Effect of air pollution on plant life in the city of Chittagong, Bangladesh European Journal of Chemistry 15 (1) (2024) 79-86 European Journal of Chemistry ISSN 2153-2249 (Print) / ISSN 2153-2257 (Online) – Copyright © 2024 The Authors – Atlanta Publishing House LLC – Printed in the USA. This work is published and licensed by Atlanta Publishing House LLC – CC BY NC – Some Rights Reserved. https://dx.doi.org/10.5155/eurjchem.15.1.79-86.2511 European Journal of Chemistry View Journal Online View Article Online Effect of air pollution on plant life in the city of Chittagong, Bangladesh Ahmed Jubaer 1, Mohammed Khorshed Ali 2, Saiyed Mahmud Tanvir Hassan 1, Md.Shahidul Islam 3, Muhammad Mahabub Alam 1, Sajia Islam 4, Mohammad Zahirul Islam Talukder 5 and Rubayat Tahrim Sourav 6 1 Environmental and Social Monitoring Department, EQMS Consulting Limited, Banani, Dhaka, 1213, Bangladesh 2 Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Faculty of Science and Engineering, International Islamic University Chittagong, Kumira, Sitakunda, Chattogram, 4318, Bangladesh 3 Department of Chemistry, University of Chittagong, Chittagong, 4331, Bangladesh 4 Central Analytical and Research Facilities, Bangladesh Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, Dhanmondi, Dhaka-1205, Bangladesh 5 Department of Environment, Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, Dhaka, 1207, Bangladesh 6 Department of Environment, Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, Chattogram, 4202, Bangladesh * Corresponding author at: Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Faculty of Science and Engineering, International Islamic University Chittagong, Kumira, Sitakunda, Chattogram, 4318, Bangladesh. e-mail: khorshed.chem.cse@iiuc.ac.bd (M.K. Ali). 10.5155/eurjchem.15.1.79-86.2511 Received: 31 January 2024 Received in revised form: 03 March 2024 Accepted: 08 March 2024 Published online: 31 March 2024 Printed: 31 March 2024 Bangladesh faces a serious problem with air pollution, which has a negative impact on human health and tree health. Leaf damage, slow development, and decreased photosynthetic activity are just a few of the harmful effects on trees that have been linked to high concentrations of pollutants such as particulate matter, sulfur dioxide, and nitrogen oxides. These consequences affect the aesthetic value of green spaces in addition to interfering with the functions of the ecosystem that trees offer, such as air filtration and carbon sequestration. Given the seriousness of the problem, the present study plan was implemented to evaluate the amount of pollutants such as SOx, NOx, O3, hydrocarbons, particulate matter 2.5, particulate matter 10 and suspended particulate matter in the air in several urban areas of Chittagong and to evaluate the amount of chlorophyll from the leaves of affected and without affected leaves so that it may understand how the photosynthesis process of plants is interrupted by air pollution. 2 Number Gate Circle, Akbarsha Lane Circle, Alongkar Mor Bus Stop, Barik Building Circle, BDR Field Circle, Halishahar Access Road, Artillery Center-North Halishahar, Bangladesh Forest Research Institute and CRB Circle were selected as sampling location based on their heavy traffic and crowdedness. For the analysis of chlorophyll, each plant leaves were collected in three sections such as unaffected, slightly affected, and affected for comparison. The data studied showed that the most polluted zone with particulate matter had a lower chlorophyll concentration in the surrounding tree leaves. This can indicate that particulate matter can hinder photosynthesis reactions. Plants Leaves Aerosol Adsorption Chlorophyll Air pollution Cite this: Eur. J. Chem. 2024, 15(1), 79-86 Journal website: www.eurjchem.com 1. Introduction Air pollution is a complex mixture of particulates, gases, and organic and inorganic substances found both in the outdoors and indoor air [1]. In Chittagong, Bangladesh's commercial city, common causes of air pollution include the textile, clothing, cement, sugar, chemical fertilizers, shipbuilding, and light engineering sectors. In recent decades, air pollution has become a significant problem with negative toxicological impacts on both human health and the ecosystem. Every year, millions of people around the world are affected by air pollution [2]. Common air pollutants are SOx (sulfur oxides), NOx (nitrogen oxides), CO (carbon monooxide), CO2 (carbon dioxide), and airborne particulate matter such as PM2.5, PM10 or suspended particulate matter. Sulfur dioxide is one of the extremely reactive gases referred to as sulfur oxides. Fossil fuel burning, wood pulping, papermaking, metal smelting, locomotives, and ships are all sources of sulfur oxide emissions that cause adverse respiratory consequences, including those that cause asthma and breathing problems [3,4]. Nitric oxide and nitrogen dioxide are combined to form nitrogen oxides (NOx), which are released