evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 3, december, 2022 31 theories of work and their implications for work value: a philosophical analysis of work ethics charles kosolu onebunne department of philosophy, nnamdi azikiwe university, awka email – ck.onebunne@unizik.edu.ng abstract philosophy always enjoins us to, at one point or another, pause to reflect upon our lives. such questions as these are philosophical questions why do we do the things we do? why do we work? why do we even need to work? why do we choose the kind of work we have chosen? these are some questions that we always need to ask ourselves and others. however, our concern here relates to work. thus, this study employs the method of analysis to examine and therefore analyse the nature of work as it relates to mankind; is work a necessary endeavour in the life of mankind? what is the value of work to mankind? these questions emanating from philosophical quest to comprehend mankind and work will in turn lead us to x-ray and analyse different theories of work especially as they affect the value attached to work as well as the output resulting from work. the study also examines some ethical issues at work places which are as a result of divergent values that are attached to work by different individuals. the study finally discloses that peoples’ understandings of work affect the value they attach to work which in turn affect their work output or productivity. keywords: theories of work, work ethics introduction it is somewhat a general belief that it is in the nature of mankind to always work. what is, and what ought to be, the nature of work and what values are served by working? apart from producing goods and services, providing employment serves as the most important social functions of work. work is regarded as an important and in fact, an integral part of human life. everyone wants, to be busy doing one thing or the other. even children too; they are always busy with their hands. this demonstrates that they too desire to work. if this is the case, why is it that still, the very idea of work suggests drudgery, toil and something to be avoided if possible? this is the ambivalence that greets the nature of work so that even though work can be exalting, uplifting, fulfilling it could also be degrading, tedious, troublesome etc. regarding the nature of work, aristotle recognized work as necessary for the good life in the sense that one must work in order to live. for karl marx, work evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 3, december, 2022 32 has the potential to express our very humanity but in modern capitalist societies at least, work is alienated from this end. understanding the nature of work is very crucial because it affects individuals’ and institutions’ attitudes towards work. the way an individual sees work affects his/her behaviour at work place. it also has a role to play in the employer-employee relationship. some major theories of work generally, work is understood in terms of a job and employment. this way, it is viewed as a means to an end. for instance, a means for attaining an income with which to satisfy some needs and desires such as buying food, paying for rent, paying bills, enrolling in school, living a comfortable life, etc. following this mean-ends idea of work, it is rational that people will cleave for work that provides a higher pay. however, in life we see some persons who have chosen a lower paid work. when this kind of thing happens, some people question the rationale behind such seemingly irrational choice. the important thing it goes to portray is that there are different ideas about work as there are different people and that earning income is not all there is in working. there is more to it than ordinary eyes can see when it comes to value of work. thus, the value people attach to work has to do with their conception and perception of work which goes a long way in having a lot of implications in work output. this paper examines the theories of work, namely; 1. conventional theory/model 2. the human fulfillment theory/model 3. the liberal theory/model 1. the conventional theory/model: this theory conceives of work as an endeavour that must be endured. this is so since the very understanding of work here is that work is difficult, arduous and laborious. this theory perceives work as having negative connotation. the essence of this conventional view is that “work is something to be avoided whenever possible and endured when we must”1. there are two versions of this theory, viz: classical version and hedonistic version. a. classical version: this version is traceable to classical greek thought, which holds that there are higher and more meaningful activities than work so that work should be avoided in order that man should pursue those higher values. this version sees man as an intellectual being and work as a physical thing. this means that the very nature of work contradicts the nature and essence of man; work diminishes the human nature and potential. “this classical version postulates that work is meant for slaves and not for civilized evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 3, december, 2022 33 people”2. in shedding light to the classical view, the roman philosopher, plutarch opines that “gentlemen enjoy the contemplation of the sculptor’s master pieces, but he would never himself use hammer and chisel and get covered with sweat and dust”3. still corroborating the views of the classical version, a twentieth century philosopher, hannah arendt, in her book, the human condition submits that: “in the modern age, laborers are about to be freed from the fetters of labour and this society no longer knows these higher and more meaningful activities for the sake of which this freedom would deserve to be won”4. b. hedonistic version: hedonism suggests that pleasure is the most important thing in life. hedonistic version of the conventional theory sees work as a necessary means for obtaining life’s pleasures. work is necessary only if it is the price we must pay for enjoyable and pleasurable life. however, it did not specify what marks out a pleasurable life; instead it holds that it is left for individuals to choose whatever ends they so desire. the philosophical implication of the conventional theory which embodies both classical and hedonistic trends is that work has no value in its own right, it is simply a necessary price that must be tolerated to achieve other ends. 2. the human fulfillment theory: this theory conceives of work as the primary activity through which humans develop their full potentials as human beings. both conventional and human fulfillment theories believe in human potentials. however, conventional theory holds that work hinders that potential. on its part, human fulfillment theory holds that work develops that potential. “man has a natural teleos so that the good life is life spent developing or fulfilling that telos”5. to better comprehend this theory we can turn our eyes to comparing work and unemployment, more precisely, the psychic implications of unemployment. they include: loss of self-esteem, loss of self-respect, stress, anxiety, depression, isolation, lack of focus and direction, etc. on the other hand, work provides the opposite, namely: high self-respect, stable mental and physical health, friendship, sense of purpose, sense of direction, etc. it is good to mention here that the human fulfillment theory acknowledges that not every work contributes to the development of human potential. it is only the proper kind of work and the proper kind of workplace that can do that. the theory also holds that the individual and their work exist in a reciprocal fashion. individuals exercise control and mastery over their work and work in turn shapes and builds the individual. under this theory, the question every worker should ask is not ‘what will this work do for me?’ (as it is typical of evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 3, december, 2022 34 conventional theory) but, ‘what will this work do to me?’ that is, what kind of person will i become by performing this work? this is while bearing in mind that work that does good things for me can do bad things to me. in making a distinction between good and bad work, e.f. schumacher has this to say: bad work is mechanical, artificial, divorced from nature, utilizing only the smallest part of man’s potential capabilities; it sentences the great majority of workers to spending their working lives in a way which contains no worthy challenge, no stimulus to self-perfection, no chance to development, no element of beauty, truth, or goodness.6 another sharp distinction between good work and bad work is contained in karl marx’s concept of alienation. this concept suggests that good work draws out the potential in human whereas bad work represses it. marx’s alienation is understood as a result of work preventing full development of human potential. man is separated from their true selves (their potentials), from the products of their work, from the creative process of work itself and from their very essence of social creatures. philosopher al gini, one of the proponents of human fulfillment theory, in expatiating upon this theory submits thus: descartes was wrong. it isn’t cogito ergo sum, but, rather, laboro ergo sum. we need work, and as adults we find identity and are identical by the work we do. if this is true then we must be very careful about what we choose to do for a living, for what we do is what we’ll become. to paraphrase the words of winston churchillfirst we choose and shape our work, then it shapes us.7 3. the liberal theory: this theory emerged to serve as a middle ground between the earlier mentioned theories. like the conventional model, liberals hold that individual workers are at liberty to choose the ends or raison d’ etre for their work. they still maintain that individuals choose to work for many reasons and so may willingly accept undesirable jobs simply as a means to earn income. however, they deny that there is a single human end which work serves. again, like the human fulfillment theorists, liberals believe that human beings can be greatly influenced by their work. they equally are of the argument that ethical assessments of work should be made on the basis of how work affects workers. incidentally, they part company with the fulfillment school when they specified the grounds for such assessment. thus, whereas human evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 3, december, 2022 35 fulfillment model bases judgment or assessment on some version of what makes a good and meaningful human life, liberals makes the judgment in relation to how work affects workers ability to make free and autonomous decisions about their own life. rights of employees/workers work is one of the most important and highly valued human activities mainly because it is necessary for so many other central human goods. that means that work is indispensable and inescapable. however, for most people it is something that is controlled by others while others control their own working lives. this fact points to a real vulnerability especially on the part of workers. this is why, in ethics of work, it is recognized that workers should be protected by rights that impose duties on others (especially the employers) to respect their interests. for purposes of exactness, these rights have been categorized into three namely: i. legal rights ii. contractual rights iii. moral rights iv. i. legal rights: these are those rights that are granted to workers or employees on the basis of legislation or judicial rulings. some of these rights include right to a minimum wage, right to equal opportunity, right to bargain collectively as part of a union, right to fair hearing, right to due process etc. in effect, legal rights set the basic legal framework for employer-employee relationship. ii. contractual rights: these are those rights that accrue to employees on the basis of contractual agreements with employers. contractual right is narrower in scope than the legal right. this is because it differs from one work place to another even under the same legal setting. it equally differs from employee to employee. for instance, a particular employee might have a right to a specific health care package such as paid holidays, pension funds and such likes which other workers under the same work establishment might not have. iii. moral rights: the human person is a special creature that occupies a special place. therefore, should not be treated as a means to an end but as an end in itself. thus, “moral rights are those entitlements to which employees have a claim independent of any legal or contractual factor”8. such rights follow from the respect owed to employees as human beings. these rights are based on reason. evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 3, december, 2022 36 conclusion the various theories of work as have been explained suggest that the way people view work really affects their performance in whatever work they have taken. for instance, if someone chose a work to build and develop himself through the work, there is every likelihood that the person will choose to remain in the work irrespective of the pay or earning. same applies to those who chose a particular work simply because of the pay. this kind of person is likely to not put in his best to the work. as a result, the work suffers as there is every reason to have low productivity. the only interest for this kind of person is his pay. he is not necessarily interested in developing or building himself through his work. what is more, he is not interested in keeping to the ethics of work. all he is interested in is his pay. most of these people believe that one does not need to work hard but rather work smartly. there is a whole lot of negative implications of this kind of belief system. one of such implications is – do not work hard as long as you can pretend to be working hard and as long as you get paid. one can therefore imagine what the work environment will be like if every worker is to go with this king of negative attitude towards work. references 1. j. desjardins, an introduction to business ethics, 2nd ed, (new york: mcgraw hill companies inc., 2006), p.86. 2. ibid. 3. plutarch, lives (new york: modern library, 1932), p.132. 4. h. arendt, the human condition, (chicago: university of chicago press, 1958), p.5. 5. j. desjardins, p.87. 6. e.f. schumacher, good work, (new york: harper colophon books, 1980), p.27. 7. a. gini, “work, identify and self: how we are formed by the work we do”, journal of business ethics, 17, (1998), p. 714. 8. j. desjardins, p.99. evaia: international journal of ethics and values, vol. 2 no. 1, december 2021 (issn: 2787-0448) onipede & falana 36 lying as a marketing strategy in nigeria: a moral assessment gabriel tunde onipede https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8320-5455 assistant lecturer, department of general studies, federal college of dental technology and therapy, enugu, nigeria. moscoagora@gmail.com & kehinde falana lecturer 11, department of general studies, institute of technology-enhanced-learning and digital humanities federal university of technology, akure. ondo state kfalana@futa.edu.ng abstract in today’s volatile world of commerce, the use of advertisements as a strategy for bringing to the awareness of the populace, products that are available for purchase is common. thus numerous commercials are today put up to bring about human awareness of products and services. most of these advertisements either exaggerate or say what is not the case about some products and services. in other instance, these commercials even employ both exaggerations and lies to suit their ends. it is therefore pertinent to question whether or not these acts are morally permissible. this study analytically assesses lying as a marketing strategy in nigeria using the classical utilitarian and duty ethics of jeremy bentham and immanuel kant respectively as a paradigm. the paper, a critical analysis, finds that classical utilitarianism endorse lying on the plata of consequences. more so, this paper finds that kant’s deontological ethics on the other hand, condemns the very act of lying as a moral vice regardless of its positive consequences. following the application of these normative ethical principles, the study concludes that these normative theories concerning lying as a marketing strategy are inadequate. as such, the study proposes situation ethics as a plausible alternative to guide the use of lies in marketing products and services in nigeria. keywords: lying; marketing; moral assessment; strategy introduction it is a common sight to encounter marketing executives striving fervently to command the attention and purchase from the public. they may even go as far as trying to use soothing expressions, lies and in some cases hilarious jokes to make people purchase the products that they are advertising. the moral evaia: international journal of ethics and values, vol. 2 no. 1, december 2021 (issn: 2787-0448) onipede & falana 37 underpinning of their method or techniques has usually been taken for granted. if someone buys an advertised or marketed product from an executive that came out of the blues, but the product, after application, fails to deliver, what happens? would the consumer simply wallow in foolishness or sheer ignorance for being swayed by some of these vendors with sugar-coated tongues? what are the moral implications for saying a product has the capacity to fix so and so but fails? are there any ethical theories that can justify the lies, usually employed by vendors? what are marketing techniques or strategies? can they necessarily do without lies? as a way of attempting to answer these questions and actualize its aim, the present essay has five divisions, the first being this introduction. in the second part, the idea of marketing strategy/technique is exposed. the place of lies as a marketing strategy is therefore extrapolated. in the third rift of this study, two popular normative ethical theories: utilitarianism and deontology are employed to assess whether or not it is morally permissible to lie about products and services. we find both of these fairly inadequate. in the fourth section, we recommend situation ethics as a more plausible paragon that may justify lying as marketing strategy. the fifth part concludes the study. rationale behind lying as a marketing strategy in the words of margarita isoraite (2009: 114): “strategic marketing is a philosophy that leads to the process by which organizations, groups and individuals obtain what they need and want by identifying value, providing for it, communicating it and delivering it to others.” on a similar note, hambrick and frerickson (2001: 23) adds that “marketing strategy has five elements: it deals with where the organization plans to be active; how it will get there; how it will succeed in the market place; what the speed and sequence of moves will be; and how the organization will obtain profits.” for kotler, “marketing strategy is marketing logic according to which the business unit is marketing. marketing strategy focuses on target customers” (kotler, 2003: 29). whilst talking about the idea of marketing strategy, anderson (1982: 98) explains further that: the real lesson of a strategic marketing philosophy is that better performing organizations recognize the basic and enduring nature of the customer needs they are attempting to satisfy. it is the technology of want satisfactions which is transitory. the products and services used to satisfy customer needs and wants changes constantly evaia: international journal of ethics and values, vol. 2 no. 1, december 2021 (issn: 2787-0448) onipede & falana 38 from the foregoing except that human wants are not only insatiable but also transitory. with the meaning and supposed nature of marketing strategy tersely stated, the scenarios that introduced this study demands revision from a philosophical perspective. on what grounds does a marketing strategy fulfill the wants of consumers? is it based on the supposed perception of the manufacturers or the consumers? more so, given that no two persons have the same genotype, would what work suitably for one person necessarily replicate similar output in another? when questions of this nature are posed to any marketing strategist, it is likely that the vendor may either lie or even exaggerate the truth regarding the efficacy of products and services. before attempting to answer these questions, it is important to first engage in a conceptual clarification of what lying entails. peter hanks (1976: 321), writes that lying “is saying the opposite of what is true.” now if lying is a marketing strategy employed directly or indirectly for profit accumulation, what are the ethical problems latent therein? perhaps more importantly, in what specific ways does falsehood enter the fray of marketing products and services? in mind here is the connection between ethics and product decisions. marketing executives are faced with a lot of ethical problems related to planning and application of product strategies (siham, 2013). for example, in new product development process, since ethics and legal subjects are discussed less than it is needed, faulty products are put on the market and so these products damage consumers (morgan, 1993). other ethical issues related to product decisions, information on labels can sometimes be used as deceptive although it is technically true (chonko, 1995). it is also worthy of considering “rubbish problem which packing cause after its usage” (menezes, 1993: 289). as a consequence, marketing executives are usually faced with ‘bending’ the facts of the products just for the sake of exchange, with minimal regard for health and life. given the reasons adduced above, it is crucial to ask: what ethical underpinning serves the occasion for lying as a marketing strategy? are there any ethical justifications for it? if there is what are they? at this juncture, it would be pertinent to make some forays into the popular normative ethical theories to see if there could be any justification for lying to consumers about products and services by sales or marketing executive. this move is the core of this research since its fundamental aim and scope is not to engage in a conceptual analysis of lying but to investigate what moral normative framework is suitable in endorsing or rejecting (depending on context and status quo), the practice. traditional normative ethics and the place of lies in business ethics utilitarianism is one of the most powerful and persuasive approaches to normative ethics in the history of philosophy. though not fully articulated until evaia: international journal of ethics and values, vol. 2 no. 1, december 2021 (issn: 2787-0448) onipede & falana 39 the 19th century, proto-utilitarian positions can be discerned throughout the history of ethical theory (tannsjo, 2002); (aigbodioh, 1999). though there are many varieties of the view discussed, utilitarianism is generally held to be the view that the morally right action is the action that produces the most good. there are many ways to spell out this general claim. one thing to note is that the theory is a form of consequentialism: the right action is understood entirely in terms of consequences produced. what distinguishes utilitarianism from egoism has to do with the scope of the relevant consequences. on the utilitarian view, one ought to maximize the overall good — that is, consider the good of others as well as one's own good. in simple terms, one may state the utilitarian criterion of rightness of particular actions as follows: an action is right if and only if, in the situation, there was no alternative to it which would have resulted in a larger sum total of welfare in the world. this means that if there was something the agent could have done instead of the action he or she actually performed, which would have resulted in a larger sum total of welfare in the world, then he or she acted wrongly (tannsjo, 2002). utilitarianism is also distinguished by impartiality and agent-neutrality. everyone's happiness counts the same. when one maximizes the good, it is the good impartially considered. one person’s good count for no more than anyone else’s good. further, the reason one person has to promote the overall good is the same reason anyone else has to so promote the good. it is peculiar to no one. when we consider all of what has been briefly stated about utilitarianism on the one hand, and the situation of the marketing executive who lies to have his/her products purchased, one could query if or not the happiness of the greatest number is attained in the process of lying. as a matter of fact, utilitarianism does not see anything wrong with the process of lying itself. on the contrary, emphasis is laid on the outcome, the consequence of the lie. now, putting matters in the proper perspective, would bentham endorse that marketing executives lie about products and services? the answer is affirmative, provided the consequence of the lie would produce the happiness of the greatest number. in essence, if the outcome of the lie would produce more happiness than unhappiness then bentham would praise the marketing executive. on the other hand, bentham would object if the whole lying endeavour would end up leaving fewer people happy but more people in unpleasant situation. it is therefore the case that for utilitarianism, in the classical sense, lying as a marketing technique is morally permissible if and only if the greatest good of the greatest number is realised. this line of reasoning runs into problems. it has the tendency to pass lying as morally permissible if outcomes are favourable. evaia: international journal of ethics and values, vol. 2 no. 1, december 2021 (issn: 2787-0448) onipede & falana 40 however, it is seldom for a moral agent to always know what moral choice or decision would yield the happiness of the greatest number. furthermore, just what it means to say: ‘happiness of the greatest number’ remains a subject of controversy. these, precisely the pitfall that makes lying as a market technique or strategy flawed. it overlooks the idea of lying itself as to whether or not it is morally blameworthy or not. at this juncture, immanuel kant’s deontological or duty ethics enter the fray. it would be worthwhile to state from the outset that immanuel kant’s strand of ethics falls under that which is generally considered as deontological ethics (tannjo, 2002). the roots of the word ‘deontology’ can be found in the greek words ‘deon’, duty, and ‘logos’, science. the best-known representative of deontological ethics is the german philosopher immanuel kant (tannsjo, 2002). according to deontological ethics, some types of actions are prohibited, or obligatory, irrespective of their consequences (tannsjo, 2002). while developing his ethics, immanuel kant begins by announcing that “two things fill the mind with constant awe and admiration – the starry heavens above and the moral law within” (kant, 1998: 43). kant seems to be of the view or perspective that the only thing good in all circumstances is goodwill. kant (1998: 7) further advances that “it is impossible to think of anything at all in the world, or indeed even beyond it that could be considered good without limitation except a goodwill.” there are imperatives that kant employed to justify his ethics. for immanuel kant (1998: 31) “there is, therefore, only a single categorical imperative and it is this: act only in accordance with that maxim through which you can at the same time will that it become a universal law.” this is the first of the three imperatives. the point kant makes in his presentation of the categorical imperative is that an act becomes imperative (or commanded) when it ought to be applied to everyone. miller (1992: 462) comments: [a] categorical imperative would command you to do x inasmuch as x is intrinsically right, that is, right in and of itself, aside from any other considerations—no "ifs," no conditions, no strings attached . . . a categorical imperative is unconditional (no "ifs") and independent of any things, circumstances, goals, or desires. it is for this reason that only a categorical imperative can be a universal and binding law, that is, a moral law, valid for all rational beings at all times. our understanding of what kant is saying here is simply that we should think of what actions we want to engage in such a way that it were a universal law. if evaia: international journal of ethics and values, vol. 2 no. 1, december 2021 (issn: 2787-0448) onipede & falana 41 i intend to stab my friend to death for instance, kant seems to be saying that would i concede that this (i.e. stabbing one’s friend) were a universal law? this is one of the imperatives. kant’s (1998: 38) second maxim in his own words is thus: “so act that you use humanity, whether in your own person or in the person of any other, always at the same time as an end, never merely as a means.” kant thought that these and other formulations are equivalent. and from the categorical imperative he ‘deduces’ all sorts of moral duties. for instance, he deduces that it is always wrong to tell a lie, to kill, to commit suicide, or to break a promise. it is hard to understand how he can believe that the different formulations of the categorical imperative can be equivalent, and it is hard to follow his argument when he ‘deduces’ different duties from the imperative (tannsjo, 2002). these are even more entrenched in his third maxim: “act only so that the will through its maxims could regard itself at the same time as universally lawgiving” (kant, 1998: 39). the will is therefore autonomous and free, for kant. with the categorical imperative as the guiding principle of morality, it becomes the impetus for determining whether an act is moral or not. at this point it should be emphasized that kant's categorical imperative is concerned only with general and abstract moral actions. therefore, the categorical imperative determines whether or not any act is right or wrong. it is at this point that to do the opposite (to not will to do an act that everyone in similar circumstances would do) would be to invite contradiction. in summary, immanuel kant's meta-ethical system relies on the fundamental realization of the moral law that exists in the agent (subject). when we view the world (the object) we know a priori that morality is universal and necessary. in order to determine whether or not a particular act is good or bad, morally speaking, we must apply the categorical imperative. this imperative or command requires that we fulfil our duty in the circumstance the act is occurring in. the classification of the act rests on whether or not the underlying principle is a practical contradiction (antinomian). if it is not, then the act is considered to be morally obligatory (guttrie, 2008). the foray into kant’s metaphysics of morals has been able to show among other things that there is a sense of duty surrounding morality. one is commissioned to act on duty. in other words, a moral agent is either blame worthy or praiseworthy if the act is committed out of a sense of duty. upon the application of kant’s ethics to the marketing strategy of lying, some crucial ideas may be deduced. evaia: international journal of ethics and values, vol. 2 no. 1, december 2021 (issn: 2787-0448) onipede & falana 42 kant would debunk any form of lying to promote the purchasing power of goods and services by marketing agents. this is because, and as deduced from his imperatives, if one willed lying as a universal act, one would see that it lacks moral support. more so, the whole affair of lying about products and services does no more than to use fellow humans;, in this case, consumers as a means to an end, but not as an end in themselves. however, a utilitarian marketing executive could riposte that sometimes, lying or exaggeration about products and services could make prospective customers, who would not ordinarily purchase the product, have a change of mind. therefore, it is justified as a marketing strategy. the above line of reasoning is not misplaced. however, one cannot wish away the place of the very existence of ‘lying’ as a moral vice. kant would implore the marketing executive to assess whether or not the very act of lying would make the world a better place if everyone takes lying as a virtue. the answer is definitely obvious: if lying as marketing strategy is willed universally, there would be chaos and disorder as a consequence. hence, on no grounds would immanuel kant endorse the marketing technique of lying. so far we have been able to consider the two popular normative ethical theories on the subject of lying as marketing technique. given the inadequacies that present themselves in each of them, it is pertinent to query at this juncture, whether or not there is other ethical theory that is suitable. by suitable, we mean a theory that is able to admit the inner kernels of utilitarianism and duty ethics. situation ethics and the viability of lying as a marketing technique given that ethics is a series of moral rules and principles, it therefore follows that situations will determine which rules would or not be applicable. and if william barclay’s (1972) submission is taken as axiomatic, situation ethics may then be construed as “a circumstantial ethics that appropriates and utilizes the prevailing factors at a time in the determination of a piece of action” (igboin, 2005: 49). situation ethics insists that each moral choice must be determined by one’s particular context or situation, i.e. by a consideration of the outcomes that various courses of actions might have. as a consequence, a good act in one situation may be adjudged otherwise in another situation. according to its foremost proponent, joseph fletcher (1997), the only motivating factor in situation ethics is love. this has been validated by joseph omeregbe (1993: 119) who harps: “the ground norm of situation ethics is love”. fletcher (1997: 117) amplifies in this connection that: evaia: international journal of ethics and values, vol. 2 no. 1, december 2021 (issn: 2787-0448) onipede & falana 43 the situationist enters into every decision making situation fully armed with the ethical maxims of his community and he treats them with respect as illuminators to his problems. just the same, he is prepared in any situation to compromise then…if love seems better served doing so. fletcher’s situation ethics falls between the two extremes of legalism and antinormianism. the former defines moral rules and principles as absolute laws that must of necessity be obeyed. immanuel kant’s duty ethics, briskly considered in the preceding section, clearly falls within this spectrum. meanwhile, the latter insists that man is free and as a result no law or principle can guide human decision-making. fletcher (1997) proposes six axioms that are central to situation ethics: 1. only one thing is intrinsically good; namely love and nothing else; 2. the ruling norm of christian decision is love and nothing else; 3. love and justice are the same, for justice is love distributed and nothing else; 4. love wills the neighbour’s good whether we like it or not; 5. only the end justifies the means and nothing else; and 6. love’s decisions are made situationally, not prescriptively. it is the case from the discussion so far, that in situation ethics, the ‘rule of love’ supersedes the ‘rule of law’. when a marketing executive takes to the streets to sell products and services, situation ethics call for the principle of love as a basis for moral action. now, one will easily glean that this normative ethical theory takes care of the pitfalls present in each of the traditional theories we concerned with hitherto. for if i have to employ lies as a marketing technique, situation ethic demands that i reflect if love is promoted. in other words, if i have to sell a product, employing lies as a paragon, will love be promoted in this guise? if the answer is affirmative, fletcher endorses the action. however, and on the contrary, if the moral agent finds that things outside love would be promoted, the action would be deemed as a moral vice and consequently leaves the moral agent as morally blameworthy. conclusion there is no doubt that when one considers lying as a marketing technique, it would be sheer ignorance to downplay its efficacy. there is any hardly advertisement about products and services that does not either lie or exaggerate the efficacy of products and services. however, situation ethics goes beyond the prescriptions of utilitarianism and duty ethics to posit that love should be the ruling principle. if lying to sell so and so product does not breed love, it evaia: international journal of ethics and values, vol. 2 no. 1, december 2021 (issn: 2787-0448) onipede & falana 44 would be morally blameworthy, situation ethics maintain. there are circumstances where lies told out of love have proven to be morally praiseworthy. it is therefore close to the opposite of the truth to consider lying as necessarily evil or the output of lying as to the happiness of the greatest number. a consideration of the principle of love should be at the core of marketing strategies. works cited aigbodioh, j.a. (1999). practical issues in applied ethics: the facts, arguments and opinions. ekpoma: inno printing press. anderson, p.f. (1982). “marketing, strategic planning and the theory of the firm”. journal of marketing. 46 (spring). pp 15-26. barclay, w. (1972). ethics in a permissive society. london: fontana. bentham, j., (1948). an introduction to the principles of morals and legislation new york: macmillan. fletcher, j. (1997). situation ethics: the new morality. louisville: john knox gutrie, s.l. (2008). “immanuel kant and the categorical imperative” the examined life on-line journal of philosophy. 2(7). hambrick, d.c., fredrickson, j.w. (2001). “are you sure you have a strategy?” academy of management executive. 4(15). pp 48-59. hanks, p. (ed.) encyclopedic world dictionary. london: hamlyn, 1976. igboin, b. (2005). “situationism and christian ethics: an appraisal” p. iroegbu and a. echekwube (eds.) kpim of moral ethics. lagos: heinemann educational books. isoraite, m. (2009). “theoretical aspects of marketing strategy”. ekonomika ir vadyba: aktualijos ir perspektyvos. 1(14). pp 114–125. kant, i, (1998) groundwork for the metaphysics of morals, trans m. gregor, cambridge: cambridge university press. kant, i., (1989) “good will, duty, and the categorical imperative” in a. serafini (ed.) ethics and social concern, new york: paragon house publishers. kotler, p. (2003). rinkodaros principai. kaunas: poligrafija ir informatika. maclntyre. j. (1973). a short history of ethics. new york: macmillan company. miller, e.l., (1992) questions that matter: an invitation to philosophy, colorado: mcgraw hill inc. omoregebe, j.i. (1993). ethics: a systematic and historical study. lagos: joja publishers. siham, b. (2013). “marketing mix – an area of unethical practices?” british journal of marketing studies. 1(4). pp 20-8 tannsjo, t. (2002). understanding ethics. edinburgh: edinburgh university press ltd. evaia: international journal of ethics and values, vol. 2 no. 1, december 2021 (issn: 2787-0448) obijekwu & muomah 26 implication of denial of global humanism in the modern world: a critical investigation matthew ike obijekwu, phd department of philosophy, chukwuemeka odumegwu ojukwu university, igbariam, anambra state, nigeria; founder/president, ethics and values ambassadors international association (evaia); director, dr ike obijekwu centre for values mentorship, ihiala, anambra state, nigeria. 