Workplace Bullying and Occupational Stress Among University Teachers: Mediating and Moderating Factors Research Reports Workplace Bullying and Occupational Stress Among University Teachers: Mediating and Moderating Factors Naima Akhtar Malik a, Kaj Björkqvist* a [a] Department of Social Sciences, Åbo Akademi University, Vasa, Finland. Abstract In the study, it is explored whether exposure to workplace bullying predicts symptoms of occupational stress, and whether this association is mediated by interpersonal relationships, and moderated by sex and nationality. A sample of 610 university teachers from Pakistan (196 males, 133 females) and Finland (152 males, 129 females) completed an online questionnaire. A conditional process model was applied using the PROCESS programme. Workplace bullying served as predictor, stress symptoms as predicted variable, relationships with (a) colleagues and (b) family as mediators, and sex and country as moderators. As expected, workplace bullying had a significant effect on stress symptoms, which was mediated by family relationships but not by relationships with colleagues. Neither sex nor country had a moderating effect. Positive family relationships thus mediate the stressful impact of workplace bullying, and this was the case for both sexes and both nationalities. Keywords: workplace bullying, occupational stress, university teachers, mediator, moderator Europe's Journal of Psychology, 2019, Vol. 15(2), 240–259, https://doi.org/10.5964/ejop.v15i2.1611 Received: 2018-03-01. Accepted: 2018-08-29. Published (VoR): 2019-06-07. Handling Editors: Vlad Glăveanu, Webster University Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland; Panagiotis Gkorezis, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece *Corresponding author at: P.O.B. 311, 65101 Vasa, Finland. E-mail: kaj.bjorkqvist@abo.fi This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, CC BY 4.0 (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Workplace bullying and occupational stress are both well-researched phenomena within organizational psy- chology (Einarsen, Hoel, Zapf, & Cooper, 2003). Workplace bullying has been suggested to be one of the most stressful phenomena that may occur (Duffy & Brown, 2018; Hauge, Skogstad, & Einarsen, 2010; Pheko, 2018), and it has injurious effects on the victim’s physical and psychological health (Duffy & Sperry, 2012; Giorgi, Arcangeli, Mucci, & Cupelli, 2015; Giorgi et al., 2016; Sojo, Wood, & Genat, 2016). Workplace bullying is a serious issue also in educational institutions (Shelley et al., 2017), and there is an ur- gent need to manage the problem (Hauge, Skogstad, & Einarsen, 2010). It is an ethical and moral obligation of managers and supervisors to protect the employees from an unfriendly environment (Pheko, 2018). When an individual becomes a victim of workplace bullying, his or her life quality changes; the victim’s emotion- al state and relationships also change. It affects negatively the work capacity of individuals, groups, and organi- zations (Membere et al., 2015). Bullying does not only harm friendships within the occupational social network, it also causes a state of general frustration which indirectly may affect family relationships negatively (Duffy, Europe's Journal of Psychology ejop.psychopen.eu | 1841-0413 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://ejop.psychopen.eu/ https://ejop.psychopen.eu/ https://www.psychopen.eu/ 2018). Lewis and Orford (2005) found that workplace bullying has a negative impact over time on close rela- tionships; the stress caused by workplace bullying interacts with other stressful circumstances in the individu- als’ life, putting strain also on family relationships. The relationships between bullying, well-being, and health have been investigated (Einarsen & Nielsen, 2015; Park & Ono, 2017; Yragui, Demsky, Hammer, Van Dyck, & Neradilek, 2017) but mediating variables between workplace bullying and occupational stress are relatively little studied. It has been shown that one of the major sources of occupational stress is interpersonal conflict at work (Hahn, 2000; Hammen, 2006; Narayanan, Menon, & Spector, 1999a; Spector & Jex, 1998; Stoetzer et al., 2009); accordingly, relationships with collea- gues could be a mediating variable. A victim from workplace bullying could still have good relationships with some colleagues, and this fact could alleviate the negative symptoms of being bullied by others. Likewise, good relationships with one’s own family may be a factor mitigating negative effects of workplace bullying. For in- stance, Repetti and Wang (2017) found that symptoms of occupational stress were affected by the level of sup- port from one’s family. The more support, the less symptoms, and vice versa. Therefore, family relationships could well be another moderating factor. The present study investigates whether (a) relationships with colleagues, and (b) family relationships serve as mediating variables between workplace bullying and occupational stress, by the use of conditional process modeling (Hayes, 2012; Preacher & Hayes, 2004). Sex differences in this respect are also studied, by keeping sex as a moderator in the model. Furthermore, two aggregated samples of university teachers were used, one from Finland, the other Pakistan; therefore, country belonging served as another moderator, besides sex. There are good reasons to choose sex and country as moderators, since both have visible (physical) and invisi- ble (value) components, and both influence group interrelation (Ayman & Korabik, 2010). Eby et al. (2005) con- cluded that sex differences are deep-rooted in work–family relations, and it is imperative to consider sex differ- ences and sex role issues to completely understand the work–family interface. The inherent idea in numerous discussions on work–family disputes is that the handling of the work–family interface is much more challenging for women than men (Shockley, Shen, DeNunzio, Arvan, & Knudsen, 2017). Sex differences in workplace bully- ing have not been considered much, or at least, not enough (Escartín, Salin, & Rodríguez-Carballeira, 2011; Hoel, Cooper, & Faragher, 2001; Lee, 2002), However, there is evidence supporting differences in effects, forms, and frequency of workplace bullying among men and women (Rayner & Cooper, 1997). Women have been found to report workplace bullying more often than men (Björkqvist, Österman, & Hjelt-Bäck, 1994), and they report psychological effects more often than men (Niedl, 1996). Work and family interactions are rooted in the cultural, organizational, and economic situation in which people live (Ollier-Malaterre & Foucreault, 2017). In countries where disparities among males and females are mini- mized, experiences within both family and work environments may be similar for both sexes, leading to lesser sex differences in work-family interactions (Casper, Harris, Taylor-Bianco, & Wayne, 2011; Fahlén, 2014). Fin- land is a leader among world countries in gender equality (Ministry of Social Affairs and Health, 2018). On the other hand, Pakistan faces serious challenges regarding gender equality. Malik, Björkqvist, and Österman (2017a, 2017b) found substantial differences between Finland and Pakistan regarding university employees ex- periences of occupational stress and burnout. Therefore, it was decided to keep country as a moderator in the present study. Malik & Björkqvist 241 Europe's Journal of Psychology 2019, Vol. 15(2), 240–259 https://doi.org/10.5964/ejop.v15i2.1611 https://www.psychopen.eu/ The study is part of a larger project, investigating factors related to occupational stress in Pakistan and Finland (Malik et al., 2017a, 2017b). The purpose of comparing these two countries is the earnest need of developing countries to enhance their institutional practices; this can only be made possible by learning from other con- texts. As developing countries are going through a rapid transition in higher education (Chaudhry, 2012), it is due time to become aware of the useful practices of developed countries. Comparisons facilitate the identifica- tion of strengths and weaknesses of educational systems, thereby suggesting ways to improve weak areas (Zhao et al., 2008). Therefore, Pakistan, a developing country, was selected, as working conditions in the country are becoming more challenging, and work hours have increased; statistics indicate that in the year 1971-1972, 20.4% of staff used to work more than fifty-six hours a week, whereas, in 2004 the figure was 30.8% (Nadeem & Abbas, 2009). Due to this over-commitment, both male and female employees are facing problems with fulfilling family responsibilities, which leads into a conflict between work and family life (Nadeem & Abbas, 2009). Finland, a developed country, was chosen as Finland is believed to have excellent work environments compared to most other countries. As stated by different life indexes, Finland does better in various measures of well-being in comparison to