EJBR2019v9i1art34 ISSN 2449-8955 European Journal of Biological Research Review Article Eur. J. Biol. Res. 2019; 9(1): 45-56 http://www.journals.tmkarpinski.com/index.php/ejbr DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.2617168 Biosynthesis of Silver Nanoparticle from Fungi, Algae and Bacteria Indranil Singh Amity Institute of Biotechnology, Amity University Madhya Pradesh, Gwalior, India Correspondence: E-mail: adrasiner@gmail.com Received: 13 December 2018; Revised submission: 20 February 2019; Accepted: 30 March 2019 Copyright: © The Author(s) 2019. Licensee Joanna Bródka, Poland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) ABSTRACT: Silver nanoparticles are today considered as the backbone of nanotechnology industries. Since time immemorial silver along with its compound and associated salts have been walking together with human civilization. Although the silver has been known from such a long time it has not been recently that fabrication of silver nanoparticle was to be a reality. It has some prominent as well as pronounced application in the field of medicine, agriculture etc. It has very favorable and significant antioxidant, antibacterial and antifungal properties. It has been found effective against many of bacteria’s such as Vibrio parahaemolyticus, Citrobacter koseri, Salmonella Typhii, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus and even against few fungus species like Candida albicans. The mode of mechanism could be possible binding of silver ions with the biomolecules present in cells. It is believed that the whole system runs over the fact that it leads to the formation of free radical along with the production of ROS i.e. reactive oxygen species, which ultimately result in apoptotic condition and hence cell could no longer replicate. There is much more application ranging from food preservation, cosmetic etc. But the physical and chemical synthesis of Ag has been inefficient to meet the demands at the same time causing lots of damage to the environment. Hence it calls for a cleaner, efficient and eco-friendly process. That space has been traveled by biosynthesis of Ag nanoparticle from plant, algae, and bacteria etc. This review takes under consideration such efforts in the last few years. Keywords: Silver nanoparticles; Algae; Bacteria; Fungi; Green synthesis; Toxicity mechanism. 1. INTRODUCTION Nanoparticles unique properties are surface dependent that tends to vary with their shape, size, and morphology. These have a crucial say in into interaction of nanoparticles with plants, animal or microorganism [1-7]. The silver nanoparticle has a pronounced effect on bacteria and those of a wide number of microorganisms [8-11]. They are prepared through a variety of processes in order to study all its dimension of properties [12]. The silver nanoparticle can be synthesized from various methods ranging from physical, chemical and biological methods. In the biogenic formation of the nanoparticle, it is a microorganism; Fungi, Bacteria, yeast and various parts of plants in extract form are used in its production [13-15]. Hence formed particles properties greatly varies with our choice of solvent, how strong is the reducing agent and what is the temperature being subjected to metallic ion or compound to form nanoparticles [10, 11]. Of the entire nanoparticle formed Ag and Au hold the specific position. Silver beneficial aspect is known from quite a long time but it has not been used much before. Every year it is estimated that nearly 320 tons of silver Singh Biosynthesis of silver nanoparticle from fungi, algae and bacteria 46 Eur. J. Biol. Res. 2019; 9(1): 45-56 http://www.journals.tmkarpinski.com/index.php/ejbr nanoparticle are used in different applications [16, 17]. Figure 1. Biosynthesis of silver nanoparticle and their optimization techniques. Owing to the unfavorable advancement like the development of multi-drug resistant bacteria, viruses because of various anthropogenic activities like pollution that is changing environmental condition and influencing organism to undergo mutation. Many metal salt and metal nanoparticle have been found to act as antimicrobial agents but yet silver has a prominent place in the series [18, 19]. The silver nanoparticle has been not only utilized as growth inhibitors for only bacteria’s but has also been used in other cut and wounds to inhibit the microbial infection [20-22]. In a separate study, it has been found that water-soluble protein extracted from silkworms with a functional group like hydroxyl, amino or carboxyl group could even act as the potential reducing agent for reduction of the AgNO3 solution. The antibacterial studies reveal that MIC for gram positive and negative bacteria falls under 0.001 and 0.008 mM [23-25]. 