by natural sources, cars, and other fuel-burning processes. Nitric oxide (NO), which has a poor solubility in water, penetrates the respiratory system. Nitrogen oxides disturb Alveolar structures and their function by diffusing through the Alveolar cells of the lungs (epithelium) and adjacent capillary capillaries [5]. Approxi- mately 20% of all premature deaths in Bangladesh are attributed to air pollution, according to a World Bank study. The three largest air pollution hotspots in Bangladesh are Dhaka, Narayanganj, and Chattogram [6]. Recent concern in respect to Bangladesh arises is the heat effect on human and plants due to ambient temperature. Although unhealthy temperatures, extreme temperatures, and even moderately high or low temperatures can have an impact ABSTRACT RESEARCH ARTICLE KEYWORDS https://dx.doi.org/10.5155/eurjchem.15.1.79-86.2511 https://www.eurjchem.com/ https://dx.doi.org/10.5155/eurjchem.15.1.79-86.2511 mailto:khorshed.chem.cse@iiuc.ac.bd http://www.eurjchem.com/ https://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.5155/eurjchem.15.1.79-86.2511&domain=pdf&date_stamp=2024-03-31 80 Jubaer et al. / European Journal of Chemistry 15 (1) (2024) 79-86 2024 – European Journal of Chemistry – CC BY NC – DOI: 10.5155/eurjchem.15.1.79-86.2511 on death, the overall influence of humidity on mortality has not been epidemiologically demonstrated conclusively [7]. Addi- tionally, in vulnerable plant species, these air pollutants can cause leaf damage, stomatal damage, early senescence, reduced photosynthetic activity, disturbed membrane permeability, and restricted growth and production. Moreover, the morphological characteristics and growth of plants are also affected by the highly dangerous heavy metals emitted by moving vehicles [8,9]. Nitric oxide and nitrogen dioxide are the two main phytotoxic pollutants connected to vehicle mobility. However, it is also conceivable that trace amounts of other nitrogen- containing compounds, such as nitrous acid, nitrous oxide, and ammonia, are also present in car emissions [10]. A study found that exposure to 35 ppb of nitrogen dioxide or nitric oxide for 21 days significantly impacts the nitrate reductase activity and oxygen evolution of bryophyte species. Similarly, Polytrichum formosum, when exposed to 60 ppb nitrogen dioxide for 37 weeks, experienced both an initial growth increase and a subsequent decrease [11]. Plants are greatly affected by ozone, including long-term exposure to low concentrations of ozone can cause obvious damage, such as chlorosis, changes in pigmentation or bron- zing, and premature senescence. Stippling and flaking can appear after a brief exposure to elevated ozone levels. The physiological effects of ozone exposure include slower decom- position of early successional communities, reduced photo- synthesis, increased turnover of the antioxidant system, damage to the reproductive process, increased dark respira- tion, and decreased carbon transport to roots [12]. Among the various air pollutants, particulate matter is particularly dangerous to people, since it is more harmful than any other. Lower chlorophyll a/b levels were observed in primary leaves exposed to particulate matter, suggesting that particulate matter (PM) had a shading effect on plants. Primary leaves exposed to particulate matter showed reduced sugar levels [13]. Lead has garnered significant attention as a persistent hazardous pollutant of concern, in part because of its prominence in the discourse around the increasing stress that human activities place on the environment. In the human body, lead poisoning can slow the synthesis process of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and destroy DNA by overproducing reactive oxygen species (ROS). Additionally, lead dramatically reduces water and protein content, transpiration, seed germination, seedling development, and seedling growth [14]. Mercury is a metal that is easily transmuted into multiple oxidation states and is dispersed throughout various environ- ments. There are two main cycles in which these changes could recur. The first involves the global circulation of elemental mercury (Hg) in the atmosphere. The second, more limited, depends on the activity of organisms that can transform inorganic mercury into organic mercury compounds, which are the most dangerous to living creatures [15]. The indirect and direct effects of sulfur dioxide on plants make it dangerous. There are two types of direct effects: acute and chronic, depending on the duration and intensity of exposure. Sulfur dioxide hinders photosynthetic processes by interfering with them. More water is lost when the stomata open due to the stimulation of sulfur dioxide [16]. Plants absorb CO2 through the stomates in their leaves and simultaneously lose water through transpiration through the same route. Plants can reduce water loss per unit of carbon intake at higher atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations, partly