
































4_Chubakumzuk


 
 

European Journal of Social Impact and Circular Economy - ISSN: 2704-9906  
DOI: 10.13135/2704-9906/5753 - Published by University of Turin - http://www.ojs.unito.it/index.php/ejsice/index 
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40 

Population, Poverty and Environmental 
degradation in Nagaland: An overview Analysis 

Chubakumzuk Jamir1 

1 Yingli College, Department of Economics 
Longleng, Nagaland: India 
 
E-mail: ckumzuk7@gmail.com 
 
Received: 12/11/2020 
Accepted for publication: 20/06/2021 
Published: 19/07/2021 
 

Abstract 

Nagaland is located in the Far East region of East Asia towards Northern part of Indo-Myanmar mountain ranges is well-known 
among conservationists and environmentalist for its unique forest ecosystems and also for its alarmingly high rates of 
deforestation through various forms of economic activities. High population growth and continued economic development have 
caused serious environmental damage in the region. To this end, the study seeks to assess the impact of population pressure on 
environment resources, with particular reference to the degradation of natural endowments like forest and land resources. This 
paper reviews existing evidence and offers a conceptual framework for the investigation of complex dynamics among 
population growth, poverty and environmental degradation. The evaluation suggests that higher population and fertility rates 
were associated with higher deforestation rate in the tropical evergreen forest of Nagaland. Poverty reduction and environmental 
protection are two international obligations for sustainable development. The relationship between population, poverty and 
environmental degradation is regionally unique or has regional uniqueness. The study is based on both primary and secondary 
source of data. A total of 400 household were selected using stratified random sampling technique for measurement of 
Multidimensional Poverty Index. This paper analyses the poverty level using below poverty line (BPL) card holder. Composite 
Index was used to compare the environmental degradation cause by rapid rise in poverty level. The finding shows that during 
1987-88 the poverty rate was 34.43% and the forest loss was found to be -192 sq. km which further increases to 33.83% (poverty 
rate) and forest loss to -450 sq. km during 2016-17. The result highlights high level of poverty thereby, affecting the 
environment resources. The paper suggests suitable measures which can ameliorate the poverty and environmental degradation.  

 
Keywords: Shifting cultivation, land degradation, forest resources, environmental degradation and poverty 

1. Introduction 

 
In underdeveloped and developing countries deprived population have normally taken the burden of shouldering the whole 

blame for the cause of serious trouble in the society, the most present day accountability directed in opposition to them is that 
they cause destruction of ecosystem (Boyce, 1994; Duraiappah, 1998). The Brundtland Commission record generally well-
known definition of sustainable development, this definition enclose the social, financial and environmental necessities of both 
present and future generations and prominence the mannequin that what we do at present determine what is possible tomorrow 
(United Nations, 1987; Drolet, 2015). The Bruntland Commission Report 1983, which unexpectedly has been welcome as the 
plan for environmental preservation, it is obviously cited that income deprivation is a predominant cause of environmental 
troubles and enhance of poverty is a requisite and fundamental condition of any successful program to deal with environmental 
assignment (Kramer, 2012; Bruntland Commission, 1983).      



 
 

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41 

 The World Bank 1992 joined the agreement with the World Development Report, where it openly stated, low income 
households who have to meet short term basic needs mine the natural assets by excessive cutting of trees for firewood and 
failure to restore soil nutrients. However there is a mounting progress in the economic literature which disputes the conventional 
concept and content that more composite set of variables comes into play and that simple generalizations of this 
multidimensional hassle are often invalid and misses many considerable points. These studies point out population, social, 
political, economic and institutional determinants as central parameters in the poverty-environmental degradation connection. 
In the World Bank mission declaration, combating poverty with enthusiasm and professionalism for lasting results, the World 
Bank has expanded its focal point on poverty reduction program. Increasingly, country actions are focusing exclusively on 
poverty reduction outcomes, and are requiring the sectors to work collectively to achieve those outcomes. Until recently, the 
controlled approach for environmental activities within any particular country or place is primarily based on attaining the most 
environmental benefit for a unit of expenditure. Environmental benefits are notion to promote society as a whole, so our goal 
has flawlessly been to maximize our societal benefits. In the equal way, other sectors have pursued their very own objectives, 
regularly aiming for the greatest social advantage or economic development and now not particular to limit poverty (World 
bank, 1992).   

