EuroAmerican Journal of Applied Linguistics and Languages Volume 10, Issue 2, December 2023, pp. 62-77 ISSN 2376-905X http://doi.org/10.21283/2376905X.1.10.2.2768 www.e-journall.org © Pennisi 2023. This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. EALP textbooks and the challenges of legal English education GIULIA ADRIANA PENNISI Università degli Studi di Palermo Received 19 May 2023; accepted after revisions 14 October 2023 ABSTRACT EN Over the last thirty years English for Academic Purposes (EAP) has expanded, cutting across the domains of specialised discourse, and has shifted its focus to meet the needs of large numbers of non-native speaking students at the university level. In this regard, English for Academic Legal Purposes (EALP) can be defined as the teaching and learning of legal English as an ESP subject that includes the academic dimensions of EAP. This paper investigates how EALP textbooks has responded to the challenges of law school education. Reflecting on the pedagogic contributions of Carrick and Dunn (1985), Candlin, Bhatia, and Jensen (2002), and Prinsloo (2015), this paper begins diachronically with a sample of EALP-type textbooks from the point where Prinsloo completed his analysis. Drawing on these reviews, this paper attempts to provide some insights into the development of EALP-type textbooks and their response to the challenges of legal English education. Key words: TEXTBOOKS, EALP, SPECIALISED LANGUAGE, LEGAL LANGUAGE, EDUCATION ES Durante los últimos treinta años, el inglés para fines académicos (IFA) se ha expandido, abarcando todos los dominios del discurso especializado y ha cambiado su enfoque para satisfacer las necesidades de un gran número de estudiantes de habla no nativa a nivel universitario. En este sentido, el inglés para fines académicos jurídicos (IFAJ) puede definirse como la enseñanza y el aprendizaje del inglés jurídico como un área del inglés para fines específicos (IFE) que incluye las dimensiones académicas del IFA. Este artículo investiga cómo los libros de texto de IFA han respondido a los desafíos de la educación en la facultad de derecho. Reflexionando sobre las contribuciones pedagógicas de Carrick y Dunn (1985), Candlin, Bhatia y Jensen (2002), y Prinsloo (2015), este artículo comienza diacrónicamente con una muestra de libros de texto de tipo IFAJ a partir del momento en que Prinsloo completó su análisis. Partiendo de estas revisiones, este artículo intenta proporcionar algunas ideas sobre el desarrollo de libros de texto de tipo IFAJ y sobre su respuesta a los desafíos de la educación jurídica en inglés. Palabras claves: LIBROS DE TEXTO, IFAJ, LENGUAJE ESPECIALIZADO, LENGUAJE JURÍDICO, EDUCACIÓN IT Negli ultimi trent'anni l'inglese per scopi accademici (EAP - English for Academic Purposes) si è ampliato, oltrepassando i domini del discorso specialistico, e ha spostato la sua attenzione per soddisfare le esigenze di un gran numero di studenti non madrelingua a livello universitario. A tal riguardo, l'inglese per scopi legali accademici (EALP - English for Academic Legal Purposes) può essere definito come l'insegnamento e l'apprendimento dell'inglese giuridico, una disciplina afferente all'inglese per scopi speciali (ESP - English for Specific Purposes) che include le dimensioni accademiche dell'EAP. Il presente lavoro analizza come i libri di testo di inglese per scopi accademici abbiano risposto alle sfide dell'istruzione nelle scuole di giurisprudenza. Riflettendo sui contributi pedagogici di Carrick e Dunn (1985), Candlin, Bhatia e Jensen (2002) e Prinsloo (2015), questo articolo inizia diacronicamente con un campione di libri di testo di tipo EALP a partire dal momento in cui Prinsloo ha completato la sua analisi. Partendo da queste rassegne, il presente lavoro cerca di fornire alcuni spunti di riflessione sullo sviluppo dei libri di testo di tipo EALP e sulla loro risposta alle sfide dell'educazione all'inglese giuridico. Parole chiave: LIBRI DI TESTO, INGLESE PER SCOPI LEGALI ACCADEMICI, LINGUAGGIO SPECIALISTICO, LINGUAGGIO GIURIDICO, ISTRUZIONE  Giulia Adriana Pennisi, Università di Palermo giuliaadriana.pennisi@unipa.it about:blank EALP TEXTBOOKS AND THE CHALLENGES OF LEGAL ENGLISH EDUCATION E-JournALL, 10(2) (2023), pp. 62-77 63 1. EAP and EALP Over the last thirty years, English for Academic Purposes (EAP) has expanded, cutting across the various domains of specialised discourse, and has gradually shifted its focus to meet the needs of large numbers of non-native speaking students at the university level (Hyland 2006, 2009; Johns 2013; Swales 2004;; Williams 2014). According to a survey conducted by Alqahtani (2011) on British EAP courses, the term EALP (i.e., English for Academic Legal Purposes) was first used by the British Council in 1975, and then it extended to the United States (Hyland & Hamp-Lyons 2002). By that time, important developments had occurred in the field of linguistics and applied linguistics, with pioneering scholars such as Bhatia (1993) and Halliday (1993), who began to consider language and language teaching as resources for communication that might vary considerably in lexis and syntax according to the context where they occur. In the meantime, English was increasingly developing as a world language, particularly in those areas where speaking and writing in English is the key to access the international academic community and participate in the global economy, such as Europe, Japan, China, Latin America, and Francophone Africa, to name just a few. A noteworthy aspect is the fact that English is currently the most popular language studied as a second or foreign language, even though it is not the language with the greatest number of native speakers. According to Ethnologue1, Mandarin Chinese is the largest language in the world when counting only first language native speakers (NSs), followed by Spanish, while English comes in third place before Hindi (Table 1). Table 1 Languages with the most NSs Native Speakers (NSs) - 2022 Mandarin Chinese >1,000,000,000 Spanish 600,000,000 English > 400,000,000 Hindi > 400,000,000 On the other hand, when considering second language speakers, English is the most spoken language in the world, followed by Mandarin Chinese, Hindi and Spanish. Table 2 Languages with the most NSs and NNSs NSs and Non-Native Speakers (NNSs) - 2022 English > 1,200,000,000 Mandarin Chinese < 1,200,000,000 Hindi < 800,000,000 Spanish > 400,000,000 To provide some reasons why EAP is in great demand, we might