due to a decrease in stomatal conductance as the gradient of CO2 between the environment and the interior of the leaf increases. If the leaf area is constant, this physiological reaction may decrease water loss from the land surface, increase soil moisture, and relieve plant water stress [17]. When it dissolves in water and forms nitrate and nitrite, which are both utilized by plants through the regular nitrate metabolism process, low concentrations of NO2 can function as an airborne fertilizer. However, excessive accumulation of nitrite (NO2) and cell acidification caused by high levels of NO2 can have negative consequences such as the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and the inhibition of N assimilation and plant growth. These can also lead to acute leaf damage, whole plant chlorosis, or even plant death [18]. When photochemical processes occur in its precursors, tropospheric ozone, a secondary gaseous pollutant, is produced. Tropospheric ozone has been reported to affect plant photosynthesis, affecting plant growth, nutrition, and crop yield. Secondary metabolites that are crucial for plant communication or plant attraction, repulsiveness, or defense may change in quantity or quality due to ozone pollutants [19]. Due to the 0.2 °C increase in global air temperature per ten years, temperatures are predicted to be 1.8-4.0 °C higher by 2100. Catastrophic collapse of the cellular structure may result from rapid cell death or damage at extremely high tempe- ratures [20]. The purpose of this study is to establish a link between plant health and air pollution, thus identifying solutions to improve air quality and promote the well-being of both plants and humans. 2. Experimental 2.1. Sampling and sample preparation In this study, high-volume APM 430 model air samplers (Envirotech, India) were used for the collection of SOx, NOx, and suspended particulate matter samples. Ozone gas was monitored using a smart sensor electrochemical ozone gas detector (model AS8908, Intel Instrument Pro). Lata Envirotech APM 250 (Lata Envirotech, India) was used to collect the PM10 and PM2.5 samples. Suspended particulate matter was collected on Millipore glass fiber filter paper (Whatman, GF/A, for size 8”×10”) where PM10 and PM2.5 were collected on PM2.5 PTFE (Polytetrafluoroethylene) membrane filters (Whatman, 46.2 mm) are designed for PM2.5 ambient air monitoring. The West-Geake method [21] was followed to collect and determine the ambient SOx analysis. The high- volume air sampler APM 430 (Envirotech, India) with springer having 20 mL 0.04 M potassium tetra chloromercurate prepared by mixing 10.86 g of mercuric chloride and 6.0 g of potassium chloride and 0.066 g of EDTA were dissolved in distilled water and then the final volume of up to 1 liter with distilled water was run for eight hours in each selective location to collect SOx sample. The Jacob and Hochheiser method was followed to collect and determine ambient NOx analysis [22]. Springer in APM 250 (Lata Envirotech, India) contains 20 mL absorbent (4.0 g of sodium hydroxide and 1.0 g of sodium arsenite). The leaves were collected in three groups between the winter and summer seasons (January to May 2023). The first group consisted of noninfected leaves, the second group of infected leaves, and the third group of slightly yellowish leaves. The sampling locations are listed with their GPS coordinates in Table 1 and the sampling map shown in Figure 1. 2.2. Extraction method The leaves were stored in a 4 °C refrigerator covered with aluminum foil paper in a dark box for analysis. During the analysis period, one gram of finely cut fresh leaves was taken and ground with 20-40 mL of 80% acetone. The mixture was then centrifuged at 5000-10000 rpm for 5 min. The supernatant was transferred to a 25 mL volumetric flask and made up to the mark with 80% acetone. Jubaer et al. / European Journal of Chemistry 15 (1) (2024) 79-86 81 2024 – European Journal of Chemistry – CC BY NC – DOI: 10.5155/eurjchem.15.1.79-86.2511 Table 1. GPS coordinates of the sampling and monitoring location. Monitoring point Latitude Longitude 2 Number Gate Circle, Chittagong 22°21'59.46"N 91°49'22.37"E Akbarsha Lane Circle, Chittagong 22°21'46.30"N 91°47'33.78"E Alongkar Mor Bus Stop, Chittagong 22°21'30.68"N 91°46'56.24"E Barik Building Circle, Chittagong 22°19'9.93"N 91°48'44.02"E BDR Field Circle, Chittagong 22°20'26.51"N 91°46'53.14"E Halishahar Access Road, Chittagong 22°19'41.91"N 91°47'35.94"E Artillery Center, North Halishahar, Chittagong 22°19'54.93"N 91°46'55.70"E Bangladesh Forest Research Institute (BFRI), Chittagong 22°22'24.08"N 91°49'38.90"E CRB Circle, Chittagong 22°20'33.35"N 91°49'15.34"E Figure 1. Sampling and monitoring map (Source: Google Earth). The absorbance of the solution was red at 645, 663, and 652 nm for chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, and total chlorophyll, respectively, against the blank solvent (acetone) using a spectrophotometer (T60, PG Instrument, UK). 