2. SYNTHESIS AND CHARACTERIZATION OF SILVER NANOPARTICLE We can broadly classify the whole method of metallic nanoparticle formation into two major approaches i.e. Bottom-up and top-down approach. The bottom-up method involves production of nanoparticles from atom and molecule involving agglomeration. At the same time, the top-down approach involves slicing or successive cutting in order to achieve the nano range of 1 to 100 nm [1]. The bottom-up approach is preferred over the top-down approach, involving a heterogeneous system and the uses of various reducing agent and enzyme. “Top-down” method is employed only when the sample is in bulk form, a further various method like physical ablations; cutting, sputtering, mechanical grinding etc. is used in order to gain a significant amount of size reduction. But it has a bigger loophole in form of surface structural defect leading to significant loss of properties. The silver nanoparticle can be formed from various methods ranging from the involvement of chemicals [26-29] to use of various physical break down processes [30-32] and application of biologic system [10, 11]. There is a number of chemical methods reported till date like pyrolysis, electrochemical, reduction through chemicals and irradiation [33]. The process of forming nanoparticle from solution requires a reducing and a capping agent or stabilizing agent. The role of reducing agent can be played with help of ascorbic acid, sodium citrate, a hydrazine compound, and alcohol etc. In a separate study, it has been achieved to form closely regulated silver NPs deposition over nanostructured SiO2 [29]. At the same time physical method has quite a few benefits over chemical method like narrow size distribution and no such requirement of lethal and highly relative chemical with a fast processing time but only at the expanse of high energy. Examples of a method that could be employed are arc-discharge, [31] physical deposition method, [30] magnetron sputtering [32] and energy ball milling method [34]. Singh Biosynthesis of silver nanoparticle from fungi, algae and bacteria 47 Eur. J. Biol. Res. 2019; 9(1): 45-56 http://www.journals.tmkarpinski.com/index.php/ejbr In case of biological synthesis of nanoparticle plant and micro-organism has been used in place of reducing as well as a capping agent. Plants are found to be in possession of various fats, nucleic acid, pigment and secondary metabolites which have required the capability to reduce and form nanoparticles from the metallic compound and at the same time producing less toxic by-product. While in the case of microorganism it is the presence of the biologically active molecule, as well as enzymes, are responsible for reduction [1]. Table 1. List of different stabilizing/capping agent used in synthesis of nanoparticle from various strains of bacteria. Strains of bacteria Morphology Stabilising agent References Pseudomonas aeruginosa BS-161R 15.1 ± 5.8 nm; spherical Rhamnolipids [35] Brevibacterium casei MSA19 - Biosurfactant [36] Bacillus cereus NK1 50-80 nm URAK (a fibrinolytic enzyme) [37] Gluconacetobacter xylinum 5-40 nm Cellulose [38] Streptomyces coelicolor 28-50 nm Irregular Actinorhodin pigment [39] Bacillus subtilis MSBN 17-60 nm Spherical Bioflocculant [40] Salmonella typhimurium 3-11 nm Flagellin [41] Bacillus athrophaeus 5-30 nm Polydispersed Spores [42] Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG ATCC 53103 2-15 nm; spherical, rodshaped and hexagonal Exopolysaccharide [43] Nostoc commune 15-54 nm spherical Extracellular [44] Pseudomonas aeruginosa 10-13 nm; spherical Biosurfactant [45] Ochrobactrum rhizosphaerae 10 nm; spherical Glycolipoprotein [46] Gordonia amicalis HS-11 5-25 nm; spherical Glycolipid [47] Bacillus subtilis - Surfactin [48] 3. NANOPARTICLES FROM BACTERIA After the onset of green nanotechnology concept, a lot has been done in biosynthesis of Ag nanoparticles. For example, Pseudomonas stutzeri which were isolated from silver mine was found to produce nanoparticles