 The World Bank updated poverty line of $1.90 a day, the estimated for 2012 put in light the number of extremely poor 
population at about 900 million or 12.7% of global population based on 2011 purchasing power parity (Global Monitoring 
Report, 2015-16). In 1998 World Bank Report, "Reducing Poverty in India" focuses on the number of anti-poverty programes 
of the government. During the last seventy years since independence, India has accomplished many astonishing social and 
economic parameters in different fields like education, health care, reducing gender inequality, raising standard of living, 
manage over the population growth, reducing income inequality, employment generation etc. Accordingly government has 
carried out range of plan, projects, policies and programme for the improvement of the poor people. For India poverty level 
according to C. Rangarajan during 2011-12 was 29.5%. For the state of Nagaland the average MPCE (monthly per capita 
consumption expenditure) was 1229.83 for rural sector and Rs 1615.78 for urban sector, and the total poverty level was 14%. 
In recent time Government of India highlighted that Nagaland is the absolute best upward shove in poverty level with 4.1 lakhs 
population residing under poverty line in 2009-10, as against 1.7 lakhs in 2004-05 (Planning Commission, 2014).  

Poverty in Nagaland is most rigorous in rural sectors where an estimated 71.14% of the total population lives in, obtain their 
livelihood from the natural resource base (Census, 2011). One of the most key attribute of agriculture zone in Nagaland is the 
massive existences of subsistence economy, which makes agriculture even more vital for food supply and sustainability. 
However, over the ultimate four decades, soil erosion and land degradation have turn out to be most necessary environmental 
issues and present an upsetting risk to nutrient safety and sustainability of agriculture production and productivity (Jamir, 2015; 
Longkumer and Jamir 2012). Broad range of efforts on poverty reduction program have failed to bring adequate progress and 
development despite decades of development support by the central authority by implementing number of employment and 
income generation programs (Jamir and Ezung, 2017a). On the other hand rapid boom of population in combination with poor 
initial natural resource endowments and inclined macro-economic policies towards agriculture sector have not only proven 
catastrophic to reduce poverty, but also led to the worsening of the natural useful resource base on which rural livelihoods 
depend. It is typically conventional that development hyperlink on the scope of ecological sustainability, monetary viability 
and social recognition. However, a range of vital dimensions in the development scenario are unfavorable, but they symbolize 
the essential problems associated to sustainable development. These improvement domain dimensions include agro-ecological 
potential, population, market access and institutional setting. Less favored areas are normally characterized by a combination 
of low agricultural possible and disadvantage market access; often existing in an institutional setting that is now not conducive 
to choice possible improvement pathways (Jamir, 2021). 

 

2. Literature review 

Malthus (1798) was concerned about the growth of population to outrun the available food supply. The negative impact on 
the nature due to increasing pressure caused by the population growth and natural judgment of diminishing marginal 
productivity of resources was highlighted in his An Essay on the Principles of Population. In Malthusian view, the population 
growth would undo itself through its rising pressure on natural resources like land, water, forest and thereby declining the 
productivity of such natural resources and rising incidence of poverty. 



 
 

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Ehrlich (1968) empirically indicated the pressure of a fundamental relationship between rapid population growth and 
environmental degradation. He argued that if the existing patterns of population growth and resource use continued, it would 
lead to environmental collapse. Even the renewable natural resources like forest, water can be exhausted if the population 
exceeds the carrying capacity and thus rate of extraction is higher than the rate of regeneration. Therefore a balance between 
the population growth and resource use is well warranted for the maintenance of ecological balance and sustainable growth of 
the economies.  

Trainer (1990) stated that most of the developing nations suffer because of the rapid increase in population, that in turns 
cause to shrink environmental resources, raising air and water pollution, deforestation, soil erosion, overgrasing and damage to 
ecosystem. There is a tremendous pressure on land to produce more food for growing population.  

Cropper and Griffiths (1994) argued that population growth, by increasing the demand for arable land, encourages the 
conversion of forests to agriculture. Since the people living in rural areas who are dependent on agriculture as a livelihood, one 
would expect deforestation to increase with rapid population density as well as rising demand for wood for both timber and 
fuel.   

Leach and Mearns (1995) Poverty and environmental degradation are positively linked in a vicious circle, which forces 
deprived population to engage in practices that have an unfavorable impact on the environment as they are searching for primary 
provision to enhance their livelihood Study have established that poor household depends on environmental assets for their 
sustainability and also the poor people rely on the natural resources for many of their basic economic activities.  