2.3. Moisture content of leaves The moisture content of leaves was measured by a simple oven-dry method at temperature 105 °C for 2 hours followed by gravimetric analysis [23]. 2.4. Analysis 2.4.1. Determination of SOx Following the West-Geake method [24], the absorbance was measured at 560 nm after 30 min but before 60 min against the blank reagent using a spectrophotometer. From the calibration curve, the concentration of SO2 in the absorbent reagent was measured. Then the concentration of SO2 in the air was measured using Equations 1 and 2. Total volume of air passed through SO2impinger = Avg. flow rate (lpm) × Time (min) (1) SO2 concentration (µg/m3) = C×A×1000×D V×B (2) where, C = SO2 curve value (µg SO2 in 25 mL), A = Sample taken for sampling (mL), V = Volume of air passed (L), B = Sample volume taken for analysis (mL) and D = Dilution factor. 2.4.2. Determination of NOx Following the Jacob and Hochheiser method [22], the absorbance was measured at 540 nm after 10 min against the blank reagent using a spectrophotometer (T60, PG Instrument, UK). From the calibration curve, the concentration of NOx in the absorbing reagent was measured. Then the concentration of NOx in the air was measured using Equations 3 and 4. Total air volume of air passed through NO2impinger = Avg. flow rate (lpm) × Time (min) (3) NO𝑥𝑥 concentration (µg/m3) = C×A×1000×D V×B×0.82 (4) where, C = NO2 curve value (µg NO2 in 50 mL), A = Sample taken for sampling (mL), V = Volume of air passed (L), B = Sample volume taken for analysis (mL), 0.82 = Absorbing efficiency of this method, and D = Dilution factor. 2.4.3. Determination of ozone gas An electrochemical smart sensor device, model AS8908, was used to detect ozone gas by the electrochemical method [25]. 2.4.4. Determination of PM2.5 and PM10 The PM2.5 and PM10 particles were collected using a combined dust sampler (Lata Envirotech APM 250) for 24 hours for each location and analyzed according to Equations 5 and 6 [26]. PM2.5 = (Mf − Mi) × 106/ Q𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 × t (5) PM10 = (Mf − Mi) × 106/ Q𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 × t (6) where Q𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = (Initial �low rate + Final �low rate)/2, Mf = Final mass of the conditioned �ilter after sample collection (mg), Mi = Initial mass of the conditioned �ilter before sample collection (mg). 82 Jubaer et al. / European Journal of Chemistry 15 (1) (2024) 79-86 2024 – European Journal of Chemistry – CC BY NC – DOI: 10.5155/eurjchem.15.1.79-86.2511 Table 2. The concentrations of PM2.5, PM10, SOx, and NOx of different locations in Chittagong city. Sampling date Monitoring location Temp. (°F) Humidity (%RH) Weather condition Sampling hours Conc. of PM2.5 (μg/m3) Conc. of PM10 (μg/m3) Conc. of NO2 (μg/m3) Conc. of SO2 (μg/m3) Jan 11, 2023 2 Number Gate Circle, Chittagong 70 64 Haze 24 36.52 68.09 48.24 20.15 Feb 15, 2023 72 46 Haze 24 36.89 70.03 46.78 21.41 Mar 10, 2023 84 45 Haze 24 36.18 69.08 45.31 29.32 Average 36.53 69.07 46.78 23.63 Jan 15, 2023 Akbarsha Lane Circle, Chittagong 70 83 Haze 24 35.15 65.14 43.51 23.17 Feb 11, 2023 77 50 Haze 24 33.11 64.10 42.64 21.01 Mar 3, 2023 82 48 Haze 24 33.19 65.09 45.20 21.61 Average 33.82 64.78 43.78 21.93 Feb 18, 2023 Barik Building Circle, Chittagong 75 57 Haze 24 35.50 68.01 46.76 21.23 Mar 11, 2023 84 45 Haze 24 37.40 68.39 45.89 22.14 Apr 7, 2023 95 32 Sunny 24 36.40 69.29 46.32 23.41 Average 36.43 68.56 46.32 22.26 Feb 26, 2023 BDR Field Circle, Chittagong 79 36 Haze 24 33.17 56.09 38.52 21.13 Mar 13, 2023 90 21 Fair 24 32.09 56.59 36.34 25.31 Apr 14, 2023 96 44 Sunny 24 32.15 55.56 31.53 22.32 Average 32.47 56.08 35.46 22.92 Mar 14, 2023 Halishahar Access Road, Chittagong 82 54 Haze 24 36.40 67.14 42.91 24.11 Apr 15, 2023 95 55 Scattered clouds 24 33.07 66.01 41.72 23.11 May 12, 2023 93 56 Mostly cloudy 24 39.10 68.03 43.08 21.65 Average 36.19 67.06 42.57 22.96 Mar 18, 2023 Alongkar Mor Bus Stop, Chittagong 81 70 Fog 24 38.20 69.65 41.32 22.34 Apr 18, 2023 90 75 Haze 24 35.30 68.68 48.74 22.41 May 19, 2023 88 66 Partly cloudy 24 35.80 68.13 44.94 22.14 Average 36.43 68.82 45.00 22.30 May 25, 2023 Artillery Center, North Halishahar 84 66 Mostly cloudy 24 35.50 54.05 31.38 23.43 May 27, 2023 90 66 Partly cloudy 24 35.20 61.01 38.58 21.21 Jul 7, 2023 88 79 Mostly cloudy 24 34.50 56.03 37.68 21.90 Average 35.07 57.03 35.88 22.18 May 30, 2023 Bangladesh Forest Research Institute (BFRI), Chittagong 91 63 Haze 24 28.60 56.08 32.41 25.65 Jun 4, 2023 90 75 Haze 24 28.82 55.09 32.71 21.54 Jul 14, 2023 84 84 Mostly cloudy 24 30.10 56.03 33.36 18.45 Average 29.17 55.73 32.83 21.88 Jun 14, 2023 CRB Circle, Chittagong 91 71 Haze / windy 24 31.34 58.25 37.16 23.40 Jul 9, 2023 88 79 Mostly cloudy 24 32.20 58.18 31.31 22.23 Jul 21, 2023 91 66 Partly cloudy 24 33.20 57.29 30.32 22.53 Average 32.25 57.91 32.93 22.72 2.4.5. Determination of suspended