   learners	
   highly	
   valued	
   the	
  picturebooks	
   as	
   a	
   source	
   of	
   literature.	
   This	
   finding	
   also	
  
supports	
  Mourão’s	
  efforts	
  to	
  challenge	
  assumptions	
  that	
  regard	
  picturebooks	
  as	
  material	
  suitable	
  for	
  babies	
  
or	
  toddlers,	
  and	
  to	
  emphasise	
  their	
  value	
  as	
  multimodal	
  literary	
  objects	
  (Mourão,	
  2012,	
  2017).	
  	
  	
  
	
  
4.3.	
  Generating	
  initial	
  motivation	
  

Although	
  teacher-­‐reported	
  data	
  revealed	
  that	
  students	
  had	
  high	
   levels	
  of	
  motivation	
  to	
  move	
  up	
  to	
  
the	
  storytelling	
  stage,	
  many	
  students	
  displayed	
   low	
  self-­‐efficacy	
   levels	
  and	
  doubted	
   their	
  own	
  ability	
  when	
  
called	
  upon	
  to	
  carry	
  out	
  the	
  task	
  (see	
  Waddington,	
  2019).	
  At	
  this	
  point,	
  students	
  were	
  presented	
  with	
  a	
  clear	
  
road-­‐map	
  (Waddington	
  2017)	
  that	
  indicated	
  the	
  different	
  steps	
  necessary	
  to	
  prepare	
  sessions,	
  which	
  helped	
  
set	
   realisable	
   goals	
   and,	
   above	
   all,	
   emphasised	
   the	
   point	
   highlighted	
   by	
   many	
   students	
   in	
   end	
   of	
   project	
  
questionnaires	
  that	
  success	
  in	
  their	
  storytelling	
  sessions	
  was	
  mainly	
  due	
  to	
  the	
  hard	
  work	
  invested	
  during	
  the	
  
preparation	
  stage.	
  Relevant	
  comments	
  included	
  “it	
  was	
  hard	
  work,	
  but	
  worth	
  it	
  in	
  the	
  end”	
  and	
  “we	
  worked	
  
really	
  hard	
  preparing	
  our	
  story.”	
  In	
  this	
  regard,	
  having	
  a	
  clear	
  purpose	
  (i.e.,	
  performing	
  in	
  public	
  at	
  the	
  end	
  of	
  
the	
  year)	
  motivated	
  students	
  to	
  work	
  hard	
  for	
  themselves	
  and	
  also	
  for	
  their	
  younger	
  peers.	
  From	
  their	
  recent	
  
past	
  experiences	
  observing	
  older	
  peers,	
  students	
  equated	
  being	
  a	
  role	
  model	
  with	
  being	
  responsible	
  for	
  the	
  
younger	
  students’	
  learning,	
  as	
  demonstrated	
  in	
  many	
  of	
  the	
  comments	
  highlighting	
  the	
  extent	
  to	
  which	
  they	
  
assumed	
   this	
   responsibility	
   in	
   a	
   way	
   that	
   simultaneously	
   advanced	
   their	
   own	
   learning.	
   For	
   example,	
   “we	
  
practiced	
  a	
  lot	
  so	
  they	
  would	
  understand	
  the	
  story”	
  was	
  a	
  typical	
  response	
  to	
  an	
  open	
  question	
  in	
  the	
  end	
  of	
  
project	
  questionnaire	
  asking	
  about	
  the	
  reasons	
  for	
  their	
  success	
  in	
  the	
  storytelling	
  session.	
  The	
  fact	
  that	
  this	
  
purpose	
  both	
  motivated	
  students	
  and	
  influenced	
  their	
  actions	
  during	
  the	
  preparation	
  stage	
  is	
  demonstrated	
  
by	
  two	
  specific	
  examples	
  observed	
  during	
  different	
  class	
  sessions.	
  

In	
  the	
  first	
  example,	
  a	
  group	
  of	
  three	
  grade	
  6	
  students	
  were	
  nearing	
  the	
  end	
  of	
  the	
  preparation	
  stage	
  
and	
  were	
  practising	
  their	
  session	
  with	
  students	
  from	
  their	
  own	
  class.	
  Ordinal	
  numbers	
  were	
  a	
  crucial	
  element	
  
within	
   the	
   narrative	
   of	
   this	
   group’s	
   picturebook.	
   They	
   had	
   distributed	
   different	
   roles	
   in	
   the	
   storytelling	
  
sequence,	
  and	
  student	
  G1d	
  had	
  assumed	
  the	
  task	
  of	
  asking	
  the	
  listeners	
  to	
  repeat	
  the	
  ordinal	
  numbers	
  when	
  
they	
  appeared	
  in	
  the	
  story.	
  Practising	
  with	
  their	
  same-­‐age	
  peers,	
  G1d	
  spent	
  considerable	
  time	
  asking	
  them	
  to	
  
repeat	
  the	
  words,	
  labouring	
  over	
  potentially	
  difficult	
  sounds	
  such	
  as	
  the	
  voiced	
  ‘th’	
  (/ð/).	
  Responding	
  to	
  his	
  
classmates	
   who	
   asked	
   why	
   they	
   had	
   to	
   keep	
   repeating	
   the	
   same	
   thing,	
   she	
   explained	
   that	
   the	
   younger	
  
learners	
  would	
  need	
  help	
  to	
  be	
  able	
  to	
  make	
  these	
  sounds	
  properly.	
  What	
  is	
  interesting	
  about	
  this	
  example	
  is	
  
that	
   the	
   learner	
   in	
   question	
   had	
   undergone	
   several	
   years	
   of	
   speech-­‐language	
   therapy	
   to	
   overcome	
  
development	
   difficulties	
   during	
   the	
   first	
   cycle	
   of	
   primary	
   education.	
   The	
   empathy	
   demonstrated	
   in	
   this	
  
attempt	
  to	
  support	
  younger	
  learners	
  in	
  their	
  acquisition	
  and	
  reproduction	
  of	
  new	
  language	
  sounds	
  may	
  stem	
  
from	
  the	
   learner’s	
  own	
  prior	
  experience.	
  The	
  satisfaction	
  obtained	
   from	
  helping	
  others	
  overcome	
  potential	
  
difficulties	
  was	
   evident	
   during	
   the	
   group’s	
   storytelling	
   session	
   (delivered	
   to	
   first-­‐	
   and	
  mid-­‐cycle	
   students),	
  



WADDINGTON	
  

E-­‐JournALL	
  7(1)	
  (2020),	
  pp.	
  124-­‐144 134	
  

particularly	
  when	
  G1d	
  carried	
  out	
  her	
  part	
  of	
   the	
  activity	
  with	
  a	
  confidence	
  and	
  enthusiasm,	
   for	
  which	
  she	
  
was	
   strongly	
   commended	
   by	
   the	
   teacher.	
   Apart	
   from	
   increasing	
   authentic	
   communication	
   as	
   outlined	
   by	
  
Assinder	
  (1991),	
  the	
  peer	
  modelling	
  experience	
  analysed	
  here	
  helps	
  to	
  develop	
  learner	
  empathy	
  and	
  foster	
  a	
  
supportive	
  classroom	
  climate.	
  	