most of the world. It is placed amongst the best in personal safety, education, and work-life bal- ance (OECD, 2015). Finland does well above average in environmental quality, personal safety, civic engage- ment, social connections, personal well-being, housing, and work-life balance (OECD, 2015). Occupational Stress A sense of psychological pressure due to experiencing different stressors at work is known as occupational stress (Karasek & Theorell, 1990). Occupational stress has been claimed by some to be an unavoidable phe- nomenon of contemporary age (Stojanović, Milenović, & Marković, 2012). Research has shown that teaching is a stressful profession, and that occupational stress can influence job satisfaction and motivation of teachers (Maphalala, 2014). It may also enhance negative job attitudes (Aquino & Thau, 2009; Barling, Kelloway, & Frone, 2005). Chronic stress may further lead to behavioral and cognition problems (Cohen, Janicki-Deverts, & Miller, 2007). Emotionally and physically demanding work with little control over one’s work situation is especially stressful (Grosch & Sauter, 2005). Some amount of work stress is unavoidable in every occupation, but experiencing stress for an extended period can be very damaging for one’s health, as it can be a cause for aggression, job dissatisfaction, burnout, truancy, anxiety, fatigue, substance abuse, and poor performance (Bodenmann, Meuwly, Bradbury, Gmelch, & Ledermann, 2010; Cropanzano, Rupp, & Byrne, 2003; Johnson, Perry, & Rosensky, 2002; Martinussen, Richardsen, & Burke, 2007; Morash et al., 2008; Podsakoff, LePine, & LePine, 2007; Schwabe & Wolf, 2010; Thoits, 2010; Violanti et al., 2016; Wang, 2005). There are several contextual factors which have been recognized as facilitators of occupational stress, such as poor organizational support, job insecurity (Abbasi, Araban, & Aalipour, 2018; Malik et al., 2017a, 2017b; Milner, Witt, LaMontagne, & Niedhammer, 2018), time pressure (Prem, Ohly, Kubiceki, & Korunka, 2017; Prem, Paškvan, Kubicek, & Korunka, 2018), job ambiguity, job conflict, workplace bullying (Attell, Brown, & Treiber, 2017), excessive work load (Buchanan, 2010; Smithers & Robinson, 2003), and job demand and lack of control (Fila, Purl, & Griffeth, 2017). Another emerging job stressor which has caught the attention of researchers is the economic crisis which emerged in 2008 and had a negative effect on working conditions and the mental and Workplace Bullying and Occupational Stress 242 Europe's Journal of Psychology 2019, Vol. 15(2), 240–259 https://doi.org/10.5964/ejop.v15i2.1611 https://www.psychopen.eu/ general health of employees (Mucci, Giorgi, Roncaioli, Perez, & Arcangeli, 2016). It may have had an increas- ing effect on the prevalence of workplace bullying (D’Cruz, Noronha, & Beale, 2014). Studies have corrobora- ted the fact that economic crises lead to an increase in unemployment, heavy workload, staff reduction, and decrease in wages, and that they are related to increased levels of mood disorders, anxiety, depression, dys- thymia, and suicide (Mucci et al., 2016). Workplace Bullying Workplace bullying has been defined as repeated activities with the aim of bringing mental (but sometimes also physical) pain to the victim(s), and directed towards one or more individuals who, for one reason or another, are not able to defend themselves (Björkqvist et al., 1994). Workplace bullying has also been referred to as work harassment (Brodsky, 1976) and mobbing at the workplace (Leymann, 1992). A typical feature which distin- guishes bullying from general aggression is the imbalance of power between perpetrator and victim (Einarsen et al., 2003). Another typical feature is the repetitiveness of the aggressive behaviour, which little by little breaks down the victim. The percentage of employees who may be considered as victims of workplace bullying vary from workplace to workplace and study to study, depending partly on what criteria have been used. Workplace aggression, in its various forms, is extremely common, and has been experienced by 96% of employees; that is, by almost every- body (Porath & Pearson, 2010). The point prevalence of victimisation of workplace bullying is usually around 10%. Nielsen et al. (2009) found that 6.8% in a sample of 2539 Norwegian employees could be defined as vic- tims. In another Norwegian study (Einarsen & Skogstad, 1996), the prevalence was 8.6%. The Norwegian fig- ures are relatively low in comparison with findings from other European countries: e.g., UK,10.6% (Hoel et al., 2001); Belgium 3-20% (Notelaers, De Witte, Vermunt, & Einarsen, 2006); and Lithuania 23% (Malinauskiene, Obelenis, & Dopagiene, 2005). Björkqvist et al. (1994) found that 11% of teachers at a university in Finland had been exposed to workplace bullying during the last six months. They also found that victims scored significantly higher than others on de- pression, anxiety, and aggression. Stress symptoms, depression, and psychosomatic symptoms are common among victims of workplace bullying (Bernotaite & Malinauskiene, 2017; Matthiesen & Einarsen, 2004; Nielsen, Matthiesen, & Einarsen, 2008). Some victims show signs of PTSD (Björkqvist et al., 1994; Matthiesen & Einarsen, 2004; Mikkelsen & Einarsen, 2002; Leymann, 1992). In especially severe cases, suicides are known to have taken place (Leymann, 1992). A meta-analysis (Nixon et al., 2011) found that workplace bullying resulted in numerous harmful health prob- lems like insomnia, back- and headaches, exhaustion, alcohol use, and stomach problems. Bullying is also a cause of frustration and depression (Yıldırım, 2009), which evoke interpersonal conflict (Reknes, Einarsen, Knardahl, & Lau, 2014), and interpersonal conflict unleash deviant behaviour (Spector et al., 2006). Employees, who experience themselves to be victims of workplace bullying, report increased levels of stress, anxiety, and depression, which is injurious for their personality (Fox & Stallworth, 2005) Relationships With Colleagues Interpersonal relations at work play a crucial role in ensuring an environment of trust and positive emotions. Good interpersonal relationships are not enough to improve employees’ performance, but they may contribute Malik & Björkqvist 243 Europe's Journal of Psychology 2019, Vol. 15(2), 240–259 https://doi.org/10.5964/ejop.v15i2.1611 https://www.psychopen.eu/ significantly to it. As studies have shown, employees’ work ability, job satisfaction, and career success are di- rectly related to the quality of workplace relationships (Markiewicz, Devine, & Kausilas, 2000; Morrison, 2004; Sias & Cahill, 1998). Healthy workplace relationships are considered a key factor in reducing occupational stress. Interpersonal rela- tionships strongly influence the well-being and health of an individual. Appelberg, Romanov, Heikkilä, Honkasalo, and Koskenvuo (1996) conducted a six year follow up study among 15,000 employees and found that poor interpersonal relationships affected work ability negatively. Bruk-Lee and Spector (2006) found that interpersonal conflicts at work is one of the major causes of stress. It is the most referred to source of stress for college professors (Narayanan, Menon, & Spector, 1999b). Liu (2004) found that interpersonal conflict is a key source of stress among faculty and support staff in both a Chinese and an American university sample. Keenan and Newton (1985) reported that 74% of stressful incidents occurred due to social interaction with bosses, assistants, or colleagues. Employees from different occupations mention interpersonal matters as the utmost upsetting stressor at work (Smith, 1995). The level of burnout can also be predicted by the nature of interpersonal relationships among teachers (Cano- García, Padilla-Munoz, & Carrasco-Ortiz, 2005; Dorman, 2003; Friedman, 2003; Gavish & Friedman, 2010; Grayson & Alvarez, 2008; Leung & Lee, 2006; Skaalvik & Skaalvik, 2009, 2011; Van Droogenbroeck, Spruyt, & Vanroelen, 2014). A meta-analysis by Spector and Jex (1998) showed that there is a positive association be- tween interpersonal conflict and negative emotional states, such as depression, anxiety, and frustration. Family Relationships The association between family relationships and occupational stress is much less researched than the associ- ation between relationships with colleagues and occupational stress. However, job and family are closely inter- related and interdependent, and incidents in one area affects the quality of life in the other area (Allen, Herst, Bruck, & Sutton, 2000; Sarantakos, 1996). Demsky, Ellis, and Fritz (2014) found that there is a relationship be- tween workplace aggression and family conflict; when there is an increase in workplace aggression, family con- flicts also tend to increase. Job stressors affect family life and vice versa (Antoniou, Davidson, & Cooper, 2003). Repetti and Wang (2017) found that everyday job stressors affect family relationships in positive and negative ways depending upon the provision of support from