08063795889; mi.obijekwu@coou.edu.ng & romanus ikechukwu muomah principal, st. michael’s boys’ secondary school, eziorah-ozubulu anambra state 08037981419 abstract global humanness primarily showcases in the human interconnectedness, interrelationship and togetherness irrespective of geographical location, gender, race, religious affiliation, and culture. the disruption of this humanness over the ages has culminated in covid-19 era. this is as there have been strong evidences of human discrimination, marginalization, exclusion, domination, racism and discrepancies in the world and especially in covid-19 period. this has led to greater tension, unrest, terrorism and conflict in various parts of the world. based on these, global development has been direly affected economically, politically and otherwise. this paper therefore investigates the foundation of the denial of global humanness in the modern world. it analytically investigates the implication of this denial in covid-19 and post covid-19 epoch. the study however finds that denial of global humanness has disrupted global stability, unity, peace and development. this is based on the causal chain of existence visible in the fact that what affects one affects all irrespective of place or geographical location. the paper therefore concludes that until the issues affecting global humanness are addressed, global effort to salvage the world from covid-19 may end in futility. keywords: covid-19; critical investigation; global humanness; implication; modern world introduction most challenges we are experiencing in the world today are due to denial of global humanness (gh). often times, people are treated either as animals or machines thereby depriving them their dignity, freedom and rights. with this, mailto:mi.obijekwu@coou.edu.ng evaia: international journal of ethics and values, vol. 2 no. 1, december 2021 (issn: 2787-0448) obijekwu & muomah 27 inequality, social injustices and other forms of crime against humanity are being perpetuated and promoted across the world. on 25 may, 2020, an africanamerican, george floyd was killed by an american police, derek chauvin, a racist (haworth, torres and pereira, 2020). this action was due to years of negative feelings against african-americans. it is one out of the million cases of denial of humanness in contemporary time. floyd’s killing, as seen, triggered “i can’t breathe” and “black lives matter” protest against police brutality and police racism in america and beyond. these protests (and demonstrations) across the world have proven the fact that the black people all over the world are having the same racial experience. this experience is not only peculiar to the african-americans but to black people in general and other nationals across the world. the truth is that humans across the world have invented ways of dividing and attacking themselves. in south africa, one is faced with xenophobic attack or what i may call ‘xenophobism’; the apartheid experience as a result of the white and the black dichotomy has been a long time challenge facing different nationals in south africa. in india, it is the problem of caste system; while in europe and america, itis racism, discrimination and segregation. all these practices bring division among people of diverse background. based on this, the call to promote global humanness across the globe remains imperative. herein is to find out if the claim for global humanness (human sameness) as advocated by united nations and other international organizations is globally accepted, respected, practiced, or not. moreover, the underlying principles for promoting global humanness has been predicated on respect for human rights, freedom, equality, dignity, and above all, acceptance of human reason (rationality) as a universal natural endowment. based on the ontological structure of human beings, one can simply say that human beings over the entire universe are capable of reasoning. well, some people may disagree with this position; those who would like to maintain the romanticists’ status quo may still argue contrarily to this position. romanticism is an ideology that originated around 18thand 19th centuries, and was championed by the germans and the english (onyewuenyi, 2015). the proponents believe in the novelty of europe, or eurocentric over other nations, especially africa. they denied reason to africans. yet, human beings all over the world are naturally endowed with the capacity of reasoning or rationalizing, thinking or reflecting. in congruence with this, boethius cited in copleston (2010:103) defines human person as rationalis naturae individual substantia (an individual substance of a rational nature). for aristotle, human person is a rational animal (stumph, 1994). hence, global humanness implies that humans across the globe are the same irrespective of their historical, biological, intellectual and structural constituents. this is the notable foundation for global humanness. evaia: international journal of ethics and values, vol. 2 no. 1, december 2021 (issn: 2787-0448) obijekwu & muomah 28 freedom, equality, dignity and reason as the underlying principles of global humanness are conceptualized in the 1779 american independent declaration as well as in the united nations’ charter of 1948 on the universal declaration of human rights. benjamin franklin, john adams, thomas jefferson, roger sherman and robert livingston, the well-known founding fathers of the united state of america, declared thus: “we hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their creator with certain unalienable rights, that among these are life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness”(wikipedia, 2020).the united nations reflects the fundamental human rights as the basic rights for every human person irrespective of religion, race, gender, age, tribal affiliation, etc. these rights are attached to every human being due to his inherent nature and ontological origin, and as well inalienable rights (united nations, udhr article 1,1948). the member states of the united nations across the globe are expected to work together in promoting these fundamental human rights without bias and prejudice. in this era of covid-19, omicron, and other global challenges, one may begin to doubt if these principles are respected, promoted and sustained around the world today. this is really doubtable. the denial or rejection of these inherent qualities or characteristics such as equality, freedom, dignity and rationality, so to speak, is the basis of the denial of global humanness. denial of global humanness is therefore the rejection of commonness of humanity, equality of all men as well as the degradation of human dignity and all other forms of dehumanization of human person as seen in some places around the globe. understanding the concept of humanness the earlier term human reads thus: humain(e); the middle english humayn(e); middle french humain; and latin hūmānus which is similar to homō human being. this spelling of human is predominant from early 18th century. human or humane may refer to that which is, or should be, characteristic of human beings. in describing characteristics, human may refer to good and bad traits of a person alike (human kindness; human weakness). when emphasis is placed upon the latter, human is thought of as contrasted to divine. we often say “to err is human, to forgive is divine”. humane considers only the nobler or gentler aspects of people and is often contrasted to their more ignoble or brutish aspect. a humane person is benevolent, or loving in treating fellow humans or helpless animals. the word “humane” also had connotations of courtesy and refinement (hence, the application of humane to those branches of learning intended to refine the mind (collins dictionary, 2020). british dictionary however defines “humanness” or “human” (ˈhjuːmən) as “of characterizing, or relating to man and mankind, human nature consisting of people, the human race; a human chain having the attributes of man as opposed to animals, divine beings, or evaia: international journal of ethics and values, vol. 2 no. 1, december 2021 (issn: 2787-0448) obijekwu & muomah 29 machines” (explore dictionary.com, 2020). the scientific definitions for humanness/human [hyōō′mən] therefore “is a member of the species homo sapiens; a human being”( the science dictionary, 2011).human: of, pertaining to, characteristic of, or having the nature of people; human frailty; consisting of people: the human race; of or relating to the social aspect of people; human affairs; sympathetic; humane; a warmly human understanding (thesaurus.com, 2020). from the foregoing, the term human implies “the characteristics of people when contrasted with god, animals or machines”. “humanness” is a characteristic of human person or human beings that differentiated them from animals or machines (robots). social psychological research into laypeople’s conceptions of humanness has focused on three related categories of human attributes such as emotions, personality traits and mental capacities (wilson and haslam, 2013). wilson and haslam (2013) note that the striking about this body of research is that, despite reflecting distinct theoretical perspectives, broadly comparable results have emerged about lay conceptions of humanness and how our specific sense of humanness separate humans from animals and machines, respectively. wilson and haslam (2013) in demouli et al. (2004) note that in emotional expression, humans share some emotions with animals which is described as non-uniquely human emotions (anger, surprise); and emotions that are considered as uniquely human(that is, uniquely human emotions like love, guilt). accordingly, nonuniquely human emotions are judged as innate, visible to outside observes, caused by external events, and of short duration. by contrast, uniquely human emotion are judged as invisible to observers, generated internally via thinking, experienced over a long duration, morally informative and acquired through socialization (demoulin et al. 2004; rodriguez et al.2005). wilson and haslam (2013) conclude that the focus on emotions that are shared with animals (nonuniquely human emotions and uniquely human emotions) indicates that humanness is conceptualized in a way that emphasizes the human-animal boundary. obviously, there are some emotions that when human beings exhibit reduces them to animals, especially emotions or actions that debase human persons such as racism and slavery. in considering the conceptions of humanness in the ambience of personality traits, haslam et al. (2005) suggests that there two distinct senses of humanness namely; a species-typical sense termed human nature, and a species-unique known as human uniqueness. human uniqueness, according to haslam et al.(2005) refers to those traits that differentiated humans from animals such as refinement, moral sensibility, self-control, and rationality. buttressing this further, haslam (2005) asserts that uniquely human traits are judged as acquired through learning, as requiring maturity for their expression, not prevalent in the population, and culturally specific. evaia: international journal of ethics and values, vol. 2 no. 1, december 2021 (issn: 2787-0448) obijekwu & muomah 30 contrarily, human nature reflects the biologically-based human essence – the fundamental or essential attributes of the human species. such essential attributes like emotional responsiveness, prosocial warmth, cognitive openness and individuality are often shared with animals (haslam et al., 2005). dehumanization research conducted by loughan and haslam (2007) gives insight into how the two senses of humanness differentiated humans from nonhumans. they show that human nature traits are associated explicitly and implicitly, with animals more than with machines and uniquely human traits are associated with the machines more than animals. loughan et al., (2009) note that the denial to people of traits that reflect human nature leads them to be likened to machine, whereas the denial to people traits that reflect human uniqueness leads them to be likened to animals. the approach is applicable in studying the humanness belief in mental capacity of humans. indeed, gray et al (2007) research into laypeople’s beliefs about mental capacities suggesting two dimensions of mind’s perception known as agency and experience. accordingly, agency is exemplified by the capacity for language, reason, selfcontrol, and morality. these traits are parallel to the findings obtained for uniquely human emotions and traits. on the other hand, experience dimension has to do with capacities for consciousness, primary emotions and basic appetites. these traits as well are parallel to the findings obtained for personality traits that reflect human nature. agentic capacities show the humananimal boundary, while experience capacities show human-machine boundary (gray et al., 2007). from these social psychological researchers and emotion scientists, it is clear that human person is barricaded and divided. at present, directly or indirectly, this division is applied in human relationships and interactions. humanness has been judged in relation to animals and in relation to machines. this specific sense of humanness is what makes us human and this specific sense as well is what has been denied globally. at present, it has been constituted and still constituting global inconsistencies in human relationships and interconnectedness. humanness, as used here implies also the “quality of being human” or “the state of being human” as distinguished from animals. fernandez armesto (2004) cited in wilson and haslam (2012) note that “the longest debated frontier of human identity in western culture has been between humans and animals”, and it is this frontier that has historically informed western conceptions of what it means to be human. wilson and haslam (2013) citing hampshire, (1991) and turkle (1991) assert that the boundary between humans and animals is not, however, the only boundary to inform our understanding of what it is to be human. that another salient boundary is that between humans and machines. for them, therefore, there are other things to consider and amongst them such as “emotion, personality traits and mental capacities.” wilson & haslam (2013) evaia: international journal of ethics and values, vol. 2 no. 1, december 2021 (issn: 2787-0448) obijekwu & muomah 31 note that other things to consider as we think of humanness are humans’ ability or willingness either to help or harm others. in the ideology of global humanness, the nobler actions are considered. humans are neither seen as animals nor as machines. rather, they are seen as an entity with a holistic uniqueness and humanistic qualities and being guided by moral responsibilities. obviously, the idea of global humanness encourages the principle of brotherhood and sisterhood of all humankind. the concept of global humanness, as said earlier, predicated on the uniqueness of human nature, on the global interconnectedness, interrelationship and togetherness of all human beings. foundation of the denial of global humanness in the modern world the denial of global humanness has historical, biological, intellectual and structural bases. despite these, one cannot completely rule out global divisions among the factors that instigated, initiated or influenced denial of global humanness. the term globe is simply the “world” or “universe”. the globe and world will be interchangeably used here. currently, the “world” is divided into seven continents namely; africa, asia, europe, north america, south america, antarctica and australia/oceania. these continents make up what is known today as the world or globe. one of the ancient scholars herodotus once asked: why should a single large landmass be divided into separate continents? (wikipedia, 2020). this was not only the case, the habitants or people of the world are divided along the colour of their skins or body pigments, physiological features, biological traits, and geographical locations. such divisions include the caucasoid (europeans), negroid (africans), mongoloid (asians), americanus (american indians), and the australoid (australian aborigines) (oyebola, 2002). one cannot doubt the current political, economic, social and cultural attachments to this global division. the current classification of the world into the first world, second world and third world, developing and developed world, civilized and uncivilized world, global south and global north and so many other divisions all over the globe has been the root of the problem. all these involve in separating one country from the other; and separating individuals from the others. all these divisions also have their implications which will be examine later. some of the factors that orchestrated the denial of global humanness include extreme nationalism, racism, colonialism, imperialism and slave trade (onyewuenyi (2015). this led to the division of humans into rationality and irrationality, human and less humans, slaves and free-born, superiority and inferiority, civilized and uncivilized world, and so on. in fact, some sections of the world like africa were over time considered less human, irrational and slaves to others. among those that propagated this ideology include aristotle, georg w. f. hegel, john locke, david hume, george henry lewes and some others who came after evaia: international journal of ethics and values, vol. 2 no. 1, december 2021 (issn: 2787-0448) obijekwu & muomah 32 them. these philosophers denied the humanness of africans just to exclude africa’s contribution to global civilization and development. in fact, georg w.f hegel, in his first lecture on the philosophy of history delivered in 182223 described africans in a humiliated form; as slaves to europe and america (turner, 1903); bentley, 1900). indeed, denial of global humanness became more visible when some sections of the world began to describe other sections as salves, non-humans and irrational. based on this, jamela dunbar writes: if all men are born equal why change the subject matter? are slave humans, or humans slaves? when did we know that humans are slaves? when did man decide to call humans slaves? man and woman, created, as man and woman, not slaves. the slave was never man and woman's name at birth. why should any human be called a slave by another human like himself? why, because of his own selfish reasons, greed, and corruption, or fame? man is not a slave. all men are human without a question. and no human should thus be a slave by its own kind. it is an abomination to the human creation. if a man is called a slave the man that said this word is a slave to himself. he is shooting himself down with no respect for his humanness as a man. for a man cannot call another human like himself a slave, to himself. it is an abomination to our spirituality, humanness, and our creator by far. humans are not slaves. all humans are born equal and if any man calls a human a slave, he is calling himself a slave too because he himself is human (definitions.net, 2020). exacerbating this notion in the world is global inequality, restriction of human freedom of movement, dehumanization and exploitation of the human person. this attitude has questioned human dignity and values. however, denial of humanness in global context varies in degrees. hence, the way africa was excluded or separated from the rest of the world is not the way asians or other nations of the world are separated from the rest. in german, during the time of adolf hitler (1889-1945) about six million jews were exterminated on the ground of german superiority and purity amongst other nations. hitler saw the jews as the enemy of the german people. in his desire to expand germany, he focused on eastern europe but promoted racially motivated ideology. indeed, his nazi regime was responsible for the genocide of about 6 million jews and millions of other victims whom he and his followers deemed untermenschen (sub-humans) or socially undesirable. nazi regime was also responsible for the killing of an estimated 19.3 million civilians and prisoners of war (wikipedia, 2020). kershaw (2000b) noted of hitler’s evaia: international journal of ethics and values, vol. 2 no. 1, december 2021 (issn: 2787-0448) obijekwu & muomah 33 ideology stating that “never in history has such ruination – physical and moral – been associated with the name of one man” (841) the implication of denial of global humanness in covid-19 and post covid-19 era currently, the entire world is battling with covid-19 which till date has its origin still unknown. however, we cannot ignore what denial of global humanness implies to the modern human population in pre and post covid19 era till date, emergence of covid-19 is still controversial. obijekwu (2020), in their paper titled “impact of covid-19 on global humanness: a philosophical-based lesson”, notes that the emergence of covid-19 has been a controversial one. there were allegations and counter-allegations amongst nations, especially among the economic competitive nations like us and china on the origin and cause of corona virus. as such, denial of global humanness will continue to pave unhealthy divisions in the world. this is a division that will enable the covid-19 virus to be more pandemic. the reality of this has been visible in emanation of another faction of covid19 referred to as omicron variant. this aspect of covid-19 like its mother virus has today infected the sizeable population of the world. the aljazeera news of december 13, 2021 has it that as covid-19 is still pandemic, its aspect called omicron variant has infected more than 50 million people in south africa, england and other places. from all these, it stands that denial of global humanness kills global unity and will even render post covid19 era frail to annihilation. with this deepening division and poor human cooperation brought by denial of humanness, the survival of the modern world and future human generation is bleak. if every sections of the world acknowledged the universality or global humanness, i wonder if there would be proliferation of weapons of mass destruction, biological weapons, war, political, economic, social, cultural and religious motivated conflicts. this is the reason the global humanness should be promoted by global agencies like the united nations. the united nations can achieve this task when it becomes more proactive in promoting the fundamental principles of global humanness like freedom, equality of all men, and respect for human dignity. along this lane, un has to denounce colonialism, neo-colonialism, imperialism, human slavery, human exploitation and racism among its member states and in the global world. conclusion denial of humanness has been an age-long global phenomenon. this is visible in people looking considering others as less-humans and treating them as such. evaia: international journal of ethics and values, vol. 2 no. 1, december 2021 (issn: 2787-0448) obijekwu & muomah 34 denial of global humanness is also glaring in people’s deprivation of others’ rights and entitlements, as well as the intent to annihilate others considered as obstacles, less important or less human. this global attitude has great implications in the modern world. these implications are visible in the fact that it is creating an unhealthy division that makes it hard for humankind to confront global adversities like covid-19 pandemic, other diseases and the unfriendly environmental factors. this situation therefore calls for a better world where humankind have to acknowledge the humanness in everybody, and with the spirit of sisterhood and brotherhood work for global development and common good. until denial of global humanness is adequately addressed, the desire for global peace and eradication of global terrorism will remain a wishful-thinking. references bentley, w. n. 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(september, 2013). humanness beliefs about behavior: an index and comparative human-non-human behavior judgments. in behav.res, 45, 372-382. http://www.businesstoday.in/ https://www.un.org/universal-%09declaration-of-human-rights evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, number 1, may, 2020 evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 roseline uchenna okeke. ph.d page 1 relevance of christian ethics in the development of youths’ entrepreneurship in nigeria roseline uchenna okeke, ph.d department of religious studies imo state university, owerri email: roseleokeke@gmail.com abstract the study is poised to examine the potentials of christian ethical principles towards the goal of developing entrepreneurial behavior among nigerian youths. one of the indicators of development is the growth of entrepreneurship. in spite of the increasing consensus that ethics generally is pervasive and it is relevant to every aspect of human endeavour, little recognition is given to the mechanisms of inculcating entrepreneurial behavior among our youths through the application of christian ethical principles. this paper is geared towards filling this vacuum. engaging the tool of critical analyses of selected literatures, a keen observation of some students of imo state university, owerri, who are adherents of various christian groups; and premising the work on max weber’s protestant ethic and the spirit of capitalism, the paper examined the responses of youths to the need of being enterprising and the impacts of christian ethical principles to achieving this goal. it was discovered that participating in religious activities do not enhance entrepreneurial behavior, nor do they promote entrepreneurship; but christian ethical principles as manifested in people’s work ethics, conducts and character do. key words: entrepreneurship, christian ethics, work ethics, development. introduction youth unemployment has become a scourge, not only to the under developed and developing nations, but also to the developed economies. this problem is attributed to, among other factors the increase in mechanization of production processes which is occasioned by the rapid advancement in technological knowhow. while these technological breakthroughs help in reducing the stress of production and increase the volume of production, they unfortunately take over the job opportunities that were hitherto handled by human beings. this problem is compounded by the day as new advances like the manufacturing of robots; artificial intelligence and advancement in electronics unfold. the nigerian situation seems to be worsened by the skewed educational system and distorted moral values, especially since her independence in 1960. the educational system has been largely certificate-oriented. the school evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 roseline uchenna okeke. ph.d page 2 curricula have downplayed practical agricultural exercises and hand craft, especially since the explosion of the ‘oil boom’. this has patterned the orientation of an average youth towards certificate acquisition, instead of knowledge and crafts acquisition. there is however a consensus among scholars and economic experts that entrepreneurship is a major answer to the problem of unemployment as well as a catalyst for economic development. this view buttresses adam smith’s assertion that any wealth of any nation that is regulated by importation and consumption is faulty and counterproductive. according to adam smith, a nation’s wealth is determined by the streams of goods and services it creates (soares (ed), 2007). this informs why youth entrepreneurship has become a desideratum in nigeria as in other nations of the world. for some years now, it has dawned on the authorities in nigeria that the only way out of the embarrassingly high youth unemployment is to encourage entrepreneurial education; but in a nation where paper qualification has been the only viable way of getting gainfully employed, it is not easy to get people effect a paradigm shift in their way of seeing life. this is where religious ethical reorientation comes handy. man is a religious animal. the dogmas inculcated through religious beliefs are more long lasting than any other impression. though all ethics refer to normative science of human conduct (okeke, 2015; william, 1961), the special concern of christian ethics is to relate an understanding of god and christian belief system to the conducts of men and women. it is the core values that have been extrapolated from the life and teachings of jesus that form the foundation of the moral life for the christian, provide guidelines for his behavior and decision-making and constitute basis for selfexamination and judgment. christian ethics, like all ethics focus on principles of moral values, but it is particularly based on christian faith and its values. ethics in practice makes so much sense in everyday living as well as in business. everyone wants business to be fair clean and beneficial to the society. for this to happen, organizations need to abide by the ethics or acceptable norms of engagement and fair practices and competition; all of which will benefit the consumer, the organization and the society. in entrepreneurship, people engage in small scale business transactions which are expected to profit the individual and benefit the society in return. the paper focuses on the relationship between christian ethics and an aspect of economic behavior, particularly entrepreneurial behavior. to respond appropriately to the issues in this study, the following questions are necessary: does religious ethics have any effect on the level of one’s economic performance? to what extent does application of christian ethical principles in business determine the sustainability of the business? evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 roseline uchenna okeke. ph.d page 3 the analysis is contextualized among the nigerian youths whom unemployment and economic recession are leaving stranded in the journey of life. encouraging entrepreneurship with the right attitude and best practices as espoused by christian ethical principles can rescue our youths from the present quagmire of unemployment and poverty conceptual clarifications as this paper is a contribution to the global current efforts to strengthen responsible enterprises, different terms are used: entrepreneurship, sustainable development, ethics and christian ethics. ethics strives to answer questions such as ‘what should i do?’ how should i act’?, how should a community of people act’? ethics also strives to answer the questions as to what is good behavior and just action. therefore, ethics concerns all areas of life. ethics can be based on philosophical or religious values such as buddhist, christian and islamic worldviews. the focus of this study is on christian ethics and its impact on entrepreneurship. christian ethics is the evaluation of human conducts that is based on christian faith and its values. sustainable development is defined by christoph stuckelberger et al as development process that employs present generation to live a life in dignity without endangering the life of future generations or the non-human environment. from a christian ethical point of view, sustainability is a godcentered fundamental premise, an axiom that gives orientation to the ethical values and norms. sustainability is a pillar and a manifestation of the christcentered principle. enterprise is an organizational unit which produces trades, markets or recycles products or services. it can be a business company for profit, an enterprise can as well be a non-profit institution (a social enterprise,) a private or state owned company. it can also be a small, medium or large entity, a single unit or a conglomerate of companies. entrepreneur is a male or female head and/or operational leader of an enterprise. he or she can be a founder, owner, president of the board or manager of the business. an entrepreneur actually through the value of innovation creates a new business with the readiness to bear most of the risks and enjoy most of the benefits. entrepreneurship is an important driver of economic growth and development in any society. according to onuoha (2007), entrepreneurship is the practice of starting a new organization or revitalizing mature organizations literature review there are relatively few number of similar studies on the impact of christian ethics on economic growth or entrepreneurship. even then, such few have evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 roseline uchenna okeke. ph.d page 4 different areas of emphases and varied scales of variables. cars well and rolland (2007) have studied the influence of different religions on the possibility of becoming an entrepreneur. contextualizing the survey data in new zealand, they discovered that increase in activities and ethics in a society does not have negative effect on entrepreneurship. in the same vein, anderson, drakopoluou-dod and scott (2000) examine the role of religious values in the formation of a business culture in britain in the 1980’s. de george, r.t (1990) avers that despite the earlier belief that religion, (including christian ethics) and business do not mix, neither does the later support entrepreneurial culture. although these authors agree that being ethical and engaging in moral activities do not impair ones success in entrepreneurship, instead they support entrepreneurial culture. however, they failed to state the aspects of ethics that support entrepreneurial culture. these studies have addressed this vacuum by emphasizing the place of religious ethics, and particularly the place of christian ethics in the success of entrepreneurship among nigerian youths. the study of religion in the realm of social science, especially economics is a relatively new phenomenon (njoku, 2014). on this note, it is generally believed that max weber’s theses on the protestant ethic and the spirit of capitalism in 1905 pioneered the study of the role of christian ethic on economics. protestant work ethics is a concept that is used in economics, history, sociology and theology. it was primarily the ideology of the reformers like martin luther and john calvin which states that it is not only priestly work, but all legitimate work that humans do to earn a living or any vocation can glorify god. protestant work ethic therefore insists that vocation is ordained by god. it also emphasized the values of hard work, discipline, (especially discipline in the use of time) and frugality or a strong propensity to save, abstinence from worldly pleasures as key elements of work ethic that enhance economic development. weber, however, in his thesis proved that there is a close affinity between work ethic and early capitalist entrepreneurship. it was demonstrated that these values made a significant positive impact in the western attitude to work and employment (sinclair et al, 1988). this explains why this paper avers that, christian values play important roles in people’s commitment to work and in the growth of business organizations. referring to adam smith’s theory of moral sentiments, anderson (1988) highlights that christian religious beliefs provide strong ethical incentives to apply certain moral restraints in business. he went further to show that applying such moral values as trust, honesty, benevolence and avoidance of violence do not only boost the business landscape, but also stabilizes the civil society as well. smith’s theory is germane to this study because entrepreneurship is all about doing business. it involves the process of evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 roseline uchenna okeke. ph.d page 5 designing, launching and running a new and often times, small business with the goal of making profit. the values above, as espoused by smith constitute the core values of the principles of christian ethics in general, and work ethic in particular. all religions as a matter of fact, endeavor to instill some values, morals and behavioral framework in their adherents. these are the values that some people eventually exhibit in their businesses. in today’s nigeria where almost every sector of the economy is portraying gloomy signs of bankruptcy, entrepreneurship is increasingly being viewed as a potential engine of economic growth and development. many of our youths whose self-esteem is at the verge of total collapse as a result of unemployment have regained themselves psychologically by starting a small scale business that is self-sustaining and profitable. entrepreneur from christian perspective there are some erroneous beliefs in some circles that an entrepreneur can hardly be a genuine religious person. entrepreneurs are often seen as capitalists who are best tolerated as necessary evils, as they are always in need of a broad and complicated network of controls in order to serve human needs (scott and kenman, 2004). from this perspective it is believed that entrepreneurs can hardly tell the truth. thus, there is inherent negative perception of the entrepreneur in human society. the christian perspective of entrepreneurship started from the very beginning. in the dramatic account of creation, every segment of god’s work was underlined with a repeated refrain: “god saw that it was good” (genesis chapter one). it is thus interesting to know that the material world that god made was attested to be good. an entrepreneur is therefore, like one who organizes numerous factors and brings things into connection so as to produce what is beneficial to human beings around him. it is this creative aspect of an entrepreneur that is akin to god’s creative activity as we saw in the book of genesis. being the only creature that was made in the creator’s image, humans are expected to be creative and innovative. so an entrepreneur is an astute participant in the divine call to creativity, innovation and productivity that god gives to the whole human race: so god made man in his own image, in the image of god created he him, male and female created he them. and god blessed them, and god said unto them be fruitful, and multiply, and replenish the earth and subdue it and have dominion over the fish of the sea, and over every living…gen.1:26-28. evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 roseline uchenna okeke. ph.d page 6 in order to exercise these mandates, the entrepreneur must have access to material factors of production. bolton and thompson buttress this view by asserting that an entrepreneur is a person who habitually creates and innovates to build something of recognized value around perceived opportunities (2000). unlike animals that are bound to things by instinct, humans relate to things by reasoning. humans are self-thinking beings who survive by the use of reasoning. the youth that can successfully be an entrepreneur is one who reasons, thinks constructively and comes out with what can be useful to the society. christian ethics greatly supports entrepreneurship. elisha asked the widow that cried for help “what do you have in the house?” your maidservant had nothing except a jar of oil” she answered. the instruction that followed was for her to go out and borrow containers from neighbors, then go into the house lock up herself and her sons and fill all the containers after which she should go and sell the oil so that she could pay her debt first, and then feed with the rest(2kings4). the parable of the man that distributed ten talents among his servants is also illustrating jesus support of entrepreneurship (mtt.25:14ff). it suggests that every human being on the surface of the earth has been endowed with the means of survival, and each is given according to his or her abilities. entrepreneurship from the christian perspective means putting your talents and abilities into profitable use. the christian scripture, from which christian ethics derives its major source enjoins ‘guarding the heart with all diligence for out of it comes issues of life’ (prov. 4:23). in addition to this, is the declaration that a man who is diligent in his ways sits with men of repute, and never sits with mean men (prov. 22:29). the christian culture of clear critical thinking and consistency in business is being emphasized. initiative and creative thinking are the major factors of entrepreneurship (bolton and thompson 2000). pope francis corroborated the need of creative entrepreneurship in the face of the present ‘scandalous poverty’ as a christian value. in his message in st peters audience in vatican, he averred that creative entrepreneurship results in possession. according to the pontiff, ‘if there is hunger on earth, it is not because food is missing, rather what is lacking is creative entrepreneurship, free and fair sighted entrepreneurship’. these qualities ensure adequate production and solidarity approach, which ultimately ensures fair distribution’, he continued.(2018). every nigerian youth is therefore, expected to discover his /her talent(s) and invest it meaningfully. it is important to note that entrepreneurship is not only trading. it can as well be constructing, crafting, manufacturing or even engagement in contemplative activities. thus entrepreneurship is all about innovation and creativity that is accompanied with risk taking.(peter evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 roseline uchenna okeke. ph.d page 7 drucker,1970). the fact remains that each person has been given somethingan innate potential which has to be invested into profitable usefulness. based on the same parable, christian religion also reveals that proper investment of our innate potentials and our current exposures through entrepreneurship can make a person to be more useful to the wider society. christian work ethics and entrepreneurship from the foregoing it is obvious that entrepreneurship is not a strange in christianity. in the language of okwueze, however, religion and science play complementary roles to each other like two pillars of a house. though parallel to each other, they support the same structure to prevent a collapse (2012). this is exactly what christian ethics does to entrepreneurship. while entrepreneurship deals with material facts, ethics deals with values. while harnessing the factors of production around us-time, land, money, machine, man applies his innate abilities for profitable ventures, and christian ethics provides the moral values that are needed to conduct the business in ways it would be harmless to the person and the wider society. fundamentally, christian ethics provide us with the motivation and the guide to embark on entrepreneurship in the first place. the foundation of the relevance of christian work ethics to entrepreneurship is enshrined in calvins ideology of frugality and max weber’s thesis on protestant ethic and the spirit of capitalism. the core of weber’s thesis provides a set of beliefs and values about work, savings, investments and acquisition of wealth (dorius et al 2012). protestant ethic and spirit of capitalism represented a clean break from the old medieval christian worldview that saw work as a sign of belonging to a low class, and the possession and acquisition of wealth as a violation of ascetic values. through the philosophy of protestant work ethic, the meaning of work and savings has been redefined; whereby hard work is seen as a dignifying venture and the accrual of material goods as divine. protestant work ethic can be so developed to be a part of certain cultures that one does not need to be a religious calvinist to follow it( ryken.,2010) .when this ideology was first developed and projected, the impact in the west was great. people were motivated to engage new activities that ultimately ushered in the industrial revolution and a period of economic growth never before seen in human history. it can have the same effect in the present nigerian society when we begin to see hard work as dignifying instead of continually depending on parents and the government. evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 roseline uchenna okeke. ph.d page 8 christian ethical principles needed for entrepreneurial development among nigerian youths: a case of students of imo state university, owerri in the course of this study, it was observed that a good number of students of imo state university are on self-sponsorship. they are engaged in moneyyielding activities like trading, manufacturing of things like detergents and antiseptics and services like barbing /braiding. they engage in these entrepreneurial activities while in school. believing that this is a prototype of nigerian youths, some discussions were carried out to find out their motivation for embarking on those activities. effort was also made to find out their views about the application of ethics in business. the summary of the findings are as follows: 1) most of these student entrepreneurs got involved in the various businesses as a stop-gap to enable them sponsor themselves through school. as far as they are concerned, their main objective is to complete their studies and obtain a certificate that will enable them obtain gainful employment, even when they know that the economy cannot provide employment to the army of graduates and potential graduates in their fields of study. for most of them, engaging in small scale businesses is humiliating; therefore it has to be a temporary venture. 2) on the issue of applying christian ethical principles in their businesses, most of the students interviewed still held the general opinion that business and religion cannot go together. many of them said that they are in business to make money and not to please people. when asked whether they believe that the application of christian ethical principles in their businesses can help them grow and sustain their businesses, their response was in the negative. these responses are indication that many youths in nigeria are yet to understand the importance of imbibing the entrepreneurial behavior. more importantly, they are yet to understand the importance of christian ethical principles in the development of entrepreneurial behavior. for nigerian youths to come to accept and commit themselves to entrepreneurship as a worthwhile venture, the following christian ethical principles need to be imbibed by not only the youths, but also the society in general: principle of hard work: in the discussion with thirty undergraduates, seventeen (17) of them believe that it is possible to get the best in life without necessarily working hard. a student boldly claimed that the popular view evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 roseline uchenna okeke. ph.d page 9 currently is hard work does not make a guy but smartness does’. even parents are now indicting their children of sluggishness when they fail to come home with ill-gotten wealth, even as students. to such parents even the uneducated children in the communities are building houses and buying cars after a short trip. this claim was supported and accentuated by majority of the audience. however, nigerian youths have to deliberately dis-orientate their mindset from the possibility of achieving success without hard work. this is why there is so much fraud and other corrupt tendencies in nigeria. hard work and diligence makes one to live with confidence. calvin coolidge says “all growth depends upon activity. there is no development physically or intellectually without effort, and effort means work”. thus through hard work and perseverance and a faith in god, you can live your dream (ben carson). pope paul vi corroborates this fact by saying “all life demands struggle. those who have everything given to them become lazy, selfish and insensitive to the real values of life. the very striving and hard work we constantly try to avoid is the major building block in the person we are today. principle of creativity: entrepreneurship is all about creativity. creativity is one of the most important qualities an entrepreneur can have (fallon, 2014). creativity is a boundless imagination that is constantly innovating and always seeing the world through different lenses. scholars have come to believe that it is the ultimate key to business success. creativity comes easy when the mind is divested of all negative encumbrances. psychology researchers have come to discover that addiction to pornographic materials and sexual perversions impede creativity and innovation. creative efforts bring happiness (roosevelt), just as god delighted in his creativity in genesis1:31. boldness: this is a virtue that any entrepreneur must have. according to the aristotelian golden mean, boldness is the middle course between cowardice and rashness in decision making (okeke, 2015). it takes boldness to venture into the unknown terrain of entrepreneurship. honesty: this is the virtue that will encourage your prospective clients to relate with you in confidence. entrepreneurship involves so much risk. risk taking among the stakeholders to any business is possible when there is considerable level of honesty. frugality: this is the ability to always check and cross check one’s spending. this virtue keeps one away from unnecessary extravagance and ensures that every spending is rationally made. it builds in one, the ability to bargain effectively and enhances the savings culture. earning and spending less from your income will help your enterprise to grow. ruthlessly cut away from the unimportant and focus on the important. evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 roseline uchenna okeke. ph.d page 10 time management: when one loses the control of his time it reflects in his disorganized life. an entrepreneur who is multitalented and enormously intelligent can squander it all if he is unable to seize control of his time. a good entrepreneur does what gordon calls time budgeting. he knows the difference between fixed and discretionary desires (gordon, 1988). just as in financial budgeting, a good entrepreneur allocates more time in fixed or necessities and less time on discretionary issues or pleasures. he makes the best of every minute because time is a scarce commodity. he sets goals for himself. this is what calvinism referred to as discipline in protestant ethics. conclusion christian ethics is different from christian doctrine in the sense that it considers the christian society as the agent in well-doing as they respond to the dictates and commandments of god, whereas doctrine studies god as the doers of all things whose authority is to be studied, obeyed and handed down. the import of this study can be summarized in parts. first contextualizing the study among imo state university students appear to the researcher as a novel enterprise. while it constitutes a new dimension to be added in the study of religion and economic behavior, students of various citadels of learning should be encouraged to embark on profitable ventures in addition to being religious as they pursue academic excellence. currently, religious activities are relatively high in the university environment so is entrepreneurial participation but it is not commensurate to the level of moral values of students. the apparent entrepreneurial participation is informed more by the harsh effects of poverty than a response to christian ethical principle of hard work. this paper goes further to posit that religious ethics, especially christian ethics is a strong tool in the process of developing youth entrepreneurial orientation in nigeria and in the achievement of the highly averred sustainable development. references allister stone john calvin, the work ethic, and vocation.wrs journal 16 (2), 24-30, 2009. anderson, a.r, drakopulou-dou &scott, m.g (2000).religion as an environmental influence on enterprise. bolton and thompson(2000) entrepreneurs, talent and carswell p. & rolland d. (2007). ‘religion and entrepreneurship’ in new zealand journal of enterprising communities: people and places in the global economy,1(2),162-174. de george, r.t. (1990). business ethics. 