E u r o p e a n I n t e g r a t i o n S t u d i e s2 0 2 1 / 1 5 208 European Integration Studies No. 15 / 2021, pp. 208-220 doi.org/10.5755/j01.eis.1.15.29047 Abstract General Aspects and Perspectives of Immigrant Diversity in Organizations More than 10% of the world's working-age population are migrants. Migration issues are particularly relevant in Europe, as 2.7 million people came to Europe in 2019 alone. According to the report “WWWforEurope”, the quantity of research investigating cultural diversity is on the rise, the authors of the report Dohse and Gold (2014) have also noted that cultural diversity affects critical economic variables - economic growth, innovation, and the social welfare. Therefore, Gelfand et al. (2017) argue that research on organizational behavior should include more theories of cultural diversity. There has been little such research in Lithuania, so this article aims to analyze immigrant diversity perspectives in Lithuanian organizations. The qualitative empirical research was conducted using expert interviews. Content analysis was conducted using NVivo software. The results show that Lithuania has a low level of immigrant diversity, but therefore there is currently a growing interest and awareness related to this topic. Immigrant diversity is occurring in international organizations, global- ly born companies, organizations expanding into foreign markets or organizations founded by immigrants themselves. Two types of organizations (according to immigrant diversity perspectives) were categorized: 1) monolithic organization (this type is more prominent, based on resistance and “discrimination-and-fairness” paradigms and highly related to the cultural context of the country); 2) multicultural organization (focus on “integration-and-learning” and “access-and-legitimacy” paradigms). KEYWORDS: immigrant diversity, immigrant integration, multicultural organization, monolithic organization. According to the OECD report “International Migration Outlook 2019”, more than 10% of the world's working-age population are migrants. These numbers are projected to continue rising. Migration issues are particularly relevant in Europe, as 2.7 million immigrants came to Europe in 2019 alone, and 5.1% of the EU are non-EU citizens (EUROSTAT, 2021) and these figures continue to rise due to military conflicts in Syria, Afghanistan, Iraq, and elsewhere. Immigrant diversity is not a new con- cept, but it is a topic that raises many practical and scientific issues and unused potential. Gelfand et al. (2017) analyzed the scientific literature on work behavior over the last 100 years and found that “an important direction of this era is the growing importance of cultural diversity”. Growing societal mobility and migration due to globalization have affected not only countries but also companies facing increased immigrant cultural diversity (Lozano and Escrich, 2017). According to the report “WWWforEurope”, the quantity of research investigating cultural diversity is on the rise, the authors of the report Dohse and Gold (2014) have also noted that cultural di- versity affects critical economic variables - economic growth, innovation, and the social welfare. Therefore, Gelfand et al. (2017) argue that research on organizational behavior should include more theories of cultural diversity, so this topic is gaining more researchers attention. Research Submitted 02/2021 Accepted for publication 06/2021 General Aspects And Perspectives Of Immigrant Diversity In Organizations EIS 15/2021 Dovilė Balevičienė Vilnius University, Kaunas faculty Loreta Huber Vilnius University, Kaunas faculty http://dx.doi.org/10.5755/j01.eis.1.15.29047 Introduction 209 E u r o p e a n I n t e g r a t i o n S t u d i e s 2 0 2 1 / 1 5 has been conducted analyzing immigrant diversity on various levels: team, organization, city, region, country as well as joint levels. The influence of immigrant diversity training programs on organizations is widely researched as well. However, few studies take into account the na- tional context, even though many authors (Rabl et al, 2018; Manoharan & Singal, 2017; Knights & Omanovic, 2016; Janssens & Zanoni, 2014; Roberge & Dick, 2010; Rodriguez-Garcia, 2010; Nishii & Ozbilgin, 2007) emphasize the importance of context. Therefore, in this research sets out to provide understanding of the context and perspectives on diversity, that influence diversity management, equal work conditions, etc. Analyzing immigrant cultural diversity research it was observed, that dominant studies were conducted in U.S. and Western European countries, while research in other countries was found to be lacking (Jankauskaite, 2018). The topic of immigrant diversity is barely researched in Lithuania (where the proportion of immigrants varies consider- ably from USA or Western Europe), so this article aims to analyze immigrant diversity perspec- tives in Lithuania. The objectives: 1 Discuss diversity dimensions and immigrant diversity. 2 Analyze immigrant diversity perspectives. 