particulate matter Using a high-volume sampler (Envirotech), a suspended particle matter (SPM) sample was collected on a Millipore �ilter paper. In the upper section of the high-volume sampler, a �ilter paper was placed. Suspended particulate matter later than analysis by gravimetrically by analytical balance (Fix Scale, KD- TN 200, USA) by using Equation 7, 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 in µg/m3 = (𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹−𝐼𝐼𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹)×106 (𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼+𝐹𝐹𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼) 2 × (𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 − 𝐼𝐼𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹) × 60 (7) where, IFW = Weight of initial filter paper, FFW = Weight of final filter paper, IMR = Initial manometer reading, FMR = Final manometer reading, ITR = Initial time reading and FTR = Final time reading. 2.4.6. Determination of chlorophyll a and b Chlorophyll a, b and total chlorophyll were determined using the method described by Arnon [27]. After centrifuging the leaf sample with acetone solution, the supernatants were diluted by adding 80% aqueous acetone to give a reading in the range of 0.2 to 0.8 absorbance units at wavelengths of 645, 652 and 663 nm. Equations 8-11 were followed to evaluate chlorophyll a, b, and total chlorophyll. Chlorophyll a = 12.7 × Absorbance taken at 663 nm − 2.69 × Absorbance taken at 645 nm × V 1000 × W (8) Chlorophyll b = 22.9 × Absorbance taken at 645 nm − 4.69 × Absorbance taken at 663 nm × V 1000 × W (9) Total chlorophyll = Absorbance at 652 nm 34.5 × 1000 × V 1000 × W (10) where A is the absorbance found at the respective wavelengths, V is the final volume of the supernatant (25 mL), and W is the fresh weight of grained leaf (2 g). Chlorophyll a and b ratio = Chlorophyll a Chlorophyll b (11) 2.4.7. Determination of leaf moisture content % The oven dry method was used to determine the moisture content of the leaves of the plant at a temperature of 105 °C for 2 hours (Equation 12) [28]. Moisture (%) = (W1−W2) × 100 W1 (12) where W1 = Weight (g) of the sample before drying and W2 = Weight (g) of the sample after drying. 3. Results and discussion The particulate matter and gaseous pollutants were measured in different traffic locations in the ambient air of the city of Chittagong for 24 hours of continuous monitoring, where the average concentration of particulate matter of 2.5 microns or less in diameter (PM2.5) varies from 29.17 to 36.53 µg/m3 to in Chittagong city (Table 2). According to the Environmental Convention rule 2022, the maximum allowable concentration for PM2.5 for 24 hours continuous monitoring is 65 µg/m3. 2 No. Gate Circle area has the highest average concentration for PM2.5 pollutants. Jubaer et al. / European Journal of Chemistry 15 (1) (2024) 79-86 83 2024 – European Journal of Chemistry – CC BY NC – DOI: 10.5155/eurjchem.15.1.79-86.2511 Table 3. Concentration of ozone and SPM of different locations in Chittagong city. Sampling date Monitoring location Temp. (°F) Humidity (%RH) Weather condition Sampling hours Conc. of SPM (μg/m3) Conc. of ozone (ppb) Jan 11, 2023 2 Number Gate Circle, Chittagong 70 64 Haze 8 132.875 20.00 Feb 15, 2023 72 46 Haze 8 135.106 40.00 Mar 10, 2023 84 45 Haze 8 138.783 20.00 Average 8 135.588 26.67 Jan 15, 2023 Akbarsha Lane Circle, Chittagong 70 83 Haze 8 110.610 20.00 Feb 11, 2023 77 50 Haze 8 114.540 10.00 Mar 3, 2023 82 48 Haze 8 112.310 20.00 Average 8 112.487 16.67 Feb 18, 2023 Barik Building Circle, Chittagong 75 57 Haze 8 125.752 20.00 Mar 11, 2023 84 45 Haze 8 125.640 30.00 Apr 7, 2023 95 32 Sunny 8 131.430 20.00 Average 8 127.607 23.33 Feb 26, 2023 BDR Field Circle, Chittagong 79 36 Haze 8 122.678 20.00 Mar 13, 2023 90 21 Fair 8 114.251 20.00 Apr 14, 2023 96 44 Sunny 8 116.410 20.00 Average 8 117.780 20.00 Mar 14, 2023 Halishahar Access Road, Chittagong 82 54 Haze 8 135.752 20.00 Apr 15, 2023 95 55 Sunny 8 128.640 30.00 May 12, 2023 93 56 Mostly cloudy 8 131.430 20.00 Average 8 131.941 23.33 Mar 18, 2023 Alongkar Mor Bus Stop, Chittagong 81 70 Fog 8 135.752 20.00 Apr 18, 2023 90 75 Haze 8 138.640 30.00 May 19, 2023 88 66 Partly cloudy 8 131.430 20.00 Average 8 135.274 23.33 May 25, 2023 Artillery Center, North Halishahar 84 66 Mostly cloudy 8 110.601 20.00 May 27, 2023 90 66 Partly cloudy 8 115.501 10.00 Jul 7, 2023 88 79 Mostly cloudy 8 126.203 20.00 Average 8 117.435 16.67 May 30, 2023 Bangladesh Forest Research (BFRI), Chittagong 91 63 Haze 8 103.251 20.00 Jun 4, 2023 90 75 Haze 8 105.356 10.00 Jul 14, 2023 84 84 Mostly cloudy 8 107.941 20.00 Average 8 105.516 16.67 Jun 14, 2023 CRB Circle, Chittagong 91 71 Haze / windy 8 103.251 20.00 Jul 9, 2023 88 79 Mostly cloudy 8 125.356 10.00 Jul 21, 2023 91 66 Partly cloudy 8 107.941 20.00 Average 8 112.183 16.67 People in this area are more vulnerable to the possibility of having