  	
  

In	
  the	
  second	
  example,	
  a	
  pair	
  of	
  grade	
  5	
  students	
  were	
  also	
  reaching	
  the	
  end	
  of	
  the	
  preparation	
  stage	
  
and	
   were	
   simulating	
   the	
   initial	
   part	
   of	
   the	
   session	
   in	
   front	
   of	
   their	
   teacher	
   and	
   the	
   researcher	
   in	
   a	
   class	
  
session	
  organised	
  in	
  the	
  style	
  of	
  a	
  workshop	
  (see	
  below	
  for	
  more	
  description	
  of	
  the	
  workshop	
  format).	
  After	
  
showing	
   how	
   they	
   would	
   begin	
   their	
   session,	
   the	
   teacher	
   asked	
   if	
   they	
   thought	
   the	
   listeners	
   (i.e.,	
   pre-­‐
schoolers,	
  due	
  to	
  the	
  characteristics	
  of	
  the	
  picturebook	
  chosen)	
  would	
  pay	
  attention	
  and	
  be	
  drawn	
  into	
  their	
  
story.	
   Initially	
   displaying	
   little	
   concern	
   about	
   the	
   potential	
   listener	
   response	
   to	
   their	
   storytelling	
   session,	
  
student	
  G3h	
  claimed	
  that	
  “the	
  little	
  ones	
  are	
  like	
  that;	
  they	
  don’t	
  listen	
  to	
  you	
  and	
  they	
  just	
  do	
  whatever	
  they	
  
want.”	
  On	
  further	
  questioning,	
  and	
  when	
  asked	
  to	
  think	
  specifically	
  about	
  strategies	
  their	
  teacher	
  might	
  use	
  
to	
   attract	
   and	
   keep	
   their	
   attention,	
   both	
   students	
   recalled	
   the	
   use	
   of	
   the	
   class	
   English-­‐language	
   ‘speaking’	
  
puppet	
   (named	
   Tiger	
   Tiger)	
   and	
   asked	
   if	
   they	
   could	
   incorporate	
   it	
   into	
   their	
   session.	
   After	
   adding	
   this	
  
effective	
   device	
   into	
   their	
   sequence,	
   they	
   became	
   more	
   at	
   ease	
   in	
   the	
   task	
   and	
   adjusted	
   their	
   planned	
  
interactions	
  more	
  appropriately	
  by	
  paying	
  more	
  attention	
  to	
  how	
  to	
  make	
  their	
  listeners	
  feel	
  comfortable	
  and	
  
how	
  to	
  engage	
  their	
  interest.	
  On	
  the	
  day	
  of	
  their	
  storytelling	
  session,	
  the	
  two	
  students	
  began	
  by	
  taking	
  turns	
  
saying	
   “Hello,	
   [name	
   of	
   student]”	
   to	
   each	
   student	
   individually,	
   to	
   which	
   the	
   4	
   and	
   5	
   year-­‐old	
   children	
  
responded	
   “Hello,	
   [name	
   of	
   storyteller]”	
   one	
   by	
   one,	
   thus	
   establishing	
   a	
   relaxed	
   atmosphere	
   while	
   also	
  
providing	
   the	
  younger	
   learners	
  with	
  a	
   real	
   opportunity	
   to	
  use	
   the	
  new	
   language	
   in	
   a	
  meaningful	
   exchange	
  
with	
   their	
   older	
   peers.	
   Once	
   again,	
   the	
   storytelling	
   context	
   provides	
   the	
   opportunity	
   for	
   natural	
   language	
  
acquisition	
   as	
   suggested	
   in	
   the	
   previous	
   literature	
   on	
   early	
   literacy	
   development	
   (Cameron,	
   2001;	
   Ellis	
   &	
  
Brewster,	
  2014;	
  Goshn,	
  2013;	
  Sipe,	
  2007).	
  	
  
	
  
4.4.	
  Maintaining	
  and	
  protecting	
  motivation	
  

Within	
   this	
   component	
   of	
   the	
   process-­‐oriented	
   approach	
   to	
  motivation,	
   Dörnyei	
   (2001)	
   proposes	
  
various	
  strategies,	
  including	
  allowing	
  learners	
  real	
  choices	
  about	
  aspects	
  of	
  their	
  learning,	
  adjusting	
  difficulty	
  
levels	
   to	
  students’	
  abilities,	
  and	
  adopting	
  the	
  role	
  of	
   facilitator	
  (pp.	
  142-­‐143).	
  These	
  three	
  strategies	
  can	
  be	
  
observed	
  in	
  the	
  findings	
  highlighted	
  in	
  this	
  section.	
  The	
  first	
  example	
  corresponds	
  to	
  the	
  early	
  stages	
  of	
  the	
  
project	
   in	
  which	
  upper	
  cycle	
   students	
  were	
  presented	
  with	
   the	
  collection	
  of	
  picturebooks	
   from	
  which	
   they	
  
would	
   select	
   one	
   for	
   their	
   own	
   storytelling	
   session.	
   Several	
   class	
   sessions	
   were	
   dedicated	
   to	
   viewing	
   the	
  
picturebooks,	
  forming	
  an	
  initial	
  opinion	
  of	
  their	
  content,	
  collectively	
  sharing	
  ideas,	
  and	
  eventually	
  expressing	
  
group	
  preferences	
   based	
  on	
   these	
   initial	
   ideas.	
  During	
   the	
   individual	
   stage,	
   after	
   students	
   had	
  had	
   time	
   to	
  
look	
  at	
  the	
  different	
  picturebooks,	
  they	
  were	
  asked	
  to	
  rate	
  them	
  in	
  their	
  learning	
  diaries.	
  They	
  were	
  given	
  the	
  
freedom	
  to	
  rate	
  them	
  according	
  to	
  their	
  own	
  criteria	
  and	
  in	
  their	
  own	
  preferred	
  style.	
  The	
  results	
  revealed	
  an	
  
interesting	
  variety	
   in	
  modes	
  of	
  expression,	
  which	
  reflected	
   the	
  diversity	
  within	
   the	
  group	
  and	
   the	
  different	
  
abilities	
   and	
   preferences	
   of	
   the	
   individual	
   students.	
   Some	
  wrote	
   short	
   expressions	
   in	
   L3	
   (“It’s	
   fun”	
   or	
   “It’s	
  
boring“),	
  others	
  expressed	
  their	
  ideas	
  more	
  fully	
  in	
  the	
  L1	
  (“I	
  don’t	
  like	
  the	
  pictures”	
  or	
  “It’s	
  about	
  a	
  cat.	
  It’s	
  
really	
  funny”),	
  as	
  in	
  Figure	
  3,	
  and	
  others	
  rated	
  their	
  preferences	
  numerically,	
  as	
  we	
  can	
  observe	
  in	
  Figure	
  4.	
  

	
  



A	
  WHOLE-­‐SCHOOL	
  STORYTELLING	
  PROJECT	
  

E-­‐JournALL	
  7(1)	
  (2020),	
  pp.	
  124-­‐144 135	
  

	
  
Figure 3. Diary entry rating picturebooks with comments in L1 

	
  
Figure 4. Diary entry rating picturebooks in numerical order with  
pictorial support 

This	
  initial	
  selection	
  activity	
  gave	
  learners	
  an	
  opportunity	
  to	
  make	
  their	
  own	
  choices	
  that	
  were	
  also	
  
adapted	
   to	
   their	
   different	
   abilities,	
   thus	
   setting	
   a	
   pattern	
   for	
   subsequent	
   activities	
   as	
   we	
   will	
   see	
   below.	
  