3 Investigate immigrant diversity perspectives in Lithuania. Firstly, this article will discuss diversity dimensions, types of immigration, immigrant diversity, and immigrant diversity perspectives in organization. Further on, an investigation of immigrant diversity perspectives in Lithuania will be discussed. Qualitative empirical research was conduct- ed using expert interviews. Data was collected using the interview method, content analysis was conducted using NVivo software. There are various ways to define diversity, with many authors using the terms dispersion, het- erogeneity, dissimilarity, divergence, and variation in interpreting diversity (Manoharan & Singal, 2017). Diversity is a subjective thing in which group members identify differences in social iden- tities and characterize other group members as “similar” or “dissimilar”. According to O’Reilly et al. (1998) a group is diverse if it consists of individuals with different characteristics that shape their social identity. Tajfel (1982) was one of the first to develop a theory of social identity by em- phasizing social differences, and the author argued that individuals want to belong to groups in which they can have an exclusive and positive identity. Loden and Rosener (1991) define diversity as differences between different members of a group. The authors distinguished two dimensions to define the differences: 1) the primary dimension - gender, ethnicity, race, sexual orientation, age, physical or mental abilities, and characteristics; 2) secondary dimension - personal identity, education, geographical location, religion, languages, marital status, work style and responsibilities, work experience, income, and communication style. Harrison, et al. (1998) distinguished two dimensions - hidden (personality, attitudes, values, beliefs) and visible (age, gender, race, ethnicity, disability, weight). Primary / visible diversity dimensions include culture, social class, and languages, and the second / hidden dimension include health beliefs and recreational interests. Arredongo (2004) suggests including a third dimension that would cover historical events experienced. Kilduff, et al. (2000) distinguish demo- graphic and cognitive dimensions. The demographic dimension includes gender, age, and other visible aspects, and the cognitive dimension includes knowledge, values, abilities, and other in- visible aspects. Harrison and Klein (2007) distinguished three types of diversity: segregation (showing the extent of differences between group members), variation (showing the distribution of group members, e.g., country of origin), and differences (showing inequalities between group members, e.g., in- come inequality). The dimensions of diversity are summarized in Table 1. Diversity dimensions, types immigration and immigrant diversity E u r o p e a n I n t e g r a t i o n S t u d i e s2 0 2 1 / 1 5 210 Primary – visible dimension Second – ”softly” hidden dimension Third – ”hard” hidden dimension Race Ethnicity Gender Age Physical attributes Culture Religion Nationality Sexual orientation Country of origin Social status Family status Lifestyle Education Languages Values Beliefs Political views Group norms Assumptions Attitudes Feelings Table 1 Diversity dimensions Source: Loden & Rosener, 1991; Harrison, et al., 1998; Kilduff, et al., 2000; Vegt & Janssen, 2003; Arredongo, 2004; Mazur, 2010; Mor Barak, et al., 2016. According to the OECD report International Migration Outlook 2019, more than 10% of the world's working-age population is migrant (OECD, 2019). These numbers are projected to continue to rise due to military conflicts in Syria, Afghanistan, Iraq, and elsewhere. An immigrant is a person who has moved to another country for more than a year and who has personal, economic, or other interests in that country. According to Repečkaitė (2009), the term “immigrant” is used with a negative connotation - it is a consequence of the nationalist discourse on migration. In English, there is a hierarchy between the terms “expatriate” (associated with high social status and prestige) and “immigrant” (associated with unskilled work). In the report Rilla, et al. (2018) suggest distinguishing another type of immigrant - international talent. International talent is a highly qualified immigrant, and international talent includes pro- fessionals, experts, expert / professional family members, students, researchers, philanthro- pists, or returnees. The term international talent is not widespread, it is usually used to describe the term “economic immigrant” - a person who has come to a country from a foreign country for economic reasons, but an economic immigrant can be both high and low-skilled. In the United Nations Convention on the Rights of Migrants, a “labor migrant” is a person who has been, is, or is about to engage in gainful employment in a country of which he is not a national. Some of the most famous international talents and economic migrants are considered to be Sergey Brin, Nikola Tesla, Elon Musk, Levi