diseases associated with the lungs such as cancer, respiratory tract infection, etc. as PM2.5 is a pollutant that is the combination of suspended particles of various chemical contents [29]. In 2021, the studied data showed that the average concentration of particulate matter (PM2.5) was 80.15, 83.14, 83.06, 67.03, 68.74, 69.20 and 69.17 µg/m3 for the WASA Circle, the GEC Circle, Proborthak Circle, Chawkbazar Circle, Alongkar Circle, New Market Circle, Oxygen Circle, respectively, in the city of Chittagong. The previously established data was too high than in the current study [26]. The average concentration of particulate matter of 10 microns or less (PM10) was found to vary from 55.73 to 69.07 µg/m3 in Chittagong city (Table 2). According to the Environmental Convention rule 2022, the maximum allowable concentration for PM10 for 24 hours continuous monitoring is 150 µg/m3. 2 No. Gate Circle area has the highest average concentration for PM10 pollutants. In the current study, motor vehicles such as trucks, laury, bus, cars, jeep, minibus, human holler, microbus, four-stroke engine driven, etc., have been identified as the main source of particulate matter pollution in the Chittagong study area [30]. The same study data revealed that the average concentration of particulate matter (PM10) was 163.44, 166.07, 171.43, 163.73, 153.36, 153.82and 153.79 µg/m3 for the WASA Circle, G.E.C. Circle, Proborthak Circle, Chawkbazar Circle, Alongkar Circle, New Market Circle, Oxygen Circle, respectively, in the city of Chittagong. The previously established data was too high than in the current study [26]. The average concentration of suspended particulate matter (SPM) (diameters ranging from < 0.1 µm and up to about 100 µm) was found to vary from 105.516 to 135.588 µg/m3 in Chittagong city (Table 3). Monitoring was carried out for 8 hours. Although there is no standard requirement set yet for suspended particulate matter in the environment of Bangladesh, the comparatively 2 Number Gate Circle area has the highest average concentration of suspended particulate pollutants. In 2016, the mean concentrations of SPM concent- rations were found for A. The K. Khan Gate circle, the City Gate circle, the GEC circle, the Sholashar Gate-2 circle, the Agrabad circle, and the New Market circle were 238, 226, 276, 270, 241 and 257 µg/m3, respectively [31], which is higher than the current founded average value studied. The average concentration of SOx was found to vary from 21.88 to 23.63 µg/m3 in Chittagong city (Table 2). Monitoring was carried out for 24 hours. According to the rules of the Environmental Convention 2022, the maximum allowable concentration of SO2 for continuous monitoring for 24 hours is 80 µg/m3. Where the maximum value was found at 2 No. Gate Circle area in Chittagong city, which is a high traffic zone. In 2014, a study found that the average concentration of SOx in different locations in Chittagong city was 37.20, 26.25, 36.32, 31.41, 33.19, 35.48, 30.51, 35.63 µg/m3 for Muradpur Circle, WASA Circle, G.E.C Circle, Proborthak Circle, Chawkbazar Circle, Alongkar Circle, New Market Circle and Oxygen Circle, respectively [32], which are slightly higher than the current found data. The average concentration of NOx was found to vary from 32.83 to 46.78 µg/m3 in Chittagong city (Table 2). Monitoring was carried out for 24 hours. According to the rules of the Environmental Convention 2022, the maximum allowable concentration of NO2 for continuous monitoring for 24 hours is 80 µg/m3. Where the maximum value was found at 2 No. Gate Circle area in Chittagong city, which is a high traffic zone. This study also found that the average NOx concentration at different locations in Chittagong city was 44.91, 48.23, 44.89, 38.69, 42.57, 60.95, 50.53 and 57.60 µg/m3 for Muradpur Circle, WASA Circle, G.E.C Circle, Proborthak Circle, Chawkbazar Circle, Alongkar Circle, New Market Circle and Oxygen Circle, respectively [32], which were higher than the data currently established. 84 Jubaer et al. / European Journal of Chemistry 15 (1) (2024) 79-86 2024 – European Journal of Chemistry – CC BY NC – DOI: 10.5155/eurjchem.15.1.79-86.2511 Table 4. Concentration of chlorophyll of different locations’ plant leaves. Sampling ID Leaf condition Sampling location Conc. of chlorophyll a (mg/L) Conc. of chlorophyll b (mg/L) Conc. of total chlorophyll (mg/L) Ratio of chlorophyll a/b Moisture content (%) S1 Non-infected and fresh 2 Number Gate Circle, Chittagong 1.57 0.93 4.01 1.68 2.86 S2 Infected 1.26 0.94 3.29 1.35 3.85 S3 Slightly yellowish 1.21 0.85 3.14 1.44 2.55 Average±SE 1.35±0.11 0.91±0.03 3.48±0.27 1.49±0.10 3.09 S1 Non-infected and fresh Akbarsha Lane Circle, Chittagong 1.49 0.72 3.77 2.06 2.36 S2 Infected 1.30 0.79 3.33 1.64 3.76 S3 Slightly yellowish 1.36 0.77 3.48 1.77 3.69 Average±SE 1.38±0.06 0.76±0.02 3.527±0.13 1.87±0.13 3.27 S1 Non-infected and fresh Barik Building Circle, Chittagong 1.56 0.9295 4.00 1.68 3.87 S2 Infected 