recall Flowerdew and Peacock’s (2001) explanation about the “need for English”: These NNSs, of course, are not only attracted to learn the language of the English-speaking countries because they want to sell their products there. They also want to gain access to their technology and expertise. This is another reason for the large numbers of overseas students studying in the English-speaking countries and the even greater numbers studying through the medium of English in their home countries, where it is a second language. The international language of research and academic publication is English and anyone who wishes to have ready access to this material needs to know the language. (p.10) The current statistics on the large numbers of NNSs learning and studying through the medium of English, and the development of EAP as a discipline worldwide, further confirm the soundness of Flowerdew and Peacock’s (2001) observation at the present time. 1 https://www.ethnologue.com/insights/most-spoken-language/ (last accessed on July 25, 2023). PENNISI E-JournALL, 10(2) (2023), pp. 62-77 64 As regards the development of EAP as a discipline, it might be interesting to look at the comments and observations provided by some of the best-known authors in the field of linguistics and applied linguistics over the past decades. According to Coffey (1984), EAP is characterised by two dimensions: the first, English for Specific Academic Purposes, studies language structure, vocabulary, etc. and is related to a specific academic subject; whereas English for General Academic Purposes concerns general study skills (i.e., listening, speaking, etc.) and is related to academic courses. Likewise, Dudley-Evans and St John define (EAP) “any teaching that relates to a study purpose” (1998, p. 34). Flowerdew and Peacock notice that “EAP is normally considered to be one of the two main branches of English for specific purposes (ESP), the other being English for occupational purposes (EOP)” (2001, p. 11). With reference to the increasing growth of interest in EAP, Hyland observes that “English for academic purposes (EAP) has evolved rapidly over the past twenty years or so. From humble beginnings as a relatively fringe branch of English for Specific Purposes (ESP) in the early 1980s, it is today a major force in English language teaching and research around the world” (2006, p. 1). Then, “the fact that EAP cuts across the various domains of specialised discourse”, Williams writes, “has led to a shift of focus as regards the needs of large numbers of non-native speaking university students” (2014, p. 3). Anthony concludes that “perhaps the most influential branch of ESP is English for Academic Purposes (EAP), which focuses on ESP in academic settings” (2018, p. 13). EAP certainly covers different domains and practices including study-skills teaching as well as general English, and provides students with language knowledge and instruction that relate to the specific communicative needs and practices of specific groups in academic contexts. In this regard, Flowerdew and Peacock not only define EAP “the teaching of English with the specific aim of helping learners to study, conduct research or teach in that language”, but they also consider it as “an international activity of tremendous scope” (2001, p. 8). English for Specific Purposes (ESP) and EAP have been traditionally differentiated, basing the difference on the functions of language. Deriving from the larger field of ESP, EAP has emerged as the teaching of English focused mainly on academic contexts at all proficiency levels (Hyland & Hamp-Lyons 2002), and characterised by a range of interdisciplinary influences for its research methods, theories and practices (Flowerdew 2016). In this regard, English for Academic Legal Purposes (EALP) can be defined as the teaching and learning of legal English, that is, an ESP subject that includes the academic dimensions of EAP (Prinsloo 2015). In an attempt to make a taxonomy of all the disciplines included in the circle of world English, Prinsloo (2015) suggests that English Language Teaching (ELT) might serve as a hypernym referring to a field of research across those disciplines. More specifically, ELT includes ESP, EAP, and English for Professional Purposes (EPP) or English for Occupational Purposes (EOP) (Figure 1). Figure 1. The taxonomy of ELT (adapted from Prinsloo 2015, p. 18) EAP is considered to be one of two branches of ESP, the other being EPP/EOP. Each of these branches can be further subdivided according to the academic fields or occupations with which it is concerned. Therefore, EAP may be separated into English for Academic Legal Purposes (EALP), which could in turn be subdivided into English for Law students (i.e., the academic field), and English for paralegals (i.e., the occupation). To give an example, an English course designed to help students read economics textbooks could clearly be EAP, while a course designed to teach learners how to participate in business meetings or take phone calls with clients is unquestionably characterized by an EOP dimension (Flowerdew & Peacock 2001, p. 12). ELT EAP English for Law students EALP EPP / EOP EALP English for paralegals ESP EALP TEXTBOOKS AND THE CHALLENGES OF LEGAL ENGLISH EDUCATION E-JournALL, 10(2) (2023), pp. 62-77 65 Incidentally, the distinction between the two major branches of ESP is not straightforward because some academic courses could be described as EOP as much as EAP. Moreover, Prinsloo (2015, p. 17) observes that such a distinction between the academic and professional use of English seems to be restrictive because the cognitive, social, and linguistic demands of academia and practice are also evident in one of the objectives of clinical legal education, which involves the role of lawyers in the society (Johnson 2020). For this reason, EALP can be defined as the teaching and learning of legal English as an ESP subject that includes the academic dimensions of EPP (Prinsloo 2015). By recalling Johns (1997), Flowerdew and Peacock claim that such a conclusion strengthens the idea that EAP specialists should encourage “students and subjects specialists to collaboratively examine the interactions of ‘texts, roles and contexts’” (2001, p. 19). In the case of EALP courses, given its specific syntactic features, foreign words, complex sentences, nominalizations, passive constructions and impersonal writing style (Bhatia 1993; Gibbons 2014; Tiersma 2006; Venturi 2010), legal English