WADDINGTON	
  

E-­‐JournALL	
  7(1)	
  (2020),	
  pp.	
  124-­‐144 136	
  

Reference	
  is	
  made	
  above	
  to	
  the	
  way	
  in	
  which	
  some	
  classes	
  during	
  the	
  storytelling	
  preparation	
  stage	
  took	
  the	
  
form	
   of	
   workshops.	
   Aside	
   from	
   the	
   diversity	
   within	
   each	
   student	
   group	
   and	
   the	
   different	
  
abilities/characteristics	
  of	
  each	
  individual	
  learner,	
  the	
  fact	
  that	
  each	
  group	
  (or	
  pair)	
  of	
  students	
  worked	
  on	
  a	
  
different	
  picturebook	
  meant	
   that	
   the	
  preparation	
   for	
   the	
  storytelling	
  sessions	
  was	
  necessarily	
  diverse.	
  As	
  a	
  
result,	
   many	
   class	
   sessions	
  were	
   converted	
   into	
  workshops,	
   with	
   students	
  working	
   in	
   different	
   spaces	
   on	
  
their	
  own	
  picturebooks	
  and	
  with	
  the	
  teacher	
  adopting	
  the	
  role	
  of	
  facilitator	
  by	
  guiding	
  them	
  and	
  supporting	
  
them	
  in	
  their	
  different	
  preparations.	
  Three	
  examples	
  are	
  provided	
  below	
  to	
  show	
  how	
  this	
  worked	
  in	
  practice	
  
and	
  to	
  highlight	
  the	
  key	
  findings	
  that	
  emerged.	
  

4.4.1.	
  Storytelling	
  preparation	
  workshops	
  
Example	
  1:	
  Linguistic	
  focus	
  

Two	
  students	
  were	
   in	
   the	
  early	
   stages	
  of	
  preparing	
   their	
   story.	
  They	
  had	
   selected	
  one	
  of	
   the	
  most	
  
linguistically	
   complex	
   picturebooks	
   available,	
   and,	
   after	
   having	
   initially	
   thought	
   they	
   had	
   understood	
   the	
  
narrative,	
   they	
  realized	
   that	
   their	
   full	
  understanding	
  was	
  compromised	
  by	
  unfamiliar	
  vocabulary.	
  Although	
  
their	
  teacher	
  reassured	
  them	
  that	
  they	
  could	
  proceed	
  since	
  they	
  were	
  to	
  convey	
  the	
  overall	
  meaning	
  of	
  the	
  
story	
  to	
  their	
  listeners,	
  the	
  students	
  were	
  determined	
  to	
  fully	
  grasp	
  the	
  narrative.	
  Taking	
  a	
  bilingual	
  (Catalan	
  
to	
  English)	
  dictionary	
  from	
  the	
  bookcase,	
  the	
  students	
  started	
  to	
  look	
  up	
  the	
  words	
  they	
  had	
  never	
  previously	
  
encountered	
   and	
   to	
   write	
   down	
   the	
   L1	
   translations	
   in	
   their	
   learning	
   diaries.	
   Eventually,	
   they	
   decided	
   to	
  
translate	
  the	
  whole	
  L3	
  text	
  from	
  the	
  picturebook	
  page	
  they	
  were	
  working	
  on	
  into	
  their	
  L1,	
  writing	
  down	
  their	
  
translation	
  sentence	
  by	
  sentence	
  in	
  their	
  diaries.	
  When	
  asked	
  by	
  the	
  researcher	
  why	
  they	
  were	
  spending	
  so	
  
much	
  time	
  doing	
  this	
  when	
  their	
  teacher	
  had	
  told	
  them	
  it	
  was	
  not	
  necessary,	
  they	
  explained	
  as	
  follows:	
  

	
  
Excerpt	
  1.	
  
G2a	
  	
   By	
   doing	
   this	
   we	
   really	
   understand	
   what	
   it	
   is	
   that	
   we’re	
   telling	
   [telling	
   the	
  

story].	
  
G2b	
  	
   And	
  we	
  learn	
  more	
  English.	
  We	
  learn	
  some	
  things	
  we	
  wouldn’t	
  usually	
  learn.	
  
Researcher	
  	
   Like	
  what?	
  
G2b	
  	
   Useful	
  things,	
  like	
  ‘it’s	
  getting	
  dark	
  now.’	
  Things	
  like	
  that.	
  
G2a	
   We	
  also	
  learn	
  what	
  some	
  strange	
  words	
  mean.	
  
Researcher	
  	
   Strange?	
  
G2a	
  	
   Yes	
  [half-­‐laughing],	
  things	
  like	
  ‘grumpy’	
  or	
  ‘naughty’.	
  	
  	
  
	
  

The	
   exchange	
   in	
   Excerpt	
   1	
   highlights	
   the	
   benefits	
   of	
   giving	
   students	
   the	
   space	
   to	
  make	
   their	
   own	
  
learning	
   choices	
   and	
   the	
   effect	
   that	
   this	
   can	
   have	
   on	
   stimulating	
   their	
   autonomy.	
   Both	
   students	
   in	
   this	
  
exchange	
   reported	
   that	
   although	
   translation	
   was	
   hard	
   work	
   and	
   time-­‐consuming,	
   it	
   was	
   worth	
   it	
   as	
   they	
  
learned	
  a	
  lot	
  from	
  the	
  process.	
  On	
  the	
  one	
  hand,	
  this	
  exchange	
  supports	
  calls	
  for	
  a	
  reappraisal	
  of	
  the	
  use	
  of	
  
translation	
  practices	
  in	
  the	
  language	
  classroom.	
  Such	
  calls	
  have	
  been	
  gaining	
  ground	
  since	
  the	
  end	
  of	
  the	
  last	
  
century,	
   as	
   outlined	
   by	
   Gomes	
   Ferreira	
   (1999)	
   in	
   her	
   review	
   of	
   late	
   twentieth-­‐century	
   resistance	
   to	
  
translation	
  in	
  the	
  English	
  classroom	
  and	
  her	
  exposition	
  of	
  the	
  reasons	
  for	
  its	
  potential	
  revival	
  in	
  the	
  twenty-­‐
first	
  century.	
  On	
  the	
  other	
  hand,	
  the	
  extended	
  conversation	
  with	
  these	
  students	
  also	
  highlighted	
  the	
  way	
  in	
  
which	
   learners	
  can	
  be	
  encouraged	
   to	
  develop	
  critical	
  awareness	
  regarding	
   the	
  potential	
   flaws	
   in	
  automatic	
  
online	
   translation	
   tools	
   and	
   the	
   need	
   to	
   exercise	
   caution	
   when	
   using	
   them.	
   This	
   finding	
   emerged	
   when	
  
students	
  shared	
  a	
  whole-­‐class	
  experience	
  in	
  which	
  no	
  one	
  had	
  known	
  the	
  word	
  in	
  their	
  own	
  language	
  for	
  a	
  
bird	
   (puffin)	
   that	
   appeared	
   in	
   one	
   of	
   the	
   picturebooks.	
   Although	
   knowing	
   the	
   word	
   in	
   the	
   L1	
   was	
   not	
  
necessary	
  for	
  continued	
  preparation	
  of	
  the	
  storytelling	
  session,	
  and	
  although	
  they	
  could	
  all	
  see	
  what	
  the	
  bird	
  
was	
   from	
   the	
   illustration	
   in	
   the	
   picturebook,	
   they	
   still	
   felt	
   compelled	
   to	
   fill	
   this	
   gap	
   in	
   their	
   knowledge.	
  
Entering	
  the	
  word	
  into	
  an	
  online	
  translator	
  resulted	
  in	
  a	
  word	
  in	
  the	
  L1	
  that	
  they	
  discounted	
  immediately	
  as	
  
it	
  bore	
  no	
  relation	
  to	
  birds.	
  The	
  next	
  search	
  using	
  a	
  paper	
  L1	
  (Catalan)-­‐to-­‐L3	
  (English)	
  dictionary	
  (graded	
  for	
  
primary	
  classroom	
  use)	
  produced	
  no	
  results,	
  as	
  the	
  word	
  ‘puffin’	
  was	
  not	
  listed.	
  Upon	
  further	
  investigation,	
  
the	
   students	
   found	
   a	
   more	
   extensive	
   Spanish	
   (L2)-­‐to-­‐English	
   (L3)	
   dictionary,	
   and	
   this	
   time	
   their	
   search	
  
yielded	
  the	
  Spanish	
  word	
  ‘frailecillo’.	
  On	
  hearing	
  this,	
  one	
  of	
  the	
  students	
  in	
  the	
  group	
  exclaimed	
  ‘I’ve	
  got	
  it!’	
  