3rd edition, new york: macmillan publishing company. fallon,n. (2014). ‘why creativity matters most for an entrepreneur’ in business newsdaily. gordon,m. (1988). ordering your private world. tennessee: moody press. evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 roseline uchenna okeke. ph.d page 11 manish, b. & john, t. (2011) ‘what is green economy’. world resources institute. njoku,d.i.(2014).’religion and entrepreneurship’ in international journal of theology and reformed tradition. vol. 6 okeke, r.u. (2015). ethics and human values: an african perspective. owerri: adabs publishers okwueze,m.i. (2012). religion indeed the “opium” of life.an inaugural lecture of the university of nigeria.unn senate committee. onuoha,g(2007).entrepreneurship. aist international journal 10,20-32 drucker, p. (1970). entrepreneurship in business enterprise.journal of business policy. vol1 ryken, l(2010). worldly saints:puritans as they really were.uk: harper collins. scott, b, rae & kenman,l.w. (2004). beyond integrity. michigan: zondervan. soares, s.m (ed) ( 2007). an inquiry into nature and causes of the wealth of nations.new york: metalibri. stucklberger, c (2017) sustainable development goals.un summit weber,m.(2002). the protestant ethic and the “spirit” of capitalism and other writings: london:penguinclassic. william, l (1961). an introduction to ethics. new york: barnes and nobles evaia: international journal of ethics and values, vol. 2 no. 1, december 2021 (issn: 2787-0448) egbekpalu 1 philosophy and gender equality in nigeria: issues, impacts and prospects purissima emelda egbekpalu, phd dept. of philosophy madonna university, nigeria 08035758597; epury@rocketmail.com abstract philosophy offers a rational and critical outlook on the life and activities of the people within given contexts as it tries to solve existential issues of the moment. the role of philosophy in gender issues is a sacred one which is adapted from the general role of philosophy in human life and existence. it has been well established that women suffer from men’s chauvinism and are being subjugated, derogated, abused, etc. due to patriarchal dominance and gender roles in many cultures including nigeria. this paper analytically investigates myriads of habits, assumptions, personal, social, economic and political practices that sustain gender inequality and injustice against women and proffers practical ways forward. it further examines the meaning and significance of gender equality through clarifications of its concepts, goals, values and impacts. the paper discovers that women desperately continue to seek for equal treatment with their male counterpart though subtler now than in the past years because the major fight has been done and major battle won which brought about new and positive developments in their lives and that of the society in general. the paper concludes that gender equality is not to be understood as gender sameness which is mere theory and utopic. it therefore recommends gender fairness and common ground of practice through enlightenment and empowerment. key words: philosophy, gender, equality, feminism, nigeria. introduction the issue with gender equality is a very complex one. due to bio-social reasons, various cultures (lerner, 1986) reserve specific roles to each gender due to their anatomical distinctions. the ugly treatment against women elicit in them questions about the dignity of their human worth in relation to their male counterpart. in reaction to those ugly experiences, women are often heard saying ‘what a man can do, a woman can do it even better’ and such expressions. as such, they yearn for justice and equal treatment. gender inequality is often the major cause of violence against women (egbekpalu, 2017). perceived patriarchal dominance in various cultures including nigeria is said to be at the basis of gender inequality and all forms of ugly practices against women. the main goal of feminism (ani, 2019 p. 8) is “to disturb the system of relations that have deprived women and favoured men evaia: international journal of ethics and values, vol. 2 no. 1, december 2021 (issn: 2787-0448) egbekpalu 2 for centuries…it hopes to recognize and assert the full equality and humanity of female and male in every society. feminism (mama, 2011 p. 1) is an “ongoing struggle to free women from centuries of oppression, exploitation and marginalization in all the vast majority of known human societies. it is also a call to end patriarchy and to expose, deconstruct and eradicate all the myriads of personal, social economic and political practices, habits and assumptions that sustain gender inequality and injustice around the world.” down the ages, women perceive themselves as being unequally treated based on their gender givenness (simone, 1956; clinton, 1996; wollstonecraft, 2014; gilligan, 1982; frieda, 1997) especially in public, political, economic and religious affairs as well as in issues regarding ownership of properties, love and sex, work, etc. and even in some cultural norms and practices. understanding the concepts: sex, gender, gender relations and gender equality sex refers to biological differences between males and females and they are natural, universal and unchanging. gender points to a set of characteristics and behaviours expected of men and women in the society based on the assumption that certain qualities are natural to men and women. the masculine and feminine gendered qualities determine their roles and are constructed by given societies through socialization that prepare them for their social roles. how men and women are positioned in their various societies often determines the discriminatory and gender-based treatments they receive. in other words, we are born as males and females, grow up as boys and girls and learn to be men and women (gendered). that is why simone de beauvoir (1956 p. 17) argued that “one is not born a woman but rather becomes a woman.” gender relations are the ways in which men and women relate in their societies based on their gender, roles and values attached to them. gender equality is the equal treatment of men and women. it indicates the fact that women’s condition is generally not equal to that of men and solicits for equal opportunities and participation of women in all sectors of life. feminism is a way of restoring equal treatment of women. gender equality as different from sameness the differences in biological dispositions do not bring about any justification for superiority or inferiority but performance of different but complementary roles. hence, sex differences do not connote inequality and equality does not mean sameness. evaia: international journal of ethics and values, vol. 2 no. 1, december 2021 (issn: 2787-0448) egbekpalu 3 reference is often made to the biblical passage (gen. 2:7) of the creation of man (adam and eve) and various interpretations are made both in favour of men and women depending on the wave of the argument. god’s humble assessment of his creative work found that everything is good except that man should be alone. god was not proud to maintain the status quo, he made a woman from the man’s rib so that man should be happy as he originally intended for which loneliness would have been a hindrance. as the creation of animals portrayed unsatisfying dominance and a mismatch which did not fulfil the purpose, he took time (gen 2:21-22) to create a fitting companion (substantial equality between man and woman) that brought about fulfilment and fullness of creation. culture should constantly review their practices as the world evolves. equality and complementarity of man and woman was demonstrated in the creation account when adam acknowledged the presence of eve with such an anthropomorphic expression “bone of my bone and flesh of my flesh”. how adam knew that eve was made from his bone justifies the perception of the equality between them (gen. 2:23). at this juncture, it is noteworthy to delineate that gender equality does not necessarily remove the traditional roles bestowed on each sex. it does not also mean that men and women are the same. after all, men are gifted with masculine nature, while women on the other hand are also naturally equipped but with feminine body and soul that account for their extraordinary qualities for motherhood. gender equality rather means that the rights, opportunities and responsibilities of individuals are not just based on sex as they exercise their roles within and outside the family in a manner that makes them uniquely different. so understood, each gender (egbekpalu, 2013) should be accorded the respect due to him or her. violence against women are often gender-based in african setting including nigerian, male dominance over female is significantly perceived for examples the preference of male child over female child and consequent inequal exposures to education, job opportunities and public services. these and other likely factors account for subjugation of women which renders them more vulnerable and more susceptible to oppression and exploitation. unesco report (2019) revealed that there exists significant increase on sexual and domestic violence, against women. such violent acts (egbekpalu, 2017) consist of intimidation, threat or sexual harassment, rape and sexual assault (including marital rape), forced kissing, domestic violence, spousal battering, sexual torture and abuse of female children, traditional practices that are harmful to women (such as female genital mutilation), forced prostitution and any form of forceful sexual contact and unwanted sexual behaviour. evaia: international journal of ethics and values, vol. 2 no. 1, december 2021 (issn: 2787-0448) egbekpalu 4 philosophical assumptions on gender equality gender equality has been meaningfully discussed in the field of philosophy. it assumes that:  most violence against women are rooted in discrimination and inequality. the women folk have been notably marginalized of necessary exposures including the acquisition of relevant skills to think clearly, develop better and contribute constructively to the growth of their nations for the ion of human dignity. consequently, they fall prey to various abuses and violations that dehumanize them.  unesco report (2019) revealed that there exists significant increase on sexual and domestic violence, gender pay gap, issues of birth control, ownership of properties, conflict between work and motherhood, love and sex, job type, hiring rate, etc.  many international and national fora call for fair gender treatment and protection of women. the protection of women’s right came into greater force during the last century. the rights of women were expounded far beyond the suffrage agitations to embrace other aspects of life especially as they concern women such as reproduction rights. historical timeline of international events on gender equality in order to promote social justice and human dignity as well as to preserve the lives and integrity of the citizens: in 1948, the universal declaration of human rights categorically declared the universal accessibility to education as the essential instrument for human formation and development. women cannot claim their rights if they are not well enlightened of them. in 1979, the universal convention on the elimination of all forms of discrimination against women (cedaw) also referred to as an international bill of rights for women set core principles to protect women’s right where the rights of women were outlined under law to liberate them from all sorts of violence, discriminations, marginalization and social injustice. this was adopted by 180-member states. agenda for national actions were set to enable equal opportunities to employment, political, economic, educational, health, public life in order to encourage gender equality and discourage discriminations against women. in 1993, the united nations (on the elimination of violence against women) declared that violence against women is (north, rothenberg & partner 1993, p. 1194) “any act of gender-based violence that results in, or is likely to result in, physical, psychological or sexual harm or suffering to women, including threats of such acts, coercion or arbitrary deprivation of liberty, whether occurring in public or private life.” evaia: international journal of ethics and values, vol. 2 no. 1, december 2021 (issn: 2787-0448) egbekpalu 5 in the same year, a couple of years after cedaw and 45 years after un declaration of human right, there was a declaration that “women rights are human rights” by united nations in vienna which brought gender issues in close relationship to human rights and created attention to non-violence of such rights. in 1994, there was an international conference on population and development (icpd) to advance the rights of women and gender equality. the conference adopted the autonomy of women as a necessary condition for sustainable development. in 1995, the 4th world conference on women held in beijing extended women’s right to include women empowerment. the then usa 1st lady, hillary rodham clinton made a very remarkable speech (5th sept. 1995) on the abuse of women that sounded to all ends of the world which eventually was termed ‘hillary doctrine.’ it was principally targeted at government, organizations and women themselves. her (clinton, 1996 p. 98) bi-directional refrained phrase, “if there is one message that echoes forth from this conference, let it be that human rights are women’s rights and women’s rights are human rights, once and all” that reenacted the 1980s and 1990s feminist’s agenda (clinton, 1996 p. 100) emphasized that “as long as discrimination and inequalities remain so common a place, everywhere in the world, as long as girls and women are valued less, fed less, over worked, underpaid, not schooled, subjected to violence in and outside their homes, the potential of the human family to create a peaceful, prosperous world will not be realized.” she (clinton, 1996 p. 101) also delineated that “women must enjoy the rights to participate fully in social and political lives of their countries if we want freedom and democracy to thrive and endure.” her speech also highlighted that the empowerment of women has moral, humanitarian, political as well as security implications. she asserted that women’s right and violation against women be made a national security issue which forms one of the primary responsibilities of each government. as member states adopted the 1995 beijing declaration of the women’s right for the interest of humanity, they were advised to give annual reports to evaluate progress. in 1998, pope john paul ii called the attention of the world to the “dignity and vocation of women” (mulieris dignitatem) in his apostolic exhortation of the marian year meditation as he highlights the strict equality of men and women in the dignity of being persons and as such having common dignity and vocation in life. to this effect, the great pontiff, pope john paul ii reflecting on the dignity and vocation of women expressed in his apostolic letter (1998) that, “human dignity commands members of the society -man and woman alikebe allowed to take part in the decisions that affect them in the climate of genuine freedom.” evaia: international journal of ethics and values, vol. 2 no. 1, december 2021 (issn: 2787-0448) egbekpalu 6 in 2000, the united nation security council advanced her scope to incorporate issues on women, peace and security especially in conflict and war zones. in the same year, eight millennium development goals were adopted to uphold social justice. millennium developmental goals (mdgs) on gender equality at the summit of united nations millennium in september 2000, leaders of 189-member countries including nigeria signed a historic millennium declaration targeted at a set of eight measurable goals with realistic monitoring mechanisms widely known as millennium development goals (mdgs) for the improvement of human life and existence with deadline by 2015. these goals served as a good reminder for many of the rights that were neglected. for example, many nations still uphold discriminatory laws for marriage, land, property, inheritance, etc even after cedaw of 1979. among these goals and specifically the third goal was to promote gender equality and empower women. these goals especially the second and the third; education for all and promotion of gender equality as well as empowering women (egbekpalu, 2017) have been evaluated to be the bond of other goals as they have both intrinsic and extrinsic values. the evaluation of 8mdgs by 2015 revealed that significant progress were made in some areas but there were still grey hairs in many other areas. for example, labour deaths, still birth, infant mortality, as well gender-based violence, etc. are still on the increase. from mdgs to sustainable developmental goals (sdgs) on the expiration of mdgs by 2015, a post-2015 agenda was launched (sdgs) to set forth the actions generated by mdgs with focus on building a sustainable world with equal values on environmental, social and economic sustainability. the mdgs now formed the basis for the global development agenda of 20152030. the same goal appeared as the 5th of the 17 goals of sdgs (achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls). today, well meaningful individuals and organizations and even nongovernment agencies position themselves for the rights of women and identify new trends of injustice and discriminatory practices against them. this aids formulation of policies and enhancement of strategies to sustain actions. philosophy interrogates feminism vis-à-vis gender equality it is very obvious that women desperately continue to seek for and to carve significant places in the world especially in the building of their nations. however, it is important to ask whether feminism is still relevant in 21st century in nigeria. in fact, at the threshold of 21st century, there was a serious debate as to whether feminism is still alive or dead, relevant or not. philosophy questions above all the relevance of feminism in our time. evaia: international journal of ethics and values, vol. 2 no. 1, december 2021 (issn: 2787-0448) egbekpalu 7 why continued need for gender equality in nigeria? is the goal of feminism with regard to gender equality not yet completely been achieved? it is obvious that feminist movements in nigeria have brought about new and positive developments in the lives of women. for examples, in the university, the number of female students even almost outnumbers that of male. women are now found in all fields of profession many women exercise their carriers and are financially independent based on the above and other related reasons, one asks: is feminism still necessary in this century and in nigeria? is it not something done with and should be dusted? haven’t the cries of women been heard enough? has the battle not yet been won? well, it is often said that “an equal world is an enabled world”. one thing is clear, feminism is more subtle now than in the past years for obvious reasons. the major fight has been done and major battle won. again, the movement has established itself. women empowerment is now an important topic of discussion that encourages raising of the status of women through education, entrepreneurial skills, vocational trainings, decision-making, etc. however, feminism is still relevant in our century; our contemporary world, in our nation. it may be even more important at this critical time than ever. it is (edalcachew, 2016 p. 38) “a process of creating power into individuals over their own lives, society and in their communities.” more empowerment of women will ensure more economic stability for peaceful living and sustainable development. it continues to avail women the opportunity to lend their voices to harsh realities against them and to question the status quo both in personal and public spheres. however, feminism remains a controversial issue for obvious reasons. the sacred task of philosophy on gender equality specified in this evolving world, the value of gender equality changes with time. hegel (1989 p. 3) claimed that “every philosopher is a child of his time and none can jump over his own shadow: every philosophy then is its time grasped in a concept.” current philosophers should be able to address the issues of their own time to avail dignified life to the people of their time. philosophy has a very unique role of clarifying the identity, meaning and purpose of gender equality and the issues revolving around it to help in re-articulating the vision and mission of feminist movement in the contemporary time. in other words, philosophy should integrate diverse experiences of feminism and chart new and useful course in protection of women rights in the interest of all. harmony is evaia: international journal of ethics and values, vol. 2 no. 1, december 2021 (issn: 2787-0448) egbekpalu 8 the symphony of life. for a sustainable development, men and women play significant parts of a whole. new interpretation of feminist’s creed in relation to gender equality with regard to gender equality, philosophy should be able to re-interprete the feminist creed to suit the current situation by: 1. clarifying the concept of feminism in respect of gender equality 2. establishing true self-assertion for functional effective outcomes. 3. advancing the possibility of gender balance by addressing the root of the factors that cause the imbalance. 4. addressing the existential needs of women within the ambient of feminism 5. helping feminism to make a paradigm shift to accommodate the sociocultural adjustments. 6. adopting feminism that addresses the cultural needs of the people. that is to say, feminism that is truly nigerian for the nigerians by nigerians and in nigeria in the light of the ideology of the people and avoid western practices. in other words, gender roles should be appropriately defined according to the national and cultural values and needs of the given moment. 7. positioning feminism in positive dialogue with culture which is dynamic and adhering to the law of changes for as chinua achebe asserted that “when a tradition gathers enough strength to go on for centuries, you do not turn it off in one day.” 8. constantly re-enacting the meaning and purpose of feminism and its related terms will help to analyze the past alongside with the present experiences in order to shape the future. 9. harnessing the mind for positive evaluation of men and women (reorientation, cognitive re-appraisal) 10. highlighting the nobility and dignity of women 11. elucidating what it means to be a womanthe feminine touch that depicts subtle but powerful roles of women. 12. helping women to take responsibilities and accept assets and liabilities in charting a new and better course for the future. in so doing, philosophy exercises the following distinctive and sacred normative and analytic tasks: o it creates a rational outlook that interrogates the basic assumptions of feminism o it grapples with the issues of human conduct and value system of the people to think clearly in traditional manner suitable for feminism o it studies, understands, analyzes and criticizes in general the principles of our cultures, while interpreting values and developing better ideas that override cultural differences. evaia: international journal of ethics and values, vol. 2 no. 1, december 2021 (issn: 2787-0448) egbekpalu 9 o it critically evaluates the activities of the people and suggests practical guides for healthy feministic movement o it constantly and consciously clarifies the concept of feminism in favour of human dignity o it creates awareness for fuller participation of everyone in the society in freedom of thought and action and empowers one to control and manage one’s own destiny in favour to human dignity resultantly, the qualitative and sustainable development can better be strengthened through feminism philosophy, gender equality and today’s nigeria following the above, the 21st century feminism should focus specifically on humanistic and existential dimensions considering the current condition and needs of the nation and be rooted in our national values and philosophy which delineated five main existential objectives that include: o a free and democratic society o a just and egalitarian society o a united, strong and self-reliant nation o a great and dynamic economy o a land full of bright and equal opportunities for all citizens the philosophical analysis of these five beautiful objectives (egbekpalu, 2017) will definitely help to create a platform that encourages equal treatment of the citizens, while at the same time discourages the favour of the strong against the weak, the rich against the poor, etc. as this clogs the wheel of both individual and national development and makes the nation to suffer a lot of setbacks. the inequality in nigeria today is not patriarchal dominance as such but what i may consider as background inequality, familial inequality, class strata that encourage economic, educational, social, political gaps. the same woman who feels under privileged in comparison to her male counterpart will offer jobs to others (mostly her relations and friends) not on the basis of merit but on ‘who knows who’. philosophy should be able to offer a critical outlook and analysis of what it means to be a man or a woman and set strategies for actualization of potentials. true liberation of women is the discovery of feminine qualities and place them at the service of mankind. it is not necessarily being in antagonism with men. women have proven themselves great enablers of economy through their entrepreneurial skills and sheer desire for greatness in various spheres of life. they have subtle powers which are even more influential than the overt masculine authoritarian powers when applied appropriately. for examples: often children’s affinity goes more to their mothers for obvious reasons. as such, mothers are more celebrated than fathers in most cases. mothers are like gods to their children. evaia: international journal of ethics and values, vol. 2 no. 1, december 2021 (issn: 2787-0448) egbekpalu 10 wives bring in her own people more into the family than their husbands. women organizations prove very much stronger than men’s organizations in various settings and levels across the nation. the umu-okpu/umu-ada (traditional women wing) union especially in south-east nigeria is a very strong and cohesive one. a girl is handled delicately because she is considered as an eggcooked or raw. the pregnant women are usually very much respected. many men succeed or fail in life, thanks to female siblings and or wives and even friends. we often hear that behind every successful or unsuccessful man, there is always a woman. a few instances of matriarchal dominance also abound: a. in traditional african setting, those days with polygamy, children are usually identified with their mother’s name. b. in ohafia area (abiriba) for example, the practice of matrilineal inheritance rules. c. in most african cultures, the ada-s (first born females) have and exercise very serious powers in their parental families even after they have been married out. d. in african-igbo culture too, the ada-s are so well respected and are involved in some important family decisions. e. in some cultures, men can’t dismiss their wives without the approval of ‘umu ada’ (traditional women union of the kindred) and they can’t even enter the kitchen unless with the support of your sisters. f. the current ugly experience of widowhood in africa is out of greed and wickedness. women should tap into their inner cores. how? precisely through philosophical enlightenment, education and other empowerment channels, women can discover their inner strengths. ignorance is a clog in the wheel of life. the classical greek philosopher, aristotle observed that the educated differs from the uneducated as much as the living differs from the dead. therefore, every one; man and woman has a fundamental right to education for a more fulfilled and peaceful life. the empowerment of women and the achievement of gender equality have both intrinsic and extrinsic values and at the same time are situated at the heart of the attainment of all the other goals. particularly, healthy, educated, empowered, employed women with integral formation approach of knowledge and good character can inflame stable constructive development that can efficiently break cycles of poverty; for self, family, nation and the world at large as well as improve maternal health and consequently reduce child mortality, etc. against this background, education is an inevitable pathway to and gender parity and sustainable human and social developments. evaia: international journal of ethics and values, vol. 2 no. 1, december 2021 (issn: 2787-0448) egbekpalu 11 conclusion gender equality: a reality or an utopia? one thing is clear, humanity itself is limited. human beings are generally limited. men and women are finite beings. each gender sharing in human nature is as well limited. freedom is a thing of the mind. boundaries need to be respected. don’t mind sartre who posited that man is freedom and he is not free not to be free. naturally, men and women are created equal. but at the basis of gender roles are the physiological endowments and the fact remains that women are kind of physically fragile; not weak and are enriched by men’s strength, sense of courage, protection and security. on the other hand, men are hearty but intrinsically weak and are enriched by women’s warmth, sense of purity of conduct, patience, endurance, resiliency, dedication, attentive love, understanding, sense of order and proportion. hence, complementary roles of the gender are needed. fullness of creation is balance of emotions, contributions, thoughts, roles and interdependence of man and woman in facing life’s challenges. rightful application of powers is highly needed. recommendation: gender fairness based on the above analysis, this work advocates for gender fairness for all. enlightenment is the key to its realization. therefore,  education for all; men and women should be placed on a common ground of practice  education of leaders for recognition and respect of human dignity  dignity of human persons and oneness of creatures as having the same creative source  equality is not to be understood as sameness. equity in relationship is not strictly 1+1 =2. it is but a perceived sense of equality in the contribution of each which brings about satisfaction. power is usually taken, not given. it entails mastering the act of breaking out of glass cage without cuts, bruises and bleeding. references ani. h, u (2019). the thinker. enugu: cutix plc., 27, 8. clinton, h. r (1996). women’s rights. women’s studies quarterly, 24, 98 101.on, h. r, un beijing 5th sept. 1995. edalcachew, b. (2016). the role of empowering women and achieving gender equality to the sustainable development of ethiopia. pacific science review for humanities and social sciences, 2, 1, 38. egbekpalu, p.e, (2017). millennium development goals on sexual health in africa: education and gender equality as implications for reduction of sexual violence against women in africa. scientific research journal, 5, 8, 17-22. evaia: international journal of ethics and values, vol. 2 no. 1, december 2021 (issn: 2787-0448) egbekpalu 12 egbekpalu, p.e., education and women empowerment in edeh’s practical philosophy: implications for world peace, a paper presented during the annual international convention of experts and intellectuals on the theme: “world peace through education and development: the works of fr. edeh,” madonna university, elele, rivers state from 3rd through 10h november 2013. frieda, b. (1997). feminine mystique. ny: ww norton & company inc. gilligan, c (1982). in a different voice: psychological theory and women’s development. cambridge; ma: harvard university press, 3. hegel, w.f. quoted in smith, s.b (1989). what is right in hegel’s philosophy of right? american political science review, 83, 1, 3-18. john paul ii, (august 15, 1998). apostolic letter, mulieris dignitatem: on the dignity and vocation of women on the occasion of marian year. lerner, g (1986). the creation of patriarchy. oxford: oxford univ. press, 45. mama, a. (2011). the challenges of feminism: gender, ethics and responsible academic freedom in african universities. journal of higher education in africa, 9, 1/2, 1-23. north rl, rothenberg kh. partner (1993). notification and the threat of domestic violence against women with hiv infection. new english journal of medicine, 329, 1194–1196. simone, d-b (1956). parshley, h.m (trans.) the second sex. london: lowe & brydone printers, 17. unesco (2019). reporting on violence against women and girls: a handbook for journalists, paris. wollstonecraft, m (2014). eileen, h.b (ed.). a vindication of the rights of women. new haven: yale university press, 47. evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 3, december, 2022 37 ethics and values education: a panacea for sustainable development matthew ike obijekwu, phd a lecturer at chukwuemeka odumegwu ojukwu university, igbariam, anambra state; president, ethics and values ambassadors international association; and director, dr ike obijekwu centre for research and values mentorship, ihiala mobile: 08063795889; email: mathewobijekwu@gmail.com & obiesili, anthony o. anambra state polytechnic, mgbakwu, anambra state, nigeria anthonyobiesili@gmail.com abstract ethics and moral values entail gaining the strength and independence to act in accordance with what is “moral” even if the “right” way is the more complicated one. to this end, ethics and values should be the heartthrob of any nation that desires the actualization of sustainable development. but the modern global dispensation has had its toll on the moral lives of the people and this has brought about a dwindling in the perception of people on what constitute morality. be that as it may, for nigeria to be safe and our environment conducive, we must not joke with ethics and values. rather, we must hold in high esteem the moral development of our children from the age of 3 to 15. this is true because when they grow up, children constantly acquire new cognitive and motorical skills. at the same time, they get a sense of morality. regrettably however, there have been cases of injustice, corruption, militancy, insurgencies, and other criminal groups parading themselves around the country. these show that moral laxity has become the order of the day. even those in government are also culpable as many of them are corrupt and inept. the import of all these is that morality which should have been the parameter for controlling these vices no longer functions. this study therefore, posits that for there to be sanity in our social and moral lives as a nation, we must covet the principles enshrined in ethics and values as there cannot be development in a situation where ethics and values is not given its pride of place in the country. keywords: ethics, values, moral problems, social and moral development evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 3, december, 2022 38 introduction ethics refers to the guidelines for conducts that address questions of morality while values is defined as the principles and ideals which help them in making the judgment of what is more important. that is to say that ethics is a system of moral principles, in contrast to values which is the stimuli of our thinking. from time immemorial, the quest for moral principle is an intrinsic phenomenon which makes social life governable and blissful. as such, every person, irrespective of age, colour, sex, or social standing is subject to the dictates of the moral principle. this is because the concept of morality serves a holistic function as it is the bedrock upon which the edifice of a truly righteous and egalitarian society rests. implicitly, ethics and values form a fundamental aspect of every culture as it outlines comprehensively, codes of behaviour or conducts for the individual on the one hand, and the society on the other. morals refer to human behaviour where morality is the practical activity and, ethics describes the theoretical, systematic and rational reflection upon that human behaviour (churchill, 1982). values are linked to beliefs and attitudes and guide human behaviour (rennie, 2007). morals, values and ethics are strongly attached to society, spirituality and culture (united nations educational scientific and cultural organization, 1991). there are three meanings of ethics. first, ethics is commonly taken as a synonym for morality, the universal values and standards of conduct that every rational person wants every other to follow. secondly, ethics is a well-established branch of philosophy that studies the sources of human values and standards, and struggle to locate them within theories of human individual and social condition. thirdly, professional ethics, and it is not universal nor is it ethical theory; it refers to the special codes of conduct adhered to by those who are engaged in common pursuit. professional ethics is an integral part of a profession (kovac, 1996). however, obasola (2003a: 1) avers that “morality is not an abstract phenomenon but a real practical means of developing the sense of justice in the people as a prerequisite for social solidarity, welfare and happiness in the society”. it is so crucial not only to the individual but also to the society at large. consequently, the imperative of morality and ethics is to establish the justifiability or otherwise of an action or to establish whether an action is good or reprehensible. while morality and ethics are part of a way of life and cannot be separated from all other aspects of life experiences (kang & glassman, 2010), moral education aims at promoting students’ moral development and character formation. the theoretical framework of moral education is supported by moral philosophy, moral psychology and moral educational practices (han 2014). to this end, morality regulates the personal and interpersonal relationships of peoples within an established social setup, evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 3, december, 2022 39 thereby paving the way for social harmony, which is the harbinger of sociopolitical development. that is to say that the development of mansocially, politically, and economically, will be incomplete without a residue of morality. again, ethics is the branch of philosophy which tries to probe the reasoning behind our moral life. the critical examination and analysis through the concepts and principles of ethics help to justify our moral choices and actions (reiss, 1999). in reallife situation “ethics” is frequently used as a more consensual word than “morals” which is less favoured. many students and professionals cannot find the sharp distinction between these two terms (mcgavin, 2013). the key philosophical question for the study and promotion of moral education relies on the epistemic status of moral reflection or understanding and moral agency (carr, 2014). however, technological development orchestrated by globalization and civilization have attenuated and grossly affected our moral ethos. this has brought about a breakdown of the social structure on which society rests. patrick (1998), notes that civilization has had and is still having a lot of negative impacts on the life of the africans, most especially nigerians. the problem of decline in public morality and national discipline in nigeria is very alarming. every sphere of like is not spared by this cankerworm which has eaten deep into every facet of the society. this prevailing situation has been incisively portrayed by iwe (1991:82) who surmises that “over-concern with one’s self-importance and pre-occupation with self-aggrandizement naturally lead to total indiscipline or moral decadence from the self to the society”. moral laxity and other social vices especially as depicted in corruption in high and low places, drug trafficking, smuggling, advanced free fraud popularly called 419, increasing crime wave, theft, robbery, religious and ethnic violence, injustice, examination malpractice, sorting and so on are now the order of the day in nigeria. abogunrin (1994:5) states categorically that “there was never a time when humanity was so degraded and spiritually blind as is evidence in the madness we see around us daily in nigeria”. apparently, meaningful development has been halted and the nation is in the throes of disintegration. it is against this backdrop that the study advocates for the re-orientation of ethics and moral values as a panacea for sustainable development in nigeria. attention will be placed on teaching morals, values, ethics and character education in schools. evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 3, december, 2022 40 causes of moral problems in nigeria at this juncture, it is important to examine the causes of these moral vices that are bedeviling the nigerian nation. they include: break down of the family unit/lack of parental influence as we all know, the home is the foundation for acceptable behaviour. the quality of this foundation determines the quality of subsequent effort towards desirable behaviour. there is a breakdown of the family structure due to the individualistic tendencies now exhibited by our people due principally to the economic situation in the country. this has also forced many parents to abandon their responsibilities to their children and to their families for a white cola job that keeps them on the street for a better part of the day. the care of children are now trusted into the hands of “house girls and boys” who in turn will corrupt the children. the end product of this seemingly “abandoned children” is moral decadence. materialism: this is a factor which has been responsible for the high level of moral problems facing the nigerian nation. it has been noted that attention of people has been shifted from morality to instant wealth. this desire for instant wealth has led many people to get involve in acts that are inimical to the society not minding whose ox is gored. it is in this regard that awokoya (1978:3 states categorically that: “the type of environment now developing is very materialist. most people love and worship mercy because of what it can buy. in the quest for it, kindness, love, justice, social responsibility gets undervalued and the virtues of yesterday are replaced by the vices of today”. this presupposes that attention has shifted from the things which are of value and emphasis is now placed on material gains. these materialistic tendencies have a negative implication for our development. mind set: kehinde, (2015) states that this is the problem which is affecting most nigerians causing them to behave in a particular way. also, osagie (1985:133) asserts: “by mental set is meant an unconscious mental disposition to behave in a particular way irrespective of the circumstance. it is a rigid adherence to a “way” of doing things whether or not that way “way” works…these characteristic mental set retards rather than facilitates activity. it leads to apathy in the performance of official duties; it creates inefficiency rather than efficiency, and it complicates rather than simplify”. this has engendered a lackadaisical attitude among nigerians in the way they attend to issues. there is a