Strauss, Arianna Huffington, Mario Molina, Zaha Hadid, Madeleine Albright, Rupert Murdoch, George Frederic Handel, Robert Maxwell, Arnold Schwarzenegger, etc. Another type of immigrant is a “political immigrant” who has arrived in a foreign country due to political persecution, discrimination, war, and armed conflict. A refugee is a person who, because of persecution in his or her own country or for fear of such persecution, is forced to flee their home country. Such persecution is usually related to race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group, or political beliefs. Often, the term refugee has a negative connotation, and refugees are associated with challenges in societies, but there are many examples where refugees contribute to the well-being of a country to which they have immigrated. Albert Ein- stein, Sigmund Freud, Victor Hugo, Thomas Mann, Freddie Mercury, Bob Marley, Lord Maurice Saatchi, etc. are considered to be among the most famous refugees. Because these types of immigrants can be different, the Table 2 summarizes the types of immi- gration. Immigrant diversity is a complex type of diversity, because it is broader than a birthplace and involves different aspects of immigration (legality, duration, migration reason, etc.). Immigrants, 211 E u r o p e a n I n t e g r a t i o n S t u d i e s 2 0 2 1 / 1 5 ASPECT TYPE Legality Legal immigration Illegal immigration Immigration to a country without violating its laws. Immigration in violation of national law. Scale Internal immigration Cross - border (international) immigration Immigration to another place in the country (city, town, village). Immigration to live in another state. Duration Permanent immigration Temporary, seasonal and shuttle immigration Immigrant permanent relocation. Immigrants move to a new place of residence with a spe- cific goal, after reaching this goal the immigrant returns to the previous place of residence. Migration reason Voluntary immigration Forced immigration Immigrants are looking for better, bet- ter-paid jobs, higher education, living in different climates and in different social, cultural, economic, political, or technological environments. Immigrants seek to avoid political or religious perse- cution, discrimination, wars, and armed conflict. Immi- grates due to natural disasters (floods, hurricanes, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, droughts). Immi- grants are forced to be evicted elsewhere. Table 2 Types of immigration Source: Authors. even from the same country, can be different, according to Connor (2014) immigrant commu- nities are becoming increasingly culturally diverse - socio, economic or political status, reasons for immigration (work, professional development, family, discrimination, etc.), religion, etc. Ver- ovec (2007) proposed the term “super diversity” to describe the increased number of different countries of origin, reasons for immigration, cultures, religions, age differences, etc. In the face of great cultural diversity, both the state and the immigrants themselves face a variety of chal- lenges. According to Connor (2014), immigrants in the European Union are not constrained by demographic aspects (gender, country of origin, religion, and age), but foreign language skills and education are a common challenge. Studies by Harward scholars have found that immigrant’s cultural diversity does not correlate with ethnic, linguistic, or other types of cultural diversity (Alesina, et al., 2016). The authors also found that the cultural diversity of immigrants is positively related to economic well-being. It is therefore appropriate to use various measures to integrate and encourage immigrants. For example, the procedure for obtaining a start-up visa (Startup Visa). Start-up visas can be obtained by foreigners who intend to implement new technologies or other innovations significant for countries economic and social development. The start-up visa initiative started in the USA in 2011, other countries that have already validated the initiative: the Netherlands, Denmark, France, Ireland, Italy, Spain, the UK, New Zealand, Australia, Canada, Chile, Singapore, Lithuania, Israel, etc. Immigrant diversity does not only influence societies, but also organizations. Most organizations have to involve immigrant related aspects to diversity management and human resources man- agement practices. The literature generally analyses immigrant diversity issues and challenges; however, Stahl et al (2017, p.2) argue that organisations can benefit from adopting a more positive outlook to immigrant diversity: “examining the positive side of differences is not only beneficial theoretically in terms of filling this gap in the literature, but is also crucial for the practice of inter- national and global business”. When managed effectively, immigrant diversity offers the flexibility, creativity, innovativeness, and other benefits to the organization. So, there is a need to understand different immigrant diversity perspectives in organizations and how they influence organizations. E u r o p e a n I n t e g r a t i o n S t u d i e s2 0 2 1 / 1 5 212 Cox (2001) was one of the first to distinguish 3 types of organizations according to diversity: 1 A monolithic organization is a typical organization in which cultural equality predominates and minorities are assimilated, integration is minimal and inequality prevails. 