Hearing	
   the	
  word	
   in	
   L2	
   (Spanish)	
   prompted	
   the	
   student	
   to	
   recall	
   the	
   word	
   ‘cadafet’	
   in	
   her	
   first	
   language	
  
(Catalan).	
  What	
   is	
   interesting	
  about	
   this	
   finding	
   is	
   the	
  enthusiasm	
  shown	
  by	
  students	
  when	
  recounting	
   the	
  
experience	
  and	
  the	
  fact	
  that	
  they	
  still	
  laughed	
  about	
  it	
  days	
  or	
  weeks	
  after	
  the	
  event	
  had	
  occurred,	
  suggesting	
  
quite	
   strongly	
   that	
   the	
   experience	
   had	
   been	
   meaningful	
   and	
   memorable	
   for	
   them.	
   Within	
   a	
   plurilingual	
  



A	
  WHOLE-­‐SCHOOL	
  STORYTELLING	
  PROJECT	
  

E-­‐JournALL	
  7(1)	
  (2020),	
  pp.	
  124-­‐144 137	
  

context,	
   this	
   also	
   suggests	
   that	
   learners	
  were	
  becoming	
   increasingly	
   aware	
  of	
   the	
  benefits	
   of	
   being	
   able	
   to	
  
draw	
  on	
  different	
   languages	
  and	
  that	
  the	
  teacher,	
  as	
   facilitator,	
  was	
  adopting	
  a	
  flexible	
  attitude	
  to	
   language	
  
use,	
  which	
  could	
  have	
  positive	
  effects	
  on	
  the	
  learning	
  process,	
  as	
  argued	
  in	
  recent	
  studies	
  illustrating	
  cases	
  of	
  
translanguaging	
  in	
  the	
  classroom	
  (Durán	
  &	
  Henderson,	
  2018).	
  

Example	
  2:	
  Artistic	
  focus	
  
While	
  students	
  G2a	
  and	
  G2b	
  were	
  discovering	
  the	
  complexities	
  of	
  translating	
  into	
  their	
  L1,	
  students	
  

G2c	
  and	
  G2d	
  were	
  elaborating	
  their	
  own	
  colourful	
  masks	
  to	
  represent	
  each	
  of	
  the	
  animal	
  characters	
  in	
  their	
  
story.	
  When	
  asked	
  why	
  they	
  were	
  doing	
  this,	
  they	
  explained	
  that	
  using	
  these	
  masks	
  would	
  help	
  the	
  younger	
  
listeners	
   follow	
   their	
   story,	
   by	
   encouraging	
   them	
   to	
   relate	
   the	
   words	
   they	
   were	
   hearing	
   with	
   the	
   visual	
  
supports	
   they	
   were	
   seeing.	
   This	
   explanation	
   was	
   followed	
   by	
   an	
   impromptu	
   display	
   of	
   how	
   exactly	
   they	
  
would	
  do	
  this,	
  clarifying	
  who	
  would	
  narrate	
  the	
  story	
  and	
  who	
  would	
  act	
  out	
  the	
  characters	
  using	
  the	
  masks,	
  
thus	
  showing	
  a	
  well-­‐thought	
  out	
  plan	
  in	
  which	
  each	
  student	
  assumed	
  a	
  specific	
  role.	
  Demonstrating	
  their	
  plan	
  
prompted	
  further	
  creativity,	
  as	
  they	
  decided	
  that	
  the	
  mask	
  wearer	
  would	
  also	
  make	
  the	
  corresponding	
  animal	
  
noises,	
   thereby	
  adding	
  audio	
  support	
   to	
   their	
  handcrafted	
  visual	
   supports.	
  Although	
  opting	
   to	
   focus	
  on	
   the	
  
artistic	
   side	
   meant	
   that	
   less	
   time	
   was	
   spent	
   on	
   linguistic	
   aspects	
   that	
   could	
   have	
   been	
   improved	
   further	
  
(pronunciation	
  of	
   some	
  key	
  expressions,	
   for	
   example),	
   the	
   students	
  preferred	
   to	
   invest	
   time	
  and	
   creativity	
  
into	
  the	
  artistic	
  and	
  aesthetic	
  dimension	
  of	
  their	
  session,	
  resulting	
  in	
  a	
  storytelling	
  performance	
  which	
  they	
  
and	
  the	
  listeners	
  clearly	
  enjoyed.	
  When	
  asked	
  if	
  it	
  might	
  have	
  been	
  better	
  to	
  orientate	
  the	
  pair	
  towards	
  work	
  
on	
  linguistic	
  aspects	
  and	
  to	
  deter	
  what	
  could	
  have	
  constituted	
  avoidance	
  tactics	
  (i.e.,	
  spending	
  excessive	
  time	
  
cutting	
   out	
   paper	
  masks	
   instead	
   of	
  working	
   on	
   language),	
   the	
   teacher	
   highlighted	
   the	
   benefits	
   of	
   allowing	
  
students	
   to	
  make	
  their	
  own	
  choices	
  and	
  progress	
  at	
   their	
  own	
  pace.	
  This	
   justification	
  revealed	
  a	
  classroom	
  
practice	
   closely	
   aligned	
   with	
   recent	
   motivational	
   theories,	
   which	
   argue	
   for	
   a	
   balanced,	
   learner-­‐centred	
  
approach	
  to	
  motivation	
  (Dörnyei	
  &	
  Ushioda,	
  2009;	
  Williams	
  et	
  al.,	
  2016)	
  and	
  contrast	
  with	
  the	
  predominantly	
  
teacher-­‐centred/resource-­‐based	
  approach	
   found	
   in	
  a	
  recent	
  study	
  of	
  primary	
  school	
  practice	
   (Waddington,	
  
2018).	
   Further	
   analysis	
  of	
   this	
   experience	
  demonstrated	
   the	
   sagacity	
  of	
   the	
   teacher’s	
  decision	
   to	
   allow	
   the	
  
students	
  to	
  continue	
  at	
  their	
  own	
  pace	
  instead	
  of	
  pushing	
  them	
  toward	
  more	
  linguistic	
  work	
  at	
  that	
  particular	
  
time:	
   firstly,	
   their	
   storytelling	
   session	
   was	
   very	
   positively	
   received	
   by	
   the	
   listeners	
   (first-­‐cycle	
   primary	
  
students)	
   and	
   their	
   self-­‐assessments	
   of	
   the	
   experience	
   indicated	
   that	
   this	
   reaction	
   had	
   boosted	
   their	
  
confidence	
  and	
  motivated	
  them	
  to	
  continue	
  learning	
  the	
  language;	
  secondly,	
  while	
  carrying	
  out	
  their	
  artistic	
  
activities,	
   they	
   were	
   simultaneously	
   listening	
   to	
   the	
   other	
   groups	
   and	
   contributing	
   to	
   some	
   of	
   the	
  
conversations	
   taking	
   place	
   (such	
   as	
   the	
   class	
   translanguaging	
   experience	
   with	
   	
   ‘puffin’	
   described	
   above),	
  
thereby	
  displaying	
  an	
   interest	
   in	
  the	
   language	
  and	
  their	
  growing	
  metalinguistic	
  awareness.	
  This	
  experience	
  
highlights	
   the	
  need	
   to	
  protect	
  motivation⎯as	
   suggested	
  by	
   the	
  wording	
  of	
   this	
   component	
  of	
   the	
  process-­‐
oriented	
   approach⎯by	
   respecting	
   learner	
   needs,	
   allowing	
   students	
   to	
   go	
   at	
   their	
   own	
   pace	
   and	
   viewing	
  
learning	
  as	
  an	
  ongoing	
  process.	
  