phenomenon now called “the nigerian factor” or the nigerian or african time, which permits lateness in all official responsibilities. this mental set encourages indolence, laziness, confusion, evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 3, december, 2022 41 discouragement, apathy and inefficiency in both public and private lives. the nonchalant attitude ultimately engenders low productivity and hinders the sustainable development of the nation. effects of the demeaning of ethics and values in this materialistic world which values only worldly possessions and demeans the essence of character, it needs to be asked how one can develop and maintain self-awareness and self-consciousness during the course of our life. almost two decades ago, words such as jealousy, distrust, corruption abuse, were highly unlikely to be heard of. today, these words have become an everyday occurrence. what does this tell us about society, individuals and the nation? a society unappreciative of moral values, ethics and proper mannerism is not worth living in. lack of morals and ethics has resulted in individuals being selfish, greedy and corrupt. on the other hand, lack of respect, civility, proper etiquette and a manner have made it difficult for many young people to maintain healthy relationships and interactions with others. despite morals and ethics being of great importance, the individuals in the modern society do not observe them, and as a result, many negative things can be seen. first, failure to act in a moral and ethical way has resulted in many people being greedy and less concerned about humanity. what differentiates humans from an animal are the ability to act in a humane way, and ethical as well as moral values are the strongest tools of ensuring a person is better than an animal. when individuals fail to observe the acceptable moral and ethical values in the society, it means that they can do anything, even harming their fellow human beings as long as they can benefit personally. this is the case in the business world. some businesses have been found guilty of offering unsafe products to customers, such as samsung in the recent case of its note7 smart phone batteries exploding. on the other hand, managers in the business world have acted in the unethical way leading to the collapse of giant multinational companies, making many individuals jobless due to their greed. for instance, the collapse of enron and lehman brothers, which collapsed due to senior managers’ greed for better bonuses, forcing them to manipulate financial figures, eventually resulting in the collapse of these two organizations and if the managers could have observed moral and ethical values, and then they would have acted in the right way. also, failure of individuals observing moral and ethical values has resulted in cases of crime rising, such as homicide, theft, rape, and drug trafficking and so on. due to deterioration of morals and ethics, most of the individuals in the evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 3, december, 2022 42 modern society engage in criminal behaviours without fear. young people are easily joining criminal gangs which are terrorizing innocent citizens through raping women, stealing, and murdering people. the sum total of the effects of degradation of ethics and moral values is myriad as a lot of negative consequences are discernible. among these problems is the stunted economic growth which the country is experiencing due largely to the hyper inflation, low capital utilization and decline in foreign investments. the country is enmeshed in foreign debts and the economy is controlled by a group of cabals who are interested in their pockets. as such, a lot of money is siphoned into foreign accounts while the citizens of the country are being pauperized. no public utility or infrastructure is functioning due to this moral recklessness. in the past one year, power generation and distribution have nosedived throwing the country into complete darkness and forcing lots of businesses to collapse and the resultant effect is unemployment and retrenchment of workers. moreover, there is the danger of insecurity. lives of people are threatened from time to time by miscreants and hired assassins. cases of armed robbery attacks are rampant. abogunrin (1994:5) surmises that “the loss of the sense of security in human existence today is due to injustice, to violence, to the sinister aspects of the present day politics, to religious wars, to economic problems, unemployment...etc”. the nation has been plunged into series of violent attacks from different militant groups and this paints a picture of a nation that is incapable of solving its problems. what about the education sector? in this area, things have fallen apart. educational institutions which are suppose to be the bedrock of moral instructions have been hit by this cancer orchestrated by poor funding. the rapacity of strikes and industrial actions in our institutions is ferocious. this culminates in half baked graduates with little or nothing to show at the end of the day. it equally accounts for high incidence of cultism in our tertiary institutions. again on the part of the students, loss of morals has made a good number of them to engage all their time viewing pornographic videos with their android phones. when it is time for examinations, you see them engaging in examination malpractice. some even go to the extent of “sorting” their lecturers in order to pass. one can go on and on with the devastating effects of the rubbishing of ethics and moral values as it cuts across all sectors. the truth, therefore, is that the demeaning of ethics and moral values remains the cause of the problems facing us as a nation and until urgent steps are taken to remedy it, nigeria will evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 3, december, 2022 43 continue to wallow in this moral mess. in a nutshell, national growth and development cannot be achieved given the state of moral decadence staring us in the face. now, the question that demands an urgent answer is: what can we do as a nation to overcome these ethical and moral problems to achieve sustainable development? teaching ethics in education in our present age, ethics has an important place in all areas of life. ethics has also become important in education, because education is a fundamental process of human life. therefore, ethics is very important subject in education. we can easily reach all knowledge by technology. in order to understand the importance of ethics, ethics should be placed as a course in educational system. in general, ethics is moral philosophy. the term ethics is derived from greek term ethos which means custom, character. it is related to our values and virtues. therefore, our actions and our experiences in everyday life are the subjects of ethics. we have the capacity to think about our choices, so we are responsible for all our decisions and actions. in addition to this, it can be said that ethics is the study of what is wrong or what is right. good-evil, rightwrong, virtue-vice, justice-injustice are some ethical concepts. ethics is divided into two parts: theoretical ethics and applied ethics. theoretical ethics include normative ethics, descriptive ethics and met ethics. applied (practical) ethics refers to professional ethics. normative ethics is the study of what makes actions right and wrong. meta ethics is about the theoretical meaning and reference of moral propositions. descriptive ethics is about facts. it examines ethics from observations of actual choices made by moral agents in practice. applied ethics examines the particular ethical issues of private and public life. professional ethics is one of the important branches of applied ethics. in general, professional ethics can be defined as standards or codes to provide people to guidance to their professional lives. in general, there are four basic principles in ethical codes: 1. honesty 2. confidentiality 3. conflict of interest 4. responsibilities education in general sense, education is any act or experience that has a formative effect on the mind, character or physical ability of an individual. etymologically, the word education is derived from the latin educo, which means educate, train. evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 3, december, 2022 44 education is a process of acquiring information. it means teaching and learning. education affects on human mind, character and physical abilities. the history of education begins with the human history itself. education si also a way to become civilized individuals and it maximizes human potential. culture and cultural heritage can be transmitted by education, because the main occupation of man is to pass knowledge, skills and attitude from one generation to another. in ancient greece, some philosophers’ views of education such as socrates, plato and aristotle contribute to the development of our present educational system. in general, they all believe that the purpose of education is to improve humankind. socrates’ method is still used in modern educational practices. in this method, teachers ask some questions to improve the intellectual abilities of students and students try to answer these questions by using their reasons. today’s educational theories are based on the philosophies of these philosophers. plato, who was the founder of idealism, claimed that the aim of education was to develop individual’s abilities to better serve society. he also was the founder of academy, the first university of the world. for him, both men and women had the right to have education. he claimed that there were different stages of education. according to him, education was a key element for a society. on the other hand, aristotle who was the father of realism believed that only citizens could be educated. he believed that educated person was a fulfilled person. he defended theoretical, practical and technical education. education helps the development of bodily and mental faculties. education builds character, gives knowledge and helps progressing of state. education makes a man complete and it also plays an important role in developing society and state. schools are basic frameworks of education. school helps children to become good citizens and human beings. this is possible only by ethical education, so teaching ethics in school is important. the role of ethical education in national development at this juncture, it becomes expedient to discuss why ethics should be taught and what kind of ethics should be taught in schools. the importance of ethical education in nation building/ national development cannot be overemphasized. teaching ethics in schools will help us reflect on the moral dimensions of the decisions we make. moral decisions are difficult, and will often be the most important decisions of our life. ethics education can be divided into four stages: 1. ethics education in family 2. ethics education in school evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 3, december, 2022 45 3. ethics education in university 4. ethics education in business in family, ethics education should focus on descriptive facts. children observe their parents’ (role models) ethical behaviours and they learn social facts about ethical bebaviour. in school, students learn what is right and what is wrong. this is a value education or character education. in educational systems, general ethics is associated with religion. therefore, instead of ethics course, students take religious course. however, students should learn values clarification, and making ethical decisions. in addition, school fosters to students become trustful, responsible and just person. ethics in school can benefit to this. in university, ethics should be professional ethics. only some students can take ethics course related to their professions in universities, because in universities, ethics is not offered as a course in all departments. this kind of ethical education provides students to realize what is right, make good decisions about ethical issues in their professions. in addition, students learn to evaluate different moral standpoints. business ethics refers to contemporary organizational standards, principles, sets of values and norms that govern the actions and behaviour of an individual in the business organization. in business, people learn some ethical codes about their occupations. this kind of ethics tells how people should act in business life. why should we teach ethics? after we leave school, few of us will ever need to solve another quadratic equation, or remember the minutiae of cell biology. but we will be faced with moral decisions. we face these decisions every day. most of the time, we do not think about it, but ethics is everywhere: in the products we buy, the careers we choose, and the way we interact with others. the first reason to teach ethics is to help us reflect on the moral dimensions of the decisions we make. the second reason to teach ethics is that moral decisions are difficult, and will often be amongst the most important decisions of our life. in making them, we will be almost entirely dependent upon our own capacities. we cannot escape the ultimate responsibility for making them, and even when we can seek the counsel of those we trust, we may receive competing advice. moreover, there is a public interest in teaching ethics. the ability to reason morally is a fundamental requirement of good citizenship, and an aspect of evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 3, december, 2022 46 ‘civic education’ broadly understood. it is important that citizens know how laws are made, and how decisions can be challenged. but a robust democracy requires more: it requires citizens with the capacity to reflect on how their country ought to be. issues as diverse as taxation and inequality, the limits to free speech, and the claims of future generations, all have a moral dimension. citizens need to be able to spot flaws in arguments and weigh competing considerations if they are to exercise ‘self government’ in the fullest sense. gardelli, alerby, and perssons present three arguments about why ethics should be taufgt in schools. these arguments are socialization argument, the quality of life argument, and the tool argument. according to socialization argument school should help students to become good citizens. to do this, ethics, ethics is necessary in schools. the second argument, the quality of life argument claims that school helps students to live a good life. “school has an obligation to foster the students to become persons who act in a morally correct way. this is possible by ethics being taught in schools” (gardelli, 2014: 19). then according to the last argument, the tool argument, “the students’ results in other subjects would improve if the students had ethics in school”. (gardelli, 2014: 19). from these arguments, it can be concluded that ethics is necessary in schools because it provides a better life to students and equally make them good citizens who will make morally strong decisions for the development of the nation. conclusion there is no gain saying the fact that the rate of moral decadence in nigeria is disturbingly alarming and this has affected the pace of development in the country. in this regard, thereis the urgent need for a re-orientation, a reengendering and a re-focusing on our moral values with a view to actualizing our potentials and harnessing our resources, both human and material, for a greater, purposeful, egalitarian and vibrant society. to this effect, all hands must be on deck to actualize this goal. in this regard, ethics education must be given a pride of place in all our educational institutions starting from the primary to the tertiary levels. also, every citizen must imbibe the culture of moral value recognizing that “society as a suigeneri is real only to the extent to which the members are instructed and guided by their value system” (isokun 2003:123). this presupposes that every social institution such as the family, the church, the schools, and the government must take the culture of punctuality very seriously, we must preach against violence, insolence and other vices which will project the nation in bad light. evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 3, december, 2022 47 references abogunrin, s.o. (1994). “religion, crime and national survival”, in orita: ibadan journal of religious studies. xxvi (1-2), june and december. awokoya, s. o. (1978). the crises child of our time. (the ilorin lectures) ilorin: university of ilorin press. barnes, j. (ed). (1995). the cambridge champion to aristotle, cambridge: cambridge university press. carr, d. (2014). metaphysics and methods in moral enquiry and education: some old philosophical wine for new theoretical bottles. journal of moral education, 43(4), 500-515, doi: 10.1080/03057240.2014.943167 churchill, l. r. (1982). the teaching of ethics and moral values in teaching: some contemporary confusions. the journal of higher education, 53(3), 296-306. doi: 102307/1981749 davidson, t. (1900). aristotle and the ancient education ideals. dunn, s. (2005). philosophical foundations of education, new jersey: pearson. dardelli, alerby, and person (2004). why philosophical ethics in school: implications for education in technology and in general in ethics and education, vol. 9, no:1, pp 16-28. routledge: tailore & francis group. han, h. (2014). analysing theoretical frameworks of moral education through lakatos’s philosophy of science. journal of moral education, 43(1), 32-53. doi: 10.1080/03057240. 2014.89322 isokun, m. i. (2003). towards a solid technological base for nigeria: the case for religious values in national development in dopamu, p. a. & odumuyiwa, e. a. religion, science culture. ogun state: national association for the study of religious (nasr). iwe, s. n. (1991). socio-ethical issues in nigeria. uruoualu obosi: pacific publishers kang, m. j., & glassman, m. (2010). moral action as social capital, moral thought as cultural capital. journal of moral education, 39, 94-103. doi: 10.1080/03057240903528592 lickona, t. (1999). character education: sevencrucial issues. action in teacher education, 20(4), 77-84. doi:10.1080/01626620.1999.10462937 obasola, k. e. (2003a). moral issues and development: the perspectives of yoruba religion in dopamu, p. a. et al (eds). african culture, modern science and religious thought. ilorin, nigeria: african centre for religions and the sciences (acrs). evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 3, december, 2022 48 obasola, k. e. (2003b). traditional values and socio-cultural structures in the 21st century: the yoruba example, in castalia: ibadan journal of multi-cultural/multidisciplinary studies, vol. 14. osagie, s. o. (1985). the concept of material culture and contemporary issues in nigeria, in oyeneye, o. y. and shoremi, m. o. (eds), nigerian life and culture, ago-iwoye: ogun state university, department of sociology. patrick, e. n. (1998). contemporary christian ethical issues in africa. owerri nigeria: omega comm press. reiss, m. j. (1999). teaching ethics in science. studies in science education, 34(1), 115-140. doi: 10.1080/03057269908560151. rennie, l. (2007). values of science portrayed in out-of school context. in d. united nations educational scientific and cultural organization, (1991). values and ethics and the science and technology curriculum. bangkok, thailand: asia and the pacific programme of educational innovation for development. evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, number 1, may, 2020 evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 maraizu elechi, phd page 30 critical analysis of basic challenges in environmental ethics and sustainability in nigeria maraizu elechi, phd department of philosophy rivers state university, port harcourt email: drmaraizuelechi@yahoomail.com abstract the care, management and preservation of the natural environment is an important aspect of the branch of philosophy known as environmental philosophy. sometimes, environmental philosophy is called environmental ethics. it is concerned with the critical evaluation of human activities in his environment. it explains sensitive issues that border on the environment in relationship with man, the need to protect and preserve the environment and the effects of environmental degradation and possible solutions. this paper thus reflects on the basic problem in environmental ethics and sustainability in nigeria, which it considers as the lack of adequate understanding of the environment and the place or role of man in its preservation. the paper argues that the relationship between man and the environment must be one in mutual dependency and harmony. therefore excessive exploitation of the environment by man must be avoided and the environment seen and appreciated from its intrinsic worth. otherwise, there will not be an end to environmental disasters since the environment has a way of fighting back. in the end, the paper recommends immediate stimulation of environmental consciousness or awareness as a formidable approach to the preservation, conservation and sustenance of the environment. keywords: environment, environmental ethics, environmental disaster, environmental consciousness, mutual dependency. introduction the challenges in environmental ethics are many. one of those challenges include how man should relate with the environment since it is the physical ground of his existence. it also considers whether man has any ethical obligation with regards to the environment; and if he does, what are the logical reasons for this obligation as well as the extent of man’s duty or responsibility to this obligation. the critical analysis of the importance of these basic philosophical issues or challenges is quite germane especially against the backdrop of man’s activities and attitude towards the environment and in consideration of the co-determination of the quality of human life and general wellbeing and continuation, and the flourishing of other natural species and or environment. pope francis, in his encyclical laudatosi, writes: evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 maraizu elechi, phd page 31 “the urgent challenge to protect our common home includes a concern to bring the whole family together to seek a sustainable and integral development, for we know that things can change” (no. 13). he continues “i urgently appeal … for a new dialogue about how we are shaping the future of our planet. we need a conversation which includes everyone, since the environmental challenge we are undergoing, and its human roots, concern and affect us all” (no. 14). most importantly and mind-touching is pope francis’ feminization of the environment by referring to it as “our sister and mother who sustains us”. according to him, this our sister and mother now cries out to us because of the harm we have inflicted on her by our irresponsible use and abuse of the goods with which god has endowed her. we have come to see ourselves as her lords and masters, entitled to plunder her at will. this maltreatment and domination done to the environment, pope francis argues, is responsible for the widespread environmental degradation, the “sickness evident in the soil, in the water, in the air and in all forms of life” while the environment groans in travail. the occurrences of disastrous phenomena like erosions, earthquakes, volcanic eruption, etc., clearly indicate the destabilization of the cosmic relationship existing between man and the environment. these catastrophes arise mainly from human activities in the environment such as indiscriminate dumping of refuse, mismanagement of oil spill and exploration activities as well as nonchalant attitude towards the management and sustenance of the environment. the environment, no doubt, is more than we ordinarily can imagine especially in its complexities, relations and activities. for this reason, passivity on the part of man towards the totality of the existential domain in which his being unfolds and continually accounted for is very dangerous. it calls for critical reflection and pragmatic approach since the environment provides the basis of human activities and interactions with other beings in the world. in fact, it is contradictory to think of man outside the environment; he is part and parcel of it. theoretical reflections it has become expedient for us at this point to briefly evolve some sort of theoretical reflections or clarifications of the concept that constitutes our study: “environmental philosophy”. first and foremost, the concept “environment” is a very broad and composite concept. therefore, it is better we approach our understanding of the term ‘environment’ by looking at its root word. environment means "that which environs us". and being "environed" simply means being encircled or surrounded. broadly speaking, the term “environment” is understood as the overall physical, natural, cultural, social conditions surrounding man. it pervades the economic, social, political, literary, religious, cultural and scientific planes. in fact, it covers the whole facet of human life and evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 maraizu elechi, phd page 32 behavior, rendering it, therefore, a universal or global issue. michael barbiar writes that: “an environment is the complex set of physical, geographic, biological, social, cultural and political conditions that surround an individual or organism and that ultimately determine its form” (89). the environment is the totality of the existential domain or ecosphere in which our being unfolds. it refers to all the facts and relations, when taken together, play a role in shaping our consciousness in particular ways and in relation to other beings and these other beings in relation to others (njiofor 234).the environment, according to njiofor;, generally consists of the cosmological and territorial, the metaphysical and physical (material composition) of our living surrounding and its spatial area including the ontological forces of interaction of the biotic and abiotic factors therein… the environment is understood as constituted of the immediate and remote spatio-temporal dimensional base of human existence in the world (233). in his article personification of environment: an alternative to extreme empiricist and rationalist based environmentalism, asouzu defined the environment as: the framework within which we [live], mould our thoughts, actions and feelings from which we can be understood and perceived as persons other than the environment itself… our environment is the foundation of our activities especially of our attempt at giving meaning to life (143). the environment influences how people live their lives and how societies develop. for this reason, people’s progress, economic development and environment are closely linked up together. we therefore need to explore, tend and protect our environment in order to live happily (alawa144). now, to the question – what is environmental ethics? environmental ethics which is sometimes called environmental philosophy is a new branch of philosophy that is concerned with the natural environment and humans’ place within it (belshaw4). its concern is basically to provide philosophical basis and or solutions to environmental challenges facing man. environmental ethics embodies a set of principles that could guide humans in dealing with environmental issues. it is a young field of study that brings together traditional nurturing of wisdom with a specific interest in the environment. part of environmental philosophy is, therefore, exploring what we know that is, our justifiable true believe about the environment. but we have to be careful not to stop there. for, environmental ethics requires us to develop evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 maraizu elechi, phd page 33 wisdom about the environment and that means, as we have noted above, discussing what is best for the environment, especially with respect to our own actions within the environment. this branch of philosophy also considers animals and the natural world or reality otherwise known as “the biotic community”. according to aldo leopold “a thing is right when it tends to preserve the integrity, stability and beauty of the biotic community. it is wrong when it tends otherwise”. environmental philosophy asks very important questions like: why do we need to preserve the environment? what is the place of man in relation to the environment? these philosophical questions constitute some of our major reflections in this paper. why preserve the environment? this philosophical question has left philosophers divided in their views. some are of the view that we need to preserve the environment because of its economic and practical values or benefits to man. this view is known as the anthropocentric view of the environment. it is championed by the conservationist philosophers like giffford pinchot, fein blur, etc. for them, the environment needs to be preserved because it provides economic values to man; it is beneficial to man with the rich diversity of resources required by him to survive. this view considers all natural creatures as meant to serve the benefit or interest of man. it considers nature or the environment as having extrinsic rather than intrinsic value. this is another way of saying that the environment has a human-centered attitude or function. there is a serious challenge or inherent flaw in this conception. there is no doubt however that there are two values, namely intrinsic and extrinsic values that are associated with the being or nature of anything and everything, but to claim that every natural being, objects or realities have extrinsic value only regardless of their intrinsic practical value in themselves is a misnomer. what constitutes extrinsic values of the environment? the extrinsic values of the environment are those worthwhile things which lie outside of environmental experience, but are brought about by it. although, they are values led by, and resulting from the environment. the extrinsic values of the environment are material or economic values made possible through the exploitation and exploration of the environment. on the other hand, intrinsic values of the environment are those values that do not only lie within and constitute the nature or essence of the environment, but also those values that are not necessarily discernible by the outward looks of the environment. in relations to man and his environment, we can say for instance that the intrinsic value of the environment is the sympathy, the mutual natural dependency and interconnectedness of life and living among all realities, especially between man and his environment. unfortunately, these are not popularly recognized values, that is, that not many people will share our point of view. this is because arguments about the values of the environment which take their evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 maraizu elechi, phd page 34 premises from human material needs and survival always win their audience. we all need to survive – even philosophers do – so arguments about the values of the environment which pick the premises from human survival and material values appeal to our soft spots. the need for human material values is important; but, it is all the same, not the only need that humans have. joad puts it thus: … our age governed pre-eminently by the stomach and pocket view of life, demands of whatever is proffered forits approval that it shall ‘deliver the goods’… but what of the capacity for clear thinking, the sympathy and tolerance which come from a lively understanding of the views and difficulties of others… and the habit of disinterested intellectual inquiry. do these not add to the fullness and richness of our lives? (68-9). in fact, to begin with, material benefits are not ultimate issues in the mind of a philosopher. therefore the conceptions of why man should preserve the environment as rooted in terms of material gains or pleasure is implausible. it is fraught with the consequences of reducing man to the appetitive level of lower animals. in other words, humans need the environment to be properly human. rather than just a means to an end, the environment also serves an end in itself. therefore nature needs to be respected and preserved not only because it is simply the right and appropriate thing to do regardless of some sorts of benefit it bestows on man, but also because it has values in itself. this is in tandem with the view of the naturalist philosopher john muir when he argues that nature needs to be preserved because it is a service for human pleasure and satisfaction which are not merely instrumental for anything else, but rather valuable in itself. in fact, to extend this argument further is the view of the ethicists that man requires to respect and preserve the environment even when it has no human use or value. this is the moral duty of man to even animals, biological and other natural realities. to put the argument straight, it is our view that the importance or need to preserve the environment goes beyond the recourse to intrinsic or extrinsic values as being argued by some philosophers. it rather encompasses a more holistic human-centered value system. the environment as a matter of fact must be seen and treated as one in mutual relationship or interdependency with man in such a way that each plays crucial role in the collective existence and co-existence of all. what this means is that we need to preserve the environment because it is better to see the environment as a system and collectivity rather than as a separate entity in relation to man. this is so evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 maraizu elechi, phd page 35 because there is a mutual natural dependency and interconnectedness of life and living among all realities. in this relationship of mutual dependence, the environment provides the individual with the possibilities for shaping his life in a meaningful way. since the environment provides the individual with the foundation for a meaningful existence, a radical irresponsible incursion into the environment could distort the fundamental mutual relationship between man and his environment. this mutual relationship is like a bond or contract in which each partner is expected to contribute his just quota towards effective realization of the content(s) of the contract (asouzu 149). the point is that the relationship between man and the environment is one that should be mutual and complementary. beniston also subscribed to this view when he writes: the revolution of humankind was largely dependent on the quality of the environment and resources it provides in terms of water, food, and favourable health conditions. these are as vital as ever… today [however], the conditions for human sustainability (i.e. water quality and quantity, food security, and health) are potentially under threat as a result of numerous human-induced factors; among these, climate change (557). man and his environment man, his nature, place or role in the environment constitutes primarily the center and point of departure for every rewarding philosophizing. the reason is that the environment is one of the basic features of human existence. it is a natural creature and at the same time a natural necessity for man. the environment not only serves enormous benefits for man, but man conversely is a product of it. in fact, man is part and parcel of the environment. the role of man in the preservation of the environment is surprisingly in a serious dispute among philosophers thereby making the possibility of reaching consensus on the issues difficult. this is quite understandable because rational argument is the beauty of philosophy. this paper therefore lends a view to the question, but in doing so, we find the following questions very pertinent to be unbiasedly answered to enable us better understand and appreciate the issue and take a stand – ‘are humans equal or above other natural beings? do they evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 maraizu elechi, phd page 36 have special rights and privileges over and above other natural beings? do they have higher and special role in shaping and managing nature? if yes, why are they assigned this burden or moral status over the environment? we need to answer these questions as we have already said, to be able to properly define the place of man in the natural environment. taking our departure from the judeo-christian doctrine we found that human beings are created in the image of god imago dei – with the responsibility to take charge of nature or the environment and by extension, use animals and other natural resources for their own purposes and advantages. there is no doubt that this freedom and privilege given to man has resulted to the emergence of certain arrogance towards the environment, which led lynn white to argue in his work the historical roots of our ecological crisis published in 1967, that the arrogance has bolstered the growth of science and technology. this supremacy assumed by humans is responsible to many environmental problems. they also result to the arrogant disregard for the rights of other living things by man. contrary to this, is the view of some environmental philosophers that man is part and parcel of natural cum biological environment and not above or outside it. for this reason, man must ensure the promotion of an egalitarian environment, this is a holistic or general overview of his natural place in it. this is the view defended by paul taylor in his work respect for nature published in 1986 in which he meticulously argued that there should be a bio-centric egalitarianism in which all living organisms have rights claims. he considers this a moral principle which he calls ‘priority principles’. according to him, this will help to guide against cases of conflict between human beings and things in nature. this appears to be pointing towards assigning humans an equal place in nature with biological creatures and other natural beings. but the place of man towards nature or the environment is that of the role of stewards of nature or environment, including the biological creatures. this is a very special and important role. secondly, man, from the rational point of view is the only creature by nature that possesses reason and intelligence. he is a thinking intelligent being with reason and reflection. the essence of which therefore lies in the exercise of the characteristics of his nature in leading an intelligent and rational life towards the rest of natural beings or realities. his natural perfection, endowment or credential puts his in the position to exercise those powers and capacities, that is, rational intelligence and understanding towards the control, maintenance and preservation of the environment. this is very important because as natural creatures, humans must firmly come to terms with the meaning of natural wisdom. and if environmental philosophy is about anything in particular, it is and would be about the love of natural wisdom. this, according to aristotle is the role which man did not arrogate to himself, evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 maraizu elechi, phd page 37 but one which nature has conditioned him by virtue of certain natural credentials, gifts and endowments. examining the moral status of man towards the environment it may be argued that since some constituent elements of the environment do not experience pleasure or feel pain, so what would be wrong with destroying them by man? what is wrong with defacing a mountain ridge or an oldgrowth tree? can we include lower animals and forests within the compass of the moral realm? do they deserve moral consideration? we have to answer these questions because the environment has so been exploited by man to the extent that philosophers are worried about whether there is a moral status of man towards the environment. the question of what moral status or consideration animals, biological areas and natural environment places on man has been a subject of much discussion by environmental philosophers. for instance aldo leopold affirms the moral status of ecological areas; paul taylor assigns moral status to all living things, and jeremy bentham argues that unnecessary suffering should not be inflicted on beings and the environment at large even if they do not have any moral status or consideration. the legal philosopher christopher stone argues that natural environment should have the legal right to be protected from improper use. he maintains that the courts should recognize the claims of natural environment to be protected. in his book animal liberation, published in 1975, peter singer advocates for the moral status of animals. yet, it seems to us that many people would disagree that moral consideration should be extended to even appetitive creatures. the utilitarian philosopher jeremy bentham (1748-1832) attempted an answer to these questions with his comment: ‘can the constituent elements of the environment feel? if they can, then they deserve moral consideration, but if they do not, then they do not deserve any moral consideration’. the point is that if they do not have moral consideration, then they can be exploited, abused and aesthetically violated. this is the reason why man spoils the beauty of nature and conversely nature reacts thus causing harm to man. joseph omoregbe was right when he says that nobody can cheat nature and get away with it. nature will always have the last word. after the violation and the enjoyment resulting from it, the punishment will surely follow in a manner and at a time one may not expect. to avoid the inevitable punishment of going against the law of nature, it is pertinent that we embark on the exploration of nature with certain ethical principles that will not provoke nature to act. feeling, thinking, being conscious, reasoning, reflecting, willing, doubting, questioning and remembering qualify any being worthy of moral evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 maraizu elechi, phd page 38 consideration. this position leaves us with the thought that humans are the only being worthy of moral consideration. if this is the case, why are humans exploited, abused and violated by fellow humans even when they have moral consideration? albert in his book the philosophy of civilization published in 1923 defends the doctrine of ‘reverence for life’. he argues that all living things are worthy of respect, arguing that one should not kill bugs, ants or even plants if this can be avoided. he argues further that the aesthetic values of the natural environment should be maintained or preserved notwithstanding the economic exploration or end which it serves. schweitzer’s position, no doubt, appropriates the extension of moral consideration to both human and nonhuman beings. but this may be considered odd by some philosophers, especially those who argue that biological creatures live at the expense of human beings. in order to wriggle out of consideration, schweitzer concludes his argument (which equally lends credence to the exploitation of the environment. this conclusion seems rife, in consideration to the extent that the nature of the moral status of animals in particular and the environment in general remains a challenge. yet, the question of how to weigh differing values, and what moral status to assign to nature, has been the stimulus for environmental philosophy. environmental sustainability: the nigeria question the sustenance of the environment has a compelling ethical dimension. it simply means the need to preserve the environment for the future. this means that there is a natural moral urge towards self-preservation since the environment is the spatio-temporal base of human existence and coexistence. environmental sustainability simply means community or societal sustainability. environmental issues pervade the whole facet of human life; it pervades the whole act of human behavior and thinking. its sustenance clearly explains the difference between a group of people and others; between one clime and another, between civility and incivility, and between developed and undeveloped nations. there appears to be no genuine and sincere commitment by the human society especially in nigeria towards the care and preservation of the environment. incredible varieties of human activities in nigeria have turned what is supposed to be for the good of man against him. such human activities like oil exploration, gas flaring, mining, forest logging, bush burning etc., have adversely affected the nigerian environment. there are issues of climatic change: rivers are drying up and sometimes disappearing, the ozone layer is depleting, and most importantly, the issue of sooth in the oil rich niger delta region of nigeria, especially in rivers state. forests are gone, mainly as a result of deforestation. human life is in danger with increasing cases of