2 Pluralistic organization - organizations seek to exploit cultural diversity through AA (Affirma- tive Action) and EEO (Equal Employment Opportunity) programs, but the organizations them- selves remain monolithic, with minorities being assimilated. 3 Multicultural organization - cultural differences are assessed, the aim is to integrate minori- ties into all levels of the organization and informal groups. Based on Cox (1994), Cox & Blake (1991), Thomas & Ely (1996) described the existing paradigms and proposed their paradigms for cultural diversity in an organization: 1. resistance paradigm - resistance to change, ignoring equal opportunities, and diversity policy; 2. discrimination and fairness paradigm - based on the premise that all individuals are equal, minorities must assim- ilate; 3. the access and legitimacy paradigm is based on the exaltation and benefits of cultural differences, which are used to find new niches and exploit other opportunities for diversity; 4. integration and learning paradigm - based on the integration of cultural diversity into the organ- ization, inclusive organizational culture prevails, employees are treated as the most important strategic resources and investment. Very similar to the previous approaches are indicated by Adler (2002) when analyzing the possible variants of the culture junction: 1. the dominance of one culture (includes monolithic organization and the paradigm of resistance); 2. coexistence of cultures - the elements of both cultures do not contradict each other and can be used to achieve the goal, as solutions are sought between the two cultures (includes pluralistic organization, paradigms of discrimination and fairness and access and legitimacy); 3. intercultural cooperation - cultural groups can influence each other's attitudes, and new ideas and problem-solving approaches can emerge at the crossroads of two cultures (involving a multicultural organization and a paradigm of integration and learning). Ac- cording to empirical research, 113 organizations in Austria (Podsiadlowski, et al., 2013) singled out 5 perspectives on cultural diversity (starting with the perspectives most commonly used by the organization surveyed and ending with the least frequently used): 1 Access perspective. 2 The perspective of integration and learning. 3 The perspective of “color-blind”. 4 The perspective of fairness. 5 The perspective of reinforcing homogeneity. Fisk et al. (2018) distinguished typologies of cultural competencies in organizations (Table 2) by levels of institutionalization and cultural diversity management. The highlighted cultural compe- tencies also describe the organization’s approach to cultural diversity management. Figure 1 Approaches to cultural diversity according to typologies of cultural competencies (Fisk, et al., 2018) Degree of institutionalization D iv er su ty m an ag em en t Low High Low Compliance-Based (e.g., efforts aimed at legal compliance) Disengaged (e.g., no full integration across organization but do not address all groups or stakeholders) High Ad Hoc (e.g., lack of permanent changes; efforts are episodic but proactive) Inclusive (e.g., long-standing proactive efforts internally and externally) Maitanace of heritage culture and identity R el at io sh ip s ou th am on g gr ou ps + - + - + - Integration Asimilation Multiculturalism Melting pot Separation Marginalization Segregation Exclusion Strategies of ethnocultural groups Strategies of larger society Perspectives on Immigrant Diversity in Organizations 213 E u r o p e a n I n t e g r a t i o n S t u d i e s 2 0 2 1 / 1 5 Schonwalder and Triadafilopoulos (2017) argue that in Europe, attitudes towards migrants' cul- tural diversity are shifting from highlighting differences to new assimilationism, which would abandon the stratification of migrants. However, the term assimilation is not acceptable to many researchers, so the term multiculturalism is more commonly used. Thus, according to Rodri- guez-Garcia (2010), Berry (2016), Schonwalder & Triadafilopoulos (2017), there are 3 main ways to integrate migrants into society: 1 Assimilation or Republican model - migrants must adapt to the culture of the country (e.g. France). 2 Multicultural or pluralistic model - integration of migrants' cultural diversity into society (e.g. Sweden, the Netherlands, the UK, and Canada). 