Agarwal (1997) the study traced why and how this degradation and the misuse of natural resources in rural sector of India. 
It was once observed that the poor households in rural region are alleged as having a short-time scope, discounting the future 
benefits from conservations of environment rather heavily owing to the urgency to make a sustainable livelihood and avoid 
hunger. Such a time horizon leads to unsustainable use of natural resources. 

Rozelle et. al., (1997) Major work was undertaken to learn about the correlation amongst population growth, poverty and 
environmental degradation in China in 1997. The paper examined the affect that each had on the China’s environmental 
resources such as land, water, air and forest resources. They determine that institutional policy have been ineffective in 
controlling environmental resources degradation primarily due to the fact of its limited resources. Some studies divulge that 
due to deforestation and agricultural growth there has been considerable destruction of forest resources causing environmental 
degradation. 

Dreze and Sen (1989) have also identified the incidence of poverty and not the population growth as the principal reason for 
the degradation of resources. They also cited the example of countries like Israel, Hong Kong and Portugal where per capita 
food production declined during the decade of 1980s but those countries able to compensate the underproduction through 
imports as the countries were developed and people had the entitlement to afford to buy imported items unlike many African 
citizens. 

Bhagat and Hassan (1994) have shown that the changes in major environmental parameters and degradation of resources in 
the world during the last Century especially after 1950 was not only due to the rapid growth of population but also owing to 
the escalation of consumption of fossil fuel, industrial production and the growth of the economy, which have been much higher 
than the rate of growth of population. Therefore, the degradation of natural resources is a complex interplay of population 
growth, growth of consumption of resources per capita, advancement of technology and the later one is much more important 
than the former one 

Goodstein (1999) has argued that the poorer has a tendency to have more children and spent very less on birth control for 
their future security. Therefore the family size and population growth is rapid in many underdeveloped and developing 
countries. The rising population even for sustainable activities enhance pressure on natural especially forest resourcesTherefore, 
due to these premises, the objectives of the study will be to examine environmental degradation caused by rapid rise in poverty 
level and study the effect and measure to control of shifting cultivation in the region. 

3. Materials and Methods 

3.1. Study areas and period of research survey 

Nagaland came into existence as the sixteenth state of Indian Union on 1 December, 1963. It is situated in the Northeastern 
part of India between 25°6' to 27°4' North latitudes and 93°0' to 95°15'·East longitudes with an area of about 16,579 sq. km, 



 
 

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Assam in its North and West, Arunachal Pradesh in its North East, the state of Manipur in the South (Figure 1). The state is 
bound by the long International boundary of Myanmar in its Eastern side. The terrain is lush with luxuriant forest, rolling 
mountains, enchanting valleys and swift flowing streams and rivers making the landscape beautiful. The altitude varies from 
200 meters in the plains to 3,840 meters in the hills. The inhabitants of Nagaland are tribal having distinctive dialect and culture. 
The State’s population is predominantly rural with about 71.14% of its population living in rural sector. The State is comprised 
of 12 administrative districts with 74 blocks and 1428 inhabited villages (Census, 2011). Each district is inhabited with one or 
more tribes thereby imparting to it a distinct linguistic, cultural, traditional and socio-political characteristic. The terrain is 
predominantly hilly and is covered by a rich and varied floral and faunal assemblage. It forms part of one of the 35 biodiversity 
hot spots of the world, i.e., the Indo-Burma biodiversity hotspot zone.   

The physiographic creates specific situations and sometimes limitations for rural development like vulnerability, 
inaccessibility, specific resource niches and areas of population concentration. These aspects of physiographic conditions 
directly or indirectly influence the distributive nature of natural resources and human concentration. The study of such aspects 
of landscape would be helpful in understanding the required processes of rural development and also helpful in identifying the 
areas of available resources where the developmental processes may be intensified in future for raising standard of living of the 
local population.   

Nagaland is primarily ago based economy. People are based on agriculture and allied activities for their sustainable 
livelihood. Comparing to other food crops about 80% of the cropped region is under rice production. The farm production and 
productivity for all food crops is very low, in contrast to other states. Presently, the Jhum/shifting to terraced cultivation ratio 
is 4:3 (Nayak, 2013). Forestry is also an important source of income generation for rural sector (Ghosh, 2016). Nevertheless, 
agriculture and forestry contribute a majority of Nagaland's Gross Domestic Product (GSDP). Nagaland's GSDP grew at 9.9 
percent compounded annually for a decade, thus more than doubling the per capita income (Nagaland Economy Report, 2011-
12). The data collected relate to the year 2016-17. 