deaths as a result of contaminated air and water pollutions. game reserves or familiar animals are almost thrown into extinction, with increasing cases of erosion menace worsening the situation. this situation provides a clear prismatic compass of where we are heading to as a nation. for, one of evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 maraizu elechi, phd page 39 the yardsticks for determining how developed a society has attained is with reference to the environment, that is, the overall manipulation, exploitation, conservation, preservation and sustainability of the environment. environmental sustainability in nigeria is a very serious concern, but the good news is that it can be achieved. it must be achieved through ecological consciousness or awareness, value orientation, advancement of responsible ecological citizenship and ecological conversion and institution of workable laws or legal framework. this is what njiofor means when he writes: environmental problem is due mainly to our illnurtured environmental orientation; it is due to poor understanding of the concept of the environment and our place in it. it is a problem of excesses accruing from wrong understanding and definition of need; a problem of wrong attitude towards the foundation and physical ground of one’s own existence (240). this form of education would include ethico-moral harmony with the environment; the consideration and recognition of the centrality of the environment in the being of man and existence. the point is that environmental education is key to environmental sustainability in nigeria. educating the citizens on conservation, that is, the care, protection, preservation and improvement of the environment is very important. this knowledge is very essential for further decisions or policies on the improvement of the quality of the environment. any attempt at doing the contrary would amount to undermining environmental education and the ethical obligation of man towards the protection and preservation of the environment. the consequence of this will bevery grave on the continued existence of man and the country. environmental education simply put, is “a permanent process through which individuals gain awareness of their environment and acquire the knowledge, values, skills, experiences and determination which will enable them act individually and collectively to solve present and future environmental problems”. this education must be continuous and unending including parents, schools, society and government. it should be accommodated in the curriculum content of learning in our schools and colleges. it requires conscious effort and commitment from all and sundry including the global community. in fact, global consensus is seriously needed to confront environmental problems because environmental issues are global issues. the reason is that unilateral actions on the part of individuals or specific countries cannot achieve environmental sustainability. such as planning a sustainable and diversified agriculture, developing renewable and less polluting forms of energy, encouraging a more efficient use of energy, promoting a better management of marine and forest resources, and ensuring universal access to drinking water (obungwah et al,191-192). evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 maraizu elechi, phd page 40 this position is also expressed by engel and engel (1990) in their article presented in a conference on the conservation and development of the environment. according to them, concrete solutions to environmental problems will largely depend on a new organizational capacity of society as a whole, based on the cultural values of different communities, their creativity and their potentials for innovations. conclusion and recommendations a keen awareness, detailed observations and an enthusiastic sustenance or preservation of the natural world that environs is the responsibility of us all. therefore we must simply and squarely imbibe the stimulation of environmental consciousness or awareness as a formidable approach to preserve, conserve and sustain the environment. we must consciously seek to maintain a mutual and complementary relationship with the environment since our survival and wellbeing depends on the conducive nature of our environment. to this end, nigerian people and government must develop conscious culture of the preservation of nature and desist from disrupting the natural processes of things and their ecological relationships in the world by engaging only in responsible environmentally or eco-friendly actions. government must implement measures to check environmental pollution by individuals, companies, factories, industries, etc. it must regulate deforestation and afforestation meticulously and ensure that houses are built with proper drainages. the government of nigeria must ensure that it develops a market economy that encourages recycling and discourages waste of limited resources. the continuous enlightenment of the citizenry on environmental protection and preservation by government must be encouraged. government must evolve workable laws or appropriate legal framework necessary for the conservation and preservation of the environment. references alawa, p. (2016). kant and heidegger on environmental ethics: a comparative study.port harcourt journal of history and diplomatic studies, port harcourt, ignatius ajuru university of education, vol. 3, no.1, 143-157. asouzu, innocent i. (1999). personification of environment: an alternative to extreme empiricist and rationalist based environmentalism, global journal of pure and applies sciences.vol. 5, no. 1, 143-151. barbier, m. (1979).introduction to chemical ecology. london: richard clay and chauser publishers. belshaw, christopher (2001). environmental philosophy. chesham: acumen. beniston, martin (2010). “climate change and its impact: growing stress factors for human societies” in international review of the red cross. vol. 98, no. 879. joad, c.e.m. (1960). the essence of precis. methuen, london. evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 maraizu elechi, phd page 41 njiofor j.c. (2016). safeguarding our environment: insight from an african environmental ethical approach in sophia: an african journal of philosophy and public affairs. vol.17, no.1. obungwah f., et al (2017). environmental consciousness and sustainability vialaudato si: an ethico-spiritual implication for the niger delta. icheke: journal of faculty of humanities. vol.15 no.1, art angle: port harcourt. evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, number 1, may, 2020 evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 aguboshim and obiokafor page 96 intellectual property rights, ethics and values in nigeria: a critical investigation dr. felix chukwuma, aguboshim1 and obiokafor, ifeyinwa nkemdilim2 1principal lecturer, department of computer science, federal polytechnic, oko, nigeria. email: felixaguboshim@gmail.com 2lecturer, department of computer science, anambra state polytechnic, mgbakwu, nigeria. email: ifykems@gmail.com abstract intellectual property (ip) right protection is of significant importance globally. however, intellectual property rights (iprs) protection in nigeria has become ineffective partly because ip laws are not harmonized locally or internationally due to varied cultural backgrounds, and partly because there are no uniformity in the enforcement of iprs, ethics and values to protect against ip theft, especially in nigeria where ip theft or piracy is prevalent. this study highlights the challenges created by poor ip laws, ethics and values in nigeria. it also unravels the challenges that militate against iprs of creators and inventors in nigeria. in this study, the authors explored a narrative review of prior research that focused on the theoretical underpinnings of vast works of literature that revealed significant information on challenges of iprs that negatively affect the promotion of creative innovation by inventors, and strategies to close these gaps. the authors identified the benefits of iprs protection and the challenges contributing to poor iprs enforcement in nigeria. results show that iprs, ethics and values are crippled by out-dated, non-sustainable or virtually non-existent policies, and anti-piracy system. findings from this study may encourage proper awareness of iprs, implications of ip theft, and effective enforcement of iprs of creators and inventors in nigeria. key words: ethics; intellectual property; ip theft; innovation; rights; values introduction intellectual property rights (iprs) in research innovations can be defined as the right to assign the research results to its originator, not limited to time and space, and non-transferable (sargolzaei&fateme, 2017). intellectual property is usually divided into two branches, namely: (i) “industrial property”; and (ii) copyright and the rights which neighbour upon copyright. piquero (2005) simple defines intellectual property (ip) as the creative ideas or innovations that result from intellectual activity and creation. in research novelties, two evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 aguboshim and obiokafor page 97 points of view can be deliberated for copyrights:(a) as incentives for creative production, and (b) as a product for the consumer, who seeks to use it for free or at a negligible cost while advanced countries are struggling to secure the first view, the evolving countries attempt to reach a second view to have access to the copyright easier and at a lower cost. according to the international telecommunication union (itu), iprs are legal rights designed to protect creations and inventions resulting from intellectual activity in education, industrial, scientific, literary, or artistic fields (itu, 2017). intellectual property rights usually give the originator or the creator exclusive use of their creation for a specified period of time. in relation to ipr, information security has been defined from a several perspectives (narain, gupta, & ojha, 2014), and with a holistic method that enlarges beyond the technical security (perez, branch, &kuofie, 2014), to comprise the environment, the technology, ethics and values, and the people (stallings & brown, 2012; taylor & robinson, 2015). noticeable amount of empirical researches, point to the fact that humans appear to be the most significant links to the information security of any organisation, and consistently constitute the highest risk to the information integrity and information security measures of any organisation (stallings & brown, 2012). this is because of the differences in behaviour, ethics, and values regarding the intent to perform security measures or administrative errors (komatsu, takagi, & takemura, 2013). information security is the procedure by which an establishment protects and secures systems, media, and facilities, policies, ethics, and values that process and maintain information. key elements of any security program must address the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of the organisation resources: hardware, software, data, and communication lines and networks in relation to the organisational ethics and major ethical principles (stallings & brown, 2012). information security within the ipr has never been more essential than it is these days: not only in how it can protect and encourage research innovations by granting successful originators temporary monopoly power over their innovations data or systems, but how it can enhance secure information exchange between trusted partners. universities and public research institutions through research innovations are the factories of the knowledge, economy growth, and job creation (blakeney&mengistie, 2011). this is because innovation drives economic growth and job creation. the international property rights index adopts a substantial correlation between the protection of private property rights and a nation’s innovations and economic growth. it has also been observed that there is a remarkable causal relationship between intellectual property (ip), technology transfer and development (neba, 2013).therefore, protection of intellectual property (ip), through patents, trademarks and copyrights, good ethics and values, is critical evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 aguboshim and obiokafor page 98 to ensuring pursuit of innovation, economic growth, and technology transfer and job creation. intellectual property rights are therefore the changing face of research innovations. as a crucial factor of national innovation systems, ipr systems are expected to play a catalytic role in motivating innovation and successful technology transfer from research and higher education institutions. however, the building capacity for ip policy formulation (in general) which includes building institutional (university/research institute) dimensions, as well capacity for ip policy formulation among government officials are farfetched. this is because technological capabilities are now more widely diffused and production more globalized, and concerns relating to inadequate enforcement of iprs, in particular patents and trademarks, have increased. as a result, information security and research innovations, especially in tertiary education in nigeria, are tremendously challenged due to poor ip policies, ethics and values, inadequate enforcement of iprs, inadequate awareness about copyright piracy and its ills. researchers and innovators, especially in education, now find it difficult, if not impossible, to attain their ultimate goals or create added value through their work, knowledge, and ideas. despite this, iprs encourage researchers to engage in innovative activities by protecting their knowledge and open access to knowledge and technologies contributing to sustainable development. this is why world intellectual property organization (wipo) states that ip systems foster environments in which creativity and innovation can flourish(wipo, 2017),this flourishing of creativity and innovation is hinged of good ip policies, ethics and values. the general idea is that ipr will give incentive to researchers and investors to devote time, effort, and money to work on innovations and then share their ideas with society. in return, creators get a monopoly or some other form of protection for their idea for a limited time span. the purpose is to maximize economic growth while balancing the social costs to a manageable level, and at the same time build a pool of knowledge and ideas that other researchers and scientist can make use of to take greater and faster strides in innovation. problem statement appropriate ip policies, ethics, and value systems to monitor or empower iprs and for assigning research results to its creator, within any time and space, are poorly implemented by the ip owners and law enforcement agents in nigeria. the general it problem visible in this study, is the poor implementation and monitoring of iprs, ethics, and values for information security, and research innovations in nigeria. these are due to lack of monitoring ict systems and establishment of ethical practices and policies. however, the specific it problem is that some managers and stakeholders of organisations lack strategies, policies, laws, guidelines, and value systems for evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 aguboshim and obiokafor page 99 monitoring and implementation of iprs, ethics, and values for information security, and research innovations in nigeria. literature review intellectual property (ip) according to blakeney (2005) can be defined as those creations of the mind in relation to which the state or country confers upon individuals a statutory monopoly for a prescribed term to prevent their unauthorized exploitation. intellectual property is usually divided into two branches: industrial property and copyright and the rights which neighbour upon copyright. piquero (2005) simple defines intellectual property (ip) as the creative ideas or innovations that result from intellectual activity and creation. nigeria is ranked among countries in africa where intellectual property (ip) theft or piracy is prevalent. it was 82% in 2007, 83% in 2008, 83% in 2009, 82% in 2010 and 82% in 2011 (business software alliance, 2011). according to the report, ip theft or piracy also blossoms in other african countries, including zimbabwe (92%), libya (90%), algeria (84%), cameroon (83%), egypt (61%), ivory coast (81%), kenya (78%), mauritius (57%), morocco (66%), senegal (78%), tunisia (74%), zambia (82%); while south africa (35%) had the least piracy rate (bsa, 2011). theft or piracy in this context include among others, ip distributed without authority, packaged to resemble the original as closely as possible; or copied or distributed without authority (adedej, 2011a). according to world intellectual property organization (wipo), intellectual property included the rights relating to: literary, artistic and scientific works; performances of performing artists, phonograms, and broadcasts; inventions in all fields of human endeavour; scientific discoveries; industrial designs; trademarks, service marks, and commercial names and designations; protection against unfair competition; and all other rights resulting from intellectual activity in the industrial, scientific, literary or artistic fields. several researchers have indicated possible reasons for ip theft. some researchers claimed that the main obstacles to getting rid of ip theft or counterfeiting and piracy are not to be sought in the substantive law per see, rather in the legal means to recover the rights and penalties available (or not available) to stop and deter counterfeiting and piracy (afolayan, 2020; olubiyi, adaji, & adetula, 2020). other maintained that ip thefts are due to the ineffectiveness of enforcement ip ethics, rights and value systems related toa lack of human resources, funding and practical experience in intellectual property enforcement of relevant officials, including the judiciary (deep & saradindu, 2017; osunde, 2017), insufficient knowledge on the side of right holders and the general public, concerning their rights and remedies(afolayan, 2020); and systemic problems resulting from insufficient national and international coordination, including a lack of transparency (olubiyi, et al., 2020).besides, the trade-related aspects of intellectual property rights evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 aguboshim and obiokafor page 100 (trips) agreement suggested some best practices related to national cooperation and coordination, including international cooperation, public awareness and cooperation, right holder cooperation, judicial enforcement, administrative enforcement, border control, criminal procedures, and right to information to help curtail the problem (blakeney, 2005). interestingly, the last best practice, “right to information” was pointed out as having good impact against counterfeiting and piracy because it allows the rights holder to identify the chain of distribution (blakeney, 2005). this notwithstanding, other researchers are of the opinion that with the rise of new digital technologies and file-sharing networks, it has definitely become difficult, if not impossible for organisations or individuals to protect their intellectual property (ip). according to the fbi (2013), this is made even harder by the fact there is no uniformity in the enforcement of laws that are designed to protect against ip theft, especially in developing countries. also, there are usually large organised crime syndicates behind the ip theft which makes it harder to curb. there are a few techniques and technologies that are recommended to help protect ip data. however, no technique or method is completely foolproof (bode, 2013). hackers have proven their ability to eventually circumvent many safeguards. new protections are always being considered to better protect data. digital data can usually be encrypted and rendered unbreakable without the appropriate key to unlock. intrusion detection and prevention systems are also employed to prevent unauthorised access to organizations or individuals’ ip networks. appropriate access controls can be used to trace activity on a network in the event of a data breach. according to stanley (2011), this is helpful when it comes to tracking down the culprit in any prosecution efforts especially when more security measure are built into smartphones often used to hold sensitive data. despite the innovative plans by software developers and device manufacturers to better protect their ip, ip theft has been at a high rate and might continue to be an issue for years to come (stanley, 2011). on the other hand, the entertainment industry (i.e. movie and music) has requested that they be allowed by law to use “ransomware” to protect their ip from illegal download and distribution by pirates. while adedej (2011b), suggested the inclusion of malware within their files that would lock down the computer of any unauthorized person illegally downloading movies or music files, adewopo (2008), gave an approval, adding that the only way to unlock the computer of such culprit would be to contact law enforcement for the password thus admitting that the culprit committed the illegal act and thus subjecting same to any penalties or fines. furthermore, the entertainment industry also wants permission to be able to retrieve their ip from a hacker’s network by any means necessary including destroying all information within a hacker’s network as well as the network itself (bode, 2013). however, other researchers are of the opinion evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 aguboshim and obiokafor page 101 that this may be going too far because it might arise to cases where other innocent people’s computers may be set up as bots that are part of the hackers network (tade&akinleye, 2012; taylor, & robinson, 2015). according to tade and akinleye (2012), it would not be fair if their computers are destroyed as a result of someone else’s misdeeds. in other research findings, chaudhry, zimmerman, peters, and cordell (2009) claimed that public awareness and cooperation with ip ethics and policies can improve the effectiveness of anti-counterfeiting tactics to preserve intellectual property rights. the authors argued that in order to deter counterfeit and piracy, a program can be implemented which will specifically manages the registration ofall trademarks and patents in key markets, establishes a company-based enforcement team, monitors the growth of fakes through a central information repository, develops a multi-pronged action plan, and uses investigation to fights piracy in collaboration with local law enforcement (chaudhry et al., 2009).for anti-piracy tactics to be effective, appleyard (2015) in other hand suggested that some aspects should be acknowledged as lessons learned from the music industry such as changing consumer expectations, the negative impact of legal recourse, the pervasiveness of new technology, the de facto stalemate of piracy, and the importance of networks. overall, technologies alone, will never be sufficient to curtail counterfeit and piracy(carolan, 2016). the problem is already perceived as global phenomenon and therefore should be addressed as such. it will require a global cooperation and harmonization of laws and treaties to be able to find a sustainable solution (coronado, 2013). as the first lesson learned from appleyard (2015) highlighted it, consumer expectation are paramount especially with regard to technologies related techniques used to enforced copyrights laws. properly put by appleyard (2015), consumers do not have rights, they have expectations. therefore these consumer expectations should be married in and effective manner with iprs, ethics and values for sustainable enforcement of iprs of creators and inventors in nigeria. enablers of iprs two major enablers of iprs are; sustainable information and communication technology (ict), and research database repository. ict can be simply defined as the physical devices and infrastructures used for the collection, storage, processing, and disseminating of all forms and formats of data and information, and the required platforms or means for the transmission and disseminating of same (oladimeji & foltyn, 2018; olise, 2010 ). sustainable ict is what defines sustainable research database repository (oladimeji & foltyn, 2018), and occupies a significant key position in leveraging sustainable iprs (olise, 2010). a significant relationship therefore exists between sustainable ict and research database repository (bennett, 2017).on the other hand, appropriate databases repositories are required to enforce evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 aguboshim and obiokafor page 102 iprs. where sustainable ict, with appropriate databases required to empower sustainable research database repository are not in place, sustainable iprs will be farfetched. this is why effective iprs is next to zero in nigeria because ict technological innovations, as enablers of sustainable research database repository and ip ethics, values, and policies are not respectfully adopted. the value placed on any technological innovation is measured by its adoption, embedded ethics, values, acceptance, and sustainability (hoffman, singh, & prakash, 2015). sustainable ict therefore, plays an important role in sustainable research database repository and iprs implementation (oladimeji & foltyn, 2018). this is because ict is a major enabler of sustainable research database repository and iprs (toyo & ejedafiru, 2016). basically, icts are driven by appropriate ethics, values and policies. there is so much technological failure around us because most technological innovations in nigeria ignore ethics, values, and policies required to drive ict and iprs. for instance traffic lights in nigeria are not properly driven or implemented on sound ethics, values and policies. hence they are not adequately or properly put to use. how can one run an automated traffic system without proper documentation of vehicles and of owners? rather police and other touts are used to check traffic light offenders, when the same traffic light is embedded with a monitoring camera. what a waste of resources. the same is applicable to other establishments such as nrsc, police, and ministry of justice etc. our icts are not used because appropriate ethics, values and policies to drive them are not in place. it therefore takes appropriate implementation of ethics, values, and policies to adopt or use technology, and to sustain it (ogutu, okello, &otieno, 2014). however, corruption resulting from absence of relevant ethics, values, and policies appears to be the major hindrance to ict required driving iprs in nigeria. technology does not have attitude or designed to exhibit attitudinal behaviour. computers and ict innovations are not designed to have attitudes butare driven byethics, values, policies, programs and protocol. when ict innovations are subjected and corrupted with human emotions, behaviour and thoughts, they become useless, unimpactful and their outputs nonsensical.this is because they operate without the required ethics, values and policies. we have witnessed abuse of ethics, values and policies where some so-called honorable men in the society break the traffic light and use the exit door for an entrance. this abuse is also visible in their use of personal vehicles with government registration numbers even when they have left the office. for instance, some police man, soldiers and others, do not even need to renew their vehicle particulars because the so-called ict in place has been subjected to attitude (without a functional ethics, values, and policies). this is a big slap on the face of technology and the major hindrances of maximal impact of ict in nigeria. however, ict can be made to drive iprs for sustainable evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 aguboshim and obiokafor page 103 information security and research innovations in nigeria if appropriate ethics, values, and policies are perfectly put in place to expose corruption and drive ict that enables iprs. methodology in this study, we adopted a narrative review methodology, where analysis and synthesis of different and related research findings are required to draw holistic interpretations or conclusions based on the reviewers’ own experience, existing theories and models (hill & burrows, 2017). a narrative study approach is best suited for a descriptive or explanatory study (bell, 2017), where results from such narrative studies are of qualitative rather than quantitative in nature (scarnato, 2017). narrative studies exhibit significant strengths in that they have ability to provide platforms for comprehension of diverse and numerous understanding around scholarly research findings, and the opportunity to make reflective practice and acknowledgement of researchers’ views and knowledge (scarnato, 2017). findings adopting appropriate and effective ethics, values, and policies to drive icts, that in turn, drives iprs, are good innovations for creating patent and copyright monopolies, as well as other forms of intellectual property rights. findings have shown that a country’s optimal iprs depend on its level of technological development, adoption and sustainability in anon-monotonic way (stewart & lacey, 2012). this points to the importance of appropriate ethics, values, and policies in driving technological innovations for sustainable iprs in nigeria. chen and puttitanun (2005) find out that lower iprs encourage imitations or theft of foreign technologies, which reduces the market power of foreign innovations, and benefits domestic consumers. on the other hand, a developing country may also need to increase iprs in order to encourage innovations by domestic consumers (chen&puttitanun, 2005). it was noted that innovation in a developing country increases with the protection of iprs. findings confirmed that relevant ict ethics, values, and policies are empirical evidences of both the positive impact of iprs on innovations in developing countries and the presence of a u-shaped relationship between iprs and information security and research innovations for economic development. conclusion and recommendations a country’s optimal iprs depend on its level of technological development and sustainability. the level of technological development and sustainability however depend on sustainable ict ethics, values and policies. iprs impact on research innovations highly or lowly depending on the level of protective iprs. as a developing country, nigerian may have to increase iprs in order to encourage innovations by domestic consumers. nigeria should also evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 aguboshim and obiokafor page 104 develop an indigenous law that will address basic ict ethics, values and policies on iprs that will in turn positively address its economy and social cultural environment. the tight restrictions that digital content owners place on their products coupled with poor implementation of ict ethics, values and policies have encouraged even more pirating and plagiarism. reid (2012) explains that as the industry played hardball with violators, people became more adapt at illegally distributing ip content, and are morally comfortable with them in the absence of any legal alternative. in essence, the legal prosecution backfired and started more illicit distribution of protected material. therefore, the most effective method for copyright holders to use in protecting their property is by offering it at competitive 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(2016).utilization of information and communication technologies (icts) for sustainable economicdevelopment in nigerian. international journal of ergonomics and human factors, 12(2), 22-34. wipo (2017), based on data from the world bank (top), october 2011 and pinkovskiy and sala-i-martin (2009). http://www.bloorresearch.com/analysis/11762/intellectual-property-theft-protecting-data-cyber.html http://www.bloorresearch.com/analysis/11762/intellectual-property-theft-protecting-data-cyber.html evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, number 1, may, 2020 evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 obijekwu, enemuo, & chidebe page 42 terrorism and use of militarism in conflict resolution: a critical study of nigeria’s experience matthew ike obijekwu,phd1 . johnpaul chinedu enemuo2 and evelyn amaka chidebe3 1chukwuemeka odumegwu ojukwu university, igbariam, anambra state email: mi.obijekwu@coou.edu.ng 2department of philosophy, nnamdi azikiwe university, awka, anambra state, email: reachbaron@yahoo.com 3school of general studies, anambra state polytechnic, mgbakwu, anambra state abstract this paper critically considers the use of militarism as an option in conflict resolution in nigeria. over time now, nigerian government and her security agencies have been using militarism in tackling the challenges of terrorism in nigeria which was orchestrated by boko haram and herders. this approach has been causing nigerian government a lot (both fund, destruction of lives and properties). instead of curbing the terrorism, it has led to its escalation. suffice to say that this method is counterproductive, and has deepened the problems of insecurity, national instability and underdevelopment. hence, it has made the quest for a better option obvious. analytically, therefore, the paper advocates for dialogue and at the same time rejects militarism as a model for a sustainable conflict resolution in nigeria. this paper suggests that nigerian government and her security agents should first and foremost identify the bases of conflict in nigeria and address them. while addressing them, they should forthwith engage the disputed members of the society in dialogue. this paper therefore concludes that only dialogue anchors on the principles of humanness and common good, rather than extremely economic or political interests, can ensure stability and mutual co-existence in multicultural society like nigeria. keywords: militarism, terrorism, critical study, conflict resolution, nigerian experience introduction the problem with nigeria government and her security agencies is that they often leave the substance and pursue the shadow. they leave the cause(s) of security challenges and always pursue the aftermath or the consequences of the long time security negligence in nigeria. they seemed to have not taken time to ask some fundamental questions on how best to embark on apolitical security issues. the problem is that almost every situation in nigeria is politicized, even the security issues. this oftentimes does create political evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 obijekwu, enemuo, & chidebe page 43 divides amongst the political parties. sometimes, members of the opposition party accuse the ruling party of sponsoring terrorism and vice verse. no matter the level of accusation, the fact remains that nigeria is currently faced with security challenges ranging from boko haram militants, herders, niger delta militants, and other security issues like kidnapping, armed robbery, etc. since the emergence of boko haram insurgence and herders attack in july 2009 in nigeria, many nigerians have been living in fears. maianmwa and uzodike (2012) in obiefuna and adams (2017, p.10) and afeno (2012) agreed that boko haram insurgents waged destructive attack on the ethnically mixed state like bauchi and others. with the activities of boko haram, nigeria has been designated as a terrorist nation, and as well included in the terrorist list (the global terrorism index, 2017). with these attacks here and there, nigeria has been finding it difficult to address the security issues. the fact remains that terrorism has really claimed many lives and destroyed millions worth of properties; it has affected the economic and social activities in many states, especially in the northeast of nigeria. to curb these challenges, nigerian government and her security agents have employed a method militarism or military force, which often is considered a better option or a model for counterinsurgency. this method has been observed to be counterproductive. reports and other research conducted so far have proven that this approach can never resolve the security challenge. rather, it will continue to escalate the problem. in this paper therefore, we argue that military force or militarism can never stop terrorism rather it will make it more violent and dreadful. this paper will identify the causes of terrorism in nigeria, which include injustice, poverty, illiteracy, ethnicity or tribalism, religious fundamentalism. this paper contends that to end terrorism, these fundamental problems must be addressed. as these problems are being addressed, the perpetrators of these terrorist acts should, at the same time, be engaged in humanistic dialogue that is devoid of extremely political interest. conceptual analysis conflict: conflict is synonymous with crisis, strife, dispute, or clash, but in a more escalated for is terrorism. the term conflict means a serious disagreement or argument typically a protracted one. merriam-webster (https://cambridge.org) defines conflict as an active disagreement between people with opposing opinions or principles. ajit (2010) in rakhim (2010, p.16), opines that there is no single universal acceptable definition of conflict. he states that one issue of contention is whether the conflict is a situation or a type of behaviour. this is very important in conflict resolution. we shall elaborate on this later in the work. corroborating with rakhim, robert a. https://cambridge.org/ evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 obijekwu, enemuo, & chidebe page 44 baron (1990), in his work “conflict in organization”, having understood conflict as that which flows from peoples’ interaction, defines it as an interactive process manifested in incompatibility, disagreement, or dissonance within or between social entities (rakhim, 2010, p.16). commenting further, rakhim notes that a conflict may be limited to one individual, who is conflicted within himself. with this, one can easily say classify conflict into internal conflict (intra-conflict), when it occurs within an individual and external conflict (inter-conflict), when it occurs between individuals, groups, or nations. further on the definition of conflict, michael nicholson(1992, p.11) defines conflict as an activity which takes place when conscious beings (individuals or groups) wish to carry out mutually inconsistent acts concerning their wants, needs, or obligation. the emphasis here is the idea of “mutually inconsistent acts” of needs, wants or obligations. conflict comes in immediately there is divergence of interests among members of a group. it is important to note that the basis of conflict often varies. it could be political, race, caste, and international. roy eidelson and judy eidelson (2003, p. 182192) list five beliefs that often give rise to conflict, and among them include superiority, injustice, vulnerability, distrust and helplessness. terrorism: the concept terrorism, though with different and controversial definitions, has one common feature which is “to instill fear in people or the entire society”. the controversy which associated with the term lies on the fact that “one person’s terrorist might be another person’s freedom fighter” (kaarbo & ray, 2011, p. 238). the reason is that terrorism is considerably a political term often used by people to refer to political violence or any other related political occurrence which they disapprove. in defining terrorism, effort will be made to bring to bear its global understanding. in this view, the institute for economics & peace(iep, 2017), in the “global terrorism index” (gti)” asserts that defining terrorism is not a straightforward matter. there is no single internationally accepted definition of what constitutes terrorism and the terrorism literature abounds with competing definitions and typologies. iep accepts the terminology and definitions agreed to by the global terrorism database(gtd) and the national consortium for the study of terrorism and responses to terrorism (start). the gti therefore defines terrorism as ‘the threatened or actual use of illegal force and violence by a non‐state actor to attain a political, economic, religious, or social goal through fear, coercion, or intimidation.’ terrorism, according to bbc dictionary (1992, p.1211) is the use of violence for political reason. for the oxford advanced learners’ dictionary (2005, p. 1528), terrorism means the use of violent action in order to achieve political aims or to force the government to act. these definitions, so to speak, are restrictive. as a result, concentration will be on exploring other views or definitions of terrorism by different scholars. ilechukwu (2017, p. 207) evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 obijekwu, enemuo, & chidebe page 45 defines terrorism as the deliberate commission of an act of violence to create an emotional response through the suffering of the victims in the furtherance of political and social agenda. according to henslin (2006, p. 296) terrorism is the use of violence to create fear to try to bring about political objectives. we can say that terrorism is an unaddressed conflict in its escalation form when non-states actors have disagreements or are incompatible with the authority or government. conflict, when it is not properly addressed or managed at the initial stage of its manifestation, may turn to terrorism. this is actually the case of nigeria with regard to boko haram insurgence. we shall discuss this later when discussing terrorism and nigeria’s experience. from the definitions, it is clear that terrorism is not conscripted to only political reason. rather, it embraces other classifications; namely, state terrorism, religious terrorism, right wing terrorism, left wing terrorism, pathological terrorism, issue-oriented terrorism, separatist terrorism, and narco-terrorism. each of these types of terrorism has its specific goal(s) (obiefuna and adams, 2017). terrorism sometimes is associated with a moral judgment. from this perspective, it is considered a deliberate, systematic murder, maiming, and menacing of the innocent to inspire fear in order to gain political ends (kaarbo and ray, 2011, p.238). these authors note that considering terrorism as a moral term becomes problematic, because the concept of morality in itself is a problematic concept among moralists, and even among the world leaders. in this way, justifying some acts considered terrorist acts become an issue (kaarbo and ray, 2011, p.238). for instance, the france resistance and the polish underground, according to kaarbo and ray, were considered terrorists by germany in world war i, but were considered by others who believed that resisting nazi occupation was a moral cause (kaarbo & ray, 2011, p. 238). the united states (u.s) occupation of vietnam (vietnam war in 1955-1975), which led to the death of millions of peoples, was justified by her allies until martin luther king, jr. criticized their actions and military activities in vietnam (presbey, 2014, p.218-222). terrorism in nigeria in nigeria, the challenges of boko haram and its sinister, herdsmen attacks, remain a typical example of this fact. series of attacks have been launched by boko haram, which has led to the death of many nigerians. boko haram has claimed many lives in nigeria. before the hydra-headed monster known as boko haram in nigeria, which emerged in 2009, there has been a radical islamic fundamentalism like the maitatsine movement, which began around 1980s. even before this sect emerged, nigeria has been involved in various religiously, socio-politically, economically, and culturally motivated violence. the pre-independence period around 1950s was known for different tribal evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 obijekwu, enemuo, & chidebe page 46 motivated conflicts or riots, coupled with the colonial domination, which was also a problem during the period. again, the post-independence period, which started in 1960 till date, was not without its own problems starring before nigerians. accusations and counter accusations of corruption, misappropriation of public funds, unhealthy competitions etc., coupled with the dreaded tribal affiliations among the nigerian nationalists, led to coups and countercoups by the military. all these also created a lot of prejudices among the nigerian elites, who turned out to be using the poor, unemployed youths, or locally put, the street boys and girls to perpetuate evil and achieve their targeted goals (obiefuna and adams, 2017). rogers, cited in obiefuna and adams (2017), states that, “…following independence in 1960s, the rise of the radical maitatsine movement in the 1970s, which engaged unemployed urban youths, led to clashes with the police in kano in 1980, leaving many hundreds dead”. the maitatsine movement then later metamorphosed to what is known today as boko haram. connell, in obiefuna and adams (2017), traces the origin of boko haram to 1995, when it was founded by abubakah lawan under the original name of ahlulsunna wal’jama’ah hijira. connell (2012); faleti (2016); and obiefuna and adams (2017) maintain that the original mission of this group was to draw the attention of the government to the level of poverty and economic hardship in the society. it was also meant to look at the problems like political and economic exclusion, injustice, poverty, disease, exploitation, and inequality. so, lawan mission was to address most of these problems. under the leadership of muhammed yusuf, lawan’s ahlulsunna wal’jama’ah hijira was changed to boko haram with a different ideology. we shall discuss the ideology in the later part of this work. it is proper to note that boko haram is today considered as the most dreaded terrorist group in the world due to its activities and affiliation with islamic state of iraq and syria (isis), even its sinister, herdsmen, which is yet to be proscribed as a terrorist group in nigeria, poses security challenge to nigeria security. as boko haram and herders have posed and continued to pose serious security challenges in nigeria, nigerian government has considered militarism or military force as the best option to address the security issue. the question is whether military approach has solved the security issue? has boko haram and herder challenge eradicated? militarism model: a misplaced conflict resolution model militarism or counterinsurgency is an action taken against a group of people trying to take control of a country by force. the term, militarism is defined as the spirit or tendencies of a professional soldier. bbc dictionary (1992, p.731) defines it as the desire to strengthen and use the armed forces of a country in order to make it more powerful. it is all about using force as a evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 obijekwu, enemuo, & chidebe page 47 means of achieving peace in the world (obijekwu & okafor, 2017, p. 240). we can easily say that militarism goes with the concept force, which implies that both words can be interchangeably used or applied. the word force has other connotations. in physics, a force means any interaction that if not intercepted will change the motion of an object. a force causes motion or acceleration in an object. force as used here is not force as used in physics, but force as a means of achieving peace or as a means of countering insurgence. it may also be understood as militarism or application of military force in conflict resolution. this paper maintains that using militarism or military force in resolving conflict is counterproductive anywhere it is to be used in the world and nigeria in particular. the word, conflict resolution is defined as ….the methods and processes in facilitating peaceful ending of conflict and retribution (forsyth, 2009). the entire world and nigeria in particular has been in chaos and anarchy despite trillions of money budgeted annually by different countries of the world to acquire ammunitions for fighting terrorism in order to achieve peace. they forget to understand that peace achieved through conflict, even through militarism is war suspended. globally, militarism has not solved any terrorist problem or challenge. the world till today is still under attack by different terrorist groups. some countries despite the huge amount of money invested in security are still under attack. there is always a face-off between america and iran. few months ago were between the president of america, donald trump and his counterpart, the president of north korea with regards to weapon inspection. it is all about exhibition of military might or power. the point is that american has made himself the soldier of the world. the face-off between the united states of america and north korea is seriously threatening the world peace. meanwhile, the effects of the first 19141918 and second world war 19391945 have not been completely forgotten. willmott (2003, p.307) first world war (ww1) was one of the deadliest conflict in history within an estimated nine million combatant and seven million civilian deaths, while resulting genocide and the related 1918 influenza pandemic cause about 17-50 million death worldwide. these wars were fought due to egocentrism and selfishness of the powerful nations; where national interest were place above the global interest and common good. this ww1 might be fought with the intention that after the war, the world would be in peace. but that was not case. some years after the war, second world war occurred. in all these wars human lives were wasted. even the present time where terrorists are fought with military force, the world has not known peace; peace has been eluding the entire world. the death of osama bin laden, saddam hussein and other people who were killed by us have never brought peace in the world. at this point, we may wonder why using militarism as an option for conflict resolution? evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 obijekwu, enemuo, & chidebe page 48 in nigeria, therefore, given the origin of boko haram in the northeastern nigeria, was originally not violent, but was meant to purify islam in northern nigeria. but due to the military approach used by the then state government by killing the founder mohammed yusuf in 2002, the group since then has turned violent. the new york times reported that boko haram has killed tens of thousands and displaced 2.3 million from their homes (the new york times, 2015). this was after the military actions taken by nigerian military force to counter their deadly activities. since then, their activities have taken different forms such as suicide bombings, bombing churches, police stations, kidnapping of prominent people from the north, rapping and committing other atrocities. in 2011, the united nations office in abuja was burnt; and in 2014, more than 6,600 people were killed (buchanan, 2015). in 2014, the group kidnapped 276 schoolgirls from chibok. nigerian government, over the years, has been fighting boko haram as if the country is fighting another country in defence of her territory. this should have been well managed if the government was calculative enough. in 2019, president muhammadu buhari claimed that boko haram is “technically defeated” (dionne, 2019). at present, even as nigeria is battling with the global pandemic disease – covid19, boko haram has continued killing nigerians. suffice to say that militarism-model is never the best model in conflict resolution. therefore, it is proper to toe a better model as we desire to achieve peace in nigeria. dialogue model: anoption for conflict resolution the question is: can dialogue resolve a conflict? under what condition is dialogue an option or alternative to militarism? answering these questions depends on what the government or the parties involved in dialogue want to achieve. of course, every society wants peace and harmony. how do we achieve it? is it by military force or dialogue? we argue here that dialogue remains the alternative to militarism in conflict resolution. dialogue, as it is, is among the methods of conflict resolution, which among others include mediation and negotiation. conflict resolution as the definition goes is a way for two or more parties to find a peaceful solution to a disagreement among them. this disagreement may be personal, financial, financial, political, or emotional. meanwhile, the definition of dialogue has been difficult to offer. pernille rieker, in the introduction of the book titled, dialogue and conflict resolution: the potentials and limits of dialogue as a tool for conflict resolution” asserts that “dialogue has become one of the new buzzwords in international politics today” (rieker, 2015). even at this, we can still give a working definition of dialogue. merriam-webster defines dialogue as a discussion between representatives of parties to a conflict that is aimed at resolution. evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 obijekwu, enemuo, & chidebe page 49 dialogue can be classified into political-oriented dialogue, economic-oriented dialogue, cultural-oriented dialogue, religious-oriented dialogue and humanistic-oriented dialogue, and most important. cherished and valued among these classifications is humanistic-oriented dialogue. political-oriented dialogue is a situation where a person or a group of persons who are to go into dialogue pay much interest in their political differences or disagreements; economic-oriented dialogue is where the interest for the dialogue lies on the economy; this is where the opposition or rebels (or non-state actors) are threatening the economic growth of the other that needed the dialogue. the typical example here is nigeria-niger delta militants. other types are cultural-oriented dialogue where cultures which are in dispute needs to be reconciled; religious-oriented dialogue that focuses of doctrinal differences such christianity, islam and traditional religion. the most conflicting ones in nigeria today are christianity and islam. above all is humanistic-oriented dialogue that considered human person, human life and dignity; where person is the basis of the dialogue not political interest, economic interest, religious interest, or any other related interest. it is necessary therefore that before one or a group embarks on the process of dialogue; the individuals should first and foremost understand the basis of the dialogue and the cause(s) of the conflict. understanding the basis of conflict and the aim of dialogue is the first step to conflict resolution. in one time or other, nigeria has entered or being involved in one, two or more of these dialogues mentioned above. it was to resolve the political conflict and differences in nigeria that led to the division of nigeria into six geopolitical zones by general sani abacha. this was done in order to carry all zones or regions along in the political, economic and educational resources across the zones. the 2014 national conference (2014 confab) was another form of dialogue motivated or oriented conference. the conference was inaugurated by the then nigerian president dr. goodluck ebele jonathan on 17 march, in abuja, nigeria and was headed by chief justice idris legbo kutigi (oluata, 2014). about 492 delegates were selected across the six geopolitical zones. other professional bodies and groups were also represented. the conference considered those challenges that have kept nigeria apart for so long. among the thing discussed include: devolution of power, political restructuring and forms of government, national security; environment; politics and governance; law, judiciary, human rights and legal reform; social welfare; transportation; agriculture; society; labour; electoral matters; foreign evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 obijekwu, enemuo, & chidebe page 50 policy; and diaspora matters; land tenure matters, and national boundary, trade and investment, energy; religion; public finance and revenue generation, science, technology and development immigration (oluata, 2014). this national conference was convoked to address so many challenges facing the country then. unfortunately, the outcome of the conference was not implemented. this is another challenge one can hold against dialogue model in conflict resolution. the point we are looking at is the ability of coming together of the disputed parties to settle and harmonize their difference to further progress. we can also make reference to the july 2009 presidential amnesty programme in nigeria delta area. this amnesty programme came to be when there was fracas in niger delta. despite the contribution of the niger delta area to nigeria economy, the area for several years was abandoned, completely forgotten. until the youths of the area (niger delta) woke up one day, took to arms to challenge the government that they were remembered by nigerian government. at this period, nigeria lost about one million barrels of crude oil per day (bpd) which was estimated to be about n8.7 billion ($58m) as at may 2009. this really affected other sectors of nigeria’s economy. there was reduction of the daily production from 2.2 million bpd to a 700,000bpd when the problem escalated due to military approach employed by then president (osapnd, n.d). between january, 2008 to january, 2009 many workers were killed and kidnapped especially foreign expatriates. if not that the government engaged those niger delta militants in a serious dialogue it would not have reduced that situation. suffice to say that dialogue model can still work in the areas of boko haram and herders in nigeria. however, the primary thing would be to address the possible causes of conflict in nigeria which include social injustice, illiterate, poverty, hunger, exclusion, marginalization and discrimination. every region or geographical zones in nigeria is faced with one problem or the other. over the years, most of them have calling government attention to these problems but government has failed to pay attention to their plight. as the insecurity is still a challenge in nigeria, it is earlier now to start to pay attention in order to avoid future escalation. just like national dialogue conference was organized in 2014 to avert the impeding dangers then, though the outcome of the conference was not implemented, but the mere fact it was convoked reduced the tension in the country then. so if the intention of a group that is to engage in dialogue is to improve human life, protect human life and sustain human life, this paper evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 obijekwu, enemuo, & chidebe page 51 suggests that dialogue should be of humanistic-oriented dialogue, where everyone’s interest gears to preserve human life and dignity. conclusion every action has a cause and effect. but often, the cause is forgotten, and only the effect is pursued. hardly had the world powers sincerely pursued the cause of conflict or terrorism in the world. the cause can be addressed through dialogue not by militarism. boko haram’s demand for abolition of western education can be re-addressed, but should not be through military might. if not for the military disillusionment, some violence or terrorist attack experienced in nigeria would not have occurred. many nigerians have been killed because mohammed yusuf was killed, which would not have occurred if nigerian security agents applied dialogue to find out the cause of the agitation. as the nation government is currently fighting terrorism, it is important to avoid the old mistakes. some known social problem such as injustice, poverty and illiteracy should be addressed; tribalism, discrimination, marginalization and exclusion of some sections of nigeria should be avoided. reference buchanan, r. t. 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(ed,): syracuse university press. ilechuhwu, g.c (2017). “literature, terrorism and counter-insurgency in africa:, imenda, u.e et al (ed.), nocen international journal of arts and social sciences, vol. 1 no.2. onitsha: st. stephen’s press.pp.206-224. jones, r. a. (2014). “martin luther king jr.’s agape and world house”. birt, r. e (ed,), the liberatory thought of martin luther king jr: critical eassy on the philosopher king. maryland: lexington books, pp.135-156. https://cambridge.org/ evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 obijekwu, enemuo, & chidebe page 52 kaarbo, j. and ray, j. l.(2011). global politics (tenth edition). usa: wadsworth. kinzer, s, (2003). all the shah’s men: an american coup and the roots of middle east terror. john wiley and sons. nicholson, m. (27 march, 1992). rationality and the analysis of international conflict. cambridge university press. p.11. isbn 978-0-52139810-7.retrieved 19 april, 2020. nwoko, m. (1988).basic world political theories. nekede: claretian institute of philosophy. obiefuna, b. a. c and adams, p. a. (2017). “terrorism and peacebuilding in nigeria: lesson from boko haram insurgency”. in imenda, u.e et al (ed.), nocen international journal of arts and social sciences, vol. 1 no.2. onitsha: st. stephen’s press,pp.1-29. obijekwu, m. i. & okafor, a. (2017). love and nonviolence in nigeria: martin luther king jr’s perspective. ”. in imenda, u.e et al (ed.), nocen international journal of arts and social sciences, vol. 1 no.2. onitsha: st. stephen’s press, pp.237-258. oxford advanced learners’ dictionary (2005) oluata, j. national conference 2014. archive from the original on 27 may 2014. retrieved 22 april, 2020. osapnd .(n.d). presidential amnesty programme. https:www.osapnd.gov.ng. paddock, r.c, sang-hun, c. and wade, n. (2017).kim jong-nam’s death: north korea lets loose a weapon of mass destruction. new york times, february. presbey, g.m. (2010). “martin luther king jr. on vietnam: king’s message applied to the u.s. occupation of iraq and afghanistan”. in birt, r. e (ed,), the liberatory thought of martin luther king jr: critical essay on the philosopher king. maryland: lexington books. pp. 215-242. rakhim, m. a. (31 october, 2010). managing conflict in organization.transaction publishers.p.16. isbn 978-1-4128 1456-0. retrieved 19 april, 2020. evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 obijekwu, enemuo, & chidebe page 53 rohn, a. (2012). “what countries involved in the vietnam war? the vietnam war. accessed july, 30, 2018) schweizer, r. 2020. aerospace and defence director, cowen washington research group www.cnbc.com.accessed 17/93/2020. searcey, d. (13 september 2019). “boko haram is back. with better drones”.the new york times.issn 0362-4331.retrieved 21 april 2020. siteadmin. (2014). is the niger dealta region the epicenter of electoral fraud in nigeria? africa check.sahara report.retrieved 22 april, 2020. spreeuwenberg; p., et al. ( 1 december, 2018). “reassessing the global mortality burden of the 1918 influenza pandemic”.american journal of epistemology. 187(12): 2561-2567. doi:10.1093/aje/kwy19. pmid 30202996). stumpf, e. (1994). philosophy, problems and history.new york: mcgrewhill. the new times.associated press. 18 november, 2015. https://web.archive.org/web/20151121020206/http://www,nytimes.com/aponli ne/2015/11/17/world/africa/ap-af-boko-haram.html?-r=0. retrieved april, 2020. tim, r. (2002). how us helped iraq build deadly arsenal. london: the sunday times. retrieved 09/08/2018. turakr, n. (2020). “the puppet master is dead: iranian gen. qasem soleimani’s power, and why his death is such a big deal”. in politics.www.cnbc.com. accessed 17/93/2020 united states department of state. (2009). state sponsor of terrorism of united states list. https://en.wikipedia.org/.../state_sponsors_of_terrorism_(u.s_list). retrieved 04/08/2018. http://www.cnbc.com/ https://web.archive.org/web/20151121020206/http:/www,nytimes.com/aponline/2015/11/17/world/africa/ap-af-boko-haram.html?-r=0 https://web.archive.org/web/20151121020206/http:/www,nytimes.com/aponline/2015/11/17/world/africa/ap-af-boko-haram.html?-r=0 http://www.cnbc.com/ https://en.wikipedia.org/.../state_sponsors_of_terrorism_(u.s_list) evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 1, number 2, october 2020 dajwan 119 urgent peace-building in plateau state nigeria: the role of stefanos foundation longkat daniel dajwan gindiri theological seminary, affiliated to university of jos, nigeria email: longkatdan@gmail.mom +2347068134337/ +2349058592657 abstract this paper argues for peace-building measures through the practice of the faith-based organizations and the role of stefano’s foundation for just peace to be sustained and possibly return to plateau nigeria. the paper makes the case that the prevailing cycle of recurrent violence across plateau nigeria cannot be truly solved through peaceenforcement strategy that is being pursued by the federal government. this is because peace enforcement fails to address the underlying causes of the violence. the article posits that only peace-building measures can produce just peace and being intensify by the sacrificial roles of the faith-based organizations especially the stefano’s foundation. using a systematic and historical interpretation review of related literature with conceptual clarifications to gather data, the researcher argues for peace-building strategies by the state and country. the stefano’s foundation needs to intensify the religion of love because it is said “love is more than a weapon of warfare”. the paper holds religious and faith-based organizations leaders accountable for failure to uphold love and unity in their leadership. the research question driving this argument states: what is the best peace-building strategy that could be used to restore just peace in plateau nigeria to address the root causes of plateau nigerians’ grievances and security challenges? key words: peace-building, faith-based organizations, stefanos foundation introduction looking into peace building issues and the role of faith-based organizations, it can be said to have positively impacted on human’s development. the activities of fbos extended to recovery from violent conflicts. though the conflicts are largely said to have their effects on both parties (christians and muslims but 90 percent are the followers of christ) in the state. the stefanos foundation focuses their roles on christians in terms of humanitarian and peace building interventions. therefore, among the faith-based organizations (fbos) in plateau nigeria and working under the umbrella of can as the biggest body is the stefanos foundation. the need for urgent peace-building is not just an urgent call in plateau nigeria but an emergency because of the life-denying violence that has characterized plateau mailto:longkatdan@gmail.mom evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 1, number 2, october 2020 dajwan 120 nigeria. the post-conflict roles of christian fbos have been wide and varied, spanning spiritual, psychological, and material support to victims especially the stefano’s foundation. in terms of spiritual support, the church under the auspices of can organized fasting and prayer sessions after each of the two major conflicts researched (september 2001 and november 2008). other church groups also organized separate congregation-based prayers for victims. in the words of the anglican bishop of bukuru, “like other can groups we first prayed for the victims.” (interview with anglican bishop jwan b.n. zhumbes, jos, january 2009) (best and kathrine, 2011:130). outstanding among these fbos is, stefanos foundation, a christian foundation which has been assisting with the reconstruction of homes and places of worship across the conflict divide. their work has been focused on jos and the conflict flashpoints of southern plateau state like yilwa, garkawa, namu, etc. for each room victims are able to build, they provide two additional rooms to encourage displaced persons return to their homes. through this scheme, many residents who did not receive help from government were able to return to their destroyed homes (interview with stefano’s representative in jos, march 2009) (best and kathrine, 2011:137). conceptual clarifications peace-building an urgent call for peace-building in plateau nigeria constitutes the thrust of this paper. this is premised on the fact that peace has remained elusive in the state and country because government has failed to utilize the relevant strategy for attaining lasting peace. peace-building down-up means much more than just sending security tax forces in violent conflict zones to enforce peace or the provision of relief materials to victims of violence. ambulance peace-building also transcends peacemaking because peace-making fails to address the root cause(s) of violence by providing peace-sustaining structures in place to forestall future occurrence of violence (pokol, 2019:439). elizabeth porter also argues that “peace-building involves all processes that build positive relationships, heal wounds, reconciles antagonistic differences, restores esteem, respects rights, meets basic needs, enhances equality, instills feelings of security, empowers moral agency and democratic participation, inclusiveness, and promotion of justice” (pokol, 2019:440). the former un secretary general, boutros-boutros-ghali, also conceptualized peace-building as “involving broad responsibilities in the economic, social, humanitarian, and human rights fields” (boutros-ghali, 1992). from the foregone conceptualizations of peacebuilding, one could conclude that peace-building does not wait for violence to begin; rather, it is as perceived by pokol and the researcher deliberately quote this at length because of its importance to the paper: [peace-building] involves those activities and processes that: focus on the root causes of the conflict, rather than just the effects; support the rebuilding and rehabilitation of all sectors of the war-ton society; encourage and support evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 1, number 2, october 2020 dajwan 121 interaction between all sectors of society in order to repair damaged relations and start the process of restoring dignity and trust; recognize the specifics of each post conflict situation; encourage and support the participation of indigenous resources in the design, implementation and sustainment of activities and processes; and promote processes that will endure after the initial emergency recovery phase has passed (pokol, 2019:440). from pokol’s argument, one could argue that the plateau nigerian government has, and is continuing to waste material and human resources in its attempt to restore peace through peace-enforcement. indeed, government deals mostly with peaceenforcement while faith-based organizations especially stefano’s foundation deals with peace-building. the military personnel and para-military personnel that are engaged in maintaining peace in plateau nigeria have only worsened the security situation of the state and the country respectively (danfulani, 2018). without the proactive measures of restoring just peace in plateau nigeria, only fragile peace may be secured by the military presence on our streets except just peace. love and the activities of faith-based organizations are the strongholds of just peace. plateau nigerian masses want to see that some people or sections of the state and country are not taking more than their share. they want to see that appointments into civil service positions are fairly distributed across the so-called geo-political zones of the country. peace that is just or positive is an outflow of love and activities of faith-based organizations as in care for the needy integrity. what this paper means by just peace is what johan galtung, on the one hand, refers to as “positive peace”, which is a situation where there is absence of direct violence as well as absence of structural violence. on the other hand, negative peace is the absence of direct violence (e.g people killing each other) but lacking social justice, godly values and fairness in the structures of the society (pokol, 2019). the researcher uses just peace and positive peace interchangeably in this paper because they mean the same thing. to sum up this section of the paper, the researcher summarized peace-building by boutros-ghali to mean a preventive diplomacy is purposed to prevent the escalation of conflict into violent confrontation by dealing with its underlying contradictions. again, peace-making aims to bring about the cessation of hostilities by working on parties and persuading them to look for and utilize non-violent alternatives. peacekeeping and peace-making are involved in peace building. peace-keeping tries to maintain the state of non-violence that is achieved by peace-making. finally, peacebuilding consolidates conflict solutions aiming at sustainable settlements (boutrosghali, 1992). faith-based organizations (fbos) faith-based organizations mean a particular religious ideology. it has religiously oriented mission statement and often draws its activists (leaders, staff and volunteers) from a particular religious group. (dajwan, 2016:24). two broad types of organization associated with religion can be identified: religious organizations (the evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 1, number 2, october 2020 dajwan 122 organizational expressions of a faith tradition and their leaders), fbos (meaning the ngo-like organizations engaged in advocacy, welfare and development activities that have explicit religious motivations). the second types are the congregation-based groups that are tied to a group of persons who worship and pray in the same location. in plateau nigeria, political organizations structured along religious lines are disallowed by law and so they do not exist, as such. adherents to a particular faith may generally be associated with a local congregation (church or mosque), or to an organization. the proliferation of religious congregations makes these congregations too numerous to account for. in peace-building and development, both religious organizations and fbos have been nearly equally active, especially in the 2011 postconflict period. it is also worth noting that in plateau nigeria, certain religious organizations like izala movement have ngo-like outfits (the aid group), and both normally get involved with post-conflict activities simultaneously (best and katherine, 2011:11). faith-based organization often organizes week-long prayer and fasting declared and observed, can also organized reconciliatory meetings between christians and muslims at the tekan conference hall in jos. however, muslim attendance was poor, as the few muslims that came were not opinion leaders. the venue and the convener lacked the required neutrality and suspicion was still rife. can also admonish christians to live in peace, holding up unto to christ (interview with rev. ezekiel lesmore, jos january 2009) (best and kathrine, 2011). church leaders and leaders of groups within the church also provided counseling services to injured victims and those who lost their houses, businesses, relations, etc. according to many informants, christians were not used to camp life and most often christian victims got absorbed into other christian families temporarily, as many christian families took in victims. mrs. naomi noma, the former coordinator of cocin women fellowship expressed this situation in the 2001 crisis this way: we helped displaced people by absorbing them into members’ homes. i hosted 17 people for two months. we counseled them as they stayed with our families and we also prayed for them (interview in jos, january 2009) (best and kathrine, 2011). she adds further that in crisis situations like the 2001 and 2008 conflicts, different christian homes could share out internally displaced members of the same family among themselves; the children might stay with one family, while the parents could stay with another family. the most elaborate role of christians and their fbos in the most plateau nigeria conflicts was the area of relief measures. this was organized at various levels. there is can at general level; there are can blocks and local assemblies at the other levels. there are also various fbos/ngos at other levels and also gender-based groups. after the 2001 crisis, for instance, can distributed food and clothing evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 1, number 2, october 2020 dajwan 123 materials to idps in churches used as camps, including muryarbishara (voice of the gospel), cocin nasarawa, cocin jos jarawa, cocin kabong, st. micheals nasarawa, sacred heart gadabiyu, st. augustine major seminary katako. funds and support in this direction came from can bodies in other states like kaduna, local governments, individuals and the plateau state government. beyond the can effort, can blocks like pfn also raised financial and material support for members. rccg alone gave n400, 000. all cash and material support received were distributed to churches and individuals members affected (best and kathrine, 2011). plateau nigeria has a recurring problem of violent urban conflict. these conflicts manifest mostly in the forms of ethnic and religious identity conflicts as attackers and their sympathizers instrumentalise these forms of identity. of all nigeria’s cities, kano leads in persistent violent urban conflict. incidents of urban violence have also of late been on the increase in jos plateau, a city previously known for its tranquility. presently, the north east of the country, borno, yobe, katsina and also kaduna south have been inundated by the menace called boko haram (literally meaning western education and other forms of westernization are forbidden) and arm bandits (terrorism). this paper examines the roles played by fbos and especially stefano’s foundation in peace-building, and did begin with the assumption that such roles exist, especially in the long term, and are under-researched (best and katherine, 2011). there is, indeed, evidence of work by fbos and other governmental and nongovernmental interveners in the post-conflict crises of plateau nigeria, but longerterm work is deficient and comparatively backward. most of the fbos lack the capacity to do post-conflict peace-building and development work, but have to pick up humanitarian services because there was none else to provide such services to the needy victims of violence. this article summarizes the fbos and religious interventions as follows: a. fbos indeed played tangible roles in peace-building and development; b. that such roles were mostly short-term rather than long-term, c. that expectation from the state for victims was not met. d. the peace-building activities and roles played by fbos and religious organizations were not cross cutting but confined to their respective faith borders. by so doing, fbos contribute to reinforcing and consolidating religious boundaries. e. fbos quite often played the roles the state did not or could not play well. fbos and religious organizations also supported especially the rebuilding and reconstruction of places of worship destroyed by violence, but gave little support to the rebuilding of residences and businesses of their members affected by violence (this is often done by stefanos foundation). f. in terms of longer-term work, fbos often led in the rebuilding of social relationships as well as reconstructing other forms of social capital, and are assisted by ngos external to the conflict areas (best and katherine, 2011). evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 1, number 2, october 2020 dajwan 124 christian based interventions as earlier mention above, the post conflict roles of christian fbos have been wide and varied, spamming spiritual, psychological and material support as in humanitarian aids to victims. implementation of peace projects through enlightenment programmes through the media, workshops, rallies, production of information education and communication materials helped in the wide spread of the messaged of peace and its responsibility by both the government, religious leaders and bodies, and the people. the justice development and peace commission was part of the intervening parties that made serious efforts to see that the state once again experience peace, thereby creating opportunities for development (kaigama, 2010: 11). in terms of spiritual support, the church under can organized prayer and fasting sessions praying for the victims (by can and other denominations like; anglican, cocin and ecwa among many). they also organized special church service like clothes. also in addition to the one week prayer and fasting declared and observed, can also organized reconciliation meetings between christians and muslims at the tekan conference hall in jos. even though the muslims attendance was poor, even the few that were in attendance were not opinion leaders. the jdpc/eprt fbos also did house reconstruction work at namu in 2004 which was interested in the wake of the ethnic conflict that occurs there (best and katherine, 2011). muslims based interventions the christian faith-based organization are doing well but not without challenges. on the other hand the muslims based interventions organizations also tap into the communal social organization that operates in most muslim communities to mobilize local resources. charity, in the traditional sense of a transfer of material resources from the rich to the poor, falls into two major categories in the islamic faith: obligatory charity is that category that is institutionalized in islam through zakat principle which is a mechanism which muslims donate a portion of their wealth every year for the needy. the zakat is one of the major islamic five tenant’s teachings. traditionally the amount of zakat payable is one-fortieth of a person’s assets per year providing their wealth reaches a certain threshold, in addition to a small annual payment (zakat al-fitr) that all muslims are expected to pay during ramadan. sadaqah too is a voluntary charity through which muslims can donate any amount, at any time. this also is among the five basic tenants or teachings of islamic faith. therefore, a common form of sadaqah is waaf, an endowment often given in the form of land or property that is either used directly for charitable purposes or used to support charitable activities through the return from its investment (miriam, 2012: 9394). on the other hand, humanitarianism in muslim communities is however, not confined to the transfer of resources from rich to the poor. often when conflict occurs or in times of conflict, members of the muslim faith-community could offer special donations beyond zakat and sadaqah the two categories in islam to assist those affected by conflict (miriam, 2012: 94). evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 1, number 2, october 2020 dajwan 125 stefano’s foundation the concept of stefano’s foundation is derived from the greek word for stephen, the first martyred christian. this is the idea behind the name and vision “stefanos foundation”. historicizing peace building in nigeria the history and term “peace-building” has been generally associated with former united nations secretary-general boutros boutros-ghali in his an agenda for peace launch in 1992. in that material, boutros-ghali discussed a number of interrelated peace concepts and outlined various options for outside intervention into conflict situations that had become rampant in the aftermath of the cold war. he noted that preventive diplomacy is purposed to prevent the escalation of conflict into violent confrontation by dealing with its underlying contradictions. peacemaking aims to bring about the cessation of hostilities by working on parties and persuading them to look for and utilize non-violent alternatives. peacekeeping tries to maintain the state of non-violence achieved by peacemaking; while peace-building consolidates conflict solutions aiming at sustainable settlements (boutros-ghali, 1992). the conceptual approach has been criticized as being unduly preoccupied with the post-conflict stage of conflict, whereas peace-building could take place at all stages of the conflict process. secondly, it is seen as being narrowly in favour of non-violent conflict, thereby ignoring for instance the classical doctrine of “structural violence” introduced by galtung (1969) to which many peace scholars subscribe. structural violence refers to situations that are inherent in social systems that on their own are tense and could lead to conflict, such as inequities and inequalities, forms of deprivation and social injustice, etc. critics also indicate that the boutros-ghali approach places too much emphasis on outside intervention, mainly military; many of the limitations of which have now been seen in a number of conflict formations in africa (wolfgang, 1997). be that as it may, the historical concept of peace-building has come to stay in the nomenclature of conflict and peace practice. it has been further popularized by other scholars like john paul lederach of the eastern mennonite university and the work of the united states institute of peace, for instance. lederach in reacting to boutrosghali differs with him on the placement of peace-building at post-conflict: peace-building is more than post-accord reconstruction. here, peace-building is understood as a comprehensive concept that encompasses, generates and sustains the full array of processes, approaches and stages needed to transform conflict toward more sustainable, peaceful relationships (lederach, 1997:20). lederach further likens peace-building to the metaphor of building a house, a process requiring different components and stages. it includes, for instance, a vision usually contemplated in the architectural design, the structure and its details, sourcing for materials, a strong foundation with strategically placed pillars, cross-cutting beams, evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 1, number 2, october 2020 dajwan 126 and boards to strengthen the structure, detailed finishing and maintenance, etc. (lederach, 2001). he provides what he calls a “comprehensive framework” for peace-building that should incorporate structure, process, relationships, resources, and coordination. peace-building is not a one-off event that can be started and completed, after which its main stakeholders can walk away believing has been achieved. peacebuilding is a continuous exercise needing constant investment, re-investment and counter-investment. it gulps resources and these have to be sourced for and provided. peace-building at the maintenance stage, like the metaphor of building a house should be taken seriously; otherwise the structure will deteriorate (lederach, 2001). the question begging for answer is whether or not a peace-building process exists, or can be said to be in existence in plateau nigeria? who are its builders and what is the content of the building? is religion an item on the agenda of such process? if indeed there is peace-building process, why do we have the repeated episodes of violent confrontation among religious identity groups in the region? is there a shared vision of peace-building between the religious identity groups in the religious organizations and faith-based organizations? is this based on compromise or based on competition and a win-lose approach? these are rhetorical questions, many of which need to be answered by religious authorities, fbos leaders, political authorities and other peace stakeholders in plateau nigeria in searching for “just peace” (best, 2011:27). on the other hand the history of peace-building in plateau state is not yearly different to that of faith-based organizations in plateau state. peace-building efforts started in plateau state since before the ugly incident of september 2001 conflict. but it became obvious in the after math of the crisis of september 2001 with the coming of ngos, faith-based organizations and civil societies aiming at restoring and sustaining peace on the plateau. in september 2001, a more devastating urban violence broke out leading to the death of over a thousand of people. this happened again in may 2992, and in november 2008, thereby raising deep concerns about the peace ability of jos (best, 2011:95). therefore, peace-building in jos, plateau state is structured as in the sense of fbos which are dominated mostly by christians and few muslims organizations. they bear resemblance to the organization of faith-based and social activity delivery in the united states. in the words of united states institute of peace: global peace-building center “religious and political crisis in jos, plateau state nigeria. mark lipdo said on the february 27, 2015 that; i began to serve my community in jos, plateau state for peace-building by late 2009, as a volunteer for jcaf (jos crisis appeal found) initiative. that was after i witnessed the terrible violence, with gruesome killings, destruction of houses and all that occurred of during the 2008 crisis in jos. i even saw a kid of about 10 years at most help finish up dying man; he put fuel on him and light evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 1, number 2, october 2020 dajwan 127 the man. i tried to stop some christian youths not to kill a guy, and i got stabled with broken beer bottle in my back. i also almost fell victim of running into a mob while trying to go and see if my brothers where safe at the other part of the town. all of these sad occurrences were what moved me to be part of any sort of peacebuilding scheme. some of our university students died in the clashes too. jcaf is a partnership of can jama’atunasril islam (jni), banks, media, and civil society in jos, to raise funds for jos (interview with mark lipdo coordinator of stefanos foundation july 2016). stefanos foundation as a faith-based organization (fbo) the concept of stefano’s foundation is derived from the greek word for stephen, the first martyred christian. this is the idea behind the name and vision “stefanos foundation”. the pioneer of the vision, engr. mark lipdo, and his family have been working to help vulnerable communities, until 2001 when the ethno religious crises engulfed jos the plateau state capital and then their attention was shifted to caring for victims of the crisis. in 2002 released international came in touch with mark. released international is a uk-based charity organization and a member of international christian assembly, founded by pastor richard wumbrand whose work is to help persecuted christians around the world. it was at this point that released international started supporting mark to care for christian victims of the crises through the provision of relief materials and trauma healing. but the crises became persistent and continued to escalate to other parts of northern nigeria. this brought about a high rise in the profile of the victims and the overwhelming need to cater for them. as a result, the decision to start an indigenous organization that would help to care for the growing number of victims became necessary. nevertheless, the activities of stefanos foundation started since 2001 through providing relief and support for victims. stefanos foundation was registered officially with the corporate affairs commission in february 2006 as nongovernmental, human rights, advocacy, relief, rehabilitation and reconstruction organization. the organization is registered with six members of the board of trustees, which include engr. samuel ladosalifu (chairman), rev. dr. obed dashan mni (vice chairman), prof. isaac lar (secretary), mrs esther naja (member), pst. mrstaiwo dina (member), engr. mark lipdo (member). barrister gregory lar is the legal adviser to the board (stefanos foundation pamphlet, unpublished material). the role of stefanos foundation in peace-building in plateau state nigeria the administrative arm is saddled with the responsibility of the day to day running of the organization while the ministry arm is involved with the victims through various projects (stefanos foundation pamphlet). evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 1, number 2, october 2020 dajwan 128 1. re-construction: this is basically re-roofing of burnt buildings and homes belonging to christians in crises areas. 