3 Segregationist or separation model - division and separation of representatives of different cultures. Segregation is sometimes seen as part of multiculturalism (e.g. Germany, Austria, and Switzerland). Summarizing many of the different approaches to cultural diversity Berry (2016) formed the di- vision of intercultural strategies of ethnocultural groups and the general public (Figure 2). The author singled out 4 generalizing strategies: 1) integration - multiculturalism; 2) assimilation – melting pot; 3) separation - segregation; 4) marginalization - exclusion. Figure 2 Intercultural strategies in ethnocultural groups and the larger society (Berry, 2016) Degree of institutionalization D iv er su ty m an ag em en t Low High Low Compliance-Based (e.g., efforts aimed at legal compliance) Disengaged (e.g., no full integration across organization but do not address all groups or stakeholders) High Ad Hoc (e.g., lack of permanent changes; efforts are episodic but proactive) Inclusive (e.g., long-standing proactive efforts internally and externally) Maitanace of heritage culture and identity R el at io sh ip s ou th am on g gr ou ps + - + - + - Integration Asimilation Multiculturalism Melting pot Separation Marginalization Segregation Exclusion Strategies of ethnocultural groups Strategies of larger society All in all, immigrant diversity perspectives could be categorized into 5 types: 1. assimilation (monolithic organization; discrimination and fairness paradigm; the dominance of one culture; perspective of reinforcing homogeneity); 2. integration (multiculturalism; integration and learn- ing paradigm; intercultural cooperation); 3. segregation (separation; the dominance of one cul- ture); 4. marginalization (exclusion; monolithic organization; resistance paradigm; the dominance of one culture; perspective of reinforcing homogeneity); 5. exploitation (pluralistic organization; access and legitimacy paradigm; coexistence of cultures; access perspective). The qualitative interviews research strategy was chosen, because qualitative research offers openness and flexibility and due to the sensitivity of the research topic, researchers are conduct- ing face-to-face interviews and obtaining expert opinions and attitudes about the topic being investigated. An exploratory (content-driven) study was performed using the expert interview method. Interviews are conducted with experts because researchers seek to obtain objective information from people who have knowledge and experience in any field. Experts are defined as individuals who are responsible for the implementation, development, and control of deci- sions, strategies, or policies, and who understand the processes and trends in a particular area of knowledge (Neuman, 2006). A semi-structured interview was used, which was chosen due to the optimal conditions to reveal immigrant diversity perspectives and the absence of strict formalization. The questionnaire was compiled for the research, the questions are designed to understand the prevailing culture in the country (cultural context), the peculiarities of immigrant diversity in Lithuania and immigrant Research Methods E u r o p e a n I n t e g r a t i o n S t u d i e s2 0 2 1 / 1 5 214 diversity perspectives in Lithuanian organizations. The experts were selected using purposive sampling - by meeting one of the criteria: 1 More than 5 years work experience in the field. 2 More than 5 years experience conducting research in immigration field. Altogether, 12 interviews were conducted with both Lithuanian and non-Lithuanian experts, in both Lithuanian and English language. Interviews lasted for approximately 1 hour and they were con- ducted during 2020 May - October. Experts from the field represented these organizations: Ministry of Social Security and Labor, Diversity Charter, Office of the Equal Opportunities Ombudsperson, Af- rico, Migrant Talent Garden, Primum Esse, Red Cross and various Universities. After the interviews, transcribed texts with iniciatial codes were sent to the experts, to check reserachers interpretation of their beliefs. During and after data collection, the author took notes on emergent themes. Inter- views and observations were coded into categories and subcategories without premade code set- book (inductive coding). For content analysis NVivo software was used. One researcher did coding, other researcher oversaw the codes and items in codes. Interview questions: 1 How do you understand diversity and immigrant diversity? 2 Please decribe country‘s cultural context related to immigration. 3 What influence does the country's culture have on businesses and other organizations? How? 4 What influence does the country's culture have on immigrant diversity and its management practices? How? 5 What type of business and other organizations have immigrant diversity in Lithuania? 6 What are business and other organizations attitutes related to immigrant diversity? Please give examples. 7 Does business and other organizations value immigrant diversity? Please give examples. 8 Does immigrant diversity posed any particular challenges or opportunities? 9 How business and other organizations usses immigrant diversity? 