	
  
Example	
  3:	
  IT	
  focus	
  

In	
  the	
  final	
  example,	
  and	
  during	
  the	
  same	
  workshop	
  session	
  as	
  the	
  previous	
  two	
  examples,	
  another	
  
pair	
  of	
  students	
  were	
  working	
  with	
  a	
   laptop.	
  Like	
  the	
   first	
  group,	
   this	
  pair	
  had	
  also	
  selected	
  a	
   linguistically	
  
complex	
  picturebook,	
  and,	
  after	
  working	
  through	
  it	
  and	
  understanding	
  it,	
  they	
  were	
  developing	
  strategies	
  to	
  
convey	
   the	
   unfamiliar	
   vocabulary	
   and	
   the	
   general	
   narrative	
   to	
   their	
   peers	
   (mid-­‐cycle	
   primary).	
   They	
   had	
  
decided	
  in	
  a	
  previous	
  session	
  to	
  create	
  a	
  PowerPoint	
  presentation,	
  asking	
  their	
  teacher	
  for	
  permission	
  and	
  a	
  
laptop	
  to	
  do	
  so.	
  In	
  the	
  session	
  analysed,	
  they	
  had	
  already	
  created	
  the	
  presentation	
  and	
  were	
  working	
  on	
  the	
  
different	
   slides.	
  When	
  asked	
  by	
   the	
   researcher	
  about	
   their	
  decision	
   to	
   create	
  a	
  PowerPoint,	
   they	
  explained	
  
that	
  it	
  would	
  help	
  the	
  listeners	
  follow	
  their	
  story	
  by	
  giving	
  them	
  additional	
  visual	
  support	
  to	
  supplement	
  the	
  
illustrations	
   already	
   provided	
   in	
   the	
   picturebook.	
   After	
   typing	
   pages	
   from	
   the	
   picturebook	
   into	
   the	
   slides,	
  
they	
  started	
  to	
  experiment	
  with	
  different	
  design	
  options,	
  changing	
  colours,	
  highlighting	
  parts	
  of	
  the	
  text	
  and	
  
using	
  animation.	
  They	
  explain	
  the	
  need	
  for	
  this	
  in	
  Excerpt	
  2.	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  



WADDINGTON	
  

E-­‐JournALL	
  7(1)	
  (2020),	
  pp.	
  124-­‐144 138	
  

Excerpt	
  2.	
   	
  
Researcher	
  	
   What’s	
  that	
  you’re	
  highlighting?	
  	
  
G2e	
   They’re	
  the	
  things	
  that	
  are	
  the	
  most	
  difficult.	
  
G2f	
  	
   And	
  they’re	
  also	
  [first	
  checks	
  how	
  to	
  say	
  the	
  noun	
  in	
  L1]	
  rhymes.	
  We’re	
  

highlighting	
  all	
  the	
  words	
  that	
  rhyme.	
  [checks	
  the	
  verb	
  in	
  L1]	
  
Researcher	
  	
   Ah.	
  I	
  see.	
  And	
  what	
  are	
  you	
  going	
  to	
  do	
  with	
  it?	
  
G2f	
   We’re	
  going	
  to	
  ask	
  them	
  to	
  listen	
  to	
  us	
  and	
  repeat	
  the	
  rhymes	
  with	
  us.	
  
Researcher	
  	
   (looking	
  at	
  other	
  slides)	
  I	
  see	
  you’ve	
  used	
  some	
  different	
  colours	
  here.	
  
G2e	
  	
   That’s	
  to	
  show	
  different	
  voices.	
  
G2f	
  	
   When	
  we	
  tell	
  the	
  story	
  we’re	
  going	
  to	
  exaggerate	
  the	
  different	
  voices.	
  
G2e	
   And	
  do	
  you	
  like	
  this?	
  [showing	
  a	
  slide	
  using	
  animation]	
  
Researcher	
  	
   Oh	
  yes.	
  That’s	
  good.	
  How	
  have	
  you	
  done	
  that?	
  [the	
  students	
  show	
  how	
  they	
  

discovered	
  and	
  applied	
  the	
  animation	
  options]	
  
G2f	
   We	
  think	
  it	
  will	
  help	
  to	
  keep	
  their	
  attention.	
  
G2e	
   Our	
  story	
  is	
  a	
  bit	
  long	
  and	
  they	
  might	
  switch	
  off.	
  This	
  might	
  help.	
  

	
  
Apart	
   from	
  developing	
   their	
  own	
  skills	
   (linguistic,	
   ICT,	
   creative	
   thinking),	
   these	
  students	
  showed	
  a	
  

high	
  capacity	
  for	
  anticipating	
  interactions	
  with	
  others	
  and	
  for	
  adopting	
  non-­‐verbal	
  communication	
  strategies	
  
to	
   facilitate	
   and	
   promote	
   effective	
   interactions.	
   As	
   in	
   the	
   two	
   previous	
   examples,	
   the	
   purpose	
   they	
   were	
  
working	
   towards	
   and	
   their	
   imminent	
   role	
   as	
   peer	
   models	
   stimulated	
   their	
   own	
   learning	
   and	
   the	
   future	
  
learning	
   of	
   their	
   younger	
  peers.	
   Furthermore,	
   their	
   own	
  decision	
   to	
   create	
   a	
  PowerPoint	
   presentation	
   and	
  
their	
  close	
  attention	
  to	
  how	
  the	
  different	
  features	
  and	
  design	
  options	
  would	
  facilitate	
  comprehension	
  support	
  
the	
  findings	
  of	
  recent	
  studies	
  that	
  highlight	
  the	
  benefits	
  of	
  ICT-­‐based	
  methods	
  for	
  developing	
  literacy	
  skills	
  at	
  
primary-­‐school	
   age	
   as	
  well	
   as	
   the	
   importance	
   of	
   social	
   interactions	
   for	
  making	
   the	
   best	
   use	
   of	
   such	
   skills	
  
(Genlott	
  &	
  Grönlund,	
  2013).	
  	
  	
  

	
  
4.5.	
  Encouraging	
  positive	
  retrospective	
  self-­‐evaluation	
  

The	
   findings	
   already	
   discussed	
   reveal	
   a	
   classroom	
   environment	
   in	
   which	
   students	
   are	
   constantly	
  
reflecting	
   on	
   and	
   evaluating	
   their	
   own	
   learning	
   process	
   and	
   that	
   of	
   others.	
   In	
   addition,	
   and	
   after	
   the	
  
storytelling	
  sessions	
  had	
  been	
  completed,	
  specific	
  time	
  was	
  designated	
  within	
  class	
  sessions	
  for	
  students	
  to	
  
evaluate	
   their	
  own	
  performances	
  and	
   those	
  of	
   their	
  classmates	
  during	
   the	
  storytelling	
  sessions.	
   In	
   the	
   first	
  
instance,	
   analysis	
   showed	
   that	
   students	
   tended	
   to	
   evaluate	
   their	
  peers’	
  performances	
  more	
  positively	
   than	
  
their	
  own.	
  Regarding	
  self-­‐evaluations,	
   in	
  some	
  cases	
   these	
  were	
   found	
  to	
  be	
  excessively	
  critical,	
  potentially	
  
demotivating	
  and	
  inconsistent	
  with	
  teachers’	
  positive	
  evaluations	
  of	
  the	
  work.	
  	