has been traditionally considered not unlike a foreign language to both NSs/L1 and NNSs/L2 language learners across the domain of English academia (Hyland 2009; Johns 2013; Swales 2004; Williams 2014). Legal scholars and applied linguists have attempted to solve language problems in the field of language pedagogy (Halliday 1993; Trask 2007) and in EALP courses in particular by demonstrating a move away from language in isolation and towards a consideration of discourse in context (Flowerdew & Peacock 2001, p. 19). In light of this theoretical background, the present paper investigates how English for EALP in textbooks published over the past three decades has evolved and responded to the challenges of law school education. Reflecting on the pedagogic contributions of Carrick and Dunn (1985), Candlin, Bhatia and Jensen (2002), and Prinsloo (2015), this paper begins with a diachronic approach by means of a sample of EALP-type textbooks (2013-2022) starting from the point where Prinsloo completed his analysis. In contrast with dated EALP textbooks, the analysis conducted by Prinsloo (2015) between 2002 and 2013 revealed an integrated pedagogic approach to the teaching of English skills. As Prinsloo (2015) demonstrates, the developments in EALP-type textbook contents and general structure challenge the assumption that EAP is substantially different from EPP based on the distinction of purpose, focus and skill acquisition. Drawing on these reviews, this paper attempts to demonstrate whether this trend has recently changed somehow, or has been confirmed and eventually progressed. 2. Textbooks in legal English courses Generally speaking, textbooks serve an important role in teaching and learning activities. According to Graves (2000, p. 175) a textbook is a book used as a model source of information for the formal study of a subject (especially in schools and colleges) and a useful instrument for teaching and learning. The UNESCO International Bureau of Education (IBE)2 provides this definition of textbook(s): A written source of information, designed specifically for the use of students, on a particular subject or field of study that is usually developed based on a syllabus and geared towards meeting specific quality and learning requirements. School textbooks pertain to an instructional sequence based on an organized curriculum. Ideally they serve as a complement to a good teacher and an inquiring learner. (Adapted from: UNESCO 2003a and UNESCO IBE 2006). Academic TBs help readers who are entering a specific disciplinary field to access the established knowledge which characterises and shapes that disciplinary field (Bhatia 1989). Generally seen as a written text, the main function of TBs is to introduce novices to a specific discipline (Shahab, Rashidi, Sadighi & Mortaza, 2020). In the case of legal English courses, TBs tend to reflect the complex linguistic needs of law school and legal practice (Dolin 2007; Edelman 2010; Hess 2002; Kennedy 2004). In this regard, Gibbons considers “the extreme complexity and unusual nature” of legal language that “poses a substantial problem, particularly for the many countries where the language of the law is not the mother tongue of those involved in the legal system” (1999, p. 291). As he clearly points out, lawyers in training need help to master not only technicalities and the legal concepts that they represent, but also the convoluted grammatical structures in which much legislation is framed. This places considerable demands upon the teachers and curriculum designers responsible for teaching English to these law students. They themselves may have trouble in understanding the cognitive complexity of legal documents, 2 https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000223059 last accessed on July 25, 2023). https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000223059 PENNISI E-JournALL, 10(2) (2023), pp. 62-77 66 and the linguistic realisation of that complexity. Once understood, training students to master it is a pedagogical challenge p. 291).Overall, “law school is generally recognized as an intellectually strenuous and linguistically demanding curriculum” (Prinsloo 2015, p. 5). More specifically, this perception is based on three principal assumptions: - the main lexico-grammatical features of legal language, which are usually characterised as follows: (i) inclusion of archaic words and foreign expressions especially from Latin and French; (ii) frequent repetition of fixed syntactic structures; (iii) long and convoluted sentences with intricate patterns of coordination and subordination. This makes legal English a foreign language to both NSs and NNSs law students (Bhatia 1989, 1993; Danet 1980; Gibbons 2014; Tiersma 2006; Venturi 2010); - law students enter academia with limited legal language knowledge and skills (Dolin 2007; Edelman 2010; Gerkman & Cornett 2017; Sullivan et al., 2007); - the use of unsuitable instructional methods with only casual attention to teaching students how to use legal thinking in the actual law practice. Unlike other professional education, legal syllabus design pays little attention to direct training in professional practice (Bhatia 2008; Linden & Johnson 2020; Sullivan, Colby, Wegner, Bond & Shulman 2007) - an isolated syllabus design. Although some students might be able to manage the textual features of some professional genres, (Bhatia, 2008; Candlin, Bhatia & Jensen, 2002; Carrick & Dunn, 1985; Linden & Johnson, 2020; Stuckey, 2007) they would still be detached from the professional world (Bhatia, 2008, p. 161). In 2007, the Carniege Foundation Report on the state of American law schools called for significant changes in legal education in North America. It recommended an integrated approach to legal education3. In order to bring together the two sides of legal knowledge, i.e., the “formal knowledge and experience of practice” and “advances in legal education,” the Report provided some recommendations to law schools, such as: (i) joining lawyering, professionalism and legal analysis from the start; (ii) designing the syllabus and course programs so that students and faculty weave together various kinds of knowledge and skills; (iii) integrating legal analysis, training for practice and development of professional identity (Sullivan et al., 2007, pp. 8-10).4 The Carnegie Foundation Report also noticed a significant limitation in legal education, in that legal courses and programs generally pay little attention to direct training in legal practice. Following the publication of the Carnegie Foundation Report, a curriculum reform was implemented in many American law schools, with some of them providing experiential learning courses. In its attempt to merge formal knowledge and practical experience, the legal discourse academia has been paired with research in linguistics, which had already started to be more interested in language literacy, teaching, and pedagogy, particularly in the field of EALP (Balcom & Kozar, 1994; Halliday, 1993; Trask, 2007). 