10 What immigrant diversity management practices are employed in companies and other orga- nizations? Please give examples. The study found that experts define diversity as differences between different members of an organization. Many experts agree that the term "diversity" is ambiguous and highly context sen- sitive. Experts stressed that diversity can be of different types - age diversity, gender diversity, marital status, educational diversity, etc., and one of the types can be immigrant diversity. Immigrant diversity can also be divided into different dimensions that are intertwined (e.g., ethnic, racial, linguistic, religious, and other types of diversity): “I would include culture, nationality, race, citizenship, and language in immigrant diversity. What sometimes intertwines with religious di- versity” (Expert 1). Experts emphasized the importance of the organizations they represent in educating about what diversity is: “we try to avoid normality and the notion that diversity is a universal good and everyone needs it; we try to rationalize and contextualize, because not every context requires diversity” (Expert 3). Almost all experts pointed out that diversity and especially immigrant diversity in Lithuania is a “sensitive and complex” topic. As many as 8 experts used the term “sensitive” when talking about diversity in Lithuania. Experts pointed out that even training on this topic is difficult to organize. The Africo organization shared its experience in organizing immigrant diversity trainings and singled out that the experts conducting the trainings must be familiar with the country's culture: “we try to explain the context of Lithuanian cultural diversity to experts in the context of cultural diversity, racism prevails not so much as ignorance, but as disinterest in other countries and the Immigrant Diversity Perspectives in Lithuanian Organizations 215 E u r o p e a n I n t e g r a t i o n S t u d i e s 2 0 2 1 / 1 5 spread of stereotypes” (Expert 3). This is in line with an important aspect of diversity training failure that has often been identified in the scientific literature: training is not adapted, and other countries use US diversity training material that does not fit the context of other countries, re- gions, or organizations. Table 3 presents the categories and subcategories of immigrant diversi- ty and country context identified in the expert interviews. Categories Sub-categories Codes no. Lithuania cultural context Stereotypes n=7 Discrimination n=5 Preconceived notions n=4 Social exclusion n=6 Diversity dimensions Age n=10 Gender n=11 Education n=10 Work experience n=7 Social status n=6 Disability n=8 Sexual orientation and identity n=6 Immigrant diversity level in Lithuania Low level of cultural diversity in the country n=9 Average level of cultural diversity in the country n=1 High level of cultural diversity in the country n=2 Immigrant diversity dimensions Nationality n=9 Religion n=9 Language n=9 Citizenship n=8 Race n=7 Country of origin n=8 Ethnicity n=8 Diversity management First steps: A growing focus on diversity and the need to manage immigrant diversity n=10 First steps: Understanding the benefits of diversity management (awareness) n=8 Implementing diversity management n=7 Table 3 Cultural context and immigrant diversity Source: Authors. Most of the experts pointed out that the level of immigrant diversity in Lithuania is low and cultural diversity is not typical for companies operating in Lithuania, and organizations / companies with culturally diverse employees are atypical cases. When talking about the level of cultural diversity, experts often compared Lithuanian and Western European countries or the USA. Nevertheless, 2 experts noted that there are many people of different nationalities in Lithuania: “although our country may seem closed and “monocultural”, we have a lot of people of different nationalities in Lithuania and there is a lot of cultural diversity, we may not emphasize it” (Expert 7). Almost all experts pointed out that foreign capital companies are more likely to have higher immigrant (and other types of diversity) and take over the values prevailing in headquarters: “large foreign companies are much more open to cultural diversity” (Expert 7) and “when they come, they bring their history and system of values. These companies have already gone much further into diversity management than Lithuanian capital companies” (Expert 2). Also, the good E u r o p e a n I n t e g r a t i o n S t u d i e s2 0 2 1 / 1 5 216 examples of foreign capital companies encourage other Lithuanian organizations to change and influence the prevailing cultural norms in the country. The experts also pointed out that there are exceptional organizations in Lithuania, whose leaders thought about internationalization and diversity from the very beginning when creating the compa- ny. However, such companies are exceptional, and most companies are starting to operate locally and continue to expand into foreign markets and transform. Thus, the growth of diversity in compa- nies is often associated with development in foreign countries: “our companies