of silver intracellular [49] on an addition to this various other bacteria has been used in order to produce AgNPs in both extracellular as well as intracellularly. A. calcoaceticus, B. flexus, B. megaterium, B. amyloliquefaciens, and S. aureus [50-53] Ag nanoparticle has found to be in the variety of shapes ranging from spherical to cuboidal, hexagonal and could be triangular in shape. Fabrication of nanoparticle could be done with cell help of aqueous cell-free extract, cells, and cultural supernatant. In a separate study, it has been found that rapid production of silver nanoparticle could be achieved by the involvement of a bacterial strain S-27, which belongs to Bacilis flexus group [53-56]. Das et al. has used Bacillus strain (CS11) to report biosynthesis of silver nanoparticle from 1 mM AgNO3 and bacteria at 25 oC. This has yielded nanoparticle within 24 h with peak obtained at 450 nm and size ranging between 42 and 92 nm. 4. NANOPARTICLES FROM FUNGI Fungi in preparation of silver nanoparticle have been used extensively [57-59]. Biosynthesis from both types of fungi i.e. pathogenic and the other one which is non- pathogenic in nature has been reported. It leads to the formation of particles either extracellular or intracellular or can be in both the condition. In other work, it has also resulted in silver nanoparticle stable in water [60, 61]. Syed et al. in his work has achieved the synthesis by using fungus Humicola sp. [62]. Singh Biosynthesis of silver nanoparticle from fungi, algae and bacteria 48 Eur. J. Biol. Res. 2019; 9(1): 45-56 http://www.journals.tmkarpinski.com/index.php/ejbr Owaidi et al. in his work reported that silver nanoparticle could be produced from yellow exotic oyster mushroom, with species Pleurotus cornucopiae var. citrinopileatus. In this procedure first of all basidiocarps are dried, powdered and boiled along with water after which the supernatant was then moved for freeze drying. The silver nanoparticle is then confirmed when the yellow color change to yellow-brownish color. The absorption peak is found to be at 420 and 450nm in UV-vis region. [63] Several fungi namely, Aspergillus flavus, F. solani, Phytophthora infestans, A. fumigates, Phoma glomerate, Fusarium oxysporum, F. acuminatum, F. culmorum, Verticillium sp., Metarhizium anisopliae, and Trichoderma viride, lead to the synthesis of the particle at both the location i.e. extracellular and intracellular. Table 2. Silver nanoparticles synthesis with help of various microorganisms. Microorganism Morphology Location References Acinetobacter calcoaceticus 8-12 nm; spherical Extracellular [64] A. haemolyticus MMC8 4-40 nm Extracellular [65] Aeromonas sp. SH10 6.4 nm Intracellular [66, 67] Bordetella sp. 63-90 nm Extracellular [68] Enterobacter aerogenes 25-35 nm; spherical Extracellular [69] Escherichia coli 42.2-89.6 nm; spherical Extracellular [70] Geobacter sulfurreducens - Extracellular [71] Gluconobacter roseus 10 nm Extracellular [72] Idiomarina sp. 25 nm Extracellular [73] Klebsiella pneumoniae 15-37 nm Extracellular [74] Klebsiella pneumoniae 5-32 nm Extracellular [75] Morganella sp. 10-40 nm; quasispherical Extracellular [76] Proteus mirabilis 10-20 nm; spherical Extracellular [77] Pseudomonas aeruginosa SM1 6.3 ± 4.9 nm; spherical Intracellular [78] Pseudomonas aeruginosa SM1 8-24 nm; spherical Extracellular [79] Pseudomonas aeruginosa SM1 5-25 nm; quasispherical Intracellular [80] 5. NANOPARTICLES FROM PLANTS Plant extract collected from various sources ranging from leaves, barks, stem, shoot, root, seeds and their primary as well as the secondary metabolites can be utilized for the efficient biosynthesis [81]. Recently, in a work extract from the seed of plant species Pongamia pinnata have been reported for the green synthesis of the silver nanoparticle. Further, the nanoparticle confirmation was done by getting the absorption max at 439 nm. Karatoprak et al. in their work have reported biosynthesis of silver nanoparticle from the extract taken of plant Pelargonium endlicherianum. In another work, it has been established that gallic acid, apocynin along with quercetin acts as the potential reducing agent. In a yet another work Moldovan et al. has used the extract from the food of plant species Sambucus nigra in what is known as the phytomediated synthesis of silver nanoparticle [82]. Logaranjan et al. have reported that Aloe