 

         Figure 1 – Nagaland map 

         Source: Nagaland Science and Technology Council, Government of Nagaland, Kohima  



 
 

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    Figure 2 – Nagaland soils map 

    Source: Indian Council of Agriculture Research, Nagaland Centre 

 

    Figure 3 – Nagaland land use  

        Source: Remote Sensing Application Centre, Kohima, Nagaland 



 
 

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3.2. Data collection 

The evaluation of population, poverty and environmental degradation is based totally on both primary and secondary source 
of data. The subsequent step of poverty analysis is the identification of poverty line that distinguishes the poor from non-poor. 
The NSSO (National Sample Survey Organisation) estimated a poverty line of Rs 1229.83 for rural and Rs 1615.78 for urban 
Nagaland during 2011-12 (Planning Commission, 2014). The report of the expert group maintains that the domestic household 
consumer expenditure is more consistent than income and subsequently more appropriate for measuring poverty. A total of 400 
household were interviewed from the sample villages and wards of Nagaland. Thus, MPCE was used as a proxy for the actual 
income while determining poverty (Ezung, 2011). 

3.3. Data analysis and estimation 

3.3.1. Head Count Ratio 

The headcount ratio measures the percentage of the population that is poor (Watts, 1968; Sen, 1979; Foster, 1984).  
Head Count Ratio (H) if then: 

H=q/n 

3.3.2. Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI) 

The MPI measures those experiencing multiple deprivations on year of schooling, school attendance, food, child mortality, 
household cooking fuel, sanitation, water supply, power, housing floor and assets. Formally, the first component is term as 
multidimensional headcount Ratio (H) (Alkire and Santos 2010, Atkinson, 2003).         
            

H=q/n 

Here q is the number of people who are multidimensional poor and n is the total population. The second component called the 
intensity (or breadth) of poverty (A) and can be expressed as: 

A =  (∑_(i=1)^n▒〖ci(k)〗)/q 

Where ci (k) is the censor deprivation score of individual i and q is the number of people who are multidimensional poor. 

MPI is the product of both MPI = H×A. 

3.3.3. Composite Index 

To make a significant comparison of different districts of Nagaland in terms of indicators of poverty and forest cover the 
following formulae are used to arrive at the degradation index of the indicator variables as mentioned against each.  

 

(FINDEX) =
Max(Xij) − Xij

Max(Xij) − Min(Xij) 

 

(PINDEX) =
Max(Xij) − Xij

Max(Xij) − Min(Xij) 

 



 
 

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4. Results and discussion 

Population affects on the environment principally through the use of natural assets and is related with environmental stresses 
like land degradation, loss of biodiversity, air and water pollution (Figure 4 and 5). The results shows population growth of 
Nagaland has doubled since 1971. It has increased from 516449 persons in 1971 to 1990036 persons in 2001, adding 1473587 
persons in the remaining three decades. Such a remarkable expands of population led to large scale environmental degradation. 
Investigation of record on poverty rate in Nagaland affirm that on an average 33.05% of population (both urban and rural) have 
been beneath poverty line in 2015-16 (refer table 2&3). The finding show that Mon district having highest incidence of poverty 
(48.78%), while Kohima district show the lowest incidence of poverty, most of the districts of eastern Nagaland such as 
Tuensang, Mon, Kiphire and Longleng were observed to have failed in the poverty eradication programs even after two decades 
of policy implementation. Districts with sensible advancement in this regard were Mokokchung, Phek, Wokha and Zunheboto. 
Table 3 shows growing trends of aggregate poverty in Nagaland from 1987-88 to 2016-17 i.e., 34.43 to 37.92% and also 
multidimensional poverty index (MPI) of 30.8% during 2015-16 (NSSO, 2012; Jamir and Ezung, 2017b; Jamir, 2020).   