3. Methodological framework Since the 1960s and 1970s, legal scholars, applied linguists, and educators have attempted to solve language problems, especially in the field of language pedagogy (Halliday 1993; Trask 2007) and, in particular, EALP. Over the past three decades in particular, two significant studies reviewed appropriate samples of legal writing TBs. More specifically, Carrick and Dunn (1985) reviewed a sample of 11 legal writing TBs published between 1980 and 1985. The second review, conducted by Candlin, Bhatia and Jensen (2002), included 37 legal writing TBs published between 1985 through 2002. Prisloo (2015) reflected on the pedagogic contributions 3 The Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching was established in 1905 and chartered in 1906 by an act of Congress as an independent policy and research center called to “do and perform all things necessary to encourage, uphold, and dignify the profession of the teacher and the cause of higher education. Today the mission of the Foundation is to catalyze transformational change in education so that every student has the opportunity to live a healthy, dignified, and fulfilling life.” Over last few years, the Carnegie Foundation has examined education in medicine, clergy, nursing, engineering, and law https://www.carnegiefoundation.org/about-us/foundation-history/ (last accessed on July 25, 2023). 4 http://archive.carnegiefoundation.org/publications/pdfs/elibrary/elibrary_pdf_632.pdf (last accessed on July 25, 2023). https://www.carnegiefoundation.org/about-us/foundation-history/ http://archive.carnegiefoundation.org/publications/pdfs/elibrary/elibrary_pdf_632.pdf EALP TEXTBOOKS AND THE CHALLENGES OF LEGAL ENGLISH EDUCATION E-JournALL, 10(2) (2023), pp. 62-77 67 provided by Carrick and Dunn (1985) and those by Candlin, Bhatia and Jensen (2002), and departed diachronically with a sample of EALP-type TBs where Candlin, Bhatia and Jensen (2002) had concluded. The methodology I present here is mostly inspired by Prinsloo’s (2015) analysis of EALP TBs. Above all, I rely on Prinsloo’s (2015, pp. 8-9) data collection procedure and qualitative content analysis for the selection of a data collection type and the identification of a typology of TBs (Creswell, 2014; Douglas, 2022; Lichtman, 2013; Shenton, 2004; Teddlie & Yu 2007). In order to make it useful for the analysis developed here, I have slightly modified and expanded his model. The data collection procedure is based on the purposive sampling technique (i.e. search criteria), where units are selected because they have characteristics that match the samples, i.e., the EALP-type TBs, that constitute the qualitative data (Figure 2). Figure 12. Methodological framework (adapted from Prinsloo 2015) In the data collection process, the first step was to identify the sample of EALP-type TBs. In order to do so, TBs were identified as public documents available at the university libraries in the public domain. Then, the literature search strategy was based on: - the time frame; - types of EALP TBs; - target readers / users; - countries selected; - significant part of the EALP TBs; - and search terms / phrases. The time frame for the data collection was set between 2013 and 2022, and the types of EALP TBs that were selected did not include TBs that focus primarily on general language or any other topic that might not be considered specific to legal courses. This, however, did not imply that TBs have chapters / sections dealing with general language, for instance, were excluded a priori from the data collection. The university law students were identified as the target readers / interested users of the EALP TBs from the UK and US, the selection of which was based on the accessibility of the university libraries. After identifying the objectives of the research, librarians at the Department of Political Science and International Relations5 and I conducted searches using the following key words / phrases: legal English, practical legal English, legal knowledge/skills. In order to broaden the perspective, the searches were conducted by using related and slightly different key search phrases, such as: English for academic legal purposes, lawyering skills, legal English, thinking like a lawyer, clinical legal education. The results of this initial search of key terms were indicative of the larger categories of the qualitative content analysis. As the EALP TBs collected were explored by means of the different search 5 DEMS, University of Palermo (Italy). METHOD qualitative content analysis coding procedure: 1. terms ; 2. TB groups; 3. content clusters coding results discussion and interpretation data collection procedure search criteria literature search PENNISI E-JournALL, 10(2) (2023), pp. 62-77 68 terms, the investigation of the TBs’ Titles, Prefaces, and Tables of Contents were crucial to determine inclusion in the final corpus. The second step of research consisted in the qualitative content analysis aimed at the identification of typologies of TBs through the examination of their communicative content, as shown in Figure 2 (i.e., coding procedure, coding results, discussion of results). The EALP TBs typologies identified were the following: skill- based TBs, law school TBs, academic legal language TBs, legal skills TBs, clinical legal skills TBs (see Appendix). More specifically, in this phase the collected data where qualified based on the recognition of connections among EALP in order to: (i) validate the inclusion of texts identified by the key words/phrases search (Prisloo 2015); (ii) identify interrelationships among EALP TBs typologies (Benaquisto, 2008; Dörnyei, 2007; Prinsloo. 2015); (iii) facilitate descriptions and increase the credibility of the qualitative content analysis (Creswell, 2014). 