  

In	
  the	
  first	
  session	
  dedicated	
  to	
  evaluating	
  other	
  groups’	
  sessions	
  and	
  providing	
  them	
  with	
  feedback,	
  
a	
   “Two	
  Stars	
  and	
  a	
  Wish”	
  activity	
  was	
  designed	
   to	
  help	
  students	
  organise	
   their	
   ideas	
  and	
  highlight	
  at	
   least	
  
three	
  points	
   from	
  their	
  peers’	
  sessions:	
   two	
  which	
  they	
  considered	
  worthy	
  of	
  praise	
  (stars)	
  and	
  one	
  aspect	
  
they	
   thought	
   could	
   be	
   improved	
   (wish).	
   A	
   rubric	
  was	
   created	
  providing	
   example	
   sentence	
   starters	
   (e.g.,	
   “I	
  
really	
   liked	
   the	
   way	
   you…”,	
   “You	
   did	
   a	
   good/great	
   job…”,	
   “Maybe	
   you	
   could…”)	
   to	
   help	
   students	
   produce	
  
relevant	
   sentences,	
   thus	
   combining	
   language	
   work	
   with	
   the	
   development	
   of	
   evaluation	
   and	
   interpersonal	
  
skills.	
  The	
   activity	
  was	
   first	
  developed	
  orally,	
  with	
   students	
  watching	
   fragments	
  of	
   video	
   recordings	
  of	
   the	
  
storytelling	
  sessions	
  and	
  then	
  constructing	
  sentences	
  with	
  the	
  help	
  of	
  the	
  teacher.	
  Students	
  then	
  wrote	
  down	
  
their	
  evaluations	
  and	
  completed	
  a	
  rubric	
  for	
  their	
  portfolios,	
  which	
  contained	
  all	
  work	
  related	
  to	
  the	
  project	
  
(see	
  Figure	
  5).	
  

	
  



A	
  WHOLE-­‐SCHOOL	
  STORYTELLING	
  PROJECT	
  

E-­‐JournALL	
  7(1)	
  (2020),	
  pp.	
  124-­‐144 139	
  

	
  
Figure 5. Peer evaluation: “Two Stars and a Wish” activity 

While	
  analysis	
  of	
  both	
  teacher	
  and	
  student	
  reflections	
  pointed	
  to	
  the	
  benefits	
  of	
  this	
  activity	
  in	
  terms	
  
of	
  building	
  student	
  confidence	
  and	
  identifying	
  specific	
  areas	
  for	
  further	
  improvement	
  (e.g.,	
  pronunciation	
  was	
  
cited	
  most	
  frequently),	
  it	
  also	
  highlighted	
  the	
  need	
  to	
  dedicate	
  more	
  time	
  to	
  the	
  activity	
  itself	
  and	
  to	
  pre-­‐teach	
  
and	
  practice	
  some	
  specific	
  functional	
  language	
  needed	
  for	
  giving	
  feedback.	
  Students	
  expressed	
  clear	
  interest	
  
in	
  the	
  activity	
  and	
  confirmed	
  that	
  it	
  was	
  useful	
  for	
  them,	
  but	
  they	
  also	
  indicated	
  that	
  they	
  needed	
  more	
  help	
  
to	
  be	
  able	
  to	
  express	
  their	
  opinions	
  in	
  the	
  L3.	
  	
  

As	
  noted	
  above,	
  the	
  analysis	
  of	
  students’	
  self-­‐evaluations	
  indicated	
  that	
  learners	
  were	
  more	
  critical	
  of	
  
their	
   own	
  performance	
   than	
   that	
   of	
   their	
   peers	
   and	
   that	
  work	
  was	
   needed	
   to	
   help	
   them	
   carry	
   out	
   a	
  more	
  
realistic	
   and	
   constructive	
   evaluation	
   of	
   their	
   own	
   abilities.	
   This	
   finding	
   supports	
   calls	
   by	
   others	
   for	
  more	
  
research	
   and	
   practical	
   work	
   to	
   help	
   L2	
   learners	
   calibrate	
   their	
   self-­‐assessment	
   of	
   own	
   performance	
  
(Trofimovich,	
   Isaacs,	
   Kennedy,	
   Saito,	
   &	
   Crowther,	
   2016).	
   Further	
   analysis	
   of	
   this	
   question,	
   examining	
   and	
  
contrasting	
   comments	
  made	
  by	
   students,	
   suggested	
   that	
  watching	
   themselves	
   in	
   the	
   video	
   recordings	
  may	
  
have	
  had	
  a	
  negative	
  influence	
  on	
  students’	
  self-­‐evaluations.	
  This	
  hypothesis	
  resulted	
  in	
  a	
  decision	
  being	
  made	
  
to	
   refrain	
   from	
   video	
   recording	
   the	
   sessions	
   in	
   the	
   following	
   year	
   and	
   to	
   conduct	
   the	
   self-­‐	
   and	
   peer-­‐
evaluations	
  on	
  the	
  basis	
  of	
  student	
  recall	
  and	
  with	
  the	
  aid	
  of	
  evaluation	
  rubrics	
  used	
  to	
  record	
  observations	
  
and	
  reflections.	
  	
  	
  	
  
	
  
5.	
  Discussion	
  	
  

With	
  regard	
  to	
  the	
  overall	
  aim	
  of	
  this	
  study,	
  the	
  findings	
  suggest	
  that	
  the	
  reading	
  project	
  had	
  a	
  strong	
  
motivational	
  effect	
  on	
  the	
   learners.	
   In	
  particular,	
  and	
  considering	
  each	
  of	
   the	
   four	
  dimensions	
  of	
  a	
  process-­‐
oriented	
  and	
  holistic	
  approach	
  to	
  motivational	
  practice,	
  we	
  can	
  identify	
  specific	
  learning	
  outcomes	
  generated	
  
by	
  the	
  experience.	
  In	
  the	
  first	
  instance	
  (Creating	
  the	
  basic	
  motivational	
  conditions),	
  the	
  findings	
  show	
  how	
  the	
  
project	
   encourages	
   learners	
   to	
   conceive	
   learning	
   as	
   an	
   ongoing	
   process	
   involving	
   close	
   interactions	
   with	
  
others.	
  This	
  growing	
  awareness	
  helps	
  promote	
  collaboration	
  at	
  a	
  small-­‐group	
  level,	
  fostering	
  the	
  acceptance	
  
and	
   nurturing	
   of	
   diversity	
   within	
   groups,	
   as	
   well	
   as	
   cohesion	
   on	
   a	
   wider	
   level,	
   which	
   contributes	
   to	
   an	
  
interconnected	
  school	
  environment.	
  The	
  promotion	
  of	
  authentic	
  and	
  meaningful	
  language	
  using	
  picturebooks	
  
generates	
   positive	
   attitudes	
   toward	
   reading	
   while	
   simultaneously	
   increasing	
   students’	
   willingness	
   to	
  
participate	
   in	
  the	
   learning	
  process.	
   In	
   the	
  second	
   instance	
  (Generating	
   initial	
  motivation),	
  and	
   in	
  relation	
  to	
  
intra-­‐	
  and	
  inter-­‐personal	
  factors,	
  it	
  is	
  particularly	
  worth	
  highlighting	
  the	
  growing	
  awareness	
  among	
  students	
  
of	
   the	
  relation	
  between	
  effort	
   investment	
  and	
  successful	
   learning	
  on	
   the	
  one	
  hand	
  (intra-­‐personal)	
  and	
  the	
  
importance	
  of	
  inter-­‐personal	
  factors	
  on	
  the	
  other.	
  In	
  relation	
  to	
  the	
  latter,	
  the	
  empathy	
  displayed	
  by	
  the	
  older	
  
students	
  and	
  their	
  increasing	
  awareness	
  of	
  the	
  impact	
  of	
  extra-­‐linguistic	
  factors	
  on	
  successful	
  communication	
  
is	
   noteworthy.	
   Considering	
   the	
   next	
   component	
   (Maintaining	
   and	
   protecting	
   motivation),	
   apart	
   from	
   the	
  