The study found that the state has recorded forest areas of 862532 hectares in 1987-88 but decline to 862300 during 2016-
17. The end result exhibits vital activities accountable for deforestation were identified with commercial agents actively 
involved in all five with the poor farmer taking part in two of the five activities. There was a common consent among the studies 
that commercial agents were the majority group pursuing logging and agricultural development activities (Somanathan, 1991; 
Anderson, 1989; Repetto, 1990; Goodland, 1991) as a result there was a continuous decline of forest areas in Nagaland since 
1987-88 to 2016-17 as per Forest Survey of India report (refer table 2&3). The study also determine that unsustainable 
deforestation activities such as shifting cultivation, coal mining, quarrying, diversion of forest lands for developmental 
activities, large scale plantation, agriculture expansion and natural catastrophe like landslide and fire alternatively end result in 
environmental degradation which has affect on rainfall disruption, production and productivity and shortage of fuel wood 
supply. There was also agreement that market and institutional failure have been the foremost incentives driving both agents to 
unsustainable deforestation activities. Studies disputing that the poor do not have the possessions adopt unsustainable 
deforestation activities and neither do they reveal the short time preferences which would force them to undertake the 
unsustainable activities (Tiffen, 1993). Study found that the state is losing its forest cover at an alarming rate of 200 sq. km per 
year next to Mizoram in North Eastern Region as per Environment, Forest and Climate change Government of Nagaland Survey 
Report, 2018 (Nagaland post, 2018) (Figure 4). 

 
Figure 4: Environmental resources 

(a): Mount Saramati  (Kiphire)  (b): Dikhu river from Chare (Tuensang) 
 

 

 

 

Source: Author elaboration 



 
 

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47 

 

(c): Dzukou valley (Kohima)   (d): Kepamodzu mountain in Pfutsero (Phek) 
 

          
 

     

        

Source: Author elaboration 

 
The study found that agriculture activities and forest cover should be closely linked; due to the fact clearing for agricultural 

use is the principal motive of deforestation. The consequences shows that 1987-88 forest loss was found to be -192 sq. km 
which in addition increases to -450 sq.km during 2016-17 (refer table 3). The analysis of composite index of poverty and 
environmental degradation exposed that the districts which were hard hit in 2011 (PEINDEX ≥ 0.7) were Zunheboto, Kohima, 
and Dimapur. The least affected districts (PEINDEX ≤ 0.5) were Tuensang, Kiphire, Longleng and Mon. The remaining of the 
districts were moderately hit (0.5 ≤ PEINDEX ≤ 0.7) were Peren, Wokha, Mokokchung and Phek (refer table 1). Higher 
population growth, low degree of employment and income, poverty, shifting cultivation, logging, and infrastructure 
improvement is the most common variables that affects environment (Barbier, 2001).  

Deforestation itself is not a problem and in fact may be a requisite condition for economic development. When this takes 
place on a large-scale, it becomes imperative to discover the factors behind the trend. Degradation of environment resources 
caused either by the underprivileged or the rich has both direct and indirect impacts not only on the cost of production but also 
on the productivity of crops and ultimately lowering the earning of the underprivileged population. Poor get more affected than 
the rich and become poorer due to environmental degradation manifested through destruction of forest for fuel wood, timber, 
jhum cultivation; degradation of land via the use of chemical fertilizer, pesticide, etc in modern farming and pollution of air 
due to consumption of biomass fuel. Thus, a vicious circle is mounted between poverty and environmental degradation. Each 
turns into the purpose and effect of the other. The current paper in this regard is a humble strives to quantify the magnitude of 
each poverty and environmental degradation over time and throughout states and affirm empirically the link between them 
(Figures 5, 6 and 7). 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 



 
 

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Figure 5: Deforestation in different part of Nagaland for Jhum cultivation 
 

(a): Kiphire (b): Tuensang 
 

  

 

 
 

(c): Mokokchung 
 

         

 

    
 

Source: Author elaboration 

 
 
 
 
 
 



 
 

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Table 1: Indices of rural poverty and environmental degradation 
         

Districts PINDEX FINDEX    
Dimapur 0.895 1.00 
Kohima 1.00 0.00 
Mokokchung 0.906 0.653 
Mon 0.154 0.493 
Phek 0.584 0.306 
Wokha 0.762 0.699 
Zunheboto 0.758 0.782 
Tuensang 0.191 

0.045 Kiphire 0.104 
Longleng 0.00 
Peren 0.421 0.759 

       Source: Author elaboration 
  

Table 2: Total population and percentage of population below poverty line 
         

Districts Total 
Population 

% of Population Below     
Poverty Line 

Dimapur 3,78,811 25.14 
Kohima 2,67,988 22.37 
Mokokchung 1,94,622 24.85 
Mon 2,50,260 48.78 
Phek 1,63,418 33.39 
Wokha 1,66,343 28.66 
Zunheboto 1,40,757 28.78 
Tuensang 1,96,596 45.82   
Kiphire 74,004 46.12 
Longleng 50,484 48.89 
Peren 95,219 37.71 