2. trauma healing: many crises victims have heart wounds that have eaten deep without proper attention to them. stefanos foundation often organizes trauma healing and counseling to help treat such wounds. 3. children welfare (education): children of martyred pastors and orphans’ education are paid for to enable them continue in school-building up a future in them. 4. converts’ care: converts from islamic faith and other faiths who face persecution are taken care of in thorough discipleship training schools (dts). 5. basic response: medical aids are given to victims who are maimed as a result of the crisis. 6. pastor support program: stefanos foundation again brought up a modality on how to keep and protect the interest of pastors the interest of pastors who located in those crisis prone areas. the foundation also supports them with substance in order that they will continue to serve god in spite of all odds. 7. relief: stefanos foundation has over the period of this crisis engaged in sharing relief materials to victims of this mayhem. these relief materials are given to these victims in order to meet up their immediate needs of food, clothing, medicine and even temporary accommodation as the case may be. 8. advocacy: stefanos foundation through its advocacy programs speak for the voiceless in the society who are daily denied their rights. this enables christians live and survive well in the muslim-dominated areas within nigeria. 9. conflict resolutions: because of the various crises recorded, there is no doubt that conflicts have been on the increase thereby providing the platform on which to resolve them. stefanos foundation has been very instrumental in resolving these conflicts that could otherwise escalate or lead to more. 10. development office: this office helps to create awareness on persecution of christians. they also networks with concerned bodies in order to surmount this seemingly unending challenge that is before the church today. the foundation goes round churches to create awareness and also to some relevant bodies who would give them the needed attention and maximum co-operation. therefore, the above roles of the foundation (the 5 s acronyms) are hereby summarized into the following five (5) dimensions: a. show god’s compassion b. serve god’s church c. share god’s love d. spread god’s word e. speak as god’s advocate a. showing god’s compassion: this is explain to mean, providing for the needs of the families of the martyred and prisoners of faith. evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 1, number 2, october 2020 dajwan 129 b. serving god’s church: this is explain to mean, enabling them survive persecution and its effects-giving practical help to persecuted christians through livelihood projects, training and support for pastors and churches. c. showing god’s love: a clear demonstration of god’s love is seen in the bible in john 3:16 “for god so loved the world that he gave his one and only son, that whoever believes in him shall not perish but have eternal life”. d. spreading god’s word: this is explaining to mean, supplying bibles and literature to meet the need for growth in spiritual matters and knowledge of the word of god and evangelism as well. e. speaking as god’s advocate: this is also explaining to mean, being the voice of the martyred and the ill-treated in the society, especially the christian communities. the achievement of stefanos foundation in plateau state nigeria the impact of stefanos foundation’s charitable work on the victims of plateau crises (a case study of 2008 jos crises) cannot be overemphasized (stefanos foundation pamphlet). it is true that a lot has been done by stefanos foundation in the area of charity and humanitarian services in the 2008 crises. during the november 28, 2008 unrest in plateau nigeria, stefanos foundation did a lot to see that christians who were in one way or the other affected actually received some help from the organization. after the crisis, stefanos foundation did go round the city of jos to; 1. verify and give statistical reports of what actually happened. in the november 28, 2008 crisis, they established the fact that there are no records adequately enough to ascertain losses procured in the crisis generally, especially as it affects christians. 2. in a memorandum submitted to plateau state judicial commission of inquiry into the jos november 28, 2008 unrest, stefanos foundation is quoted to have said that at the course of their providing medical support to the victims of the unrest, most hospitals and clinics testified that they treated most injured people as outpatients for whom they couldn’t provide substantial information. according to the report, only those in critical conditions were found receiving treatment sponsored by stefanos foundation. these people supposedly under critical conditions were about 30 christians who were at either, evangel hospital, juth, ola hospital and plateau hospitals. 3. stefanos foundation got the information that over 129 christians were killed excluding those declared missing. at the end the foundation was able to gather only 103 names of those reported to have been killed in the unrest and catered for their families through the (idps) home in zang commercial secondary school. 4. stefanos foundation also discovered that the overall incident left over 30 widows and 5 orphans to fend for themselves. 5. again, according to the report as established, 71 church buildings and other christian premises were burnt or vandalized in which stefanos foundation were helpful in the rebuilding. evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 1, number 2, october 2020 dajwan 130 6. stefano foundation also said that during their shelter need assessment campaign, they registered 1,700 christian families who lost their homes and over 700 landlords lost their houses. 7. according to their findings, over 462 christian businesses were reported burnt, looted or vandalized. 8. stefanos foundation established the fact that during their activities, some families raised concern for their relations who were taken to prison as a result of the crisis. according to the report, the foundation had contacted 26 christians arrested and taken to jos prison-where it is said that one emmanuel gonina unfortunately lost his life while in the prison. stefanos foundation also made provision of water, sleeping mats and provided temporay toilet facilities for victims of the crisis who were camping at the (ndlea) office at rikos in jos. with this fact above, it could be deduced that stefanos foundation played a vital role in helping the victims and especially through the advocacy arm of the organization with regard to the crisis situation. this confirms the memorandum submitted to the plateau state judicial commission of inquiry into the jos crisis of november 28, 2008. they brought victims of the crisis to the commission hearing them speak for themselves and where they were not able to speak for themselves, stefanos foundation spoke for them. in fact it was reported that the day stefanos foundation gave her report to the commission, no one else could give any other report because of the impact of their presentation. stefanos foundation came down with the victims as evidence of the effect of the violence on non-muslims. (a memorandum submitted to the plateau state judicial commission of inquiry into the jos november 28, 2008 unrest, 2009 production of stefanos foundation). conclusion the article has argued for urgent peace-building strategies to replace the current peace-enforcement strategy being used by the state and federal government of plateau nigeria. the paper has made a case that unless religious organizations and faith-based organizations especially stefanos foundation intensify peace-building activities of love, advocacy, and etc. plateau nigeria will never know just peace. it is believed that the application of the roles of stefanos foundation could be a way out for the progressing and peaceful plateau nigeria. the mission to build a peaceful society must be the passion of every religious organizations and faith-based organizations and the state of nigeria in general. evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 1, number 2, october 2020 dajwan 131 references ayika (2010), “faith-based organizations and peace building” jdpc commission in plateau state long essay cecomps, uni.jos, nigerian best, g.s and katherine naanzoemhoomlong (2011). faith-based organizations and post conflict transformation in nigeria. university of jos, jos nigeria. john archers ltd, ibadan nigeria. best, s.g (2007).conflict and peace building in plateau state nigeria ibadan. spectrum books limited. best, s.g (2011). religion and post conflict peace building in northern nigeria. john archers ltd. dugbe, ibadan nigeria. boutros, j. (1993), conflict: resolution and prevention, vol.1 london macmillan. boutros-ghali, b (1992). an agenda for peace; preventive diplomacy, peacemaking and peacekeeping.report of the secretary-general pursuant to the bafoussan, berlin germany. faith-based aid to people affected by conflict in nigeria.” downloaded from http://jrs.oxford journals.org/by leonard fwa on may 23, 2012 galtung, j. (1975). “three approaches to peace: peacekeeping, peacemaking, and peace-building”. owen, copenhagen: christian ejlers. longkat, d.d (2016). faith based organizations and peace building: an assessment of stefanos foundation in plateau state. long essay university of jos, nigeria. miriam longe (2002). “faith-based organization and conflict management in jos north: a comparative analysis of christian association of nigeria (can) and jama’atunasiril islam (inti).long essay university of jos, nigeria msc (ecomps plateau state government, (september, 2001) white paper report on judicial commission of inquiryinto the civil disturbance in jos and environs plateau resolves. report of the plateau peace conference (2004). published by the government printer, jos nigeria pokol, b. j. (2019). “peace-building in nigeria through social justice and compassion: the role of the nigerian church on the road to jericho”. nigerian journal of christian studies, volume 3, number 1, october religious intolerance, a threat to nigerians unity, stefanos foundation publication, jos nigeria. (2009). stefanos foundation (2013). “proposal for advocacy project for indigenous minority groups in northern nigeria” ----------(2009) “understanding the hazard: the jihad ideology”. ------------(2004) “leaflet/pamphlet”. touched! magazine, stefanos foundation production, 2008. http://jrs.oxford/ evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 1, number 2, october 2020 elechi 29 utilitarian consequentialism in environmental sustainability: an evaluation maraizu elechi department of philosophy rivers state university port harcourt, rivers state, nigeria email: drmaraizuelechi@yahoo.com phone: 08038954871 abstract human society is witnessing enormous challenges that are largely environmental. environmental challenges are in various dimensions including climate change that has left rivers drying up and sometimes disappearing, and the steady depletion of the ozone layer. forests are vanishing away with wild animals almost going into extinction mainly as a result of deforestation and bush burning. game reserves or familiar animals and aquatic lives are almost thrown into extinction. human life is in danger with increasing cases of deaths and terminal illnesses and other challenging health conditions as a result of contaminated air and water pollutions. there are increasing cases of erosion menace worsening the situation. worst still is the regular occurrences of earthquakes, tsunamis, and landslides occasioned by oil explorations and poor handling of natural resources. all these are consequences of human exploitation and exploration of the environment. this situation, no doubt, shows that the protection, management, and sustenance of the environment are non-negotiable for the continued existence and survival of humanity. it calls for urgent practical solutions otherwise human extinction is undoubtedly very near. adopting analytical and critical methods of inquiry, this paper, therefore, examines some environmental ethical principles or theories on how to regard and relate with the environment to give prospects and hope to environmental preservation and sustainability. in conclusion, the paper notes that the solutions to environmental exploitation lie in ethico-moral resolve to take environmental sustainability and protection as both an individual and a collective duty to avert human generational doom. keywords: environment, environmental sustainability, pollution, climate change, ethico-moral. introduction world peace and unity, global development, and decent living condition have been dangerously threatened by a lot of challenges including wars, insecurity, the proliferation of weapons, human-induced killer diseases, racial, religious, and gender discriminations and segregations among other contemporary global challenges. however, among these challenges, environmental issues mailto:drmaraizuelechi@yahoo.com evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 1, number 2, october 2020 elechi 30 and problems appear to be primal. environmental problems are the greatest of all challenges confronting and threatening humanity en globo. this is why pope john paul 11 in his message of the world peace in 1990 avers that world peace is threatened not only by arms, race, regional conflict, and continued injustices among peoples and nations but most importantly, by lack of due respect for nature. according to him the plundering of natural resources has progressively declined the quality of human life. jeffery was also right when he writes that, … change in human attitude, approach, and morality towards all living creatures that share this planet is warranted. in the space of few short decades, basic resources such as clean air and clean water that had hitherto been considered abundant, safe and inexhaustible are now under threat (120). the concept of environment is generally interrelated with the human being and his activities, wellbeing, and wellness. environmental issues pervade the economic, social, political, legal, religious, cultural, and scientific planes of man and his entire living and existence. broadly speaking, it imparts and influences man in many numerous unprecedented ways: his thinking, dressing, behavior, and his overall personality, prospect, and outlook. it is therefore impossible to think of man outside the environment. man is not only the product of his environment but more importantly, a principal actor in it. no one can live and operate outside the environment. human beings need the environment for continued survival as much as the environment also needs human beings for care, preservation, and sustenance. this explains the idea of environmental complementarity. it explains that man is in a symbiotic relationship with the environment in such a way that 'injury to one is an injury to all.' elechi aptly records it thus: …the relationship between man and the environment must be one in mutual dependency and harmony. therefore excessive exploitation of the environment by man must be avoided and the environment seen and appreciated from its intrinsic worth. otherwise, there will not be an end to environmental disasters since the environment has a way of fighting back (30). according to elechi, “we must consciously seek to maintain a mutual and complementary relationship with the environment since our survival and wellbeing depends on the conducive nature of our environment” (elechi 40). the destruction of the environment would have unbearable consequences on humans and their existence. this, no doubt, is the reason why the environment evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 1, number 2, october 2020 elechi 31 and its sustainability is and will continue to be central in local, national, and international or global circles. the fact is that the impact of an unhealthy environment is enormous and colossally grave on both the economic potency or productivity, the socio-cultural as well as the general health condition of man; while the benefits of a healthy environment that is well sustained cannot be hyperbolized. environmental sustainability can be achieved in many ways including through the institution of proper and effective environmental laws and policies, and its frugal implementation to regulate human activities in the environment. environmental challenges will have no end when there is no such conscious effort to preserve and sustain the environment. in nigeria, such inclination appears to be blatantly disregarded thereby giving rise to all forms of environmental degradations. the point is that there are environmental impacts or influences in whatever we do as human beings. incredible varieties of human activities have turned what is supposed to be for the good of man against him. such human activities like oil exploration, gas flaring, mining, poor handling of waste by individuals and industrial activities, forest logging, and bush burning have also adversely affected the environment, the economic and health conditions of humans. the occurrences of disastrous phenomena like erosions, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, etc., clearly indicate the destabilization of the cosmic relationship existing between man and the environment. these catastrophes arise mainly from human activities in the environment such as indiscriminate dumping of refuse, mismanagement of oil spill and exploration activities as well as his nonchalant attitude towards the management and sustenance of the environment (elechi 31). the coastal vegetation has been adversely affected; drinkable waters have been polluted; farmlands, creeks, streams, rivers, and seas have been contaminated with a general loss of sources of livelihood of the people. one of the yardsticks for determining how developed society has attained is concerning the environment, that is, the overall manipulation, conservation and preservation, and sustenance of the environment. this is the reason why philosophers are deeply interested in understanding the nature of the environment and the need in making it safe for human beings to live in. the philosopher believes that certain moral principles and values should govern human behaviours and activities in and within the environment. these morally right or wrong principles guard human actions in a relationship with the environment. the point is that philosophers are united in decisions that the environment needs to be explored, tended, or cared for and preserved for the good and healthy survival of man. the human being is therefore seen for what evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 1, number 2, october 2020 elechi 32 he is, a mere caretaker of our common home: the environment. peter alawa in his article titled kant and heidegger on environmental ethics: a comparative study argues that martin heidegger and immanuel kant were unequivocal and resolute in their belief that the environment should not be destroyed otherwise generations yet unborn will suffer for it (143). the moral value that underpins this philosophical belief must be imbibed by the entire humanity. the ecosystems must be respected for their intrinsic worth, and all forms of harmful environmental activities must be brought to an end. this moral obligation, a duty to treat nature with respect and care, not with neglect, exploitation, and abuse, is the basic thesis of this paper. the concept of environment the concept of environment is no doubt, general, multi-faceted, and twinned with all human disciplines and activities. it requires conscious concern by all human beings. the concept “environment” is endowed with many interpretations; it constitutes both the immediate and remote spatio-temporal bases of human existence. in his attempt to make clear the understanding of the concept of environment, elechi looked at it from its root word thus, environment means "that which environs us". and being "environed" simply means being encircled or surrounded. broadly speaking, therefore, the term 'environment' is understood as the overall physical, natural, cultural, social conditions surrounding man. it pervades the economic, social, political, literary, religious, cultural and scientific planes. in fact, it covers the whole facet of human life and behaviour, rendering it, therefore, a universal or global issue (31-32). the federal environmental protection agency act of 1992 records that the environment includes water, air, land, all plants, human beings, and other lower animals living therein, and the interrelationships which exist among these or any of them. in other words, the environment includes both physical and biological entities, living and nonliving things that are found within our surroundings. an environment is a complex set of physical, geographical, biological, social, cultural, and political conditions that surrounds an individual or organism and that ultimately determine its form (barbier, 86). hills, mountains, rocks, houses trees, grasses, rivers, and aquatic lives are part of the environment. furthermore, okereke writes that, the global environment is the surrounding, the universal earth within which human beings live worldwide and interact with one another, exploiting in the process, natural resources or evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 1, number 2, october 2020 elechi 33 endowment, for the benefit of mankind. it comprises living houses including the courtyard in the countryside, the municipality, the lithosphere (land, soil), medium atmosphere (air zone) and water or hydrosphere (moisture, groundwater, and surface water) as well as their inherent resources (1). the study of the environment is not an exclusive reserve of those in environmental sciences, but more a big concern to those in the humanities with its place, role, and relationship with the human beings who are products of their environment. the concept of environment cuts across disciplines including economic, socio-cultural, and religious, legal, and political dimensions, etc., in the same way, that its benefits are embodied and expressly discerned within these disciplines. this lends credence to ian barbour's view that the environment is very important to us in many ways including biologically, economically, and aesthetically. it is useful for food, health, material wellbeing, and personal fulfillment. in furtherance to ian’s claim, eboh in her paper titled ecofeminism: a politico-revolutionary discourse, argues that ecosystems provide tremendous services to humanity. according to her, every single species serves a useful purpose. if some of them should disappear, edward wilson says, new sources of scientific information will be lost. vast potential biological wealth will be destroyed. still, underdeveloped medicines, crops, pharmaceuticals, timber, fibre, pulp, soilrestoring vegetation, petroleum substitutes, and other products and amenities will never come to light (26). she continues the argument in her other work introduction to philosophy and philosophizing that bio-diversity is a necessity because every organism contributes something to the maintenance of the environment for the good of all. for instance, the bacteria (nitrosomonas or rhizobium) which live in the root noodles of leguminous plants, fix atmospheric nitrogen into nitrogen compounds which are nutrients for plants, and animals feed on plants, and human beings feed on both. bacteria also produce antibiotics that are useful to human health; many bacteria live in the guts of animals. if bacteria which are micro-organisms could do all these and a lot more, then the contributions of other organisms should not be underestimated. and the fact that bacteria live in plants and animals and serve useful purposes for both hosts shows interdependence (167). elechi corroborates with eboh’s view thus: evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 1, number 2, october 2020 elechi 34 the environment as a matter of fact must be seen and treated as one in mutual relationship or interdependency with man in such a way that each plays a crucial role in the collective existence and co-existence of all. what this means is that we need to preserve the environment because it is better to see the environment as a system and collectivity rather than as a separate entity in relation to man. this is so because there is a mutual natural dependency and interconnectedness of life and living among all realities (elechi 34-35). the environment is so crucial to human flourishing. it must be protected and sustained if longevity and survival mean anything to humans. the ecosystems and the species constitute the web of life in mutual rapport or constant interaction in the environment. this is to say that humanity must be environmentally enlightened to always present and actively defend the preservation and protection of the environment and its sustainability. the idea of environmental sustainability it has been mentioned in several parts of this paper that human wellbeing and continued existence depends greatly on environmental sustainability. the idea of sustainability according to robert gilman refers to “the ability of a society, ecosystem, or any such ongoing system to continue functioning into the infinite future without being forced into decline through exhaustion of key resources.”(omogun, 81).the point is that environmental sustainability leads to economic growth and sustainable national development. this is why goodland defines sustainable development as “development that is socially, economically, and environmentally sustainable.” he aptly explained that environmental sustainability is “maintenance of national capacity”. environmental sustainability supports economic growth, productivity, and national development. it simply means the need to preserve the environment for the future. this means that there is a natural moral urge towards selfpreservation since the environment is the spatio-temporal base of human existence and coexistence. environmental sustainability simply means community or societal sustainability. (elechi 38).obialo records that, environmental protection and conservation are necessary to preserve the interest of the populace and to conserve national wealth that would otherwise be wasted in providing necessary treatment of diseases and other ailments occasioned by the degradation of the environment. the wealth so conserved evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 1, number 2, october 2020 elechi 35 constitutes additional capital inflow to the total value of property in that location, whereas high cost of hospital bills to the community with the degraded environment becomes a net loss of capital outflow suffered by that country (3) environmental sustainability has continued to attract global concern and attention basically because of the threats accessioned by human activities, which result in environmental degradations. environmental sustainability is very critical to the holistic prosperity of a nation. it leads to economic growth and development. responsible interaction with the environment is necessary to avoid the depletion of natural resources and the promotion of long-term environmental quality. this means that natural resources must be wisely used to protect and sustain the generality of the complex ecosystems on which the survival of humanity depends. this belief, an ethico-moral and rational belief that human beings must protect those things they share and enjoy collectively, such as air, water, land, etc., for the purpose complementarity rather than antagonism clearly explains what environmental sustainability means for us. ruckelshaus explains that: sustainability is the doctrine that environment growth and development must take place, and be maintained over time, within the limits set by ecology in the broadest sense – by the interactions of human beings and their works, the biosphere, and the physical and chemical laws that govern it. environmental protection and development are complementary rather than antagonistic processes (166). ethical issues in environmental sustainability “the sustenance of the environment has a compelling ethical dimension," says elechi (38). ethics is nothing but a collective response of the thinking majority to curtail the excesses of man in society. it justifies why good is to be done and evil avoided. one good thing about the study of ethics is that it profits the whole of humanity in the long run. in ethics, we are taught to imbibe sound moral values and principles necessary to solve concrete societal problems "so that we can live in peace and harmony, with a modicum of dignity and at least some happiness.” (eboh 181). morality is the health of society. our environment is exploited and degraded and requires humanity to have a conscious moral change of attitude and actions. as ecologists harp on the importance of the ecosystems, the danger of human-caused ecological imbalances, and environmental degradation, the scope of ethics gets more and more enlarged to evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 1, number 2, october 2020 elechi 36 embrace a genuine concern for the planet's lifesupport systems. hence there is much talk these days of environmental ethics, eco-ethics, global ethics, etc. (eboh 182). we must stress the fact that anything which impairs the human life-support system is according to eboh, hurts humankind. environmental degradation, no doubt, impairs the human life-support system and therefore hurts humanity. the major reason for environmental ethics is to awaken the moral consciousness of human beings towards the environment by inculcating in them moral values in their relationship with the environment. the inculcation of moral consciousness towards the environment will help to bring environmental exploitation and degradation under control. it is therefore important we examine some environmental ethical theories suggested by philosophers on how to relate and regard the environment. the relevance of some of the environmental ethical theories is that they seek to give hope and prospect to environmental sustainability. according to warner, the earth and its creatures have “moral status”, so, are worthy of our ethical concerns; the earth and its creatures have “intrinsic value”, so, they have moral value because they exist, and not merely because they meet human needs; drawing from the idea of an ecosystem, human beings should consider the “wholes” that include other forms of life and the environment (1-2). environmental ethical theories to be considered here include utilitarianism and consequentialism. however, we shall also evaluate deontological ethical theory as a way forward in this study for the preservation and sustenance of the environment. utilitarian consequentialism: dimensions of environmental ethical theories utilitarianism, an ethical principle popularized by the english philosophers jeremy bentham and john stuart mill, holds that the test of the morality of any action must be determined based on the extent to which it produced good or bad consequences, that is, pleasure or pain. it is a theory that is based on utility. utility is for bentham, nothing other than “…that principle which approves or disapproves of every action whatsoever, according to the tendency which it appears to have to augment or diminish the happiness of the party whose interest is in question: or, what is the same thing in other words, to promote or to oppose that happiness” (26). the purpose of utility is the satisfaction of human needs. as a theory based on utility, utilitarianism asserts evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 1, number 2, october 2020 elechi 37 that moral rightness is determined by what leads to the greatest good for the greatest number of people. there are two shades of utilitarianism that stand out for discourse in our context namely: act utilitarianism and rule utilitarianism. act utilitarianism holds that what is morally right is determined by the consequences of such acts. this is to say that the rightness or wrongness of an act is determined by the result of such an act. if an action produces a good result for the greatest good of the greatest number of people, it is ethically right and should be desired, otherwise, it is wrong and should be rejected. rule utilitarianism on the other hand asserts that morality is a matter of conformity to rules or principles. this is to say that moral rules must be based on the principle of utility. the right principles or rules are those that if adhered to, lead to the greatest good of the people. the right action is that which conforms to the principles or rules that have been accepted and adopted as the best for the advancement of the greatest utility. the rules serve as the basis for determining which acts will lead to the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people. conversely, consequentialism as an ethical theory holds that correct moral conduct is determined solely by a cost-benefit of an action’s consequences. this implies that an action is morally right if the consequences are more favourable than unfavourable. it suggests that one can affirm that consequentialist normative principles require that we first tally both the good and bad consequences of an action, before determining whether the total good consequences outweigh the total bad consequences. therefore, if the good consequences are greater, then the action is morally proper. if the bad consequences are greater, then the action is morally improper. consequentialist theories are sometimes called teleological theories, from the greek word telos, which means an end, since the result of the action is the sole determining factor of its morality. it is said that this branch of ethics is mostly used by philosophers who want a quick way to morally assess an action by appealing to experience, rather than by appealing to reason and the gut intuitions or long lists of questionable duties. the most attractive feature of consequentialism is that it appeals to publicly observable consequences of actions. consequentialism is an ethical principle that resurrects plato's assertion that "things can be good in their consequences”. it can be said that the environment exists as an environment qua tale, not for its sake, but for the purposes for which it was created, that is the ends or purposes envisaged by the creator. in other words, it exists for the consequences that it fosters in society. an aspect of the consequentialist theory, namely, ethical egoism, regards an action as good, which only satisfies or maximizes one's good only, in contradistinction to that of others. this theory, no doubt, threatens the very foundations of environmental sustainability. evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 1, number 2, october 2020 elechi 38 a cursory analysis of the theories of utilitarianism and consequentialism with the environment indicates that the dominant premise as far as we are concerned, by which human beings should operate or relate with the environment must be seen to be pleasure and material benefits. by this, it claims that human beings must explore or relate with the environment in such a manner that will guarantee the greater happiness, pleasure, and material benefits of the greater number of people within the environment or community. here, the self-interest, pleasure, and material considerations of a person is the focus, rather than the realization of the good and wellbeing of the entire ecosystem. this is unacceptable. activities in the environment must be done in consideration of the good and wellbeing of all the eco-systems in general. in this case, we are not only concerned with human beings alone but also other beings or realities that make up the environment. again, at this point, we must be very careful not to think that whatever one does with the environment leads to happiness because that is what many people claim. this belief is equivalent to engaging in a circular delusion. indeed, there are times when one sets out to do things that will lead to happiness, but rather end in calamity. it is wrong to consider pleasure as the ultimate standard in relationship with the environment. pleasure is not the ultimate consideration of a man; it is not synonymous with happiness because it does not always lead to happiness. elechi asseverates this idea thus: to begin with, material benefits are not ultimate issues in the mind of a philosopher. therefore the conceptions of why a man should preserve the environment as rooted in terms of material gains or pleasure are implausible. it is fraught with the consequences of reducing man to the appetitive level of lower animals. in order words, humans need the environment to be properly human. rather than just a means to an end, the environment also serves an end in itself. therefore nature needs to be respected and preserved not only because it is simply the right and appropriate thing to do regardless of some sorts of benefit it be-stores on man, but also because it has values in itself (34) most material and pleasurable things, from experience, bring about unhappiness in the end. therefore, not all material pleasures concerning the environment are good and desirable. the care, preservation, protection, and preservation of the environment are unconditionally right, good, and desirable. utilitarianism and consequentialism theories of the environment seem not to defend the collective interests of all the ecosystems concerning the actions and activities of humans in the environment.the environment generates and evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 1, number 2, october 2020 elechi 39 accommodates the general or collective happiness of all; it has greater beneficial effects over and above bad or painful ones. it is based on this that victor frankl rightly argues that happiness is not the product of direct choice but is attained as a concomitant of other actions. pleasure and material considerations are therefore not a guarantee that every act sanctioned by them is validly ethical. deontological theory of the environment: the search for a way forward the word deontology derives from the greek words deon meaning duty and logos which means science or study. it can be understood roughly as ‘the study or science of duty’ in contemporary moral philosophy, deontology is one of those kinds of normative theories regarding which choices are morally required, forbidden, or permitted. deontology or deontological ethics is an approach to ethics that focuses on the rightness or wrongness of actions in themselves, as opposed to the rightness or wrongness of the consequences of those actions (consequentialism) or the character and habits of the actor (virtue ethics). this branch of normative ethics determines the goodness or rightness of action from examining acts, or the rules and duties that the person performing the act strives to fulfill. the deontologists hold that some actions are wrong in themselves – or at least that they are wrong prima-facie – not wrong merely because of the results of the actions. this means that the rightness or wrongness of an action is not determined by the consequences of the act nor upon the motive from which the act was done, but solely upon what kind of an act it was (popkin and stroll 50). for the deontologists, it is the intrinsic nature of an action itself that can make such act good or right. in order words, some acts are inherently right while others are wrong. this theory can also be called 'duty ethics'. accordingly, duty ethics holds that humans have to act in a way that their actions can be considered to be inherently good acts. this implies that in duty ethics, an act may be considered right even if the act produces a bad consequence. the care, protection, and preservation of the environment must be done from a sense of duty irrespective of one’s inclination or tendencies. the care of the environment is not an inclination but an obligation, a duty for all. an obligation is what we are conditioned to do irrespective of personal perception. inclination on the other hand can only thrive in the absence of obligation. the point is that we must suppress our feelings or inclinations and do only that which we are obliged or duty-bound to do towards the environment. duty is an act in response to practical reason because it corresponds to the right course of action. it is one conferred on humans by nature that we must act rationally, morally, and legally towards to environment. this is what we ought to do because lack of environmental care and protection places an epistemic-moral questionable burden on us. such burdens put to question our rational and moral worth or value as human evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 1, number 2, october 2020 elechi 40 beings. not to protect the environment debases the moral integrity of humanity.a notable scholarwhose theory or argument is similar to the kind presented in this paper is immanuel kant when he argues that human beings have the unique capacity for rationality and moral action. no other animal possesses such a propensity for reasoned thought and moral action, and it is exactly this ability that predisposes human beings to act in accordance with nature, and for the sake of natural and moral laws or duty towards all things especially the environment. humans have moral duties to oneself, to others, and the environment. kant argues that there is a more foundational principle of duty that encompasses individual responsibilities. it is a single, self-evident principle of reason that he calls the “imperative.” the imperative in the case of our position in this paper is that the environment must be cared for and protected. it must not be exploited and abused. categorical imperative, according to kant, simply mandates an action, irrespective of one's desires, such as "you ought to do x.” treat the environment as an end, and not as a means to an end, is imperative. that is, we should always treat the environment with dignity, and never use it as mere instruments. reflecting on kant’s postulations, omoregbe writes: if we simply follow our natural inclinations in our actions or if we have some material benefits from such actions, our actions have no moral value. the moral values of an action do not depend on the result of the action, but on the fact that it was performed strictly for the sake of duty (220-221). it is our considered view that the “imperative” commands all humans to protect the environment because the environment is an end in itself, that is, it is good in itself. this imperative, in recourse to kant's