4. Results and Discussion In recent years, a market for EALP-type textbooks has emerged, together with the increasing development of EALP-type courses. Since the 1980s, three significant studies have reviewed appropriate samples of legal textbooks (see Table 3 below). More specifically, − The 1st study was conducted by Carrick and Dunn (1985), who reviewed a corpus of 11 legal TBs published between 1980 and 1985. They categorised the TBs based on legal content and writing skills and identified five categories of TBs. With the exception of the category that focuses on legal research skills, the other categories were mainly based on writing skills (Carrick and Dunn 1985, pp. 674-675; Prinsloo, 2015); − The 2nd study was conducted by Candlin, Bhatia and Jensen (2002), who reviewed 37 legal TBs published between 1985 and 2002. By placing particular emphasis on instructional approaches, they identified four categories of TBs and the associated pedagogic approaches which Prinsloo (2015: 7) has categorised as follows: ▪ lexico-grammar based TBs adopting a scientific-modernist approach (i.e., grammar translation and direct methods, the authoritative role of teachers and the students’ passive role as recipients of knowledge); ▪ rhetoric-based TBs promoting active student collaboration through teacher facilitation; ▪ content-based legal English TBs that are considered more comprehensive than TBs which focus mainly on legal terminology; ▪ EALP TBs that expose students to legal discourses and genres in social contexts. − The 3rd study was conducted by Prisloo (2015), who reviewed a corpus of 44 EALP-type TBs published between 2002 and 2013. He distinguished TBs by means of a skill-based approach: ▪ TBs that focus on law school skills which mainly aim to prepare students for law school admission tests and academic essay writing (predominantly for the American-based law school system); ▪ academic legal English TBs including different academic legal linguistic skills aimed at the 1st year of law school education. In particular, these TBs present a larger skills set than that surveyed by Carrick and Dunn (1985) and Candlin, Bhatia, and Jensen (2002); ▪ legal skills TBs that cover a diverse set of skills throughout law school and embrace the four categories of skills; ▪ clinical legal skills TBs that focus on lawyering skills and the legal process needed in legal practice. EALP TEXTBOOKS AND THE CHALLENGES OF LEGAL ENGLISH EDUCATION E-JournALL, 10(2) (2023), pp. 62-77 69 Table 3 EALP TBs studies (1985 – 2015) 1985 Carrick and Dunn 2022 Candlin, Bhatia and Jensen 2015 Prinsloo course-based typology (based on writing skills and legal content) 11 TBs (1980-1985) pedagogy-based typology (based on pedagogic approaches) 37 TBs (1985-2002) skill-based typology 44 TBs (2002-2013) Law school TBs grammar-based books general legal writing law school examination books lexico-grammar based books (scientific approaches) academic legal language TBs (i.e., aimed at the 1st year of law school education; do not cover pre-law school skills) rhetoric-based books (rhetorical approaches) EALP TBs (content-based approaches) legal research / legal bibliography books books that include content (EAP approaches) legal skills TBs (cover the diverse set of legal skills) legal brief writing and argumentation clinical legal skills (include the skills of practice, i.e. drafting, advocacy, mediation, etc.) − The research presented here (i.e., the 4th study) has been conducted on a corpus of 48 EALP- type TBs starting from the point where Prisloo (2015) concluded, and published between 2013 and 2022. In particular, this research distinguishes (see Table 4 and Table 5) TBs based on a layered-based learning curriculum: ▪ TBs that focus on law school skills that are mainly aimed to prepare students for the law school admission test and academic essay writing (for both the American and the UK law school system) and account for 12.50% (5 TBs) of the corpus; ▪ academic legal English TBs that cover different academic legal linguistic skills aimed at the 1st year of law school education. They present a larger skills set than that surveyed by Prisloo (2015) and focus primarily on communication skills for academic and practical purposes. They account for 42,50% (17 TBs) of the corpus; ▪ legal skills TBs that cover the most comprehensive set of skills throughout law school. They may present specific legal content, with a focus on both academic legal language and skills used during law school. They mostly neglect the set of linguistics needed after law school. They account for 22,50% (9 TBs) of the corpus; ▪ clinical legal skills TBs that focus on lawyering skills which are needed in legal practice. These skills overlap with academic legal language skills. However, they focus on more productive skills typical of substantive and procedural law. These TBs are mainly for an American-based law school system. They account for 22,50% (9 TBs) of the corpus. PENNISI E-JournALL, 10(2) (2023), pp. 62-77 70 Table 4 EALP TBs studies (1985 – 2022) 1985 Carrick and Dunn 2022 Candlin Bhatia and Jensen 2015 Prinsloo 2022 present research course-based typology 11 TBs (1980-1985) pedagogy-based typology 37 TBs (1985-2002) skill-based typology 44 TBs (2002-2013) layered / practical skills and competencies typology 40 TBs (2013-2022) law school TBs law school TBs / legal guided TBs (law school education and linguistic skills needed prior to and at the beginning of law school) grammar-based books general legal writing law school examination books lexico-grammar based books (scientific approaches) academic legal language TBs (i.e., aimed at the 1st year of law school education) academic TBs (a broad spectrum of academic legal linguistic skills, i.e., focus mainly on communication skills; specific content may pose pedagogic problems in foreign jurisdictions) rhetoric-based books (rhetorical approaches) EALP TBs (content-based approaches) legal research / legal bibliography books books that include content (EAP approaches) legal skills TBs (cover the diverse set of legal skills) legalistic skills TBs (mostly comprehensive, they attempt to cover the professional, academic and career skills) legal brief writing and argumentation clinical legal skills (include the skills of practice, i.e. drafting, advocacy, mediation, etc.) productive skills set within procedural and substantive law TBs (emphasis on ethical legal epistemology and legal practice) Table 5. EALP TEXTBOOKS AND THE CHALLENGES OF LEGAL ENGLISH EDUCATION E-JournALL, 10(2) (2023), pp. 62-77 71 EALP TBs studies (2015 and 2022) 2015 Prinsloo 2022 present research scaffolded / skill-based typology 44 TBs (2002-2013) layered / practical skills and competencies typology 40 TBs (2013-2022) law school TBs (15,90% - 7 TBs) law school TBs / legal guided TBs (law school education and linguistic skills needed prior to and at the beginning of law school) (12,50% - 5 TBs) academic legal language TBs (i.e., aimed at the 1st year of law school education) 52,27% - 23 TBs) academic TBs (a broad spectrum of academic legal linguistic skills, i.e., focus mainly on communication skills; specific content may pose pedagogic problems in foreign jurisdictions) (42,50% - 17 TBs) legal skills TBs (cover the diverse set of legal skills) (15,90% – 7 TBs) legalistic skills TBs (mostly comprehensive, they attempt to cover the professional, academic and career skills (22,50% - 9 TBs) clinical legal skills (include the skills of practice, i.e. drafting, advocacy, mediation, etc.) (15,90% – 7 TBs) productive skills set within procedural and substantive law TBs (emphasis on ethical legal epistemology and legal practice) (22,50% - 9 TBs) The literature review revealed that between 1980 and 2002, legal English TBs focused primarily on writing instruction, with an almost exclusive emphasis on grammar, legal content, and general writing skills (Prinsloo, 2015). A qualitative content analysis of a sample of 44 EALP-type TBs, published between 2002 and 2013, revealed an ever-increasing shift toward multi-skills instruction across the law school and academic curricula (Prinsloo, 2015). Increasingly, from 2013 to 2022 contemporary TBs aim to encourage a comprehensive set of skills that is more geared to the needs of legal professions. In this regard, Cracking the case method, legal analysis for law school success. Academic and career success series (Bergman, 2022) represents a clear example of law school TBs / legal guided TBs, whereas Legal English (Haigh, 2018) and Legal Terminology (Kent & Brown, 2018) serve as two fitting examples of legal academic TBs. In the case of legal skills TBs, a prime example can be seen in Lawyers' skills. Legal practice course manuals (Webb et al., 2019), and the category of clinical legal skills TBs is well represented by Legal English comprehensive competence: reading, writing and professional skills (Gao, 2021). Confirming what Prisloo (2015) discovered in his analysis conducted between 2002 and 2013, the research conducted on publications between 2013 and 2022 demonstrates that more recent TBs, such as those belonging to the legalistic skills category, tend to provide a comprehensive spectrum of expertise and pedagogic skills. These contemporary examples show a merging trend of purposes of EAP and EPP in response to clinical legal education and the needs of legal professions. In the end, contemporary EALP textbooks are designed according to a layered typology that addresses the law school skills that are needed during law school education, and the practical skills and competencies that are required during professional training and legal practice. 5. Final remarks Generally speaking, legal education has been facing difficult challenges, with law schools striving to position themselves within a rapidly changing world. Given the fact that the legal profession, not unlike many other jobs and occupations, is in a state of flux, the challenge is providing law students with proper and up-to- date academic courses and programs. Such an academic innovation requires tailored EALP TBs which might help both students and teachers to keep up with the recent challenges of a dynamic and evolving education. Particularly in the field of EALP courses, there seems to be increasing interest on the part of law schools and academia in the communicative events that students will need to engage in, and the spoken and written genres in which they need to become functionally competent. This poses a pedagogical challenge in terms of course structures, types of curricula, and content of the materials and textbooks provided for law students. This reflects Belcher’s (2009) observation about “needs-responsive materials and methods” in academia. As she noticeably writes, https://www.amazon.it/Paul-Bergman/e/B000APXP5M/ref=dp_byline_cont_ebooks_1 https://www.amazon.com/s/ref=dp_byline_sr_book_1?ie=UTF8&field-author=Julian+Webb&text=Julian+Webb&sort=relevancerank&search-alias=books https://www.amazon.it/s/ref=dp_byline_sr_book_1?ie=UTF8&field-author=Lianhong+Gao&search-alias=stripbooks PENNISI E-JournALL, 10(2) (2023), pp. 62-77 72 Another scaffolded approach, aiming not just at genre awareness but also acquisition of a sequence of progressively more challenging genres [...] involves a careful cline of instructor support: first immersing students in genre samples, thus providing a text and context-rich environment, followed by teacher modelling of text construction, collaborative text construction, independent generation of texts, and finally critical reflection on what has been learned about the genre itself (as well as related domain knowledge) - both how it enables and how it constrains (p. 9-10). This paper has explored how EALP textbooks , published over the past three decades, have evolved and responded to the challenges of law school education. Reflecting on the pedagogic contributions of Carrick and Dunn (1985), Candlin, Bhatia and Jensen (2002), and Prinsloo (2015), the analysis began diachronically, with a sample of EALP-type textbooks from the point where Prinsloo (2015) concluded his research. Drawing on these reviews, this paper has attempted to provide some insights into the recent development of EALP-type TBs and their response to the challenges of legal English education, such as the typology that constitutes the structure of contemporary EALP textbooks. Future research might consider the impact of a scaffolded approach in law university courses and curricula design, such as that produced by procedural and substantive law EALP textbooks on law students’ proficiency. References Alqahtani, Amjed (2011). 