family members. When a person experience stressors and stress at work, it usually provokes anger, irritation, and frustration at home, too (Narayanan et al., 1999a; Nixon et al., 2011). However, all studies have not found an association between family relationships and occupational stress. For instance, Wilczyński et al. (2015) found that family had no impact on job involvement and burnout. Aim and Hypotheses of the Study The present study aims at investigating whether workplace bullying has an effect on (is a predictor of) occupa- tional stress symptoms, and whether this effect is mediated by relationships with colleagues, and/or family rela- tionships, and moderated by sex (male vs. female respondents) and country belonging (Pakistan vs. Finland). Workplace Bullying and Occupational Stress 244 Europe's Journal of Psychology 2019, Vol. 15(2), 240–259 https://doi.org/10.5964/ejop.v15i2.1611 https://www.psychopen.eu/ The following hypotheses were set up for a conditional process model analysis: H1: Relationships with colleagues are expected to be a significant mediator between workplace bully- ing and occupational stress. H2: Family relationships are expected to be a significant mediator between workplace bullying and oc- cupational stress. H3: Sex is expected to have a moderating effect in the process, the effect being stronger for males than for females. H4: Country is expected to have a moderating effect in the process, the effect being stronger in Paki- stan than in Finland. Method Sample The sample consisted of university teachers from 28 conveniently sampled public universities in Pakistan and Finland. For the collection of data, the official e-mail addresses of university teachers employed at these univer- sities were obtained from the university websites. An e-mail was sent out to each address, with a link to an online survey which could be filled in only once. A total of 610 responses were received. It is not possible to estimate an exact response rate as it is impossible to verify the number of valid and active e-mail addresses. Some of the e-mails bounced back to the sender. The distribution of female and male teachers in Pakistan and Finland is presented in Table 1. The mean age was 42.1 years (SD = 10.1) for females, and 42.3 years (SD = 10.0) for males; the age difference between the sexes was not significant. The mean age was 37.2 years (SD = 7.6) for the Pakistani teachers and 48 years (SD = 9.4) for the Finnish teachers. Table 1 Number of Female and Male University Teachers in Pakistan and Finland Taking Part in the Study Country Females Males Total n % n % n % Pakistan 133 22 196 32 329 54 Finland 129 21 152 25 281 46 Total 262 43 348 57 610 100 Instrument and Analysis The study included four scales: (1) workplace bullying was measured with subscales from DIAS-Adult (Österman & Björkqvist, 2009); (2) occupational stress symptoms were assessed with the Work Stress Symp- toms Scale (Björkqvist & Österman, 1992); (3) relationships with colleagues were measured with an instrument designed specifically for this study. Some of the items were adapted from the Relationship Structures (ECR- RS) Questionnaire by Fraley, Heffernan, Vicary, and Brumbaugh (2011). (4) Family relationships were meas- Malik & Björkqvist 245 Europe's Journal of Psychology 2019, Vol. 15(2), 240–259 https://doi.org/10.5964/ejop.v15i2.1611 https://www.psychopen.eu/ ured with an instrument developed particularly for this study by the first author; items from (Jackson & Maslach, 1982) were also adapted for this scale. Sample items of the four scales, as well as their reliability scores (Cronbach’s α), are presented in Table 2. The responses alternatives for all scales were on a five-point scale ranging from 0 = never to 4 = very often, or from 0 = strongly disagree to 4 = strongly agree. Table 2 Sample Items and Cronbach’s Alphas of the Scales in the Study (N = 610) Workplace Bullying (28 items, α = .97) Sample items: Has someone at your workplace …? Yelled at you; Quarrelled with you; Interrupted you bluntly when you were talking; Been ironic towards you; Ridiculed you in your absence; Spoken badly about you to someone else; Made false accusations about you; Refused to talk to you; Refused to look at you. Occupational Stress Symptoms (12 items, α = .94) Sample items: Do you feel, as a consequence of your work …? Exhaustion; Difficulties to concentrate; Weariness and feebleness; Insomnia (disturbed sleep); Nervousness, Irritation; Tension; Depression; Indifference towards everything. Relationships with Colleagues (22 items, α = .95) Sample items: I have good working relations with most of my colleagues; My colleagues show fairness in their interactions; I trust my colleagues; Me and my colleagues work well together; I think that I can turn to my colleagues in time of need; I feel comfortable opening up to my colleagues. Family Relationships (18 items, α = .90) Sample items: I spend enough time with my family members; I often find time to go for an outing with my family; I usually get upset at family gatherings due to tirednessa; I spend off-hours away from familya; I am involved with family matters; I find enough energy after work to attend family gatherings. aReversed scoring. To avoid a possible common method bias (CMB), great care was taken to examine the items to avoid vague, unclear and unfamiliar terms, as suggested by researchers (Lindell & Whitney, 2001; Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Lee, & Podsakoff, 2003). Anonymity and confidentiality was emphasized so that the participants could respond as honestly as possible (Chang, van Witteloostuijn, & Eden, 2010). After collecting the data, the Harman’s sin- gle-factor test was conducted which showed that a one-factor solution accounted for only 29.3% of the var- iance, well below the critical threshold of 50%, indicating that CMB was not a matter of concern. The mediation analysis was conducted with the programme PROCESS (Hayes, 2013), based on bootstrapping. Bootstrapping builds an empirical approximation of the sampling distribution and uses this to construct confi- dence intervals for the indirect effects. In this particular case, a 5,000 bootstrap sample was applied with the confidence interval set at 95%. Bootstrapping allows multiple mediators and moderators in the same model. The researcher may not only study the collective indirect effect of various mediators, but also compare the in- tensity of indirect effects and the range to which a mediation process is conditional on a moderator, i.e. a mod- erated mediation (Hayes, 2012; Preacher & Hayes, 2004). For the measurement of the effect size of the mediation paths, the c’/c ratio was used. Preacher and Kelley (2011) suggested the use of k2 (kappa-squared) as a measure of effect size; however, Wen and Fan (2015) showed that Preacher’s and Kelley’s calculations were mathematically incorrect, and k2 should not be used. In- stead, they suggested the use of the ratio between the indirect and the direct effect as a measure for the effect Workplace Bullying and Occupational Stress 246 Europe's Journal of Psychology 2019, Vol. 15(2), 240–259 https://doi.org/10.5964/ejop.v15i2.1611 https://www.psychopen.eu/ size of mediation paths. Accordingly, it is used here. The ratio between the indirect and the total effect is also reported. Ethical Considerations Participation was completely voluntary, participants were all adults, and full confidentiality was guaranteed. The study adheres to the principles concerning human research ethics of the Declaration of Helsinki (World Medical Association, 2013), as well as guidelines for the responsible conduct of research of The Finnish Advisory Board on Research Integrity (2012). Results Correlations Between the Variables of the Study Pearson’s correlation coefficients between the variables of the study are presented separately for male and fe- male teachers (Table 3), and for Pakistan and Finland (Table 4). All correlations were highly significant, for males, for females, and for both countries. Table 3 Pearson’s Correlations Between the Variables of the Study for Male and Female Teachers (N = 610) Variable (Scale) 1 2 3 4 1. Stress Symptoms − -.47*** -.67*** .59*** 2. Colleague Relationships -.45*** − .50*** -.51*** 3. Family Relationships -.67*** .45*** − -.45*** 4. Workplace Bullying .44*** -.54*** -.40*** − Note. Correlations for male teachers are presented above the diagonal, and correlations for female teachers are presented below the diag- onal. ***p ≤ .001. Table 4 Pearson’s Correlations Between the Variables of the Study for Teachers From Pakistan and From Finland (N = 610) Variable (Scale) 1 2 3 4 1. Stress Symptoms − -.43*** -.65*** .56*** 2. Colleague Relationships -.52*** − .45*** -.51*** 3. Family Relationships -.73*** .48*** − -.42*** 4. Workplace Bullying .45*** -.51*** -.44*** − Note. Correlations for teachers from Pakistan are presented above the diagonal, and correlations for teachers from Finland are presented below the diagonal. ***p ≤ .001. Conditional Process Analysis A conditional process model was applied with workplace bullying as the predictor, stress symptoms as the out- come variable, relationships with colleagues and family relationships as mediators, and sex and country as moderators. PROCESS (Hayes, 2013) was used, to test the mediation and moderation hypotheses. In the Malik & Björkqvist 247 Europe's Journal of Psychology 2019, Vol. 15(2), 240–259 https://doi.org/10.5964/ejop.v15i2.1611 https://www.psychopen.eu/ present scenario of investigating the effect of workplace bullying on stress symptoms, the mediating roles of relationships with colleagues and family respectively, with sex and country as moderators, were analysed. The results are presented in Tables 5 – 6 and Figure 1. Figure 1. Results of a conditional process analysis of the effect of Workplace Bullying (X) on symptoms of Occupational Stress (Y), with Relationships with Colleagues (M1) and Family Relationships (M2) as mediators. Note. See also Table 5. *p ≤ .05. ***p ≤ .001. Table 5 Mediating Effects of Relationships With Colleagues (M1) and Family Relationships (M2) Between Workplace Bullying (X) and Occupational Stress (Y) Mediating Effect B p 95% CI LL UL Mediating Effect of Colleague Relationships (a1) X‒M1 -.53 ≤ .001 -.60 -.46 (a2) M1‒Y -.09 .031 -.17 -.01 (a1 + a2) X‒M1‒Y .04 -.01 .09 Ratio of indirect to direct effect: .15 Ratio of indirect to total effect: .07 Mediating Effect of Family Relationships (b1) X‒M2 -.41 ≤ .001 -.47 -.34 (b2) M2‒Y -.70 ≤ .001 -.79 -.62 (b1 + b2) X‒M2‒Y .29 .22 .36 Ratio of indirect to direct effect: .91 Ratio of indirect to total effect: .44 Model Summary Total effect (c) .65 ≤ .001 .56 .73 Direct effect (c’) .31 ≤ .001 .23 .39 Indirect effect (ab) .33 -.33 -.15 Ratio of indirect to direct effect: 1.06 Ratio of indirect to total effect: .65 Note. CI = confidence interval; LL = lower limit; UL = upper limit. N = 610. See also Figure 1. Workplace Bullying and Occupational Stress 248 Europe's Journal of Psychology 2019, Vol. 15(2), 240–259 https://doi.org/10.5964/ejop.v15i2.1611 https://www.psychopen.eu/ Table 5 presents the results of the mediation analyses. As can be seen, Relationships with Colleagues (M1) did not mediate the path between Workplace Bullying (X) and Occupational Stress, since zero was included in the confidence interval. H1 did not receive support. However, Family Relationships (M2) did serve as a mediator, and the effect size as measured with the ratio between the indirect and the direct effect was high, .91. H2 did receive support. A graphic presentation of the results is presented in Figure 1. Since Relationships with Colleagues (M1) did not serve as a mediator as had been hypothesised, it was point- less to further investigate whether Country and Sex served as moderators of the pathway over M1. Instead, it was analysed whether they moderated the pathway over M2, Family Relationships. The results are presented in Table 6. Table 6 Moderating Effects of Country and Sex on the Mediating Effect of Family Relationships (M2) on the Relationship Between Workplace Bullying (X) and Occupational Stress (Y) (N = 610) Interaction Effect B p 95% CI LL UL Interaction Effect of Country x Family Relationships (b1) X‒M2 -.22 .002 -.41 -.09 (b2) M2‒Y -.14 .094 -.29 .02 Interaction Effect of Sex x Family Relationships (b1) X‒M2 .01 .880 -.13 .15 (b2) M2‒Y -.10 .150 -.23 .04 Note. CI = confidence interval; LL = lower limit; UL = upper limit. As Table 6 shows, the confidence intervals for both potential moderators (Country and Sex) included zero. That is, none of them served as a moderator for the pathway over M2. Both H3 and H4 had to be rejected. Conclusions Hypothesis Testing Only one of the four hypotheses was supported by the results. The findings indicated that in this sample, family relationships (H2), but not relationships with colleagues (H1), mediated the effect of workplace bullying on oc- cupational stress. Thus. H2, but not H1, was corroborated. H3 and H4 did not receive support. Neither country nor sex moderated the mediating effect of family relationships. It should be noted that the results suggest a partial, but not a full, mediation for Family Relationships. In reality, it is impossible ever to unequivocally prove full mediation, since that would require that one has measured, without error, all possible mediators and suppressors (Rucker, Preacher, Tormala, & Petty, 2011). Strengths and Limitations A strength of this study is the use of mediation and moderation analysis to better explain the effect of workplace bullying on symptoms of occupational stress among university teachers. To our knowledge, no previous study Malik & Björkqvist 249 Europe's Journal of Psychology 2019, Vol. 15(2), 240–259 https://doi.org/10.5964/ejop.v15i2.1611 https://www.psychopen.eu/ has attempted to use conditional process modelling in order to shed light on the mediating effect of interperso- nal relationships on the link between workplace bullying and occupational stress symptoms. However, the present study has several limitations that should be noted. The first one concerns the representa- tiveness of the sample. Although an attempt was made to collect data from different regions of both countries, it would be incorrect to consider the sample as fully representative. Furthermore, it is not possible to estimate an exact response rate, since it is difficult to assess the exact number of valid e-mail addresses to which the elec- tronic questionnaire was sent. The second limitation is that it was a cross-sectional study, which limits conclusions about causality within the conditional process model. In order to test causation, a longitudinal study is required. Reverse causation re- mains a possibility, and the role of third variables is not automatically ruled out by cross-sectional designs. Third, it may be claimed that a paper-and-pencil questionnaire could have produced different results than an electronic one. However, Boyer, Olson, Calantone, and Jackson (2002) found that e-surveys are as good as manual surveys: both methods have similar response rates and receive more or less similar results. Fourth, this sample consisted of university teachers, and results may not necessarily be generalised to other work forces. Generalisations to other countries must also be made with caution, until replications in other coun- tries have been made. Final Remarks The central finding of this study was that family relationships (but not relationships with colleagues) had a medi- ating impact on the effect of workplace bullying on stress symptoms. The findings underscore the importance of having good relations with one’s family. It is noteworthy that neither sex nor country moderated this effect. This fact suggests that the mediating effect of family relationships is relatively robust, since it was found in two quite different cultures, and within both sexes, in both countries. A suggestion for future research is to investigate whether this result can be replicated in other countries around the globe. Another suggestion is to probe deeper into how this alleviating effect occurs. Funding The authors have no funding to report. Competing Interests The authors have declared that no competing interests exist. Acknowledgments The authors have no support to report. Workplace Bullying and Occupational Stress 250 Europe's Journal of Psychology 2019, Vol. 15(2), 240–259 https://doi.org/10.5964/ejop.v15i2.1611 https://www.psychopen.eu/ R efe re nc es Abbasi, M., Araban, M., & Aalipour, K. (2018). The relationship between job stressors and fatigue in nurses: The role of organizational support as a moderator. Journal of Clinical Nursing and Midwifery, 6, 42-52. Allen, T. D., Herst, D. E., Bruck, C. S., & Sutton, M. (2000). Consequences associated with work-to-family conflict: A review and agenda for future research. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 5, 278-308. https://doi.org/10.1037/1076-8998.5.2.278 Antoniou, A. S. G., Davidson, M. J., & Cooper, C. L. (2003). Occupational stress, job satisfaction and health state in male and female junior hospital doctors in Greece. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 18, 592-621. https://doi.org/10.1108/02683940310494403 Appelberg, K., Romanov, K., Heikkilä, K., Honkasalo, M. L., & Koskenvuo, M. (1996). Interpersonal conflict as a predictor of work disability: A follow-up study of 15,348 Finnish employees. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 40, 157-167. https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-3999(95)00576-5 Aquino, K., & Thau, S. (2009). Workplace victimization: Aggression from the target’s perspective. Annual Review of Psychology, 60, 717-741. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.60.110707.163703 Attell, B. K., Brown, K. K., & Treiber, L. A. (2017). Workplace bullying, perceived job stressors, and psychological distress: Gender and race differences in the stress process. Social Science Research, 65, 210-221. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssresearch.2017.02.001 Ayman, R., & Korabik, K. (2010). Leadership: Why gender and culture matter. American Psychologist, 65, 157-170. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018806 Barling, J., Kelloway, E. K., & Frone, M. R. (2005). Handbook of work stress. Thousand Oaks, CA, USA: SAGE. Bernotaite, L., & Malinauskiene, V. (2017). Workplace bullying and mental health among teachers in relation to psychosocial job characteristics and burnout. International Journal of Occupational Medicine and Environmental Health, 30, 629-640. https://doi.org/10.13075/ijomeh.1896.00943 Björkqvist, K., & Österman, K. (1992). Work Stress Symptom Scale. Vasa, Finland: Åbo Akademi University. Björkqvist, K., Österman, K., & Hjelt-Bäck, M. (1994). Aggression among university employees. Aggressive Behavior, 20, 173-184. https://doi.org/10.1002/1098-2337(1994)20:3<173::AID-AB2480200304>3.0.CO;2-D Bodenmann, G., Meuwly, N., Bradbury, T. N., Gmelch, S., & Ledermann, T. (2010). Stress, anger, and verbal aggression in intimate relationships: Moderating effects of individual and dyadic coping. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 27, 408-424. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407510361616 Boyer, K. K., Olson, J. R., Calantone, R. J., & Jackson, E. C. (2002). Print versus electronic surveys: A comparison of two data collection methodologies. Journal of Operations Management, 20, 357-373. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0272-6963(02)00004-9 Brodsky, C. M. (1976). The harassed worker. Toronto, Canada: Lexington Books. Malik & Björkqvist 251 Europe's Journal of Psychology 2019, Vol. 15(2), 240–259 https://doi.org/10.5964/ejop.v15i2.1611 https://doi.org/10.1037%2F1076-8998.5.2.278 https://doi.org/10.1108%2F02683940310494403 https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0022-3999%2895%2900576-5 https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev.psych.60.110707.163703 https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ssresearch.2017.02.001 https://doi.org/10.1037%2Fa0018806 https://doi.org/10.13075%2Fijomeh.1896.00943 https://doi.org/10.1002%2F1098-2337%281994%2920%3A3%3C173%3A%3AAID-AB2480200304%3E3.0.CO%3B2-D https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0265407510361616 https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0272-6963%2802%2900004-9 https://www.psychopen.eu/ Bruk-Lee, V., & Spector, P. E. (2006). The social stressors – Counterproductive work behaviors link: Are conflicts with supervisors and co-workers the same? Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 11, 145-156. https://doi.org/10.1037/1076-8998.11.2.145 Buchanan, J. (2010). May I be excused? Why teachers leave the profession. Asia Pacific Journal of Education, 30, 199-211. https://doi.org/10.1080/02188791003721952 Cano-García, F. J., Padilla-Munoz, E. M., & Carrasco-Ortiz, M. A. (2005). Personality and contextual variables in teacher burnout. Personality and Individual Differences, 38, 929-940. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2004.06.018 Casper, W. J., Harris, C., Taylor-Bianco, A., & Wayne, J. H. (2011). Work–family conflict, perceived supervisor support and organizational commitment among Brazilian professionals. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 79, 640-652. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2011.04.011 Chang, S.-J., van Witteloostuijn, A., & Eden, L. (2010). From the editors: Common method variance in international business research. Journal of International Business Studies, 41, 178-184. https://doi.org/10.1057/jibs.2009.88 Chaudhry, A. Q. (2012). An analysis of relationship between occupational stress and demographics in universities: The case of Pakistan. Bulletin of Education and Research, 34, 1-18. Retrieved from http://pu.edu.pk/images/journal/ier/PDF-FILES/1_Abdul%20Qayyum%20Chaudhry_v_34_No2_2012.pdf Cohen, S., Janicki-Deverts, D., & Miller, G. E. (2007). Psychological stress and disease. Journal of the American Medical Association, 298, 1685-1687. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.298.14.1685 Cropanzano, R., Rupp, D. E., & Byrne, Z. S. (2003). The relationship of emotional exhaustion to work attitudes, job performance, and organizational citizenship behaviors. The Journal of Applied Psychology, 88, 160-169. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.88.1.160 D’Cruz, P., Noronha, E., & Beale, D. (2014). The workplace bullying-organizational change interface: Emerging challenges for human resource management. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 25, 1434-1459. https://doi.org/10.1080/09585192.2013.870314 Demsky, C. A., Ellis, A. M., & Fritz, C. (2014). Shrugging it off: Does psychological detachment from work mediate the relationship between workplace aggression and work-family conflict? Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 19, 195-205. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0035448 Dorman, J. P. (2003). Relationship between school and classroom environment and teacher burnout: A LISREL analysis. Social Psychology of Education, 6, 107-127. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1023296126723 Duffy, M. (2018). The psychosocial impact of workplace bullying and mobbing on targets. In M. Duffy & D. C. Yamada (Eds.), Workplace bullying and mobbing in the United States (Vol. 1, pp. 131−150). Santa Barbara, CA, USA: Praeger. Duffy, M., & Brown, J. E. (2018). Best practices in psychotherapy for targets of workplace bullying and mobbing. In M. Duffy & D. C. Yamada (Eds.), Workplace bullying and mobbing in the United States [2 volumes] (pp. 291−314). Santa Barbara, CA, USA: Praeger. Duffy, M., & Sperry, L. (2012). Mobbing: Causes, consequences, and solutions. New York, NY, USA: Oxford University Press. Workplace Bullying and Occupational Stress 252 Europe's Journal of Psychology 2019, Vol. 15(2), 240–259 https://doi.org/10.5964/ejop.v15i2.1611 https://doi.org/10.1037%2F1076-8998.11.2.145 https://doi.org/10.1080%2F02188791003721952 https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.paid.2004.06.018 https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jvb.2011.04.011 https://doi.org/10.1057%2Fjibs.2009.88 http://pu.edu.pk/images/journal/ier/PDF-FILES/1_Abdul%20Qayyum%20Chaudhry_v_34_No2_2012.pdf https://doi.org/10.1001%2Fjama.298.14.1685 https://doi.org/10.1037%2F0021-9010.88.1.160 https://doi.org/10.1080%2F09585192.2013.870314 https://doi.org/10.1037%2Fa0035448 https://doi.org/10.1023%2FA%3A1023296126723 https://www.psychopen.eu/ Eby, L. T., Casper, W. J., Lockwood, A., Bordeaux, C., & Brinley, A. (2005). Work and family research in IO/OB: Content analysis and review of the literature (1980–2002). Journal of Vocational Behavior, 66, 124-197. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2003.11.003 Einarsen, S., Hoel, H., Zapf, D., & Cooper, C. L. (Eds.). (2003). Bullying and emotional abuse in the workplace. London, United Kingdom: Taylor & Francis. Einarsen, S., & Nielsen, M. B. (2015). Workplace bullying as an antecedent of mental health problems: A five-year prospective and representative study. International Archives of Occupational and Environmental Health, 88, 131-142. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00420-014-0944-7 Einarsen, S., & Skogstad, A. (1996). Bullying at work: Epidemiological findings in public and private organizations. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 5, 185-201. https://doi.org/10.1080/13594329608414854 Escartín, J., Salin, D., & Rodríguez-Carballeira, Á. (2011). Conceptualizations of workplace bullying. Journal of Personnel Psychology, 10, 157-165. https://doi.org/10.1027/1866-5888/a000048 Fahlén, S. (2014). The agency gap: Policies, norms, and working time capabilities across welfare states. In B. Hobson (Ed.), Worklife balance: The agency and capabilities gap (pp. 35−56). New York, NY, USA: Oxford University Press. Fila, M. J., Purl, J., & Griffeth, R. W. (2017). Job demands, control and support: Meta-analyzing moderator effects of gender, nationality, and occupation. Human Resource Management Review, 27, 39-60. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hrmr.2016.09.004 Finnish Advisory Board on Research Integrity. (2012). Responsible conduct of research and procedures for handling allegations of misconduct in Finland. Helsinki, Finland: Author. Fox, S., & Stallworth, L. E. (2005). Racial/ethnic bullying: Exploring links between bullying and racism in the US workplace. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 66, 438-456. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2004.01.002 Fraley, R. C., Heffernan, M. E., Vicary, A. M., & Brumbaugh, C. C. (2011). The experiences in close relationships − Relationship Structures Questionnaire: A method for assessing attachment orientations across relationships. Psychological Assessment, 23, 615-625. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0022898 Friedman, I. A. (2003). Self-efficacy and burnout in teaching: The importance of interpersonal-relations efficacy. Social Psychology of Education, 6, 191-215. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1024723124467 Gavish, B., & Friedman, I. A. (2010). Novice teachers’ experience of teaching: A dynamic aspect of burnout. Social Psychology of Education, 13, 141-167. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11218-009-9108-0 Giorgi, G., Arcangeli, G., Mucci, N., & Cupelli, V. (2015). Economic stress in the workplace: The impact of fear of the crisis on mental health. Work, 51, 135-142. https://doi.org/10.3233/WOR-141844 Giorgi, G., Perminienė, M., Montani, F., Fiz-Perez, J., Mucci, N., & Arcangeli, G. (2016). Detrimental effects of workplace bullying: Impediment of self-management competence via psychological distress. Frontiers in Psychology, 7, Article 60. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00060 Grayson, J. L., & Alvarez, H. K. (2008). School climate factors relating to teacher burnout: A mediator model. Teaching and Teacher Education, 24, 1349-1363. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2007.06.005 Malik & Björkqvist 253 Europe's Journal of Psychology 2019, Vol. 15(2), 240–259 https://doi.org/10.5964/ejop.v15i2.1611 https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jvb.2003.11.003 https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00420-014-0944-7 https://doi.org/10.1080%2F13594329608414854 https://doi.org/10.1027%2F1866-5888%2Fa000048 https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.hrmr.2016.09.004 https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jvb.2004.01.002 https://doi.org/10.1037%2Fa0022898 https://doi.org/10.1023%2FA%3A1024723124467 https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11218-009-9108-0 https://doi.org/10.3233%2FWOR-141844 https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffpsyg.2016.00060 https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.tate.2007.06.005 https://www.psychopen.eu/ Grosch, J., & Sauter, S. (2005) Psychologic stressors and work organization. In L. Rosenstock, M. Cullen, C. Brodkin, & C. Redlich (Eds.), Textbook of clinical occupational and environmental medicine (2nd ed., pp. 931–942). Philadelphia, PA, USA: Elsevier. Hahn, S. E. (2000). The effects of locus of control on daily exposure, coping and reactivity to work interpersonal stressors: A diary study. Personality and Individual Differences, 29, 729-748. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869(99)00228-7 Hammen, C. (2006). Stress generation in depression: Reflections on origins, research, and future directions. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 62, 1065-1082. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.20293 Hauge, L. J., Skogstad, A., & Einarsen, S. (2010). The relative impact of workplace bullying as a social stressor at work. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 51, 426-433. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9450.2010.00813.x Hayes, A. F. (2012). PROCESS: A versatile computational tool for observed variable mediation, moderation, and conditional process modeling (White paper, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA). Retrieved from http://www.afhayes.com/public/process2012.pdf Hayes, A. F. (2013). PROCESS procedure for SXPSS release 2.16.3. Retrieved from https://www.processmacro.org/download.html Hoel, H., Cooper, C. L., & Faragher, B. (2001). The experience of bullying in Great Britain: The impact of organizational status. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 10, 443-465. https://doi.org/10.1080/13594320143000780 Jackson, S. E., & Maslach, C. (1982). After‐effects of job‐related stress: Families as victims. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 3, 63-77. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.4030030106 Johnson, S. B., Perry, N. W., & Rosensky, R. H. (2002). Handbook of clinical health psychology: Medical disorder and behavioral applications. Washington, DC, USA: American Psychological Association. Karasek, R., & Theorell, T. (1990). Healthy work: Stress, productivity, and the reconstruction of working life. New York, NY, USA: Basic Books. Keenan, A., & Newton, T. J. (1985). Stressful events, stressors and psychological strains in young professional engineers. Journal of Occupational Behaviour, 6, 151-156. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.4030060206 Lee, D. (2002). Gendered workplace bullying in the restructured UK civil service. Personnel Review, 31, 205-227. https://doi.org/10.1108/00483480210416874 Leung, D. Y. P., & Lee, W. W. S. (2006). Predicting intention to quit among Chinese teachers: Differential predictability of the components of burnout. Anxiety, Stress, and Coping, 19, 129-141. https://doi.org/10.1080/10615800600565476 Lewis, S. E., & Orford, J. (2005). Women’s experiences of workplace bullying: Changes in social relationships. Journal of Community & Applied Social Psychology, 15, 29-47. https://doi.org/10.1002/casp.807 Leymann, H. (1992). Från mobbning till utslagning i arbetslivet. Stockholm, Sweden: Publica. Lindell, M. K., & Whitney, D. J. (2001). Accounting for common method variance in cross-sectional research designs. The Journal of Applied Psychology, 86, 114-121. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.86.1.114 Workplace Bullying and Occupational Stress 254 Europe's Journal of Psychology 2019, Vol. 15(2), 240–259 https://doi.org/10.5964/ejop.v15i2.1611 https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0191-8869%2899%2900228-7 https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fjclp.20293 https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1467-9450.2010.00813.x http://www.afhayes.com/public/process2012.pdf https://www.processmacro.org/download.html https://doi.org/10.1080%2F13594320143000780 https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fjob.4030030106 https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fjob.4030060206 https://doi.org/10.1108%2F00483480210416874 https://doi.org/10.1080%2F10615800600565476 https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fcasp.807 https://doi.org/10.1037%2F0021-9010.86.1.114 https://www.psychopen.eu/ Liu, J. (2004). Concept analysis: Aggression. Issues in Mental Health Nursing, 25, 693-714. https://doi.org/10.1080/01612840490486755 Malik, N. A., Björkqvist, K., & Österman, K. (2017a). Factors associated with occupational stress among university teachers in Pakistan and Finland. Journal of Educational, Health and Community Psychology, 6, 1-14. https://doi.org/10.12928/jehcp.v6i2.7047 Malik, N. A., Björkqvist, K., & Österman, K. (2017b). Sick-leave due to burnout among university teachers in Pakistan and Finland and its psychosocial concomitants. European Journal of Social Science Education and Research, 4(4), 203-212. https://doi.org/10.26417/ejser.v10i2.p203-212 Malinauskiene, V., Obelenis, V., & Dopagiene, D. (2005). Psychological terror at work and cardiovascular diseases among teachers. Acta Medica Lituanica, 12, 20-25. Maphalala, M. C. (2014). The manifestation of occupational stress in the teaching profession: The unheeded voices of teachers. Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences, 5, 77-88. https://doi.org/10.5901/mjss.2014.v5n1p77 Markiewicz, D., Devine, I., & Kausilas, D. (2000). Friendships of women and men at work: Job satisfaction and resource implications. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 15, 161-184. https://doi.org/10.1108/02683940010310346 Martinussen, M., Richardsen, A. M., & Burke, R. J. (2007). Job demands, job resources, and burnout among police officers. Journal of Criminal Justice, 35, 239-249. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2007.03.001 Matthiesen, S. B., & Einarsen, S. (2004). Psychiatric distress and symptoms of PTSD among victims of bullying at work. British Journal of Guidance and Counselling, 32, 335-356. https://doi.org/10.1080/03069880410001723558 Membere, A. A., Ahmad, A. S., Anderson, A. J., Lindsey, A. P., Sabat, I. E., & King, E. B. (2015). Individual, interpersonal, and organizational outcomes of workplace bullying. In M. A. Paludi (Ed.), Bullies in the workplace: Seeing and stopping adults who abuse their co-workers and employees (pp. 175−191). Santa Barbara, CA, USA: Praeger. Milner, A., Witt, K., LaMontagne, A. D., & Niedhammer, I. (2018). Psychosocial job stressors and suicidality: A meta- analysis and systematic review. Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 75, 245-253. https://doi.org/10.1136/oemed-2017-104531 Mikkelsen, E. G., & Einarsen, S. (2002). Basic assumptions and symptoms of post-traumatic stress among victims of bullying at work. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 11, 87-111. https://doi.org/10.1080/13594320143000861 Ministry of Social Affairs and Health. (2018). Finland is a gender equality pioneer. Retrieved from http://stm.fi/en/finland-is-a-gender-equality-pioneer Morash, M., Kwak, D.