1.21 1.0587 3.20 1.15 3.88 S3 Slightly yellowish 1.26 0.9295 3.27 1.36 3.87 Average±SE 1.35±0.11 0.97±0.04 3.49±0.25 1.40±0.16 3.87 S1 Non-infected and fresh BDR Field Circle, Chittagong 1.61 1.09 4.15 1.48 7.85 S2 Infected 1.35 1.18 3.86 1.14 7.86 S3 Slightly yellowish 1.61 1.09 4.15 1.48 7.85 Average±SE 1.52±0.08 1.12±0.03 4.05±0.10 1.37±0.11 7.85 S1 Non-infected and fresh Halishahar Access Road, Chittagong 1.60 1.12 4.16 1.43 3.88 S2 Infected 1.36 1.21 3.62 1.13 3.88 S3 Slightly yellowish 1.60 1.12 4.16 1.43 3.87 Average±SE 1.52±0.08 1.15±0.03 3.98±0.18 1.33±0.10 3.88 S1 Non-infected and fresh Alongkar Mor Bus Stop, Chittagong 1.49 0.73 3.78 2.05 3.58 S2 Infected 1.30 0.80 3.20 1.63 3.59 S3 Slightly yellowish 1.49 0.73 3.78 2.05 3.58 Average±SE 1.43±0.06 0.75±0.02 3.59±0.19 1.91±0.14 3.58 S1 Non-infected and fresh Artillery Center, North Halishahar 1.60 1.11 4.15 1.43 7.57 S2 Infected 1.66 1.09 4.01 1.52 7.58 S3 Slightly yellowish 1.60 1.11 4.15 1.43 7.57 Average±SE 1.62±0.02 1.11±0.01 4.10±0.05 1.46±0.03 7.57 S1 Non-infected and fresh Bangladesh Forest Research (BFRI), Chittagong 1.61 1.10 4.16 1.47 8.31 S2 Infected 1.68 1.07 4.31 1.56 8.32 S3 Slightly yellowish 1.61 1.10 4.16 1.47 8.31 Average±SE 1.63±0.02 1.09±0.01 4.21±0.05 1.50±0.03 8.31 S1 Non-infected and fresh CRB Circle, Chittagong 1.61 1.15 4.20 1.40 8.13 S2 Infected 1.67 1.13 4.34 1.48 8.13 S3 Slightly yellowish 1.61 1.15 4.20 1.40 7.29 Average±SE 1.63±0.02 1.15±0.01 4.25±0.05 1.42±0.03 7.85 * S1= Group of leaf sample that were non-infected and fresh, S2 = Group of leaf sample that were infected, S3 = Group of leaf sample that were slightly yellowish. Figure 2. Relationship between airborne particulate matter with chlorophyll concentration in tree leaves on the roadside. The amount of chlorophyll concentration of the tree leaves was found to be comparatively lower in areas of the high-traffic zone than in areas of the low-traffic zone. The lowest total chlorophyll concentration was found at the 2 no. gate 10.44 mg/L, while the highest concentration was found in tree leaves from the CRB zone area, which was 12.60 mg/L (Table 4). It also shows that the leaf samples from the location of the highly polluted area with particulate matter area have a lower chlorophyll content Figure 2, and the minimum moisture content of the leaves is found at a minimum level of chlorophyll contents. A study revealed that the total chlorophyll content was significantly higher in the leaves of the plant population of the dust-free area, while a lower level was observed in plants exposed to different levels of road dust [33]. Similar results were also achieved in the current study. In the study, we tried to relate the correlation between the level of pollution and the condition of the trees in the surrounding zone. Total chlorophyll concentration was found to increase with the decrease in the level of particulate matter, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, and ozone gas pollution in that particular zone. 4. Conclusions The results of the current study demonstrate that airborne particles are a serious threat to plant health as they can affect 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 To ta l c hl or op hy ll co nc . ( µg /L ) Pa rti cu la te m at te rs c on c. (µ g/ m 3 ) Sampling point Average concentration of PM2.5 Average concentration of PM10 Concentration of total chlorophyll Jubaer et al. / European Journal of Chemistry 15 (1) (2024) 79-86 85 2024 – European Journal of Chemistry – CC BY NC – DOI: 10.5155/eurjchem.15.1.79-86.2511 photosynthesis, impede the uptake of nutrients, and make plants more vulnerable to pests and diseases. The vitality and production of plants, as well as the general health of ecosystems, depend on the mitigation of particle pollution. Acknowledgements We express our gratitude to the Department of Environment, Chittagong, Bangladesh and Department of Environment, Dhaka, Bangladesh for their help and collaboration. Their cooperation and suggestions have greatly enhanced the caliber and applicability of our study's conclusions. The authors are grateful to EQMS Consulting Limited for lending us the equipment needed for our research and for their technical assistance. Their assistance has been crucial in streamlining our procedures for gathering and analyzing data. Disclosure statement Conflict of interest: The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest. Ethical approval: All ethical guidelines have been adhered. Sample availability: Samples of the compounds are available from the author. CRediT authorship contribution statement Conceptualization: Ahmed Jubaer, Mohammed Khorshed Ali; Methodology: Ahmed Jubaer, Saiyed Mahmud Tanvir Hassan; Software: Ahmed Jubaer, Muhammad Mahabub Alam; Validation: Sajia Islam, Saiyed Mahmud Tanvir Hassan; Formal analysis: Ahmed Jubaer, Mohammed Khorshed Ali; Investigation: Ahmed Jubaer, Md.Shahidul Islam; Resources: Mohammad Zahirul Islam Talukder, Rubayat