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Education for Information 22, 63–75. https://www.google.it/search?hl=it&tbo=p&tbm=bks&q=inauthor:%22Tony+Dudley-Evans%22 https://www.google.it/search?hl=it&tbo=p&tbm=bks&q=inauthor:%22Maggie+Jo+St+John%22 PENNISI E-JournALL, 10(2) (2023), pp. 62-77 74 Sullivan, William M., Colby, Anne, Wegner, Judith W., Bond, Lloyd & Shulman, Lee L. (2007). Educating lawyers. Preparation of the profession of law. John Wiley & Sons. Stuckey, Roy T. (2007). Best practices for legal education. Carolina (US): Clinical Legal Education Association. Swales, John (2004). Research genres: explorations and applications. Cambridge University Press. Teddlie, Charles & Yu, Fen (2007). Mixed method sampling: a typology with examples. Journal of Mixed Methods Research 1(7), 77-100. https://doi.org/10.1177/1558689806292430 Tiersma, Peter (2006). Some myths about legal language. Law, Culture and the Humanities 2, 29-50. Trask, Robert L. (2007). Language and linguistics: the key concepts. Routledge. Venturi, Giulia (2010). Legal language and legal knowledge management applications. In Enrico Francesconi, Simonetta Montemagni, Wim Peters & Daniela Tiscornia (Eds.) Semantic processing of legal texts: where the language of law meets the law of language (pp. 3-26). Springer-Verlag. Williams, Christopher (2014). The future of ESP studies: building on success, exploring new paths, avoiding pitfalls. ASp 66. Retrieved from http://journals.openedition.org/asp/4616. http://journals.openedition.org/asp/4616 EALP TEXTBOOKS AND THE CHALLENGES OF LEGAL ENGLISH EDUCATION E-JournALL, 10(2) (2023), pp. 62-77 75 Appendix 1st category TBs that focus on law school skills account for 12.50% of the corpus (5 TBs) Bergman, Paul 2022 (2017). Cracking the case method, legal analysis for law school success (Academic and career success series). West Academic Publishing. Finch, Emily & Fafinski, Stephan (2013). An introduction to legal reasoning. The University of Chicago Press. Krieger, Stephan H., Neumann, Richard K. & McDonald Hutchin, Renée (2020). Essential lawyering skills: interviewing, counselling, negotiation, and persuasive fact analysis. Aspen Publishing. Lambarth, Michael A. (2014). A really basic introduction to English law and the English legal system. CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform. Moore, Imogen & Newbery-Jones, Craig (2022). The successful law student: an insider's guide to studying law. Oxford University Press. 2nd category Academic legal English TBs accounts for 42,50% of the corpus (17 TBs) Barkan, Steven, Bintliff, Barbara, Whisner, Mary & , Susan T. (2015). Assignments to fundamentals of legal research, 10th and legal research illustrated. West Academic. Barbett, Daniel L. (2016). Legal reasoning and objective writing: a comprehensive approach. Aspen Publishing. Davies, Michael (2019). The legal English grammar guide: the best guide to the grammar of English for lawyers. KDP Print US. Fielding, Henry (2018). Legal writings. Forgotten Books. Finch Emily & Fafinski, Stefan (2014). Employability skills for law students. Oxford University Press. Haigh, Rupert (2018). Legal English. Routledge. Hanson, S., , T. & , B. (2021). Learning legal skills and reasoning. Routledge. Kent, Kauffman & Brown, Gordon (2018). Legal terminology. Pearson. Kuney, George (2020). Legal drafting in a nutshell. West Academic. Margolis, Ellie, , Kathryn & Neumann, Richard (2017). Legal reasoning and legal writing. Wolters Kluwer. Masood, Maher (2016). Red lines in English legal terminology. LAP LAMBERT Academic Publishing. Nedzel, Nadia E. (2021). Legal reasoning, research, and writing for international graduate students. Wolters Kluwer. Newmann, Richard K., Entrikin, Lyn J. & Simon, Sheila (2019). Legal writing. Wolters Kluwer. Parastatidou, Sofia, D’Andria Ursoleo Jacopo & Gralton, Kate (2021). Legal English. MyLab. Strong, Stacie (2022). How to write law essays & exams. Oxford University Press. Vandevelde, Kenneth J. (2019). Thinking like a lawyer: an introduction to legal reasoning. Routledge. Volokh, Eugene (2016). Academic legal writing: law rev articles, student notes, seminar papers, and getting on law. West Academic. 3rd category Legal skills TBs account for 22,50% of the corpus (9 TBs) Afshin, Zila & Kourosh, Akef (2015). Legal English: in Morgan’s international construction contract management. LAP LAMBERT Academic Publishing. Alexander, Larry & Sherwin, Emily (2021). Advanced introduction to legal reasoning. Edward Elgar Pub. Berenguer, Elizabeth E. (2020). The legal scholar’s guidebook. Aspen Publishing. https://www.amazon.it/Paul-Bergman/e/B000APXP5M/ref=dp_byline_cont_ebooks_1 https://www.amazon.it/s/ref=dp_byline_sr_book_1?ie=UTF8&field-author=Michael+A+Lambarth&search-alias=stripbooks https://www.directtextbook.com/author/barbara-bintliff https://www.directtextbook.com/author/mary-whisner https://www.amazon.it/s/ref=dp_byline_sr_book_1?ie=UTF8&field-author=Mr+Michael+John+Davies&search-alias=stripbooks https://www.amazon.it/s/ref=dp_byline_sr_book_1?ie=UTF8&field-author=Henry+Fielding&search-alias=stripbooks https://www.amazon.it/s/ref=dp_byline_sr_book_1?ie=UTF8&field-author=Sharon+Hanson&search-alias=stripbooks https://www.directtextbook.com/author/ellie-margolis https://www.directtextbook.com/author/richard-neumann https://www.amazon.it/s/ref=dp_byline_sr_ebooks_1?ie=UTF8&field-author=Richard+K.%C2%A0+Neumann+Jr.&text=Richard+K.%C2%A0+Neumann+Jr.&sort=relevancerank&search-alias=digital-text https://www.amazon.it/s/ref=dp_byline_sr_ebooks_2?ie=UTF8&field-author=J.+Lyn+Entrikin&text=J.+Lyn+Entrikin&sort=relevancerank&search-alias=digital-text https://www.amazon.it/s/ref=dp_byline_sr_ebooks_3?ie=UTF8&field-author=Sheila+Simon&text=Sheila+Simon&sort=relevancerank&search-alias=digital-text https://www.amazon.it/s/ref=dp_byline_sr_book_1?ie=UTF8&field-author=Larry+Alexander&search-alias=stripbooks https://www.amazon.it/s/ref=dp_byline_sr_book_2?ie=UTF8&field-author=Emily+Sherwin&search-alias=stripbooks PENNISI E-JournALL, 10(2) (2023), pp. 62-77 76 Kiser, Randall (2019). Soft skills for effective lawyers. Cambridge University Press. Porto, Brian (2021). Rhetoric, persuasion, and modern legal writing: the pen is mightier. x Lexington Books. Rahman, Shaid, Armgardt, Matthias & Nordtveit Kvernenes, Hans C. (2021). New developments in legal reasoning and logic: from ancient law to modern legal systems. Springer Nature. Riley, Alison (2014). Common law legal English and grammar: a contextual approach. Hart Pub Ltd International. Webb, Julian, Maughan, Caroline, Maughan, Mike, Keppel-Palmer, Marcus & , Andrew (2019). Lawyers' skills (legal practice course manuals). Oxford University Press. Wellford Slocum, Robin & Nerger, Gina (2022) Legal reasoning, writing, and other lawyering skills. Carolina Academic Press. 