-H., Hoffman, V., Lee, C. H., Cho, S. H., & Moon, B. (2008). Stressors, coping resources and strategies, and police stress in South Korea. Journal of Criminal Justice, 36, 231-239. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2008.04.010 Morrison, R. K. L. (2004). Informal relationships in the workplace: Associations with job satisfaction, organisational commitment and turnover intentions. New Zealand Journal of Psychology, 3, 114-128. Malik & Björkqvist 255 Europe's Journal of Psychology 2019, Vol. 15(2), 240–259 https://doi.org/10.5964/ejop.v15i2.1611 https://doi.org/10.1080%2F01612840490486755 https://doi.org/10.12928%2Fjehcp.v6i2.7047 https://doi.org/10.26417%2Fejser.v10i2.p203-212 https://doi.org/10.5901%2Fmjss.2014.v5n1p77 https://doi.org/10.1108%2F02683940010310346 https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jcrimjus.2007.03.001 https://doi.org/10.1080%2F03069880410001723558 https://doi.org/10.1136%2Foemed-2017-104531 https://doi.org/10.1080%2F13594320143000861 http://stm.fi/en/finland-is-a-gender-equality-pioneer https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jcrimjus.2008.04.010 https://www.psychopen.eu/ Mucci, N., Giorgi, G., Roncaioli, M., Perez, J. F., & Arcangeli, G. (2016). The correlation between stress and economic crisis: A systematic review. Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment, 12, 983-993. https://doi.org/10.2147/NDT.S98525 Nadeem, M. S., & Abbas, Q. (2009). The impact of work life conflict on job satisfactions of employees in Pakistan. International Journal of Business and Management, 4, 63-83. https://doi.org/10.5539/ijbm.v4n5p63 Narayanan, L., Menon, S., & Spector, P. E. (1999a). A cross-cultural comparison of job stressors and reactions among employees holding comparable jobs in two countries. International Journal of Stress Management, 6, 197-212. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1021986709317 Narayanan, L., Menon, S., & Spector, P. E. (1999b). Stress in the workplace: A comparison of gender and occupations. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 20, 63-73. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1099-1379(199901)20:1<63::AID-JOB873>3.0.CO;2-J Niedl, K. (1996). Mobbing and well-being: Economic and personnel development implications. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 5, 239-249. https://doi.org/10.1080/13594329608414857 Nielsen, M. B., Matthiesen, S. B., & Einarsen, S. (2008). Sense of coherence as a protective mechanism among targets of workplace bullying. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 13, 128-136. https://doi.org/10.1037/1076-8998.13.2.128 Nielsen, M. B., Skogstad, A., Matthiesen, S. B., Glasø, L., Aasland, M. S., Notelaers, G., & Einarsen, S. (2009). Prevalence of workplace bullying in Norway: Comparisons across time and estimation methods. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 18, 81-101. https://doi.org/10.1080/13594320801969707 Nixon, A. E., Mazzola, J. J., Bauer, J., Krueger, J. R., & Spector, P. E. (2011). Can work make you sick? A meta-analysis of the relationships between job stressors and physical symptoms. Work and Stress, 25, 1-22. https://doi.org/10.1080/02678373.2011.569175 Notelaers, G., De Witte, H., Vermunt, J., & Einarsen, S. (2006). Pesten op het werk, gewikt engewogen: Een latente klassen benadering op basis van de negatieve Acts-vragenlijst [How to measure bullying at work? A latent class analysis of the Negative Acts Questionnaire]. Gedrag en Organisatie, 19, 149-160. OECD. (2015). Better life index. Retrieved from http://www.oecdbetterlifeindex.org/countries/finland/ Ollier-Malaterre, A., & Foucreault, A. (2017). Cross-national work-life research: Cultural and structural impacts for individuals and organizations. Journal of Management, 43, 111-136. https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206316655873 Österman, K., & Björkqvist, K. (2009). DIAS-Adult. Vasa, Finland: Åbo Akademi University. Park, J. H., & Ono, M. (2017). Effects of workplace bullying on work engagement and health: The mediating role of job insecurity. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 28, 3202-3225. https://doi.org/10.1080/09585192.2016.1155164 Pheko, M. M. (2018). Autoethnography and cognitive adaptation: Two powerful buffers against the negative consequences of workplace bullying and academic mobbing. International Journal of Qualitative Studies on Health and Well-being, 13, Article 1459134. https://doi.org/10.1080/17482631.2018.1459134 Workplace Bullying and Occupational Stress 256 Europe's Journal of Psychology 2019, Vol. 15(2), 240–259 https://doi.org/10.5964/ejop.v15i2.1611 https://doi.org/10.2147%2FNDT.S98525 https://doi.org/10.5539%2Fijbm.v4n5p63 https://doi.org/10.1023%2FA%3A1021986709317 https://doi.org/10.1002%2F%28SICI%291099-1379%28199901%2920%3A1%3C63%3A%3AAID-JOB873%3E3.0.CO%3B2-J https://doi.org/10.1080%2F13594329608414857 https://doi.org/10.1037%2F1076-8998.13.2.128 https://doi.org/10.1080%2F13594320801969707 https://doi.org/10.1080%2F02678373.2011.569175 http://www.oecdbetterlifeindex.org/countries/finland/ https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0149206316655873 https://doi.org/10.1080%2F09585192.2016.1155164 https://doi.org/10.1080%2F17482631.2018.1459134 https://www.psychopen.eu/ Podsakoff, P. M., MacKenzie, S. B., Lee, J. Y., & Podsakoff, N. P. (2003). Common method biases in behavioral research: A critical review of the literature and recommended remedies. The Journal of Applied Psychology, 88, 879-903. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.88.5.879 Podsakoff, N. P., LePine, J. A., & LePine, M. A. (2007). Differential challenge stressor- hindrance stressor relationships with job attitudes, turnover intentions, turnover, and withdrawal behavior: A meta-analysis. The Journal of Applied Psychology, 92, 438-454. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.92.2.438 Porath, C. L., & Pearson, C. M. (2010). The cost of bad behavior. Organizational Dynamics, 39, 64-71. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.orgdyn.2009.10.006 Preacher, K. J., & Hayes, A. F. (2004). SPSS and SAS procedures for estimating indirect effects in simple mediation models. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers, 36, 717-731. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03206553 Preacher, K. J., & Kelley, K. (2011). Effect size measures for mediation models: Quantitative strategies for communicating indirect effects. Psychological Methods, 16, 93-115. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0022658 Prem, R., Ohly, S., Kubiceki, B., & Korunka, C. (2017). Thriving on challenge stressors? Exploring time pressure and learning demands as antecedents of thriving at work. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 38, 108-123. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.2115 Prem, R., Paškvan, M., Kubicek, B., & Korunka, C. (2018). Exploring the ambivalence of time pressure in daily working life. International Journal of Stress Management, 25, 35-43. https://doi.org/10.1037/str0000044 Reknes, I., Einarsen, S., Knardahl, S., & Lau, B. (2014). The prospective relationship between role stressors and new cases of self-reported workplace bullying. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 55, 45-52. https://doi.org/10.1111/sjop.12092 Rayner, C., & Cooper, C. (1997). Workplace bullying: Myth or reality – Can we afford to ignore it? Leadership and Organization Development Journal, 18, 211-214. https://doi.org/10.1108/01437739710182313 Repetti, R., & Wang, S. W. (2017). Effects of job stress on family relationships. Current Opinion in Psychology, 13, 15-18. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2016.03.010 Rucker, D. D., Preacher, K. J., Tormala, Z. L., & Petty, R. E. (2011). Mediation analysis in social psychology: Current practices and new recommendations. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 5, 359-371. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-9004.2011.00355.x Sarantakos, S. (1996). Modern families. South Yarra, Australia: MacMillan Education. Schwabe, L., & Wolf, O. T. (2010). Learning under stress impairs memory formation. Neurobiology of Learning and Memory, 93, 183-188. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nlm.2009.09.009 Shelley, W. W., Pickett, J. T., Mancini, C., McDougle, R. D., Rissler, G., & Cleary, H. (2017). Race, bullying, and public perceptions of school and university safety. Journal of Interpersonal Violence. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260517736272 Shockley, K. M., Shen, W., DeNunzio, M. M., Arvan, M. L., & Knudsen, E. A. (2017). Disentangling the relationship between gender and work–family conflict: An integration of theoretical perspectives using meta-analytic methods. The Journal of Applied Psychology, 102, 1601-1635. https://doi.org/10.1037/apl0000246 Malik & Björkqvist 257 Europe's Journal of Psychology 2019, Vol. 15(2), 240–259 https://doi.org/10.5964/ejop.v15i2.1611 https://doi.org/10.1037%2F0021-9010.88.5.879 https://doi.org/10.1037%2F0021-9010.92.2.438 https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.orgdyn.2009.10.006 https://doi.org/10.3758%2FBF03206553 https://doi.org/10.1037%2Fa0022658 https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fjob.2115 https://doi.org/10.1037%2Fstr0000044 https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fsjop.12092 https://doi.org/10.1108%2F01437739710182313 https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.copsyc.2016.03.010 https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1751-9004.2011.00355.x https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.nlm.2009.09.009 https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0886260517736272 https://doi.org/10.1037%2Fapl0000246 https://www.psychopen.eu/ Sias, P. M., & Cahill, D. J. (1998). From co-workers to friends: The development of peer friendships in the workplace. Western Journal of Communication, 62, 273-299. https://doi.org/10.1080/10570319809374611 Skaalvik, E. M., & Skaalvik, S. (2009). Does school context matter? Relations with teacher burnout and job satisfaction. Teaching and Teacher Education, 25, 518-524. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2008.12.006 Skaalvik, E. M., & Skaalvik, S. (2011). Teacher job satisfaction and motivation to leave the teaching profession: Relations with school context, feeling of belonging, and emotional exhaustion. Teaching and Teacher Education, 27, 1029-1038. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2011.04.001 Smith, C. S. (1995). An investigation of job-related coping strategies across multiple stressors and samples. In L. R. Murphy, J. J. Hurrell, S. L. Sauter, & G. P. Keita (Eds.), Job stress interventions (pp. 109–123). Washington, DC, USA: American Psychological Association. Smithers, A., & Robinson, P. (2003). Factors affecting teachers’ decisions to leave the profession (Research Report RR430) [University of Liverpool, Centre for Education and Employment Research, Department for Education and Skills]. Retrieved from Digital Education Resource Archive (DERA) website: http://dera.ioe.ac.uk/4759/ Sojo, V. E., Wood, R. E., & Genat, A. E. (2016). Harmful workplace experiences and women’s occupational well-being: A meta-analysis. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 40, 10-40. https://doi.org/10.1177/0361684315599346 Spector, P. E., & Jex, S. M. (1998). Development of four self-report measures of job stressors and strain: Interpersonal Conflict at Work Scale, Organizational Constraints Scale, Quantitative Workload Inventory, and Physical Symptoms Inventory. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 3, 356-367. https://doi.org/10.1037/1076-8998.3.4.356 Spector, P. E., Fox, S., Penney, L. M., Bruursema, K., Goh, A., & Kessler, S. (2006). The dimensionality of counter productivity: Are all counterproductive behaviors created equal? Journal of Vocational Behavior, 68, 446-460. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2005.10.005 Stoetzer, U., Ahlberg, G., Johansson, G., Bergman, P., Hallsten, L., Forsell, Y., & Lundberg, I. (2009). Problematic interpersonal relationships at work and depression: A Swedish prospective cohort study. Journal of Occupational Health, 51, 144-151. https://doi.org/10.1539/joh.L8134 Stojanović, Z., Milenović, M., & Marković, Z. (2012). Occupational stress and assertiveness in administrative and production workers. Facta Universitatis – Series: Philosophy, Sociology. Psychology and History, 11, 67-76. Thoits, P. A. (2010). Stress and health: Major findings and policy implications. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 51(Suppl 1), S41-S53. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022146510383499 Van Droogenbroeck, F., Spruyt, B., & Vanroelen, C. (2014). Burnout among senior teachers: Investigating the role of workload and interpersonal relationships at work. Teaching and Teacher Education, 43, 99-109. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2014.07.005 Violanti, J. M., Andrew, M. E., Mnatsakanova, A., Hartley, T. A., Fekedulegn, D., & Burchfiel, C. M. (2016). Correlates of hopelessness in the high suicide risk police occupation. Police Practice and Research, 17, 408-419. https://doi.org/10.1080/15614263.2015.1015125 Wang, J. (2005). Work stress as a risk factor for major depressive episode(s). Psychological Medicine, 35, 865-871. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291704003241 Workplace Bullying and Occupational Stress 258 Europe's Journal of Psychology 2019, Vol. 15(2), 240–259 https://doi.org/10.5964/ejop.v15i2.1611 https://doi.org/10.1080%2F10570319809374611 https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.tate.2008.12.006 https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.tate.2011.04.001 http://dera.ioe.ac.uk/4759/ https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0361684315599346 https://doi.org/10.1037%2F1076-8998.3.4.356 https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jvb.2005.10.005 https://doi.org/10.1539%2Fjoh.L8134 https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0022146510383499 https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.tate.2014.07.005 https://doi.org/10.1080%2F15614263.2015.1015125 https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0033291704003241 https://www.psychopen.eu/ Wen, Z., & Fan, X. (2015). Monotonicity of effect sizes: Questioning kappa-squared as mediation effect size measure. Psychological Methods, 20, 193-203. https://doi.org/10.1037/met0000029 Wilczyński, K. M., Swamad, M. A., Subotic, V., Wizner, D., Mazgaj, E., & Wajda, W. (2015). Factors influencing the levels of work engagement in physicians from Poland, Serbia and Bulgaria. Psychiatria Danubina, 27(Suppl 1), S492-S496. World Medical Association. (2013). Declaration of Helsinki: Ethical principles for medical research involving human subjects. Journal of the American Medical Association, 310, 2191-2194. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2013.281053 [Retrieved from https://www.wma.net/policies-post/wma-declaration-of-helsinki-ethical-principles-for-medical-research-involving -human-subjects/] Yıldırım, D. (2009). Bullying among nurses and its effects. International Nursing Review, 56, 504-511. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1466-7657.2009.00745.x Yragui, N. L., Demsky, C. A., Hammer, L. B., Van Dyck, S., & Neradilek, M. B. (2017). Linking workplace aggression to employee well-being and work: The moderating role of Family-Supportive Supervisor Behaviors (FSSB). Journal of Business and Psychology, 32, 179-196. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10869-016-9443-z Zhao, Y., Zhang, G., Yang, W., Kirkland, D., Han, X., & Zhang, J. (2008). A comparative study of educational research in China and the United States. Asia Pacific Journal of Education, 28, 1-17. https://doi.org/10.1080/02188790701849826 A bout the Au thor s Naima Akhtar Malik did her Master’s in Education. She is a doctoral student in Developmental Psychology at Åbo Akademi University in Finland. She has more than thirteen years of teaching experience at universities in Pakistan, and she is also teaching Peace Education at Åbo Akademi University. Kaj Björkqvist is professor of Developmental Psychology at Åbo Akademi University, Vasa, Finland, since 1992. He is a former president of the International Society for Research on Aggression. He has published 13 books and 125 articles. His research covers human aggression, including sex differences, school and workplace bullying, domestic aggression, and cross-cultural comparisons. Malik & Björkqvist 259 Europe's Journal of Psychology 2019, Vol. 15(2), 240–259 https://doi.org/10.5964/ejop.v15i2.1611 PsychOpen GOLD is a publishing service by Leibniz Institute for Psychology Information (ZPID), Trier, Germany. www.leibniz-psychology.org https://doi.org/10.1037%2Fmet0000029 https://doi.org/10.1001%2Fjama.2013.281053 https://www.wma.net/policies-post/wma-declaration-of-helsinki-ethical-principles-for-medical-research-involving-human-subjects/ https://www.wma.net/policies-post/wma-declaration-of-helsinki-ethical-principles-for-medical-research-involving-human-subjects/ https://www.wma.net/policies-post/wma-declaration-of-helsinki-ethical-principles-for-medical-research-involving-human-subjects/ https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1466-7657.2009.00745.x https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10869-016-9443-z https://doi.org/10.1080%2F02188790701849826 https://www.leibniz-psychology.org/ https://www.psychopen.eu/ Workplace Bullying and Occupational Stress (Introduction) Occupational Stress Workplace Bullying Relationships With Colleagues Family Relationships Aim and Hypotheses of the Study Method Sample Instrument and Analysis Ethical Considerations Results Correlations Between the Variables of the Study Conditional Process Analysis Conclusions (Additional Information) Funding Competing Interests Acknowledgments References About the Authors