Total 19,78,502 33.05 
      Source: Author elaboration 
 

Table 3: Rural poverty and total forest area 
                          

Year Urban/Rural    
poverty Forest Area Loss/Gain 

(Sq.km) 
1987-88 34.43 8,62,532 -192  
1993-94 37.92 8,62,000 +27 
2004-05 19.00 8,62,930 -296 
2011-12 14.00 8,62,929 -146  
2016-17 33.83 8,62,300 -450  

               Source: Statistical Handbook, Government of Nagaland, 1987, 1993, 2006 and 2012 
              Forest Survey of India, 1987, 1993, 2004, 2012, 2016 and 2017 

 
 
 
 

 
 

Figure 6: Village having higher level of poverty in Nagaland 



 
 

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50 

 
(a): Buranamsang (Longleng) (b): New Pangsha (Noklak) 

 

    

 

 
 
 

   
                (c): Chare (Tuensang)                 (d): Sakshi (Longleng) 

 

 
        

 

 

Source: Author elaboration 

 



 
 

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  Figure 7 – Percentage of population below poverty line 

 
   Source: Author elaboration 

 
 

5. Shifting cultivation and its effects in Nagaland: An overview   

 
Shifting cultivation is an age-old conventional cultivation practice and still predominant in Nagaland, where a land is selected 

for cultivation for one or two years and thereafter left it desolate for quite a few years (Figure 8 and 9). Shifting cultivation 
includes a rigorous approach of clearing massive forest area, slashing and burning massive chunk of trees. Therefore, the 
unsystematic cutting and burning down the forest has brought greater erosion of soil. This amounts to loss of top fertile soil 
and biodiversity within the area and if left unchecked leads to low productivity in the following cycle that result approximately 
in about 5-10 years fallow (Chatterjee, 2012; Chauhan, 2001). The penalties of deforestation can now not solely be at once felt 
in an area but its effects can be carried on to harm the future generations and their environment. As a result of rapid population 
growth, demand for food and fuel has increased and land availability for agriculture has been reduced. Shifting cultivation has 
been creating problems on physiographic and environmental conditions in Nagaland. Regularly shifting from one land to the 
other, has affected the biodiversity of these regions (Christanty, 1986). The area under natural forest has declined continuously 
(refer table 3) the fragmentation of environment, disappearance of species and incursion by exotic weeds and other plants are 
a number of the opposite ecological cost of shifting cultivation. Within predominantly jhum areas, the loss of top soil is at the 
highest. Apart from the loss of soil fertility and productiveness as cited above, jhumming is also accountable for massive scale 
deforestation in the hills, residue of reservoir, drying up of the natural stream and river and irreparable damages to flora and 
fauna (Das, 2006; Stocking, 2001; Mishra and Ramakrishnan, 1983).  

 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 

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5,136

2,897

5,002 4,715

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Figure 8 – Practice of Jhum cultivation in Nagaland 

                      (a): Mokokchung                           (b): Tuensang 
 

 
 

 

 

 (c) Wokha  (d): Kiphire 
 

 

 

 
 

Source: Author elaboration 
 
 
 
 



 
 

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Figure 9 – Terrace cultivation which is more eco-friendly and sustainability 

(a): Kohima  (b): Phek 
 

 

 

 
 

Source: Author elaboration 
 

Nagaland possessed the second highest acreage under shifting cultivation next to Manipur. Land use pattern of Nagaland 
revealed that almost 16% of the total geographical area is under net sown area. About 123909 ha area is under shifting 
cultivation, which accounts for almost 7.5% of total area, 42% of total cropped area and 47.5% of net sown area (Rukuosietuo, 
et. al., 2014). The practice of shifting cultivation involved 61% households in rural areas, covering about 1 million ha in the 
entire state. It exposes about 5.65% of the total geographical area of the state to soil erosion (Deka and Sarmah, 2010). About 
20,000 hectares of forest is felled every year in the state for jhum cultivation, as per the report of the department of Land 
Resources. The extensive practice of Jhum results in an average loss of 30.62 tonnes of soil area per hectare annually, as per 
Soil and Water Conservation Department, Government of Nagaland annual document for 2017-18. 