vera extract could be very useful in the creation of silver nanoparticle with highly restricted morphology and variation in shape and size of it. It shows absorption peak at 420 nm that confirmed the formation of silver nanoparticles. After irradiation done by microwave, silver nanoparticle in range of 5-50 nm could be found, flourishing octahedral geometry of itself. Singh Biosynthesis of silver nanoparticle from fungi, algae and bacteria 49 Eur. J. Biol. Res. 2019; 9(1): 45-56 http://www.journals.tmkarpinski.com/index.php/ejbr Table 3. Synthesis of silver nanoparticles with the help of fungus. Fungus species Morphology Location References Humicola sp. 5-25 nm; spherical Extracellular [83] Macrophomina phaseolina 5-40 nm; spherical Cell free extract [84] Penicillium brevicompactum 58.35 ± 17.88 nm Cell free extract [85] P. nalgiovense AJ12 25 ± 2.8 nm Cell free extract [86] Phaenerochaete chrysosporium 5-200 nm; pyramidal - [87] Phoma glomerata 60-80 nm; spherical - [88] Pleurotus ostreatus < 40 nm; spherical - [89] P. sajor-caju 30.5 ± 4.0 nm; spherical Extracellular [90] Trichoderma asperellum 13-18 nm; nanocrystalline Extracellular [91] T. reesei 5-50nm Extracellular [92] T. viride 5-40 nm Extracellular [93] T. viride 2-5 nm; spherical 40-65 nm; rectangular 50-100 nm; penta/hexagonal Cell free extract [94] 6. CYTOTOXICITY OF SILVER NANOPARTICLES Cytotoxicity of any nanoparticles or nanomaterial is the function of their size, shape along with the stabilizing or capping agent and especially it is being affected by the pathogen in regard to which it is being studied. Biosynthesis is believed to have increased the toxicity of silver nanoparticle against pathogen when compared to their counterpart. The pathogen is found to be more prone to the silver nanoparticle as respect to other nanoparticles, because of its ionic state in which Ag NPs are present. At first Ag NPs will simply envelop the pathogen followed by them breaking through it and finally ending up as the inhibiting factor for various cellular constituents [95-99]. The cytotoxic effect being due to Ag ions that have been released or the Ag NPs is still a controversial position and thoughts are divided on both the option [100-103]. The cytotoxicity of silver nanoparticle has been owned to the fact that it leads to the production of ROS that as a result sees the reduction in glutathione level and the further increase in ROS level [104]. It has been established fact that silver nanoparticle is effective against a large number of the pathogen such as Vibrio parahaemolyticus, Citrobacter koseri, Salmonella Typhii, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus and even against few fungus species like Candida albicans. It is owned to fact that it possesses a larger surface area that is capable to penetrate through the cell membrane and further can attach to different intracellular location based on its size. Reduction in size is inverse proportional to its anti-bacterial efficiency. There have been many arguments for same but the most convincing one is the formation of free radical which has been backed by absorption at 336.33 in ESR (electron spin resonance) band of Ag NPs. Yet in another work, it has been argued that Ag+ get through cell wall being smaller in size and lead to its rupture further leading to denaturation of protein and finally its death [105-110]. 7. CONCLUSION Silver nanoparticle has established various applications in research and development as well as also in things related to commercial uses. It has been employed in the various fields from medicine, agriculture, biosensor and many more. It has been cytotoxic to both the gram positive and gram negative pathogen. It could be used to treat various infections and when coupled with an antibody could further result into active Singh Biosynthesis of silver nanoparticle from fungi, algae and bacteria 50 Eur. J. Biol. Res. 2019; 9(1): 45-56 http://www.journals.tmkarpinski.com/index.php/ejbr against many bacteria that has been coming up as drug-resistant bacteria. Ag NPs have been coupled with the polymer to act as the efficient drug delivery system which is expected to increase solubility, stability and also the distribution of the drug inside the body. Besides all the very good application of silver nanoparticle, we too have some disadvantage of it. 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