4th category Clinical legal skills TBs account for 22,50% of the corpus (9 TBs) Canham, Natalie & Mason, Catherine (2020). Advanced legal English. Global Legal English Ltd. Costello Natasha & Kulbicki, Louise (2022). Practical English language skills for lawyers: improving your legal English. Routledge. Davies, Michael (2017). Legal English skills for lawyers: a guide to English for legal professionals. Legal English UK. Gao, Lianhong (2021). Legal English comprehensive competence: reading, writing and professional skills. LAP LAMBERT Academic Publishing. Haig, Rupert (2020). International legal English: a practical introduction for students and professionals. Routledge. Hoffman, Craig (2019). Practical legal English: writing as a U.S. lawyer. West Academic. Romantz, David & Vinson, Kathleen E. (2019). Legal analysis: the fundamental skill. Carolina Academic Press. Spencer, Maureen & Spencer, John (2022). Evidence concentrate. Law revision and study guide. Oxford University Press. Weston Walsh, Kathrin (2017). The legal English manual: handbook for professional legal language and practical skills. Beck C. H. https://www.amazon.it/s/ref=dp_byline_sr_book_1?ie=UTF8&field-author=Shahid+Rahman&search-alias=stripbooks https://www.amazon.it/s/ref=dp_byline_sr_book_2?ie=UTF8&field-author=Matthias+Armgardt&search-alias=stripbooks https://www.amazon.it/s/ref=dp_byline_sr_book_3?ie=UTF8&field-author=Hans+Christian+Nordtveit+Kvernenes&search-alias=stripbooks https://www.amazon.com/s/ref=dp_byline_sr_book_1?ie=UTF8&field-author=Julian+Webb&text=Julian+Webb&sort=relevancerank&search-alias=books https://www.amazon.com/s/ref=dp_byline_sr_book_2?ie=UTF8&field-author=Caroline+Maughan&text=Caroline+Maughan&sort=relevancerank&search-alias=books https://www.amazon.com/s/ref=dp_byline_sr_book_3?ie=UTF8&field-author=Mike+Maughan&text=Mike+Maughan&sort=relevancerank&search-alias=books https://www.amazon.com/s/ref=dp_byline_sr_book_4?ie=UTF8&field-author=Marcus+Keppel-Palmer&text=Marcus+Keppel-Palmer&sort=relevancerank&search-alias=books https://www.amazon.it/s/ref=dp_byline_sr_book_1?ie=UTF8&field-author=Natalie+Canham+and+Catherine+Mason&search-alias=stripbooks https://www.amazon.it/s/ref=dp_byline_sr_book_1?ie=UTF8&field-author=Natasha+Costello&search-alias=stripbooks https://www.amazon.it/s/ref=dp_byline_sr_book_2?ie=UTF8&field-author=Louise+Kulbicki&search-alias=stripbooks https://www.amazon.it/s/ref=dp_byline_sr_book_1?ie=UTF8&field-author=Lianhong+Gao&search-alias=stripbooks https://www.amazon.it/s/ref=dp_byline_sr_book_1?ie=UTF8&field-author=Craig+Hoffman+(author)&search-alias=stripbooks https://www.amazon.it/s/ref=dp_byline_sr_book_1?ie=UTF8&field-author=Kathrin+Weston+Walsh&search-alias=stripbooks EALP TEXTBOOKS AND THE CHALLENGES OF LEGAL ENGLISH EDUCATION E-JournALL, 10(2) (2023), pp. 62-77 77 Giulia Adriana Pennisi Università degli studi di Palermo giuliaadriana.pennisi@unipa.it EN Giulia Adriana Pennisi is Associate Professor in English Language and Translation at the University of Palermo (Italy). Her research is focused on specialised languages with a particular attention to the lexico-grammatical and textual analysis of discourse genres within multilingual and multicultural contexts. She is Associate Research Fellow at the Institute of Advanced Legal Studies (IALS), Sir William Dale Visiting Fellowship, University of London, where she is responsible for the “Legislative Drafting and Language” project. Her latest publications include “Legislative drafting and gender: some linguistic insights into English and Italian” in M. Mousmouti (Ed.) Gender Sensitive Lawmaking in Theory and Practice, Routledge (2024); “Interdisciplinary Dynamics and Generic Conventions: The Case of Clinical Ethics Committees” in G. Tessuto et al. (Eds.) Professional Discourse across Medicine, Law, and Other Disciplines: Issues and Perspectives, Cambridge Scholars Publishing (2023); “Tackling online disinformation. The Construction of ‘Trustworthiness’ and ‘Best Practices’ in the European Commission Discourse on COVID-19” in Lingue e Linguaggi, 47 (2022). ES Giulia Adriana Pennisi es Profesora Asociada de Lengua Inglesa y Traducción en la Universidad de Palermo (Italia). Su investigación se centra en lenguajes especializados con especial atención al análisis léxico-gramatical y textual de géneros discursivos dentro de contextos multilingües y multiculturales. Es investigadora asociada en el Institute of Advanced Legal Studies (IALS), Visiting Fellowship Sir William Dale de la Universidad de Londres, donde es responsable del proyecto “Redacción y lenguaje legislativo”. Sus últimas publicaciones incluyen “Redacción legislativa y género: algunas ideas lingüísticas sobre inglés e italiano” en M. Mousmouti (Ed.) Gender Sensitive Lawmaking in Theory and Practice, Routledge (2024); “Interdisciplinary Dynamics and Generic Conventions: The Case of Clinical Ethics Committees” en G. Tessuto et al. (Eds.) Discurso profesional en medicina, derecho y otras disciplinas: problemas y perspectivas, Cambridge Scholars Publishing (2023); “Abordar la desinformación en línea. La construcción de la ‘confiabilidad’ y las ‘mejores prácticas’ en el discurso de la Comisión Europea sobre el COVID-19” en Lingue e Linguaggi, 47 (2022). IT Giulia Adriana Pennisi è Professore Associato di Lingua e Traduzione Inglese presso l’Università degli Studi di Palermo (Dipartimento di Scienze Politiche e Relazioni Internazionali). Il suo ambito di ricerca riguarda prevalentemente i linguaggi specialistici con particolare attenzione all’analisi lessico-grammaticale e testuale dei discourse genres in contesti multilinguistici e multiculturali. Giulia Adriana Pennisi è anche Associate Research Fellow presso l’Institute of Advanced Legal Studies (IALS), Sir William Dale Visiting Fellowship, Università di Londra, dove è responsabile del progetto di ricerca in “Legislative Drafting and Language”. Le sue pubblicazioni più recenti includono “Legislative drafting and gender: some linguistic insights into English and Italian”, in M. Mousmouti (ed) Gender Sensitive Lawmaking in Theory and Practice, Routledge (2024); “Interdisciplinary dynamics and generic conventions: the case of clinical ethics committees”, in G. Tessuto et al. (eds) Professional Discourse across Medicine, Law, and Other Disciplines: Issues and Perspectives, Cambridge Scholars Publishing (2023); “Tackling online disinformation. The construction of ‘Trustworthiness’ and ‘Best Practices’ in the European Commission discourse on COVID-19” in Lingue e Linguaggi, 47 (2022). Gerkman, Alli, & Cornett, Logan (2017). Foundations for practice: the whole lawyer and the character quotient. IAALS, the Institute for the Advancement of the American Legal System, 1-41.