In rural Nagaland each and every household heavily depend on fuel wood for cooking and space heating (Bhatt and Sachan, 
2003) which accelerates forest degradation at a rapid rate. Many studies deal with fuel wood consumption in the mountainous 
region (Maikhuri, 1994; Maikhuri and Gangwar, 1991). The current fuel wood harvests on fallow fields are not adequate to 
cover fuel wood demands due to short fallow periods and insufficient per capita fallow forest areas as a result of high population 
growth. In the past slash and burn agriculture and commercial timber logging has led to a severe decrease in forest cover and 
degradation of forest (Figure 10). 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 



 
 

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54 

Figure 10 – Different methods of fuel wood harvest 

(a): Phek   (b): Longleng  
 

  

 

 
 

Source: Author elaboration 
 

6. Conclusion 

 
Developing region has been experiment a serious problem of rapidly growing population, that accelerating environmental 

degradation. High population growth with high poverty rate worsened environmental condition during the past four decades 
that seem to eroding the economic and social progress of Nagaland. The finding show that Mon district having highest incidence 
of poverty in Nagaland (48.78%), while Kohima district show the lowest incidence of poverty, most of the districts of eastern 
Nagaland such as Tuensang, Mon, Kiphire and Longleng were observed to have failed in the poverty eradication programs 
even after two decades of policy implementation. Accordingly, a better coverage would require in integrating various income 
generation schemes along with health care programme, water supply, electricity, sanitation and housing policies, which are 
almost absent in rural areas, funding for improving education level and labour market opportunities for younger population 
should seriously be considered, since lack of these determinants represent the main reason of their disadvantage (Ezung and 
Jamir 2018). While poorest of the poor depend their daily livelihood from natural resources like forest, river etc environmental 
degradation would certainly have its effects on them. Similarly increase in incidence of poverty would surely increase the 
anxious attack on environmental resources. This is sufficiently borne out by the case of the eastern location of Nagaland where 
shifting cultivation on the hill slopes has established a vicious circle of poverty of the hill community and denudation of forest 
leading to environmental degradation. 

The analysis of composite index of poverty and environmental degradation exposed that the districts which were hard hit in 
2011 (PEINDEX ≥ 0.7) were Zunheboto, Kohima, and Dimapur. The least affected districts (PEINDEX ≤ 0.5) were Tuensang, 
Kiphire, Longleng and Mon. The remaining of the districts were moderately hit (0.5 ≤ PEINDEX ≤ 0.7) were Peren, Wokha, 
Mokokchung and Phek. The results support that population have a deleterious impact on environment. In Nagaland shifting 
cultivation is not only the way to earn livelihood of rural population but also significantly contributes to the rural economy by 
generating employment and income. But on the different aspects it has many negative consequences on environment, 
biodiversity and ecological balance in the region. Under this situation, short term measures need to be undertaken to enhance 
productivity and additionally to take a look at soil erosion. Considering the physiographic characters of land, climate conditions, 



 
 

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55 

social customs, food habits and many others alternative system of farming like diversified agro farming need to be introduced. 
This would require a system which includes agriculture, horticulture along with animal husbandry, fishery and rooster farming. 
In the same way success of this alternative farming system depends upon the gaining of confidence of (Jhummias) through 
persuasion, demonstration and applied fundamental research to be conducted very slowly without any haste.  

Strengthening of agriculture production and productivity using present day’s inputs might reduce pressure on forest by 
making shifting cultivation less attractive (Angelsen and Kaimowitz, 1999; 2001). To control shifting cultivation completely, 
it will require massive investment and robust rural livelihood schemes (Jamir, 2019). These policies are to be based on sound 
macro-and micro economic management, with good governance aimed at ameliorating poverty and promoting sustained 
economic growth have perceptible and permanent effect in lowering population growth. Population growth momentum in 
Nagaland is really huge hence the pressure of demand on resources are obviously large, it is only one of many alternative causes 
as a result of over-consumption based, unsustainable development that may have an even larger impact. Our choice of how to 
use those resources (i.e. our economic policies) and for what purposes (i.e. our political directions and policies) are critical 
issues as well on the resulting impact on the environment to meet those uses and purposes. 

 
Acknowledgements    

 
The author would like to thank Dr. Santanu Dey, H. Moilen Phom, Tewu Mero, Mhasinuo Rio and Dikhrou Dianu for providing 
necessary materials and valuable suggestions during this research work.  

 
 
 
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