Tahrim Sourav; Data Curation: Saiyed Mahmud Tanvir Hassan, Md.Shahidul Islam, Muhammad Mahabub Alam; Writing - Original Draft: Ahmed Jubaer, Sajia Islam; Writing - Review and Editing: Mohammed Khorshed Ali, Muhammad Mahabub Alam; Visualization: Mohammad Zahirul Islam Talukder, Rubayat Tahrim Sourav; Supervision: Mohammed Khorshed Ali, Mohammad Zahirul Islam Talukder; Project Administration: Mohammed Khorshed Ali, Mohammad Zahirul Islam Talukder. ORCID and Email Ahmed Jubaer jubaer.ahmed@eqms.com.bd https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1559-3406 Mohammed Khorshed Ali khorshed.chem.cse@iiuc.ac.bd https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1519-3090 Saiyed Mahmud Tanvir Hassan tanvir.hassan@eqms.com.bd https://orcid.org/0009-0005-4767-7128 Md.Shahidul Islam mdshahidulcu@gmail.com https://orcid.org/0009-0006-8763-5018 Muhammad Mahabub Alam mahabub.alam@eqms.com.bd https://orcid.org/0009-0002-6559-8835 Sajia Islam islamsajia323@gmail.com https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1518-9411 Mohammad Zahirul Islam Talukder zisi1000@gmail.com https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8547-5878 Rubayat Tahrim Sourav rtsouravdoe@gmail.com https://orcid.org/0009-0001-2746-0491 References [1]. Calderón-Garcidueñas, L.; Calderón-Garcidueñas, A.; Torres-Jardón, R.; Avila-Ramírez, J.; Kulesza, R. J.; Angiulli, A. D. Air pollution and your brain: what do you need to know right now. Prim. Health Care Res. Dev. 2015, 16, 329–345. [2]. Balali-Mood, M.; Ghorani-Azam, A.; Riahi-Zanjani, B. 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In Encyclopedia of Environmental Health; Elsevier, 2011; pp. 335–343. mailto:jubaer.ahmed@eqms.com.bd https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1559-3406 mailto:khorshed.chem.cse@iiuc.ac.bd https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1519-3090 mailto:tanvir.hassan@eqms.com.bd https://orcid.org/0009-0005-4767-7128 mailto:mdshahidulcu@gmail.com https://orcid.org/0009-0006-8763-5018 mailto:mahabub.alam@eqms.com.bd https://orcid.org/0009-0002-6559-8835 mailto:islamsajia323@gmail.com https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1518-9411 mailto:zisi1000@gmail.com https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8547-5878 mailto:rtsouravdoe@gmail.com https://orcid.org/0009-0001-2746-0491 https://www.thedailystar.net/%20opinion/editorial/news/air-pollution-crippling-our-nation-3284316 https://www.thedailystar.net/%20opinion/editorial/news/air-pollution-crippling-our-nation-3284316 86 Jubaer et al. / European Journal of Chemistry 15 (1) (2024) 79-86 2024 – European Journal of Chemistry – CC BY NC – DOI: 10.5155/eurjchem.15.1.79-86.2511 [31]. Hossen, M. 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The full terms of this license are available at https://www.eurjchem.com/index.php/eurjchem/terms and incorporate the Creative Commons Attribution-Non Commercial (CC BY NC) (International, v4.0) License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0). By accessing the work, you hereby accept the Terms. This is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the CC BY NC License, which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited without any further permission from Atlanta Publishing House LLC (European Journal of Chemistry). No use, distribution, or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms. Permissions for commercial use of this work beyond the scope of the License (https://www.eurjchem.com/index.php/eurjchem/terms) are administered by Atlanta Publishing House LLC (European Journal of Chemistry). https://twasp.info/journal/Yx6131D5/assessment-of-the-status-of-urban-air-pollution-and-its-impact-on-human-health-in-the-city-of-chittagong https://twasp.info/journal/Yx6131D5/assessment-of-the-status-of-urban-air-pollution-and-its-impact-on-human-health-in-the-city-of-chittagong https://twasp.info/journal/Yx6131D5/assessment-of-the-status-of-urban-air-pollution-and-its-impact-on-human-health-in-the-city-of-chittagong https://www.eurjchem.com/index.php/eurjchem/terms http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0 https://www.eurjchem.com/index.php/eurjchem/terms 1. Introduction 2. Experimental 2.1. Sampling and sample preparation 2.2. Extraction method 2.3. Moisture content of leaves 2.4. Analysis 2.4.1. Determination of SOx 2.4.2. Determination of NOx 2.4.3. Determination of ozone gas 2.4.4. Determination of PM2.5 and PM10 2.4.5. Determination of suspended particulate matter 2.4.6. Determination of chlorophyll a and b 2.4.7. Determination of leaf moisture content % 3. Results and discussion 4. Conclusions Acknowledgements Disclosure statement CRediT authorship contribution statement ORCID and Email References PrintField10: PrintField11: PrintField12: PrintField13: PrintField14: PrintField15: PrintField16: PrintField17: PrintField20: PrintField21: PrintField22: PrintField23: PrintField24: PrintField25: PrintField26: PrintField27: