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European Journal of Social Impact and Circular Economy - ISSN: 2704-9906  
DOI: 10.13135/2704-9906/7691 Published by University of Turin http://www.ojs.unito.it/index.php/ejsice/index 
EJSICE content is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License   

1 

The transition from a “city of waste” to a “circular city”: 
virtuous practices in the city of Pavia 

Beatrice Re1*, Luca Bottini2, Carola Ricci3, Gabriella Bottini4, Dana Strauss5 

 

1 Contact Author University of Pavia, Department of Economics and Management, University of Pavia, Via 
San Felice, 5 – 27100, Pavia (Italy)  
beatrice.re@unipv.it 
ORCID  0000-0001-7391-1321 

 

2 University of Milan-Bicocca Department of Sociology and Social Research, Via Bicocca Degli 
Arcimboldi, 8, 20126 Milan (Italy) 
luca.bottini@unimib.it 
ORCID  0000-0001-5605-1665 

 

3 University of Pavia, Department of Social and Political Sciences, Corso Strada Nuova 65, 27100 Pavia 
(Italy)  
carola.ricci@unipv.it 

 

4 University of Pavia, Department of Brain and Behavioral Sciences, Piazza Botta 11, 27100 Pavia (Italy) 
gabriella.bottini@gmail.com 
 
5 Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Zwätzengasse 3, 07743 Jena - Germany  
dana.strauss@uni-jena.de 
 
 
Received: 18/06/2023 
Accepted for publication: 07/11/2023 
Published: 21/12/2023 
 
 

Abstract 

Cities are facing the greatest challenge of their whole lifecycle: choosing their own destiny. Cities are the main contributors to 
climate change, as much of the excess carbon dioxide in the atmosphere comes from them. Understanding how cities can 
transform into “circular cities” is key to fostering change. However, empirical studies in this direction are still scant. In this 
paper, we address this research gap by answering the following research question: how are current “cities of waste” transitioning 
to “circular cities”?  We do so by means of an empirical study involving several stakeholders located in the town of Pavia 
(Northern Italy). We find that some actors have implemented virtuous circular economy (CE) practices; however, the transition 
to CE is overall conducted in a fragmented manner, with a lack of orchestration and planning among private actors as well as a 
lack of synergies between private and public actors. We conclude our study by advancing future avenues of research, highlighting 
our theoretical and managerial contributions, and advancing policy implications. 

 

Keywords: Smart cities; Circular cities; Circular economy; Focus group 

 



 

 2 

1. Introduction 

Cities are major contributors to climate change. According to UN Habitat, cities consume 78% of the world’s energy and 
produce more than 60% of greenhouse gas emissions. However, they account for less than 2% of the Earth’s surface. The 
phenomenon of urbanization is massive: approximately 66% of the world’s population will live in cities by 2050 (United 
Nations, 2014). In Europe, urban areas are home to more than 75% of the population, they account for 80% of energy use and 
generate 85% of the European GDP (European Commission). Due to the significant influence cities have on climate change, it 
is imperative that they expedite their shift toward sustainable and circular approaches, by embarking on serious paths of change 
in the use of natural resources as well as in their citizens’ consumption practices. For instance, cities are considered fundamental 
actors in tackling food waste, as they can actively introduce adequate policies, initiatives, and projects to reduce it (Fattibene 
et al., 2020).  

Cities are essential for Europe’s transformation to a climate-neutral continent by 2050, as set out in the European Green Deal 
(Eurocoties, 2020). A shift toward more sustainable cities is urgently needed. The Ellen MacArthur Foundation highlights that 
cities have a high concentration of resources, capital, data, and talent spread over a relatively small geographic area and are 
also centers for innovation. This means that cities are uniquely positioned to drive a global transition toward a circular economy 
(CE) (Williams, 2021). 

The CE aims at preserving raw materials in a permanent loop to maximize the employment of resources. The result should 
be the reduction of waste. Different cities, according to their characteristics, adopt different kinds of CE practices thus opening 
multiple scenarios. A circular city is defined as “a city that practices CE principles to close resource loops, in partnership with 
the city's stakeholders (citizens, community, business, and knowledge stakeholders), to realize its vision of a future-proof city” 
(Prendeville et al., 2018). Circular cities are praised for their commitment to implementing practices aimed at reducing the 
overall urban emissions. However, the concept of a “circular city” is still in its emerging phase and it thus appears a slightly 
blurred and utopian, especially because of the lack of empirical evidence as there is not a single model to be followed, but 
rather more models advancing concrete circular practices to be adopted at the urban level. 

In this paper, we aim to fill this research gap by empirically investigating how a “city of waste” whose activities are rooted 
in the linear “take-make-dispose” paradigm could shift toward a “circular city” by means of virtuous sustainable practices 
implemented by different stakeholders. The addressed research question is “how are current “cities of waste” are transitioning 
to “circular cities”? 

Our research context is an Italian middle-sized city, Pavia (Northern Italy). Pavia is home to one of the most ancient 
universities in Italy. The University of Pavia is part of the EC2U (European Campus of City-Universities) consortium, which 
includes six other European universities: the University of Coimbra (Portugal), Alexandru Ioan Cuza University of Iasi 
(Romania), the University of Jena (Germany), the University of Poitiers (France - coordinator), the University of Salamanca 
(Spain), and the University of Turku (Finland). The EC2U consortium aims at creating a pan-European campus, with a shared 
governance model, fostering mobility within the seven universities and developing innovative models in education, research, 
public engagement and third mission. One of the tools adopted by this European project is the organization of Think Tanks, 
policy institutes promoting debate on research topics relevant for the social and political context to implement ameliorative 
strategies. 

 As part of the EC2U alliance, one of the promoted Think Tanks focused on the circular economy - Key to Change and 
Sustainability - organized in Pavia in February 2022. Through three focus groups, involving multiple stakeholders of Pavia 
who have been proactive in developing circular practices, we unveil the challenges they faced/are facing in implementing these 
practices, we explain how they tackled them, and illustrate the remaining issues to be solved. With our study, we contribute to 
the academic literature on urban studies by providing empirical evidence of circular practices implemented by different 
stakeholders in a specific Italian urban context. We also contribute to policy-making by advancing policy suggestions stemming 
from our findings.  

The remainder of this paper is structured as follows. First, we introduce the background literature on urban studies about 
smart and circular cities. Second, we illustrate the methodology employed and we discuss our findings. Finally, we highlight 
our theoretical and managerial contribution, and we propose future research avenues, some of which will be deepened also in 
another project of which the University of Pavia is a partner, funded by the European Union - Next Generation EU, within the 
Italian National Recovery and Resilience Plan, on “Research and Innovation for Sustainable Food and Nutrition - ONFOODS”. 
 
 
 



 
 

 
European Journal of Social Impact and Circular Economy - ISSN: 2704-9906  
DOI: 10.13135/2704-9906/7691 Published by University of Turin http://www.ojs.unito.it/index.php/ejsice/index 
EJSICE content is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License   

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2. Theoretical background 

The development model based on the massive consumption of natural resources is showing all its fragilities and implications 
at the global level. The European Green Deal calls for a zero carbon Europe by 2050 (Piontek et al., 2021). To do so, the 
introduction of accurate measurements for organizations’ circularity is necessary (Vola et al., 2023). Cities, for more than a 
century, have been the driving force behind the development of nations, but the industrial model on which they have based 
their fortunes, wealth and success has generated social and environmental costs whose effects are showing themselves in full 
magnitude from year to year. Starting from the end of the 20th century, the debate among urban planners and city scholars 
about the need to imagine a different future for the cities of the world has led to the development of the "smart city" paradigm, 
a new way of understanding the functioning of urban systems based above all on the contribution of digital technologies. The 
smart city concept turns out to be an evolution of the paradigm popularized in the early 1990s of the "digital city" (Couclelis, 
2004; Hepworth, 1990). Subsequently, the smart city idea coincided with the urban development model of an "entrepreneurial 
city" as a style of urban governance based on global competition, financialization of urban space through urban regeneration 
and culture (Mahizhnan, 1999). 

Only recently, with the growing concern about the impact of climate change on the fate of cities, has the connection between 
smart cities and environmental sustainability made its way (Caragliu et al., 2011). The urban planning paradigm of the smart 
city has occupied urban agendas for several years and represents an idea of the city that, too often, has been embraced 
uncritically. The promise of this way of understanding the cities of the future lies in collective advantage in all respects, social 
well-being, environmental sustainability, and a harmonious urban environment. Although there is no agreement on one 
definition of a “smart city” (Komninos & Mora, 2018), there is a consensus on the fact that a smart city involves development 
and improvement (Guenduez & Mergel, 2022), to solve urban challenges and improve the quality of life (Nicolas et al., 2020). 
It is a model of a city that has shown strengths and deep weaknesses, especially in the environmental and social dimension 
(Evans et al., 2019). It can be said that the "smart city" model is even still today an ideal type to potentially strive for, but one 
that is far from being achievable in the current state within which contemporary developed cities move. The literature is replete 
with such criticisms, such as the case of Datta (2015) who argues that the concept of a "smart city" is nothing more than "the 
utopia of the 21st century". Other authors glimpse within the "smart city" paradigm a new way of understanding the 
transformation of contemporary cities, no longer driven by political and social ends, but predominantly industrial and neoliberal 
(Haarstad, 2017). Przeybilovicz et al. (2022) highlight the key role of citizens in promoting initiatives to improve the smart city 
and in taking part in its governance (Meijer and Bolívar, 2016; Webster and Leleux, 2018). Angelidou et al (2022) argue that 
scenarios for future urban development need to consider smart cities, smart transport, and smart energy as strictly 
interconnected. 
 On the one hand, urban governments have seized the opportunity of the spread of the "smart city" paradigm to 
implement policies aimed at attracting capital to cities, which has been subject to criticism (Martin et al., 2018), on the other 
hand, the environmental sustainability component has been recently emphasized in the literature  (Haarstad, 2017; Bibri & 
Krogstie, 2017). The challenges of decarbonization and mitigating the impacts of global warming in cities are stimulating 
research and theoretical reflection, particularly in the field of industrial economics. This involves exploring the possibility that 
the production processes of goods and services, partly responsible for global warming, can transform their practices and shift 
toward a circular economic model that might lead to the establishment of “circular cities” (Williams, 2021; Vanhuyse et al., 
2021). We refer to the idea of economic models under the circular economy umbrella, which are finding strong points of contact 
with the smart city paradigm (Dincă et al., 2022). 

Circular economy (CE) could be defined as “an industrial economy that is restorative or regenerative by intention and design” 
(Ellen MacArthur Foundation, 2013, p. 7). CE can be a path toward more sustainable ways of living (Borrello et al., 2017), 
since it provides clear directions on how to narrow, slow, and close the resource loops (Geissdoerfer et al., 2017), aiming to 
reach sustainable modes of production and consumption (Bocken et al., 2018; Ghisellini et al., 2016). To better address today’s 
challenges and remain attractive for their stakeholders, cities are developing reliable and sustainable solutions (De Jong et al., 
2015; Neirotti et al., 2014; Yigitcanlar, 2011). The CE can thus represent a concrete response to mitigate the impact that cities 
have on the environment, and its relevance for cities and urban planning is being increasingly reflected in the literature (Bolger 
& Doyon, 2019; Brzica, 2023).   

By integrating the concept of CE into urban studies, some authors (Bolger & Doyon, 2019; Prendeville et al., 2018; Williams, 
2019) have recently introduced the concept of “circular city”. Prendeville et al. (2018) highlight that there is a lack of consensus 



 
 

 
European Journal of Social Impact and Circular Economy - ISSN: 2704-9906  
DOI: 10.13135/2704-9906/7691 Published by University of Turin http://www.ojs.unito.it/index.php/ejsice/index 
EJSICE content is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License   

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on what a circular city is and about the how and why of the circular city concept. The authors offer a conceptualization of a 
circular city as “a city that practices CE principles to close resource loops, in partnership with the city’s stakeholders (citizens, 
community, business and knowledge stakeholders), to realize its vision of a future-proof city” (p. 187). Bolger and Doyon 
(2019) analyze the role of local governments in promoting CE initiatives through strategic planning. By means of a comparative 
study conducted in Melbourne and Malmö, the authors show that municipalities make considerable efforts to improve resource 
management and recycling practices. Nevertheless, the level of consumption in both cities remains high and therefore the 
authors argue that a change in consumption patterns needs to be further promoted at a public level. Ghisellini et al. (2016) 
support the idea that local governments (municipalities) have great potential for supporting the transition toward sustainable 
development. Williams (2019) argues that the RESOLVE framework of the circular economy (Ellen MacArthur Foundation, 
2015), which includes six actions to move toward a CE (Lewandowski, 2016) is inadequate when applied to the context of the 
city. The author advances instead the idea that implementing circular economy principles at the city level requires the 
regeneration and renewal of complex urban ecosystems. Studies regarding circular cities are in the early years, and those 
conducted in the Italian context are a few (Benedetti et al., 2022; Ghisellini et al., 2022). Benedetti et al. (2022) focus on the 
construction sector and they study urban regeneration by comparing demolition with reconstruction and renovation in the city 
of Bologna. Ghisellini et al. (2022) investigate pioneering CE practices implemented in the city of Naples, which currently 
lacks a vision of a circular city, and they offer new insights regarding opportunities for transition toward CE. 

 
 

3. Methodology 

In this paper, we aim to contribute to the growing urban studies investigating circular cities by providing empirical evidence 
of circular practices that may facilitate the transition from a “city of waste” toward a “circular city”. 
 

3.1 Focus group 
 
The focus group is a research methodology that is increasingly adopted in diverse research contexts and fields (Morgan, 

1996). A focus group is defined as “a group of individuals selected and assembled by researchers to discuss and comment on, 
from personal experience, the topic that is the subject of the research” (Powell & Single, 1996, p. 499). Focus groups are 
interactional by nature and allow the participants to exchange ideas and opinions. As the aim of focus groups is to maximize 
the interactions among participants, having smaller groups is preferred, to offer more opportunities for participation in the 
discussion. Wilkerson (1996) argues, however, that groups may be smaller. Wilkerson (1996) proposes five as the optimal 
number of participants and argues that the maximum number of participants may be eight. By following these 
recommendations, the number of participants in each focus group is equal to six.  

 
 
3.2 Research setting: Pavia 

 
Pavia is a mid-sized city of approximately 70,000 inhabitants, located in Lombardy, close to the Ticino River. It is home to 

a university founded in the 14th-century, one of the most ancient in Italy, and it hosts the San Matteo Hospital, one of the most 
important hospitals in Italy. 

 We choose Pavia as a research setting as this study stems from a wider project we conducted within a European 
consortium, EC2U (European Campus of City-Universities), of which Pavia, as the sole Italian city, is part. The consortium’s 
objective is to foster research, education and multistakeholder dialog throughout the seven member universities and European 
communities. One of the key formats that has been developed by the alliance is the Think Tank, which aims at bringing citizens, 
scientists, and policy makers together to discuss and share best practices. In 2022, the Think Tank was centered specifically on 
CE. Each of the seven EC2U partners conducted its own local Think Tank on the topic (EC2U 2022). All local findings were 
then presented and discussed in a joint session during the 4th EC2U Forum in Pavia. As a result, a set of policy recommendations 
has been agreed upon.  



 
 

 
European Journal of Social Impact and Circular Economy - ISSN: 2704-9906  
DOI: 10.13135/2704-9906/7691 Published by University of Turin http://www.ojs.unito.it/index.php/ejsice/index 
EJSICE content is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License   

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The Think Tank in Pavia has been structured into three focus groups to elicit the debate among diverse groups of stakeholders 
located in Pavia. These stakeholders are pioneering the implementation of circular practices as part of their business models 
(e.g., sustainable mobility, recycling, sustainable nutrition). Thanks to the project, it was possible to bring together different 
actors of the city of Pavia and let them interact and exchange opinions and ideas.  

 
 
3.3 Data collection 
 
In February 2022, an online meeting via Zoom on the topic of adoption of CE in the city of Pavia was organized. The 

structure of the symposium foresaw three focus groups involving stakeholders grouped into three main categories: 1. 
Universities; 2, Firms; 3. Other associations/projects.  

We proceeded to select stakeholders that could meet our research objective by adopting a purposeful selection criterion 
(Patton, 2015), so that i) stakeholders were needed to be local, meaning based in Pavia or in the nearby and ii) to have 
implemented circular practices. By following these criteria, twelve stakeholders per each of the mentioned stakeholder group 
(N=36 stakeholders) were selected and emailed to check the availability of an internal knowledgeable informant to take part in 
the focus group. We obtained the consensus of six stakeholders per each group (N= 18 stakeholders). Our final sample is 
composed of eighteen stakeholders (Table 1). 

 
Table 1: Focus group participants  
 

GROUP 1: University GROUP 2: Firms  GROUP 3: Other 
associations/projects 

UNIPV, Mobility Manager VoltaPlant - alternative energy, 
startup  

Fiab  (Federazione Nazionale 
Ambiente e Bicicletta)  - 
environmental organization promoting 
the daily use of bicycles and cycle 
tourism 

Italbiotec, waste consortium Planeat - online platform for grocery 
shopping starting from recipes and 
buying ready-to-use fresh and organic 
ingredients, benefit company 

Fondazione Banco Alimentare 
ONLUS - not-for-profit association 
aiming at collecting food waste and 
distributing it to charitable 
associations 

Ghislieri College BioRestart - start-up, production of 
substances from plant waste and bio 
products  

Giulia Marrazzo - expert in active 
citizenship 

Borromeo College LavGon - ethical fashion laboratory, 
creative and craft shop 

Il Sellino Spiritato - Association of 
citizens of Pavia aiming to promote 
the bike use   

UNIPV, OSA Office for 
Sustainable Actions 

FungoBox and Coffeefrom -  
social enterprise aiming to develop a 
sustainable urban agriculture starting 
from coffee grounds 

Re-Cig - start-up having the mission 
to collect and recycle cigarettes’ filters 
to make objects through a patented 
process 

ESN - Erasmus Students 
Network, President  

Assolombarda - Industrial 
Association of the territories of Milan, 
Lodi, Monza and Brianza, Pavia. 

Repair Café Pavia - group of 
volunteers devoted to repairing broken 
items  

Source: Author´s elaboration 
 



 
 

 
European Journal of Social Impact and Circular Economy - ISSN: 2704-9906  
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The round table discussion among the stakeholders revolved around the motivations to develop circular practices, the specific 
problems and challenges faced, and the implemented solutions to overcome them. More specifically, the questions we asked 
during the focus groups were the following: 

1. Motivation: What motivates the stakeholders to engage in a circular economy? 
2. Problems: What are the specific problems and challenges that the stakeholders have attempted to solve? 
3. Solutions: Which solutions did the stakeholders come up with and implement? What helped rather than what hindered 

them along the way? 
4. Remaining Challenges: What are the next challenges that the stakeholders want to tackle/or: what are the problems 

that they yet must solve? 
 
 
 
 
 
 
3.4 Data analysis 
 
Each focus group lasted 120 minutes, it was recorded through Zoom, and was transcribed within 24 hours. All the interviews 

were performed in Italian and then translated into English after the transcription. To ensure internal validity, we triangulated 
primary data with secondary data (web and journal articles, the press, and social media pages) (Denzin, 1978). We also relied 
on investigator triangulation: we compared the data analysis within our research team until reaching a shared agreement (ibid). 

To analyze the data, we manually coded the participants’ sentences by using different colors, to classify them into the 
considered variables of interest: i) motivation to start circular activities, ii) area/topic of implementation, iii) challenges, iv) 
solutions to be implemented, and v) other problems 

 
 

4. Results 

Here, we introduce the results stemming from each focus group, by presenting tables of results that include five variables, i) 
motivations to adopt CE practices, ii) area/topic of implementation, iii) challenges faced, iv) solutions found, and v) remaining 
problems (Table 2). 

 
Table 2: Focus group with stakeholder: university  
 

Group 1 Motivations Area/Topic Challenges Solutions Remaining problems 

University of 
Pavia, Mobility 
Manager  

-Reducing the use of 
private vehicles 
-Overall contribution 
to the reduction of 
CO2 emissions. 

Sustainability in the 
mobility/transport 
area (increase of use 
of public transport, 
reduction of parking 
slots, fostering use 
of bicycles) 

Engage local actors 
(e.g. hospitals, 
municipality), that 
employ many 
inhabitants and have 
an impact upon the 
commuters 

More engagement 
activities and 
greater 
involvement of 
other local actors 
to establish 
synergies with.  

Coordination and 
cooperation with other 
local stakeholders 

Italbiotec  

-Reducing waste 
-Defining a common 
framework regarding 
the concepts linked to 
the CE 

Innovation and 
dissemination in the 
local area and 
engagement of 
the civil society 

-Technological 
challenges 
(Research & 
Development) 
-Attract 
investments, 
common 

-Increase the 
moments of 
interaction with 
the territory;  
-Foster the 
communication 
with actors having 

-Defining a “common 
language”: being able 
to disseminate the topic 
of innovation in a way 
that is understandable 
for the general public 
-Ensuring an overall 



 
 

 
European Journal of Social Impact and Circular Economy - ISSN: 2704-9906  
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7 

understanding of 
“different 
languages” 

different 
background 

understanding of 
sustainability 
(overcoming the 
difficulty in 
understanding the 
intersection between the 
three aspects of 
sustainability, i.e., 
economic, social, and 
environmental) 

Ghislieri 
College 

-Increase the 
educational offer in 
the College, students’ 
awareness, students’ 
proactivity, and 
develop international 
synergies on the topic. 
- Increase the 
Research on 
sustainable 
agriculture via the 
College’s rural plots 
of lands. 

Nexus of: 
Environmental 
sustainability - 
Health - Enterprise. 
Sustainable 
agriculture. 

-Ensure a common 
framework, raising 
awareness about the 
topic of sustainable 
agriculture. 
Challenges are 
linked to research 
capabilities.  

-Develop 
mandatory courses 
to ensure that all 
students are 
homogeneously 
trained on the 
topic of 
sustainability. 

N/A 

Borromeo 
College  

-Reduction in 
consumption of: 
plastic, CO2 (energy), 
cards. -Careful waste 
sorting/recycling 

-Waste and food 
waste, energy. -
Biodiversity and 
natural heritage. 

-Heritage 
preservation as a 
key value to be 
conveyed to 
students.  
-Transversality of 
sustainability 
values. 

-Fostering 
information/disse
mination. -Direct 
involvement in 
activities of 
training and 
information, to 
enable a process in 
"cascade": 
students as 
ambassadors 
outside the 
academic field. 

-Reaching out to the 
public with information 
and dissemination 
activities. 
- Lack of an integrated 
communication which 
would be able to create 
a bridge between 
research and society.   

OSA - Office 
for Sustainable 
Actions 

-Creating synergies 
among all 
departments and 
offices of the 
university -Spreading 
the transversality of 
sustainability.  

-Education 
-Waste reduction 
-Energy efficiency 
-Valorization of the 
green heritage 

Difficulties in 
collaborating with 
external actors, and 
often with internal 
actors of the 
university itself. 

 
 
 
 
Expand and foster 
communication.   

Lack of collaboration 
and specifically in the 
waste sector: waste 
quantification and 
management problem 
with external actors. 

ESN - Erasmus 
Students 
Network 

Increased students’ 
awareness and 
engagement.  

-Waste 
reduction (via 
garbage collection); 
- Second-hand 

Lack in active 
participation of 
local actors. 

-Bottom-up 
involvement, 
starting from 
small local actors 

Reluctance to active 
participation. 



 
 

 
European Journal of Social Impact and Circular Economy - ISSN: 2704-9906  
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8 

clothing collection; 
awareness raising 
activities (e.g. 
conferences).  

(e.g., Plastic Free) 
and development 
of synergies with 
the University 
-Increased 
awareness to fight 
indifference and 
reluctance to get 
involved. 

Source: Author´s elaboration 
 
 
 
 
All the actors taking part in this focus group are colleges and networks aiming to develop sustainable actions. The common 

issues these actors face regard the engagement of local actors, the lack of a “common language” that prevents stakeholders and 
civil society from interacting fruitfully, and the overall lack of proactivity and collaboration among actors (Table 3).  

Some main solutions that have been implemented to tackle these issues are the dissemination activities, and an increase in 
the communication and involvement of local actors.  

 
Table 3: Focus group with stakeholder “firms” 
 

Group 2 Motivations WHY Area/Topic Challenges Solutions Remaining problems 

VoltaPlant 
Removing battery by 
substituting the energy 
stemming from plants 

Power 
improvement for 
lighting systems 
and IOT, new 
materials 

-Carbon offset 
-Produce a sufficient 
quantity of energy 

 
Select and 
implement new 
materials that are 
increasingly 
recyclable and 
sustainable 
 
 

Further raise the 
performance of these 
cells to obtain 
maximum operating 
stability and 
repeatability of the 
cells 

LAVGON 

Develop an 
alternative, ethically 
and socially 
responsible way to 
produce garments 
(handicraft laboratory) 

High quality raw 
material, 
rethinking and 
reuse of 
fabric/textile 
scraps 

-Communicate the 
value proposition to 
prospect clients 
-Finding 
manufacturers 
suitable for 
processing textile 
waste  
-production into a 
system of suppliers 
and a reuse network 
(not only textiles) 
 

Create a network 
of informal 
suppliers and local 
associations 
interested in 
processing textile 
waste 

-Communicate the 
value proposition to 
the clients 
-Find the proper 
suppliers having 
recyclable/sustainable 
inputs at affordable 
prices  



 
 

 
European Journal of Social Impact and Circular Economy - ISSN: 2704-9906  
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9 

Biorestart 

Use waste from the 
agri-food chain to 
extract bioactive 
compounds 

Organic waste 
recovery 

 
Scaling-up and 
decreasing the 
environmental and 
economic impact of 
the waste 
transportation 
 

Building waste 
treatment centers 
through Italy 

Decrease the water 
consumption needed 
for the process 
through water 
recovery 

Planeat 

-Provide to as many 
people as possible a 
sustainable alternative 
to the traditional 
grocery shopping 
-Fighting food waste 

Tool for healthy 
meals planning 
 
 

 
-Fight food waste and 
disposable plastic 
-Finding the proper 
suppliers providing 
sustainable materials  
-Economic 
sustainability 
 

Development of 
the Planeat.com 
platform to 
implement a new 
grocery shopping 
concept 

-Scaling-up 
-Competition of the 
large-scale 
distribution  

FungoBox and 
Coffeefrom 

Reuse the coffee 
grounds as a 
production input 

 
-Kits to develop a 
bio-based material 
from recycled 
coffee grounds 
and biopolymers -
Zero-waste 
alternative to 
traditional plastic 
 
 

-Develop more 
versions of the coffee 
granules by increasing 
the % of recycled 
coffee grounds 
-New applications of 
the material and new 
partners 

 
-Finding an 
increasing number 
of practical 
applications 
- Finding 
partnering firms 
aiming to 
substitute the 
traditional plastic 
with a Coffee 
from product   

-Encourage producers 
to embrace the 
circular paradigm  
-Stimulate 
investments to foster 
the circular economy  

Assolombarda Role of wrap up - proposing synergies and joint projects 

Source: Author´s elaboration 
 

All the actors taking part in this focus group are local startups and firms adopting a sustainable or circular business model 
since their foundation: they all aim to make a positive impact on the environment by implementing business-based solutions to 
reduce waste. Apart from specific challenges concerning the developed products/services, the firms have common issues to be 
faced concerning the scalability of their business, the achievement of economic sustainability and the development of industrial 
symbiosis. Some solutions to overcome these issues have already been implemented, i.e., the development of informal networks 
and the establishment of partnerships with other firms. Assolombarda, being the most important association of the Italian 
entrepreneurial system in the country, may assume an active role in fostering the transition toward circularity, by advancing 
guidelines in terms of circular practices, and enhancing synergies between economic actors (Table 4).  

However, several are the difficulties that remain and still need to find a solution, i.e., scaling-up and building full circular 
value chains since investments and partners are frequently not available or are difficult to identify. 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 



 
 

 
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10 

 
Table 4: Focus group with stakeholder “local associations” 
 

Group 3 Motivations WHY Area/Topic Challenges Solutions Remaining problems 

Active 
Citizenship 
(Cittadinanza 
attiva) 

Spreading a culture 
that can influence 
waste practices by 
transforming them 
into education of 
reuse, recycle and 
repair, or to virtuous 
purchasing practices 
(buying food in 
bulk, etc.). 

Spreading among 
citizens the culture 
of reuse, recycle 
and repair.  
 

Involve as much 
citizenship as 
possible. 

 
Eco-tour in the center 
of Pavia to discover 
stores where you can 
buy loose, eco-
sustainable and Km 0 
products, repair or 
borrow objects etc.  
 
 

Increasingly implement 
initiatives that help 
influence the acquisition 
of virtuous practices of 
pro-
environmental/sustainable 
behaviors. 

Il sellino 
spiritato 

 
-Study mobility 
plans for several 
cities including 
Pavia 
-Democratizing the 
public space making 
the urban mobility 
more sustainable. 
 
 
 

Spreading a 
culture of 
sustainable urban 
mobility. 
 
 

Enhancing the 
collaboration 
with public and 
private actors in 
order to reach a 
general impact 
on the urban 
mobility of 
Pavia. 

Cycling tracks could 
be improved at 7% 
with small and cheap 
interventions (e.g. 
changing vertical 
signage). 
 
 

 
-In Pavia every hour 
5.000 cars travel less than 
3 km; 
respiratory pathologies 
increase and the 
pedestrians still have a 
small amount of public 
space to walk on. -
Investors should be more 
involved in the whole 
planning process. 
 

Re-Cig 

Re-Cig deals with 
the collection and 
recycle of cigarette 
butts, with a 
patented process 

It proposes a 
service to 
companies to 
collect the butts in 
compliance with 
regulatory 
standards 
(Smokers Point), 
including the use 
of a portable 
ashtray and the 
transportation of 
the waste to the 
recycling premise  
 
 

Circularity is the 
main objective 
starting from a 
waste that had no 
previous 
reutilization 
practice, even 
though the 
material deriving 
from the 
recycling 
process is at the 
moment poor in 
quality and 
limited in 
quantity  

Reduce waste by 
extending the 
collection of cigarette 
butts in larger areas  
and recycle the butts’ 
main components to 
re-market it as a 
component for other 
products (useful in the 
production of glasses) 
 
 

-The legal framework is 
still very complicated 
even if there are signs of 
recent re-considering 
strategies by policy 
makers (including the 
amendments of the Italian 
Constitution) 
- Try to involve cigarette 
producers to adopt 
policies or reduction of 
butt waste and pay for the 
recycle 



 
 

 
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11 

Fiab 

 
Strong contribution 
in spreading the 
culture of soft 
mobility in order to 
achieve a 
multidimensional 
impact on both 
mobility practices 
and urban 
environmental 
quality. 
 
 

Spreading the soft 
mobility practices  

 
 
Make an effort 
not only to 
facilitate the 
transition to 
sustainable 
mobility, but 
also (indirectly) 
to make the city 
more livable, 
beautiful and 
with a higher 
quality of life. 
 
 

The University should 
take greater 
responsibility in being 
a driver to urge the 
spread of cycling in 
the city. In this sense, 
the University can 
play a role in lobbying 
the City Council to 
take concrete steps to 
improve urban 
mobility. 

 
 
 
FIAB is active in 
proposing concrete 
solutions to promote 
sustainable mobility, but 
more resolution is needed 
from the public actor in 
implementing these 
projects. 
 
 

Banco 
Alimentare 

Collect foodstuffs 
which are still 
perfectly edible but, 
having lost their 
commercial value or 
being unfit for sale 
(consisting of 
surplus production, 
incorrectly labeled 
products, food close 
to its ‘use-by-date’, 
food leftovers and 
surplus from 
catering and canteen 
services) would be 
destined to landfill. 
The main supplying 
sources are food 
industry, organized 
large-scale retail 
trade, and collective 
catering service. 
 

 
 

Food surplus is 
prevented from 
becoming waste, 
thus recovered as  
a resource for 
those who cannot 
afford edible and 
nutritious food. 
-Participation with 
other stakeholders 
and policy makers 
to frame both new 
legislation 
(internally, the so 
called ‘Gadda’ 
Law enacted in 
2016) and 
common 
guidelines (i.e., the 
Manual of Good 
Practices for 
Charitable NGOs) 
to help private 
donors and 
nonprofit 
charitable 
organizations in 
donating,  
recovering, 
collecting, storing 
and distributing 
food for charitable 
purposes  to 
people in need, 
while assuring 

 -Recovering 
food surplus and 
leftovers to 
redistribute them 
for free to the 
increasing part 
of the population 
in need living in 
the city which 
the market and 
public services 
cannot reach. 
- reduction of the 
environmental 
impact of food 
production and 
consumption on 
climate changes 
as it reduces the 
carbon footprint 
related to cities. -  
educating people 
on the 
importance of 
giving value to 
food avoiding 
waste, as well as 
of raising 
awareness 
around the 
themes of food 
poverty, healthy 
diets and 
volunteering in 
the cities. 

-Donation of safe food 
surplus should 
become a practice to 
be more widely spread 
through the entire 
food chain, from the 
production to the 
retailers and 
consumption level. - 
Every year Banco 
organizes the National 
Food Collection Day, 
involving a large 
network of 
supermarkets and civil 
society and raising 
awareness about the 
problem of food 
poverty thanks to a 
concrete and free 
gesture of sharing. 
- launching the 
‘Siticibo’ initiative, a 
network aimed at 
recovering large scale 
retailers and catering 
surplus.   
 

 
 

-A uniform definition of 
parameters to measure 
food waste volumes at the 
local, European and 
international levels, is 
still missing, thus 
threatening the common 
efforts made to modify 
the relevant existing 
legislation in an effective 
way   
-The donation dimension 
should be added to the 
traditional 3R cycle 
 

 
 



 
 

 
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12 

food safety and 
traceability. 

Repair Café 

Reduce the waste 
created by those 
who throw away 
without first 
attempting to repair 
the seemingly no-
longer-functioning 
object for its 
original purpose. 

Teaching how to 
repair or reuse for 
a different purpose 
daily life objects.  
 

Fighting the 
“consumption & 
waste” culture 
convincing 
people to repair 
and reuse instead 
of wasting used 
objects requires 
time. 

 
 
The project is 
completely based on 
training sessions and 
workshops to spread 
this culture of repair 
and reuse. 
 
 

-There are no right tools 
to access that product or 
to repair it 
-It would be necessary to 
change the law so that 
manufacturers would be 
responsible for making 
items produced reusable. 

Source: Author´s elaboration 
 
All the actors taking part in this focus group are local associations/projects aiming to promote sustainable and circular 

practices in the fields of urban waste, mobility, and food. The common issues these entities need to face concern the low level 
of collaboration and engagement of public actors and the complexity of dealing with the current legal framework and the 
complex bureaucracy. We find that some key solutions that have been implemented to solve these problems are networking 
with the public and private sector, looking for a higher visibility by interacting with the university (useful for lobbying at 
different levels, from local to European level). Finally, a pattern can be found along all the outcomes of the focus group, that is 
the need for a more effective involvement of the public institutions of the city. Indeed, the transition from a city of waste to a 
circular city can become feasible thanks to the collaboration with all the stakeholders of the urban society who actively 
participate in this social process. 
 

5. Discussion 

The conducted analysis of the focus groups allows us to identify six virtuous circular practices to transit from a “city of 
waste” to a “circular city” .  

First, the implementation of circular business models within some urban economic activities. This is a positive sign as it 
means that Pavia is showcasing trends of transition from traditional linear business models to new circular approaches. 
Obviously, the spread of this model among the city's economic actors is not yet pervasive, but the presented cases offer signals 
that testify a occurring within the local system. 

Second, we observe the will to prevent/reduce food waste through several businesses and organizations dedicated to 
promoting the circularity in the food field. As cities have a key role in tackling food waste (Fattibene et al., 2020), we deem 
that the implementation of these virtuous circular food practices is crucial within a “circular city”.  



 
 

 
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13 

A third practice emerging from the focus groups regards the promotion of a sustainable mobility. Circularity, having a 
primary goal focused on environmental sustainability, inevitably involves the world of transportation and its impact on air 
quality. Pavia showcases some active players in the association sector, who carry out several activities to downsize local private 
motor transportation, and facilitate bicycle transportation instead. In this case, interaction with the public body becomes crucial 
to implement the various bicycle-pedestrian projects. 

The spread of circular economy practices, however, seems to involve not only the strictly business-related field, but also the 
association sector, which is the fourth factor. In particular, the focus group reveals the strong role played by some actors in the 
field of "Reuse-Reduce-Recycle" practices. The presence of these actors in the urban context shows how circularity is a 
paradigm that cannot involve only companies; rather, it should engage all members of a society and stimulate social activism.  

A fifth virtuous practice emerging from the focus group concerns collaboration between university and stakeholders. The 
University of Pavia constitutes a historical institution for the city, due to its educational role and related to scientific research. 
Universities represent key resources for cities, as key drivers for technological experimentation and for the study of practices 
that can be implemented in policy making. Collaboration between universities, local government and, more generally, all 
stakeholders active in the circular economy process, makes it possible to trigger those innovation processes that are fundamental 
to truly progress in the transition from “a city of waste” to a “circular city”.  

Finally, a sixth virtuous practice concerns the involvement of the citizenry to spread sustainable behaviors. Again, the role 
of associations is crucial in implementing activities to spread circular behaviors. In the focus group, for example, various 
activities have been presented by participants (e.g., workshops aimed at teaching stakeholders how to repair objects and make 
them usable again, plastic collection days, bike repair stands).  

The empirical evidence thus shows that there are some fundamental "ingredients" in a city to create the social conditions for 
actions and initiatives attributable to the circular economy sector to be activated. The six identified virtuous practices could be 
the basis for a future evaluation of a city circularity, as already proposed by Vola et al. (2023) with respect to organizations’ 
circularity. 