did not decide to be- come “diverse”; they were simply hit by “diversity” (Expert 3). Nevertheless, there are not many such companies, one of the reasons being cultural differences: “because even with a common narrative that there is a shortage of IT specialists in Lithuania, most IT companies are afraid to employ for- eigners, usually motivated by excessive cultural differences” (Expert 3). It was noted that employ- ers prefer to hire immigrants from countries that are in close proximity and have similar cultural norms: “I notice a lot of discrimination towards people from certain countries. Lithuanians are more likely to accept Ukrainians, Belarusians, but are less likely to accept people from countries further away.” (Expert 5) and “one business owner would constantly tell me: “I only want immigrants from Russia, Ukraine or Belarus […] don’t offer Asians or Africans for the job” and he kept fighting them and always suggesting different candidates till he gave up and hired one immigrant from Asia […] and it turned out that he (employee) was doing a good job, so he (employee) got a promotion after 3 months” (Expert 10). Experts explains this by using eastern European history of occupation and less noticeable cultural differences. In addition to cultural differences, the experts singled out other obstacles to hire immigrants - stereotypes, closedness of the country, lack of tolerance, conserva- tism, fear of implementing change. Thus, in summary, 4 types of Lithuanian organizations can be distinguished, which are characterized by immigrant diversity: 1 Foreign capital companies that “transfer” their values to a department or company in Lithuania. 2 Organizations that hire immigrant due to development (mostly expanding abroad) or labor shortages. 3 “Born global” companies. 4 Organizations founded by culturally diverse founders (i.e. “Lithuanian capital, a medium-sized company that started a family business - because the family itself is culturally diverse it im- mediately gives a tone - they are very open, employ migrants, refugees and other people who are not a middle-aged Caucasian men with an education (Expert 2)). Experts point out that both in Lithuania and in the world, more and more attention is paid to diversity and diversity management: “we are starting to talk about it, but we are still at the stage where we still deny the existence of the problem. But the noticeable tendencies are that [...] organizations will have to adapt to it” (Expert 4). The experts themselves emphasize the impor- tance of the organizations they represent in stimulating debate, training, developing guides and other tools related to diversity and its management, which raise awareness of these issues. With these initiatives, organizations can better understand the benefits of diversity management and implement diversity management practices: “it is not diversity itself that benefits, but diversity management - this is probably the answer to why organizations implementation - from raising awareness to adopting certain measures in the organization” (Expert 1). So, first steps towards immigrant diversity in Lithuania are: 1 A growing focus on diversity and the need to manage immigrant diversity. 2 Understanding the benefits of diversity management (awareness). 3 Immigrant diversity management practices. 217 E u r o p e a n I n t e g r a t i o n S t u d i e s 2 0 2 1 / 1 5 During the interview experts gave examples that could fit into all immigrant diversity perspec- tives (Cox, 1994), (Cox & Blake, 1991), (Thomas & Ely, 1996): 1 Marginalization and segregation (Resistance paradigm) (n=12). 2 Assimilation (“Discrimination-and-fairness” paradigm) (n=9). 3 Exploitation (“Access-and-legitimacy” paradigm) (n=9). 4 Integration (“Integration-and-learning” paradigm) (n=7). Resistance and “discrimination-and-fairness” paradigms are more common in Lithuania be- cause of the cultural context of the country. The focus is on following the law and immigrants must assimilate. Immigrants are usually hired as a “cheaper” labor or due to the lack of spe- cialists in that field in Lithuania. Therefore, experts pointed out that immigrants do not have the opportunity to make full use of their skills due to the language barrier and non-validation of their qualifications: “immigrants, who often do not speak the language, do not have the most pleasant jobs. Although quite often in their country they belong to a higher social group and when they come here, they have to do those jobs that do not correspond to their qualifications” (Expert 5). The “access-and-legitimacy” paradigm is the focus of international companies that are trying to use immigrant diversity as an asset for reaching specific markets (usually the immigrant home market), knowing specific languages and cultural context, developing new products, find- ing solutions to problems. The “Integration-and-learning” paradigm is also more noticeable in international companies, based on the integration of cultural diversity into the organization, an