WADDINGTON	
  

E-­‐JournALL	
  7(1)	
  (2020),	
  pp.	
  124-­‐144 140	
  

specific	
  language-­‐learning	
  outcomes	
  generated,	
  the	
  project	
  design	
  and	
  workshop	
  format	
  adopted	
  during	
  part	
  
of	
  the	
  preparation	
  stage	
  seems	
  to	
  be	
  effective	
  in	
  encouraging	
  students	
  to	
  take	
  ownership	
  of	
  their	
  learning	
  and	
  
to	
  become	
  increasingly	
  autonomous	
  in	
  their	
  work.	
  The	
  examples	
  highlighted	
  in	
  the	
  findings	
  also	
  indicate	
  that	
  
students’	
  metalinguistic	
  awareness	
  was	
  boosted	
  during	
  the	
  process	
  as	
  they	
  became	
  increasingly	
  aware	
  of	
  the	
  
benefits	
  of	
  being	
  plurilingual.	
  Finally	
  (Encouraging	
  positive	
  retrospective	
  self-­‐evaluation),	
   findings	
  show	
  that	
  
students	
  consider	
  evaluation	
  to	
  be	
  highly	
  useful	
  and	
  enjoy	
  giving	
  and	
  receiving	
  feedback.	
  Two	
  factors	
  emerge	
  
from	
   the	
   findings	
   that	
   deserve	
   particular	
   attention	
   since	
   they	
   could	
   have	
   a	
   negative	
   effect	
   on	
   learning	
  
outcomes.	
   The	
   first	
   relates	
   to	
   the	
   lack	
   of	
   correlation	
   between	
   teachers’	
   and	
   students’	
   evaluations	
   of	
  
performance	
  and	
  the	
  tendency	
  of	
  the	
  latter	
  to	
  be	
  overly	
  critical	
  of	
  their	
  own	
  performance	
  in	
  contrast	
  to	
  that	
  of	
  
their	
  peers.	
  Further	
  research	
  needs	
  to	
  be	
  carried	
  out	
  to	
  explore	
  this	
  observation	
  and	
  a	
  specific	
  study	
  is	
  now	
  
underway	
  comparing	
  self-­‐evaluations	
  with	
  and	
  without	
  the	
  use	
  of	
  video	
  recordings.	
  The	
  second	
  point	
  relates	
  
to	
   the	
   language	
  development	
   aspect	
   of	
   the	
   self-­‐evaluation	
   activities	
   that	
  were	
   carried	
  out.	
  Results	
   indicate	
  
that	
  students	
  find	
  it	
  particularly	
  difficult	
  to	
  express	
  their	
  opinions	
  freely	
  in	
  the	
  foreign	
  language,	
  as	
  would	
  be	
  
expected	
   in	
   a	
   low-­‐exposure	
   context	
   such	
   as	
   the	
   one	
   described	
   in	
   this	
   study.	
   In	
   view	
   of	
   this,	
   particular	
  
attention	
  needs	
  to	
  be	
  paid	
  to	
  scaffolding	
  student	
  learning	
  and	
  providing	
  sufficient	
  support	
  to	
  enable	
  them	
  to	
  
carry	
  out	
  tasks	
  in	
  a	
  way	
  that	
  stimulates	
  further	
  learning	
  and	
  avoids	
  demotivating	
  effects.	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  

Although	
   conceived	
   and	
   discussed	
   separately,	
   the	
   learning	
   outcomes	
   highlighted	
   above	
   are	
  
understood	
   as	
   part	
   of	
   a	
   holistic	
   experience	
   comprising	
   different	
   opportunities	
   and	
   challenges	
   that	
   are	
  
experienced	
  differently	
  by	
  each	
  learner.	
  Considering	
  the	
  final	
  aim	
  of	
  this	
  study,	
  and	
  in	
  order	
  to	
  highlight	
  the	
  
pedagogical	
   implications	
   of	
   the	
   findings,	
   strategies	
   that	
   have	
   been	
   observed	
   to	
   be	
   particularly	
   effective	
   in	
  
generating	
   these	
   outcomes	
   have	
   been	
   identified.	
   While	
   in	
   this	
   case	
   they	
   have	
   been	
   detected	
   in	
   activities	
  
carried	
  out	
  within	
  the	
  storytelling	
  project,	
   they	
  are	
  considered	
  to	
  be	
  sufficiently	
  generalizable	
  regardless	
  of	
  
the	
  methodology	
  employed.	
  Effective	
  strategies	
  include:	
  

	
  
-­‐ using	
  peer	
  modelling	
  
-­‐ stimulating	
  student	
  autonomy	
  	
  
-­‐ fostering	
  ownership	
  of	
  own	
  learning	
  process	
  
-­‐ having	
  a	
  clear	
  purpose	
  
-­‐ generating	
  contact	
  with	
  authentic	
  language	
  
-­‐ stimulating	
  authentic	
  language	
  use	
  
-­‐ allowing	
  learners	
  to	
  be	
  creative	
  
-­‐ allowing	
  learners	
  to	
  set	
  their	
  own	
  challenges	
  and	
  go	
  at	
  their	
  own	
  pace	
  (which	
  can	
  be	
  different	
  even	
  in	
  

small	
  working	
  groups	
  or	
  pairs)	
  	
  
-­‐ encouraging	
  both	
  self-­‐	
  and	
  peer-­‐evaluation	
  
-­‐ stimulating	
  constructive	
  self-­‐reflection	
  	
  	
  

	
  
The	
   discussion	
   of	
   the	
   outcomes	
   and	
   strategies	
   identified	
   has	
   mainly	
   focused	
   on	
   the	
   motivational	
  

effects	
  on	
  the	
  older	
  learners,	
  in	
  line	
  with	
  the	
  main	
  aims	
  of	
  this	
  study.	
  Although	
  further	
  studies	
  are	
  needed	
  to	
  
explore	
   the	
   effects	
   on	
   the	
   younger	
   learners,	
   it	
   is	
  worth	
   noting	
   one	
   point.	
   Reference	
   has	
   been	
  made	
   in	
   the	
  
findings	
  section	
  to	
  the	
  difficulties	
  posed	
  by	
  some	
  of	
  the	
  picturebooks	
  and	
  the	
  strategies	
  consequently	
  devised	
  
by	
   the	
   older	
   learners	
   to	
   aid	
   their	
   younger	
   peers’	
   comprehension.	
   Observations	
   indicated	
   that	
   although	
  
listeners	
   did	
   not	
   understand	
   all	
   the	
   language	
   used	
   in	
   the	
   stories,	
   they	
   still	
   maintained	
   high	
   levels	
   of	
  
enthusiasm	
  and	
  engagement	
  and	
  appeared	
  to	
  follow	
  and	
  understand	
  the	
  narrative	
  of	
  the	
  story.	
  This	
  supports	
  
arguments	
   that	
   narrative	
   comprehension	
   is	
   fundamental	
   to	
   beginning	
   reading	
   (Paris	
   &	
   Paris,	
   2003),	
   and	
  
suggests	
  that	
  the	
  strategic	
  use	
  of	
  picturebooks	
  can	
  promote	
  positive	
  attitudes	
  not	
  only	
  toward	
  early	
  reading	
  
but	
  also	
  to	
  language	
  learning	
  in	
  general.	
  