Finally, while the study by Vanhuyse et al. (2021) highlights the lack of social impact considerations in research about 
circular cities, through our empirical study we can find some hints about social activities that are embedded in business models 
(e.g., CSR activities, social inclusion) or are part of an actor’s mission (e.g., education about sustainability). The University of 
Pavia, as a relevant historical university, may represent a key actor in fostering the social aspects linked to CE, in addition to 
its commitment in the third mission and the public engagement (which is supported by the creation of important structures such 
as the Office of Sustainability). However, all these territorial and university activities work in a fragmented and disconnected 
manner, lacking a solid and extensive network allowing continuous exchanges and favoring the connection between the several 
and diverse territorial experiences. In particular, the difficulties in interaction between the local government and the economic 
actors prevent the unleashing of the full potential of all these CE practices leading to the construction of the smart city of the 
future. While private and public actors often diverge in their objectives, greater collaboration between circular economy actors 
and the local government becomes crucial to enable the dissemination of the benefits of this approach to economic production 
throughout the urban community. The literature is beginning to highlight these effects (Dagilienè et al., 2018; Wasserbaur et 
al., 2022; Christensen, 2021), where private entrepreneurship is facilitated by political actions capable of supporting it and 
enabling the release of its potential positive impact on the urban community. 

In the case of Pavia, therefore, it seems necessary to cultivate greater interaction both among the actors involved in the field 
of circular economy (especially business ventures and local associations) and between them and the public actors - University 
included - to develop a virtuous relationship that provides real support to initiatives beneficial for all stakeholders involved. 

If Williams (2019) supported the idea that implementing CE principles at the city level requires regenerating the urban 
ecosystem, thus going beyond the RESOLVE framework, we find little evidence of environmentally regenerating activities in 
our analyzed city, and they are mainly bound to the sustainable mobility. Raising awareness regarding CE and increasing 
investments in urban regeneration should be priorities of the next decades. Our findings add to the study of Bolger and Doyon 
that public actors need to assume a leading role in facilitating and orchestrating the network of different stakeholders operating 
locally in order to transform a “city of waste” into a “circular city”. Finally, we also find that the potential of local municipalities 
in favoring the transition toward circular cities (Ghisellini et al., 2016) still needs to be fully exploited in the analyzed city.  

 
 



 
 

 
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14 

5. Conclusion 

This paper aimed to contribute to the emerging literature of urban studies about circular cities (Benedetti et al., 2022; 
Ghisellini, 2022; Prendeville, 2019; Williams, 2019) through an empirical study aimed at investigating virtuous practices of 
transition toward a circular city. Thanks to three focus groups conducted within the EC2U Think Tank in the city of Pavia 
(northern Italy), we could identify virtuous practices to transit from a “city of waste” towards a “circular city”, i.e., circular 
business models by local firms and NGOs, reducing of food waste, promoting sustainable mobility, local activism focused on 
“repairing-reuse-recycle”, collaboration between the university and private stakeholders, and civic engagement for improving 
sustainable behaviors. All these outcomes give an account of the presence of a background in the city of Pavia that could 
gradually enable the good conditions to build a city aware of the relevancy of the circular economy.  

Our case study suggests that cities have many possibilities to shift toward a circular economy, by leveraging on the expertise 
of different stakeholders and the engagement of local citizens. Municipalities and local governments are key players in the 
transition, as they can support the stakeholders in overcoming the barriers concerning the lack of regulations, and in guiding 
the transition toward “circular cities” in a synergistic and structured manner. The university that represents a relevant and 
historical feature of the city of Pavia may provide education on the topic, also consolidating the interaction with the stakeholders 
working in the territory, and favoring the students’ training. This will implement and expand knowledge on the concept of 
sustainability and on the most available and effective tools to be adopted to create circular cities against the old model of waste 
cities. Our findings call for an enhancement of the commitment of public actors as active promoters of the transition toward 
“circular cities”.  

 
5.1 Limitations and future avenues for research 
 
The paper presents some limitations. First and foremost, the research is based on a single case study, meaning that it allows 

for analytical generalization but not for statistical generalization. Further research may compare the results stemming from this 
study conducted in Pavia with other studies conducted in other cities (for instance, those belonging to the EC2U consortium), 
and may focus on the role of public actors as orchestrators of circular urban projects. We also suggest that it would be worth 
performing longitudinal studies to investigate over time the process of transformation from a “city of waste” toward a “circular 
city”. Finally, we suggest deeply investigating the social aspects linked to the implementation of circular cities.  

 
5.2 Policy implications 
 
The illustrated case study has highlighted several crucial factors, limitations, and methodologies that can provide valuable 

guidance for local, national, and European policymakers. The CE approach offers solutions to address sustainability and achieve 
the 2030 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) to which both UN Member States and every EU Member State, including 
Italy, have committed. As demonstrated in our case study, the interconnectedness of all the goals and targets necessitates a 
multi-stakeholder approach to finding more suitable solutions and creating effective positive impacts at various levels. 

For instance, implementing a CE approach in urban food policies would yield economic, societal, and environmental 
benefits, as evidenced by extant studies (Ellen MacArthur Foundation 2019; Lizzi et al. 2022). Practices aimed at preventing 
and reducing food waste can enhance urban regeneration, curb greenhouse gas emissions, and mitigate soil degradation, offering 
significant environmental benefits that also promote health. Simultaneously, these efforts can benefit those in need, improve 
food security, alleviate poverty, and bolster local resilience.  

Our study suggests overcoming policy constraints that limit the actions of numerous local actors, both public and private, 
which are influenced by (i) the absence of uniform rules and common definitions or (ii) a convoluted legal framework where 
different standards and normative approaches are imposed by national, EU, and international rules. The collected empirical 
evidence suggests that there are several CE practices that could be implemented at the urban level to favor the transition from 
cities of waste toward circular cities. Policies should favor the implementation of these practices, by concurrently following 
ongoing revisions of EU acts related to Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR), sustainability, waste management (including 
textiles and food), and packaging, which will soon introduce new rules at the national and local levels 
 
 



 
 

 
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15 

Acknowledgements 
 

We would like to thank all the participants of the Think Tank for their time and the insights they provided us. We are grateful 
to the EC2U consortium for involving us in the Think Tank project.  
 

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