inclusive organizational culture prevails and employees are treated as the most important stra- tegic resources and investment. In summary, two types of organizations (Table 4) can be distinguished according to different im- migrant diversity perspectives: 1) monolithic organization; 2) multicultural organization. Experts Monolithic organization Multicultural organization Immigrant diversity perspective Resistance and “discrimination-and- fairness” paradigms. “Integration-and-learning” and “access-and- legitimacy” paradigms. Reason of hiring immigrants “Cheaper” labour. Not enough specialist in Lithuania or “no other choice”. Immigrant knowledge of languages, specific markets, and their culture. Immigrant skills and knowledge Immigrant qualification Lower qualification. Higher qualification. Immigrants at top level positions Very rare. More common. Organization view on immigrant diversity Focus on challenges. Focus on potential benefits (business case perspective). Diversity management practices Diversity management practices for all employees: HR practices, diversity plans and policies, positive and open culture, flexible work hours, diversity in marketing, mentorship, etc. Immigrant diversity management practices: cultural events, prayer or meditation spaces, language courses, cultural diversity training, English or Russian as a business language, culture committees, etc. Diversity management practices for all employees: HR practices, diversity plans and policies, positive and open culture, flexible work hours, leadership diversity, diversity in marketing, mentorship, etc. Table 4 Types of organization according to immigrant diversity perspectives Source: Authors. E u r o p e a n I n t e g r a t i o n S t u d i e s2 0 2 1 / 1 5 218 noticed that a lot of companies in Lithuania are trying to move from “monolithic” organization to “multicultural” organization by starting to use diversity management practices that address age, gen- der, disability, sexual identity, and other dimensions of diversity. However multicultural organizations are also using diversity management practices that are orientated to towards integration of migrant employees. Diversity is a subjective thing in which group members identify differences in social and cultural identities and characterize other group members as “similar” or “dissimilar”. Immigrant diversity is a type of diversity, that is complex because of different types of immigration and other diversity dimensions (religion, age, education, skills, etc.). Immigrant diversity does not only influence societies, but also organizations. When managed effectively, immigrant diversity offers various benefits to the organization, however that depends on immigrant diversity perspective and cul- tural context. Immigrant diversity perspectives were categorized into 5 types: 1) assimilation; 2) integration; 3) segregation; 4) marginalization; 5) exploitation. Lithuania has a low level of immigrant diversity, therefore there is currently a growing focus on immigrant diversity, increasing awareness of this topic and the need to manage diversity (i.e., to implement various diversity management practices). Immigrant diversity is occurring in interna- tional organizations, globally born companies, organizations expanding into foreign markets or organizations founded by immigrants themselves. In Lithuania a monolithic type of organization is prominent, in which immigrants are assimilat- ed, integration is minimal, and inequality prevails. Resistance and “discrimination-and-fairness” paradigms are more common in Lithuania because of the cultural context of the country. Multi- cultural type organizations are less common, and they focus on “integration-and-learning” and “access-and-legitimacy” paradigms. Multicultural type are mostly international companies that rely on the integration of cultural diversity into the organization, an inclusive organizational cul- ture prevails, employees are treated as the most important strategic resources and investment. Conclusions References Adler, N. (2002). International dimensions of organ- izational behavior. 4th edition. Cincinnati: South- western College Publishing. Alesina, A., Harnoss, J. & Rapoport, H. (2016). Birthplace Diversity and Economic Prosperity. Journal of Economic Growth, 21, 101-138. https:// doi.org/10.1007/s10887-016-9127-6 Arredongo, P. (2004). Organizational Assessments for Planning Diversity Initiatives. Berry, J. (2016). Diversity and equity. 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Address Muitinės street. 8, LT-44280 Kaunas, Lithuania +370 676 25255, dovile.baleviciene@knf.vu.lt ORCID ID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4948-0477 HUBER LORETA Professor Vilnius University, Kaunas faculty Fields of interests Cross-cultural communication, cultural diversity, organizational communication. Address Muitinės street. 8, LT-44280 Kaunas, Lithuania +370 626 76555, loreta.ulvydiene@knf.vu.lt ORCID ID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7434-7117