6.	
  Conclusion	
  
This	
  article	
  contributes	
  to	
  previous	
  work	
  considering	
  reading	
  within	
  a	
  whole-­‐language	
  approach	
  to	
  

literacy	
   development	
   (Galda	
   et	
   al.,	
   2016;	
   Martinez	
   &	
   McGee,	
   2000),	
   paying	
   attention	
   to	
   the	
   motivational	
  
aspect	
  of	
  the	
  experience	
  within	
  the	
  context	
  of	
  foreign	
  language	
  learning	
  (Ellis,	
  2000).	
  In	
  so	
  doing,	
  the	
  present	
  
article	
   also	
   contributes	
   to	
   previous	
   work	
   aiming	
   to	
   bridge	
   the	
   gap	
   between	
   theory	
   and	
   practice	
   in	
  
motivational	
   studies	
   (Lasagabaster,	
   Doiz,	
   &	
   Sierra,	
   2016;	
   Ryan,	
   2016;	
   Waddington,	
   2018),	
   showing	
   how	
  
attention	
  to	
  the	
  different	
  aspects	
  of	
  a	
  process-­‐oriented	
  approach	
  can	
  help	
  create	
  and	
  sustain	
  a	
  motivational	
  
climate	
  in	
  the	
  language	
  classroom.	
  The	
  descriptions	
  of	
  classroom	
  experiences	
  provided	
  in	
  the	
  findings	
  section	
  



A	
  WHOLE-­‐SCHOOL	
  STORYTELLING	
  PROJECT	
  

E-­‐JournALL	
  7(1)	
  (2020),	
  pp.	
  124-­‐144 141	
  

may	
  interest	
  teachers	
  focused	
  on	
  broadening	
  their	
  understanding	
  of	
  motivation	
  and	
  in	
  implementing	
  similar	
  
projects	
   in	
   their	
   own	
   schools.	
   The	
   findings	
   of	
   the	
   study	
   will	
   also	
   be	
   of	
   interest	
   to	
   researchers	
   and	
  
practitioners	
   keen	
   on	
   using	
   peer	
   modelling	
   with	
   children	
   and	
   developing	
   storytelling	
   projects	
   with	
  
picturebooks	
   in	
   the	
   foreign	
   language	
   classroom.	
   With	
   regard	
   to	
   the	
   former,	
   the	
   findings	
   provide	
   further	
  
evidence	
   supporting	
   the	
  use	
  of	
  peer	
  modelling	
   to	
  boost	
   self-­‐efficacy	
  beliefs	
   (Artino,	
   2012;	
  Bandura,	
   1977),	
  
develop	
   positive	
   and	
   situated	
   foreign	
   language	
   learner	
   self-­‐concepts	
   (Waddington,	
   2019),	
   and	
   promote	
  
successful	
   language	
   learning	
   (Cave	
   et	
   al.,	
   2018;	
   Csizér	
   &	
   Magid,	
   2014).	
   However,	
   in	
   line	
   with	
   arguments	
  
advanced	
   by	
   previous	
   authors	
   (Spratt	
   &	
   Leug,	
   2000),	
   caution	
   should	
   be	
   exercised	
   when	
   attempting	
   to	
  
generalise	
  these	
  results.	
  Although	
  data	
  was	
  collected	
  from	
  three	
  different	
  heterogeneous	
  groups	
  over	
  a	
  three-­‐
year	
  period,	
  the	
  total	
  sample	
  remains	
  small,	
  and	
  further	
  research	
  is	
  therefore	
  needed	
  to	
  explore	
  the	
  extent	
  to	
  
which	
  the	
  positive	
  findings	
  obtained	
  can	
  be	
  replicated	
  in	
  other	
  contexts.	
  	
  	
  	
  

With	
   regard	
   to	
   the	
   storytelling	
   methodology,	
   the	
   findings	
   support	
   the	
   growing	
   body	
   of	
   research	
  
advocating	
   the	
   use	
   of	
   storytelling	
   to	
   promote	
   whole-­‐language	
   approaches	
   to	
   reading	
   and	
   language	
  
development	
  (Galda	
  et	
  al.,	
  2016;	
  Martinez	
  &	
  McGee,	
  2000)	
  and	
  the	
  use	
  of	
  picturebooks	
  to	
  generate	
  authentic	
  
communication	
  in	
  foreign	
  language	
  learning	
  (Ellis	
  &	
  Brewster,	
  2014;	
  Fleta,	
  2015,	
  2019;	
  Goshn,	
  2013;	
  Mourão,	
  
2012,	
   2016,	
   2017).	
   This	
   study	
   extends	
   this	
   line	
   of	
   research	
   further	
   by	
   highlighting	
   the	
   benefits	
   of	
   placing	
  
students	
  at	
  the	
  centre	
  of	
  the	
  interactive	
  storytelling	
  process.	
  From	
  this	
  perspective,	
  the	
  linguistic	
  challenges	
  
presented	
  by	
  authentic	
  picturebooks	
  provide	
  the	
  basis	
  for	
  meaningful	
  and	
  purposeful	
  language	
  work,	
  leading	
  
to	
   exchanges	
   that	
   generate	
   multiple	
   benefits	
   for	
   the	
   students	
   leading	
   the	
   storytelling	
   sessions	
   and	
   the	
  
children	
  interacting	
  with	
  them.	
  	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
Acknowledgments	
  
The	
  author	
  would	
  like	
  to	
  express	
  her	
  sincere	
  gratitude	
  to	
  the	
  children	
  and	
  teachers	
  who	
  participated	
  in	
  this	
  
project.	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
References	
  
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   Anthony	
   R.	
   Jr.	
   (2012).	
   Academic	
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   from	
   educational	
   theory	
   to	
   instructional	
   practice.	
  

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   Paul	
  N.,	
   Evans,	
  Norman	
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   James	
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WADDINGTON	
  

E-­‐JournALL	
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  pp.	
  124-­‐144 142	
  

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A	
  WHOLE-­‐SCHOOL	
  STORYTELLING	
  PROJECT	
  

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WADDINGTON	
  

E-­‐JournALL	
  7(1)	
  (2020),	
  pp.	
  124-­‐144 144	
  

Julie Waddington, University of Girona 
julie.waddington@udg.edu 

  
EN Julie Waddington teaches at the University of Girona, Catalonia, in the Faculty of Education and Psychology. Drawing 

on her previous experience as a full-time English language teacher, she develops her teaching and research in the 
area of foreign language didactics. Working closely with pre-service and in-service teachers, her current research 
interests focus on learner identity and the development of learner-centred teaching practice. She is a member of the 
consolidated research group Cultura i Educació (UdG). She previously taught at the Manchester Metropolitan 
University, England, where she completed her PhD in Literary Studies and Critical Theory. 
 

ES Julie Waddington enseña en la Universidad de Girona, Cataluña, en la Facultad de Educación y Psicología. 
Basándose en su experiencia previa como profesora de inglés a tiempo completo, desarrolla su enseñanza e 
investigación en el área de la didáctica de la lengua extranjera. Trabaja con los docentes en formación y en formación 
continua, y sus intereses de investigación actuales se centran en la identidad del alumno y en el desarrollo de la 
práctica docente centrada en el estudiante. Es miembro del grupo de investigación Cultura i Educació (UdG). 
Anteriormente, enseñó en la Universidad Metropolitana de Manchester, Inglaterra, donde consiguió el doctorado en 
Estudios Literarios y Teoría Crítica. 
 

IT Julie Waddington insegna all'Universidad de Girona, in Catalogna, nella Facoltà di Scienze dell'Educazione e 
Psicologia. Grazie alla sua passata esperienza come docente di lingua inglese a tempo pieno, si è dedicata 
all'insegnamento e alla ricerca nel campo della didattica delle lingue straniere. Collaborando con insegnanti tirocinanti e 
in servizio, le sue attuali aree di ricerca si concentrano sull'identità del discente e sullo sviluppo della pratica 
d'insegnamento centrata sullo studente. È membro del gruppo di ricerca Cultura i Educació (UdG). Inoltre, ha 
insegnato presso la Manchester Metropolitan University, Inghilterra, dove ha conseguito il dottorato in Studi Letterari e 
Teoria Critica.