principles, obliges everyone without an exemption to protect and preserve the environment. compliance over certain actions is achieved through compulsion, coerce, force, or threat but the protection of the environment is one that we must freely do because we are free agents. this is what it means to act morally because there is a correlation between moral action and duty or obligation of humans. by this, we mean that a moral person is one who acts from duty or obligation. for instance, when a person cares for the environment because he is afraid of being arrested by the police for refusing or failing to do so, he is not acting from duty or obligation. he would be acting from duty only if he realizes that he has a special duty or obligation to care and protect the environment. this is a moral obligation. kant believes that the morality of all actions can be determined by appealing to this single principle of duty. this duty is according to ross "part of the fundamental nature of the universe." humans have a natural obligation or duty to preserve and protect the evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 1, number 2, october 2020 elechi 41 environment not only because it is good in itself, but also because by depleting resources and polluting the environment, there will be increasing jeopardy of the welfare of the present generation and next generations to come. the oil spill, erosion menace, and other degradations will continue to affect human life for many years to come if nothing is urgently done now. (barbour, 64). conclusion humans are ends in themselves; it is wrong to treat a human being as a means to an end just as it is very wrong to see and treat the environment as a means to an end, it should be treated with some worth because it is an end in itself. both the utilitarian and consequentialist principles that guide some people's attitudes concerning the environment will not do us any reasonable good. man must adapt a deontologist attitude towards the environment, whereby the environment is seen under all situations as an end in itself. this means that humans in relating to the environment must act in such a way that truly shows and reflects respect and care towards the environment. human beings must be democratic towards the environment. the rights of the environment must always be obeyed and protected including those of the lower animals and other appetitive creatures. the environment deserves some forms of justice and fairness. no one should treat it as a slave because that is not what it is. to achieve this, laws and decrees must be introduced and effectively enforced to curb environmental exploitation and degradation and regulate human activities towards the environment. this must be a crucial objective of any government in power. there must be ongoing and continuous citizens' education and enlightenment of the need to care and preserve the environment not only for the present generation but even for the next or future generations to come. there should not be any playing of politics with the environment; no semantic considerations in the making of the laws that will protect, preserve and sustain the environment, and no yielding to any form of technicality with the tendency of delaying the passage of such laws or perverse efforts towards the stringent implementations of such laws. this should become a universal principle or imperative otherwise all efforts towards the preservation and sustenance of the environment will continue to be illusory. in no situation should we feel obliged to degrade the environment because we have a natural and moral duty to protect, preserve, and sustain it. this is a categorical imperative; a self-regulating moral duty of all human beings. references alawa, p. (2016). “kant and heidegger on environmental ethics: a comparative study” in port harcourt journal of history and diplomatic studies,vol. 3(1), 2016, pp.143-157. barbier, m. (1979). introduction to chemical ecology. london: richard clay evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 1, number 2, october 2020 elechi 42 and chauser publishers. barbour, i. (1993). “ethics in an age of technology” in gifford’s lectures, vol. 2. london: harper collins publishers inc., pp. 53-72. bentham, j. (1962). an introduction to the principles of morals and legislation (ed.) by john bowing, new york: russell and russell. eboh, m.p. (1999). introduction to philosophy and philosophizing, port harcourt: pearl publishers. elechi, m. (2020). “critical analysis of basic challenges in environmental ethics and sustainability in nigeria” in evaia: international journal of ethics and values, vol. 1(1). pp.30-41. goodland r. (1995). “the concept of environmental sustainability” in annual review of ecology and systematics, vol.1(4), pp.1-4. jeffery, m.i. “environmental ethics and sustainable development: ethical and human rights issues” in implementing indigenous rights. mqjice, vol.2, pp. 105-120. kant, i. (1993). grounding for the metaphysics of morals, trans by ellington, j.w., indianapolis, hackett publishing co. inc. lawrence atsegbua et al., (2010). environmental law in nigeria: theory and practice, benin city: ambik press. obialo, e. d. (1992). “environmental pollution and property value”, presidential address at the opening ceremony of the 22nd annual conference on the nigerian institution of estate surveyors and valuers, port harcourt, 25-29th march. okereke, c.d. (2006). environmental pollution control, benin: barloz publishers inc., omoregbe, j. (2000). ethics. lagos: joja educational and research publications. omoogun, ajai c. (2009). ethics and environment: issues and perspective, calabar: baye communications. ruckelshaus, william d. (2016), “toward a sustainable world” in scientific america, vol. 261, pp. 152-168. popkin, r. h. and stroll v. (1983). philosophy made simple. london: heinemann. warner, k.d. and decosse, d. thinking ethically about the environment. https://www.scu.edu/ethics/practicing/focusarcas/environment_ethics/s hort_course.html.1 -2.2009. zimmerman, michael e. (2001). environmental philosophy: from animal rights to radical ecology, london: prentice-hall. https://www.scu.edu/ethics/practicing/focusarcas/environment_ethics/s%20%20%20%20hort_course.html.1%09-2.2009 https://www.scu.edu/ethics/practicing/focusarcas/environment_ethics/s%20%20%20%20hort_course.html.1%09-2.2009 evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, number 1, may, 2020 evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 amunnadi chukwudi a., phd page 54 promoting christian sex ethics: a key to redressing rising trend of sexual violence against women in nigeria amunnadi chukwudi a., phd division of general studies, enugu state university of science and technology, agbani email: amuchuks@gmail.com abstract the subject of sex is clearly an issue that is of considerable theoretical and practical relevance to the current nigerian society. the news on corruption bothering on the political class ravaging the nation economically through all kinds of fraudulent lifestyles no longer makes much headlines in our national dailies. for the story of economic subjugation of the citizenry by the ruling class has become a familiar terrain. what appears to be a worrisome trend therefore is the rising profile of sexual violence against women involving both the religious and political leaders as well as the ordinary men on the street. we therefore appear to be living in an age of sexual revolution that is unleashing all kinds of promiscuous behavior among our citizenry that has far reaching negative consequences on our women population. it is against this backdrop of rising sexual violence in nigeria that this work seeks to examine the promotion of christian sexual ethics as the way forward. christian ethics with reference to our attitudes towards human sexuality embraces a long list of things that people are prohibited from doing. while this may sound too rigid yet biblical context of sexual ethics provides the boundary of behaviour that secures humanity from sliding into the negative aspects of sexual lifestyle that is damaging to the overall good of society .this study invites us to consider the place of biblical context in our fast changing society that is being overrun by sexual violence. the work involved a survey approach and engaged the use of secondary and primary data. keywords: sex, ethics, violence, governance, lifestyle education introduction: according to online report, it is estimated that 35 per cent of women worldwide have experienced sexual violence from an intimate or non-intimate partner. moreover it posits that studies have shown that women who have experienced physical or sexual intimate partner violence report higher rates of depression, having an abortion and acquiring hiv, compared to those who have not..furthermore it submits that approximately 15 million adolescent girls (aged 15 to 19) worldwide have experienced forced sex (forced sexual intercourse or other sexual acts) at some point in their life. unfortunately while noting that in the vast majority of countries, adolescent girls are most at evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 amunnadi chukwudi a., phd page 55 risk of forced sex by a current/former husband, partner or boyfriend only about, one per cent ever sought professional help. this no doubt is based on its assertion that only a third of the global community can afford to provide such help. senthiligam (2017) states that sexual violation of women is a universal problem; from the streets of london, mumbai, washington to lagos, the recent outpouring of stories of women underscores the fact that the above problem showed a uniformity in its spread – irrespective of country or culture. what the above submission has therefore made clear is that sexual harassment is everywhere. furthermore it states while citing the national population commission nigeria that sexual violation of the girl child is on the increase in nigeria. sex again! many people would be very repulsive to the idea of discussing the issue of sex in the public taking cognizance of our african heritage which reserves sacredness and secrecy to the topic. unfortunately or fortunately modernity is breaking such age old tradition, and thus has given birth to information driven age. the issue of sex has most recently become one of both theoretical and practical imperative in view of the current nigerian situation where sexual violence against women has become a norm rather than a misnomer. there are issues of corruption in nigeria that has kept the nation veiled from the platform or interphase with the developed global community of nations. these range but are not limited to political, economic, cultural, religious and legal abuse. nzomiwu (2000) while corroborating the above view states that the story of fraud across the various dispensations of military and civilian leadership is familiar to most nigerians. however, he observes that the rising issue of current concern regarding the national decay is on the spreading coast of sexual violence in our social life. furthermore he opines that we are passing through an era of sexual revolution similar to what engulfed europe in the mid 1960’s. our nation he writes has been eroded by the sex virus engulfing all strata of the society namely the adults, the youths and even the children. simply put, we are living in an age of sexual madness that drives on the wheels of sexual sensitization through public display, pornography and advertisement. sexual violence against women in nigeria appears to be on the increase because sex in today’s nigeria has become so much cheapen that many now engage in very close sexual relationship outside the marriage bond. we appear therefore to be living in an era where most people now believe that purity, faithfulness to marital vow and decency in sexual lifestyle is meant for the trash. nzomiwu (2000) furthermore corroborates the above view when he states that many nigerians now have the false ideology or belief that chastity before marriage is not only impossible but completely unacceptable and an evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 amunnadi chukwudi a., phd page 56 outdated culture. furthermore he states that in nigeria today sexual indulgence has not only become very baffling to seriousminded people, it has equally grown very far reaching in its scope. according to him, in order to enjoy so called sexual fantasies, many people now resort to all forms of abnormal sexual habits such as exhibitionism, fetishism, voyeurism, pedophilia, zoophilia, and sexual sadism. what this means is that we are living in an age of sexual violence which has grossly eroded our age old african tradition and heritage as well as our christian foundational philosophy on sex as a sacred gift from god. women, according to wikipedia online, often face sexual violence at the hands of their family members such as rape, murder, slapping, and kicking. some of the reasons that were adduced for such abuse include their husbands being drunk, financial issues, and the rejection of a partner's sexual advances. sexual violence against women in nigeria largely goes unreported because of the burden of proof necessary for conviction. besides the high level of social stigma it bring often makes many women reluctant to follow their cases legally. moreover nigerian police have not been seen to arrest for sexual assault resulting in less reporting of the act. it equally notes that about 25% of women reported forced sex at the hands of either their current partner or a former partner. furthermore, the 2008 demographic and health survey showed that over 30.5% of married women have experienced at least one or more forms of physical, emotional or sexual violence in their marriage. against these backdrops, this discourse sets to unveil the causative factors behind sexual molestation of women as well as the role of christian sexual ethics as a means of redressing the rising trend of sexual violence against women in nigerian society. theoretical framework: according to stephanie and rogers (2010), there are pluralistic approaches with respect to the theoretical postulations regarding sex which consequently pose challenge to any serious study on the concept. most importantly they submit that the above situation has led to the categorization of sex on two epochs namely the primitive and modern thoughts. what this means is that there is an increasing number of theoretical postulations on the subject matter of sex. however this study would employ the divinity theory. this is an offshoot of the judeochristian thought which is rooted on the premise that man as a creature of god was designed to unveil divinity of god through his thought and deed. according to poston (2000) divinity has to do with immutability of god as an unchanging reality. applied in this context, divinity theory relates to the unchanging laws, principles and standards of god with respect to sexual conduct. sex ethics therefore are portrayed as being motivated by a desire to change the lives of the individuals and also to those individuals as the change agent of the wider society. to this end, sex ethics is evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 amunnadi chukwudi a., phd page 57 represented to provide moral road map as well as mobile community of the faithful who would serve as the change we need in addressing sexual violence as well as the catalyst for positive change in the fight against all kinds of sexual abuses. though the above theory has been criticized by some in being static and ethnic bias, by seeking to maintain status, the theory is useful to the study. consequently, structural functionalism was employed to x-ray how sex ethics can play various roles in addressing the current rising trend of sexual violence in our nation. sex ethics sexual ethics or sex ethics (also sexual morality) according to wikipedia it is the study of ethics within the context of human sexuality, and sexual behaviour. moreover, it states that it is a branch of normative sciences that seeks to understand, evaluate, and critique the way individuals express their sexual activities within the context of their social, cultural, and philosophical perspectives. sexual ethics therefore involve issues such as positive and negative sexual lifestyle, theological, cultural, sociological and natural perspectives on sexual standards and roadmap. sex has historically been an issue of great importance to people in various cultures of the world, and as such is a pertinent topic of discussion and study. as sex is a social practice that varies widely in the ways that it is understood, performed, and discussed, this study of sexual ethics and norms will be based on theological perspectives of christian religion. according to cahill (1995), sex ethics relates to the seeking of biblical guidance for sexual morality which in most cases prescribes rules that embraces such terms as homosexuality, adultery, and divorce. she notes that the problem with the ancient module of sex ethics is that of providing an answer to the question of original audience and the meaning of such prescription, rules as well as the issue of harmonizing the relevance of the old with the modern times. she then contends that though opinions are diverse with some authors believing in nothing like sex ethics and others in absolute or divine sex ethics, there is need to create a positive functional agenda or teaching on sex that helps in securing cohesion and trust within the context of community group and interpersonal relationships. it is against this backdrop that she notes that the biblical teachings which prescribes a functional normative platform on sex remains a powerful force for mobilizing a virtuous driven community as predicated on the sexual lifestyle disciplines it promotes. sex ethics therefore from the context of this work has been described as the science of sexual behavior from the judeo christian perspectives. as one who has lived through evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 amunnadi chukwudi a., phd page 58 more than five decades of life in nigeria i am only too well aware that the concept of “acceptable” behavior haschanged very significantly over the years. this is most significantly true in the realm of human sexuality. the presbyterian church of aotearoa new zealand as written by laurie guy (n.d) puts it more pointedly when they posit that sexual behaviour that would have been frowned upon forty years ago is now likely to be seen as an acceptable norm of life by many. furthermore it posits that sexual ethics broadly speaking relates to community and personal standards which regulate the conduct of sex within and outside of marriage. it is the instrument of defining the good and bad side of sexual activities within the context of divine morality. christian ethics with reference to our attitudes towards human sexuality embraces a long list of things that people are prohibited from doing. while this may sound too rigid yet biblical context of sexual ethics provides the boundary of behaviour that secures humanity from sliding into the negative aspects of sexual lifestyle that is damaging to the overall good of society. sexual violence cambridge online dictionary (2020) defines sexual violence as actions or words that are intended to hurt people. it relates to the use of force or instrument of coercion aimed at inflicting harm which may be physical, economical, psychological or otherwise. sexual violence in this context refers to the use of force which may be material or immaterial to secure a carnal advantage of a woman; a process which culminates in the unleashing of diverse range of harm on a woman. such violent act amounts to rape, sexual exploitation and forced prostitution that occur in the context of premarital, marital and extra marital relationships. the dangers of sexual violence against women in nigeria sexual violence has continued to increase in contemporary nigeria. this was equally the view of george (2015) when he posits that violence against women has become a regular part of most women’s experience in nigeria. nzomiwu (2012) corroborates the above view when he states that the modern level of obsession with sex poses serious danger or hazards to the nigerian society especially the youths. this section will therefore attempt to discuss some of the dangers of sexual violence against women in our country. i) economic effects: according to noipolls on the week commencing july 22nd,2019 public opinion poll showed that one of the major challenges faced by nigerian women is economic subjugation. while many factors contribute to the above problem, fawole (2008) posits that several negative conditions that result from sexual violence against nigerian women contribute in no small measure to their economic impoverishment. some of those conditions evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 amunnadi chukwudi a., phd page 59 were listed as physical violence, hiv infection, women and girl child trafficking for illicit sex trade. sexual violence therefore makes women weak physically, by exposing them to hostile men who not only manhandle them physically but also distract them mentally and emotionally thereby endangering their capacity to exploit in full the development of their god given economic potentials. against this backdrop economic challenges of sexually abused nigerian women not only threaten their economic survival it also hinder the development and survival of their respective dependants. what this means is that in order to grow strong economies the need to reduce the incidence of sexually abused women in our country cannot be overemphasized. ii) unwanted children cases: sexual violence of women in these modern times is expanding the coast of unwanted children in our society. there are rising reported cases of abandoned new born babies on account of unwillingness of their unmarried teenage mothers to keep them because they result from sexual violence. some of these babies are born and left to die in public garbage dump, and some unfortunate ones thrown into pit toilets. in fact, the rising number of motherless babies’ homes today underscores the seriousness of this problem. iii) abortion and deaths: the cases of teenagers dying in the hands of quack doctors because of failed abortion cases continue to be on the increase in our day. these teenage girls who are often victims of sexual violence in most cases resort to road side chemists in order to abort such pregnancies. this option is high due to the financial implication of consulting a qualified medical personnel as well as the fear of being stigmatized publicly because of given birth to illegitimate children. unfortunately such girls end up being butchered to death in the hands of quake and fake medical personnel. in aku town in igboetiti local government area of enugu state, a teenage girl was reported to have been sent to untimely death when she consulted a road side chemist to engage her in an abortion of her unwanted baby some five years ago. in june 2011 at taraba state it was reported that vasty, an expectant mother of 16 years old was cut into pieces by a quack chemist while undergoing an abortion exercise. this incident led to lynching to death of the chemist as well as the boyfriend who impregnated the deceased. all these tend to lend credence to the fact that sexual violence against women is gradually turning into death-bed for the undiscerning nigerian female population. indeed, the bible is replete with several references showing that an unborn child should be thought of and treated as a person from the moment of conception. besides, there is increasing scientific evidence supporting the distinct identity of the unborn child. however, abortion to save the life of the evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 amunnadi chukwudi a., phd page 60 mother is morally justified because it involves making a choice between one “person dying and two persons dying”. therefore abortion is the wrongful taking of an innocent human life. in other words, all forms of sexual violence that promotes wrongful destruction of innocent child in the womb should be condemned by all and sundry as evil and anti-society. iv) psychological effects: depression is one of the emotional and psychological effects of sexual violation of women. according to https://www.rainn.org online depression is a mood disorder which results when an individual fails to manage crisis that expresses themselves in protracted sorrow, hopelessness and worthlessness. moreover it posits that such psychological disorder can lead to several problems such as sleeping and eating disorder, and in extreme cases to suicide. while depression can result from neurological or brain damage many women who are sexually abused often end up becoming permanently emotionally unstable a situation which if not managed promptly can lead them to insanity. the above is corroborated by antai, oke, braithwaite & lopez (2014) when they posit that psychological distress is reported to be highest among women exposed to lifetime sexual violence. sexual violation of nigerian women is therefore a highly life threatening problem that should be the concern of all. perspectives of christian sexual ethics: christian sex ethics stems from moral conducts taught by jesus christ and documented in judeo-christian tradition. this christological standard has since ages remained the moral standard for determining right and wrong. till date, the very essence of this moral standard remains relevant in human existence. as revealed in the gospel of jesus christ and confirmed in the writings of the apostles, christian sex ethics are visible in the following. i) adultery: the mosaic law according to macdonald (1990) clearly forbids adultery as expressed in the following scriptures: ex. 20;14 and deut.5:18. however going beyond adulterous conduct he posits that jesus taught his disciples that mere abstinence from the physical act of adultery was not enough---there must be inward purity. thus matthew’s writing as stated inter alia puts it pointedly; “you have heard that it was said by them of old , you shall not commit adultery, but i say unto you that whosoever looks on a woman to lust after her has already committed adultery with her in his heart”. ( math.5:27-28).christian sex ethics therefore goes beyond recognizing ethical codes to embracing a transformed heart that abhors sexual impurity both in thought and in action. the old testament writing on the grave consequence of adultery as an ethical misconduct states that if a man commits adultery with another man’s wife both the adulterer and the adulteress shall surely be put to death.(leviticus 21:10) even though, the above penalty was not carried over into new testament theology, adultery was still prohibited by christ as made https://www.rainn.org/ evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 amunnadi chukwudi a., phd page 61 evident by his charge to the woman caught in adultery to go home and sin no more.(john 8: 4—11) . adultery is defined by chambers dictionary (new edition) as voluntary sexual intercourse between a married person and someone who is not that person’s legal partner. the above definition is corroborated by strong (2001) who states that adultery refers to sexual intercourse outside marriage. the word adultery refers to a hebrew word na’aph meaning to apostatize, to break wedlock. it carries the idea of shedding off the demands of one’s religion with respect to sexual ethical discipline. that adultery goes beyond physical sexual act is confirmed by peter in his writing when he states that a person may be proud by outlook such that he could be described as one whose eyes is full of adultery even though he has not physically committed adultery (2 pet. 2:14). adultery therefore is an ethical challenge that has both mental and spiritual triggers. mentally people could be lured through seductive speech, pictures and attires. in the book of proverbs, we are told of a woman dressed in the attire of a harlot (proverbs7:10),and who with her much fair speech seduced an undiscerning young man into immoral relationship (proverbs 7:21). spiritually speaking adultery is driven by the principles of the unregenerate heart or the unconverted human spirit which is rebellious to divine rules of living as revealed in the holy scriptures. ii) fornication: the english online dictionary defines fornication as sexual intercourse especially on the part of unmarried person. in teaching about premarital sex or fornication the bible speaks pointedly by demanding that people flee from fornication as it is the only sin that people engages in with their body(1 cor.6: 18). the word flee is not a suggestion but a command which by implication underscores that in divine economy, fornication should not be compromised or allowed for any reason. this is because in the physical sense it is a type of the spiritual union with devils. it is against this backdrop that god referred to israel’s idol worship as spiritual adultery or fornication(jer.3:1-9, ezek.23:1-45,hos.,chpt.4). moreover fornication is placed alongside the following terms; uncleanness and inordinate affection underlying the fact that it is a product of unhealthy environmental factors as well as warped up emotional disposition. most importantly christian sexual ethics provides reasons why fornication should be regarded as an ethical aberration; i)it is harmful to the body, (1 cor. 6:18), ii) it corrupts the personality (mark 7:21), iii) it would deny one access to the kingdom of god.(eph. 5:3-5), iv) it would attract the wrath of god.(eph.5:6), v) sanctification rather than fornication should be the rule of christian conduct. (1 thess.4:3-7). . the high rate of sexual violence especially among our unmarried young generation as well as married folk leaves much to be desired. it shows that evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 amunnadi chukwudi a., phd page 62 the christian ideological foundation and even our highly held traditional sacred values of sexual purity have been grossly eroded by modernism that drives on the wheel of ethical relativism. unfortunately the gross damage being done to ourselves at the levels of personal, family, community, national relationships coupled with the corruption it is unleashing on our political, economic , educational, spiritual and sociocultural foundations are better imagined than experienced. the vicious cycle unleashed on israel following king david notorious moral lapse underscores how sexual immorality of an individual can trigger the fire that can destroy a whole nation. it was an evil that led him to plot for the murder of one his best army general in order to cover up his sexual immorality but which unfortunately provoked divine judgment upon his house-hold played out as a drama of rape, murder, open sexual violation of his wives by his own son as well as a military conspiracy to topple his throne that nearly cost his life under the auspices of his son absalom(2 samuel . chpts. 11,12 and 13). iii) prostitution/sex hawking: in lev.19:29, god condemned prostitution which was a common feature of pagan religion and culture. according to the scripture, prostitution whether for money as in sex hawking or promotion and of worship of heathen gods through ritual sex promotes wickedness in the society. sex hawking has become a booming business today in nigeria that many married women as well as university undergraduates, secondary and primary school children are recruited by big sex merchants to sustain the pool of clients for the ever increasing demand for sex by sex addicts. unfortunately, it is the rich political class that aid and abet this illicit business through their outrageous salaries and allowances and other fraudulently earned incomes which they deploy in building hotels all over the country instead of establishing manufacturing industries. the irony of this wickedness by our political leaders is that they send their sons and daughters to study in the best universities in america and europe using the public funds, they embezzled from public treasury at the expense of the children of the poor. thus while they commit great resources to prepare their wards for both national and global intellectual, economic and political leadership they intentionally deny the children of the poor quality access to education and noble living. as a result majority of women from poor homes becomes easily diverted into prostitution as a way out of poverty not minding the gross violations they are often subjected to sexually and otherwise. besides by spending billions of naira to build hotels all over the place our leaders knowingly or unknowingly become purveyors of sexual violation of our women generations by trapping them with cheap sex as a way of survival which invariably make them perpetually poor and subjugated to the whims and caprices of the powerful rich. iv) incest: the hebrew restrictive law regarding incest is contained in one verse , ‘none of you shall approach any who is near of kin to him, to evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 amunnadi chukwudi a., phd page 63 uncover their nakedness: i am the lord’ (lev. 18:6). the term to uncover nakedness refers to sexual intercourse whether in the bonds of incestuous or outside marital relationship. the word incest therefore means having carnal knowledge of one’s son, daughter, mother, father, aunt, uncle, mother-in-law, father-in-law, amongst others. the law against incest according to swaggart (2013) was informed by the need to ensure that as people grow of age they should marry provided that such marriage is marked by restriction. commenting further on the above restriction macdonald (1995) notes that from the beginning, god ordained that two shall become one flesh in marriage and that therefore when blood relations marry they defeat god’s purpose of the joining of two people to become one. besides, he posits that modern medicine has confirmed that when blood relatives marry they not only perpetuate the physical or mental weaknesses of their parents in most cases they amplify it. v) marriage: modernity has continued to exert great pressure on the traditional way of doing things. these transformations embrace almost every stratum of human existence namely economy, education, communication, government, entertainment, etc. however, the most adversely affected of all the dimensions of life by modern day forces of change is on marriage. specifically, the incorporation of the concept of same sex marriage by modern day liberalists has remained a catastrophic ethic introduced by sons and daughters of lucifer to undermine the ancient landmark and divinely ordained rule of a man leaving his house and cleaving to a woman to become one flesh. the holy book puts it pointedly when it states inter alia :“therefore shall a man leave his father and mother and cleave to his wife and they shall become one flesh”.(gen.2:24). according to swaggart (2013), the above bible passage must be viewed as an inspired declaration of god’s law of marriage, which points to a unity of persons as opposed to conjunction of bodies or community of interests, or even a reciprocity of affection. the lord jesus christ upheld the above law on marriage when he affirms as follows: and he answered and said to them ‘have you not read that he that made them at the beginning made them male and female. and said for this reason a man shall leave his father and mother and be joined to his wife and the two shall become one flesh. so then they are no longer two but one flesh. therefore what god has joined together, let no man put separate. (math.19:4-6). adrienne &young (2000) corroborates the above view when he posits that the initial creation of man and woman together as the embodiment of the image of god stands as the foundational paradigm of marriage. furthermore, he submits that monogamy is the marriage of one man and one woman. what this means is that though cultural and religious diversity have continued to evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 amunnadi chukwudi a., phd page 64 promote differential approach to ethical conduct on marriage the christian community must remain resolute in defending the divinely ordained standard for marriage especially in these times when the rate of divorce, broken homes and secularization of the moral ethos is on geometric increase. conclusion the unrestricted sexual escapades and abuse in nigeria today is fuelling an overly sensual society that is increasingly unleashing all kinds of sexual violence on our women population. this sad development has no basis in the bible nor in christian morality and not even in our traditional african culture. there is therefore no doubt that this ugly trend is rooted on the invasion and importation of western culture. the above work indentified the dangerous consequences of sexual violence against women in nigeria today. it noted that pluralistic nature of modern society is advancing great diversity of thought as far as sexual ethics is concerned. however this paper adopted divinity theory as a platform for evolving ethical direction as way forward. recommendations the following recommendations are given as suggestions for the way forward. i) governments should provide relevant legislative backing to christian ethics relating to sexual conduct as a way to ensuring that those that breach them can be sanctions where necessary. ii)sex education which should give emphasis to appreciation and modeling of christian sexual ethical lifestyle should be made compulsory in our educational curriculum from primary to tertiary level. iii)the religious community, mass media, non-governmental agencies and government should promote campaign on healthy sexual living both in the churches and in the print and electronic media. iv)it is appropriate for governments to make and enforce reasonable laws restricting the practice of prostitution as well as the proliferation of hotels that serve as hotbeds for all kinds of commercialized illicit sex. v)production and sale of pornography should be censored among our young generation as they serve as fuel for provoking unguided violent sexual conduct. vi) parents, religious and political leaders must demonstrate commitment to sound sexual character through exemplary leadership. vii) individuals should seek for divine transformation of their hearts through repentance, faith and development of godly company. for according to the wise man, solomon, he that walks with the wise men shall be wise : but a companion of fools shall be destroyed.(proverbs 13:20) evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 amunnadi chukwudi a., phd page 65 viii) girl child and women education to the level of skill acquisition should be subsidized by government and made compulsory to forestall the increasing rate of women who turn to sex hawking as a last and only resort for survival because of lack of education or relevant skill. ix) government should provide effective legislation against abortion. x) government should provide maximal socio-economic security for the unemployed, aged, and the physically challenged in order to reduce the rate people who resort to prostitution and other forms of vices for survival. xi) the political and super rich among us should be given incentive by the government to build industries which is the shortest root out of unemployment, poverty and idleness that serve as incubation ground for sexual illicitism. references adrienne, forgette & young, lee hertig (2000) marriage , marriage practices. in a.s. moreau(ed.)evangelical dictionary of world missions. michigan: baker books antai, diddy; oke, ayo; braithwaite, patrick &lopez,bryan g.(2014) the effect of economic ,physical, and psychological abuse on mental health: a populationbased study of women in the philippines. in international journal of family medicine. accessed on 4th january,2020 from https:/www.hindawi.com bature, abraham ibrahim (2018)the role of faith communities in rebuilding lives and improving community stabilization in nigeria. in b.a. c. obiefuna, p.n. nmah & i. l. umeanolue, (eds.)the return of the gods: festschrift in honour of prof. jude emeka madu. onitsha: coskan associates. cahill, lisa sowle (1995) sex ethics : a feminist biblical perspectives. accessed on 10th december, 2019fromhttps://www.journal.sage.pub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/ depression. accessed on 2ndjanuary ,2020 from https://www.rainn.org/artcle.what-isdepression domestic violence in nigeria. accessed on 20th january 2020 from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/domestic_violence_in_nigeria facts and figures : ending violence against women . accessed on 12th january 2020 from https://www.unwomen.org/en/what-we-do/endingviolence-against-women/facts-andfigures george, temitola, a (2015) lethal violence against women in nigeria (2006—2014). accessed on 10th november, 2019 from https: www.nigeriawatch.org>htm/pdf/lethal-violenceagainst-womennigeria/pdf https://www.journal.sage.pub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/ https://www.rainn.org/artcle.what-ishttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/domestic_violence_in_nigeria https://www.unwomen.org/en/what-we-do/ending-violence-against-women/facts-and-%09figures https://www.unwomen.org/en/what-we-do/ending-violence-against-women/facts-and-%09figures evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 amunnadi chukwudi a., phd page 66 guy, laurel (n.d) sexual ethics : aotearoa, new zealand presbyterian church. accessed on 20th january 2020 from https://www.presbytreian.org.nz>pdf https://www.svri.org/sites/default/files/attachments/2016-01-12/measures.pdf depression. macdonald, william (1995) believer’s bible commentary. nashville: thomas nelson publishers mark, dimmock, & andrew fisher (2017) chapter 10 sexual ethics (pp.169—180).accessed on 10th december,2019 from https://www.booksopenedition.org/obp/4430? nzomiwu j.p.c (2000).the changing attitude in sex ethics :the nigerian experience. in unizik journal of arts and humanities .vol. 1. no 2 pp. 1--2 oladeji, david (2013)personal situation and sociocultural factors as correlates of intimate partner abuse in nigeria:advances in sexual medicines. accessed on 11th, november 2019 from https://www.doc.doi.org/10.4236/asm.2013.34014 poston, larry (2000)divine attributes of god. in a.s. moreau(ed.) evangelical dictionary of world missions. michigan: baker books stephanie meirmans & roger strand (2010) why are there so many theories of sex and what do we do with them? in journal of heredity volume 101 issue suppl. 1 . march--april, 2010 pp.. 3—12 .accessed on 10th november, 2019 from https://www.academic.oup.com senthiligam,meera (november 29, 2017) sexual harassment: how it stands around the world. accessed on 2nd january, 2020 from https://www.cnn.com.>health socio-economic challenges women face in nigeria pollresult: noipolls, (2019), abuja nigeria. accessed on 12th january, 2020 from https://noipolls.com/socioeconomic-challenges-women-face-innigeria/ strong, james (2001) the new strong’s expanded exhaustive concordance of the bible.nashville, united states of america: thomas swaggart, jimmy (2013) holy bible: the expositor’s bible .baton rouge, louisana: jimmy swaggart nelson ministries. talcott, parson. (1951). the social system. ,cambridge: glencoe press https://www.booksopenedition.org/obp/4430 https://www.doc.doi.org/10.4236/asm.2013.34014 https://www.academic.oup.com/ https://noi-polls.com/socio-%09economic-challenges-women-face-inhttps://noi-polls.com/socio-%09economic-challenges-women-face-inevaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, number 1, may, 2020 evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 iloanya, mmoneke & makwudo page 117 restoring harmony in the disarrayed nation of nigeria: philosophical anthropology, a veritable arbiter chukwuemeka iloanya, samuel ifeanyi mmoneke and kenechukwu makwudo department of philosophy, chukwuemeka odumegwu ojukwu university, igbariam campus e-mail: cp.iloanya@coou.edu.ng; si.mmoneke@coou.edu.ng abstract it is only in a few countries in the world that there is no major unrest. nonetheless, the disarray in some countries is much tense and far ravaging than in the others. nigeria happens to be one of such deeply disarrayed countries. this lack of harmony in nigeria has led to brokenness in almost every facet of its national existence. it has also been observed for a very long time that the three major reasons among many others for the turmoil in the country: violation of freedom, inequality and insecurity worsen as the day goes by. based on the said observation, this paper seeks to proffer a solution with philosophical anthropology – a fundamental science of the essence and essential organization of man, of his metaphysical essential origin, as well as his physical, mental and spiritual element in the world. it places the value of man above every other value and places him as an end in itself instead of a means to an end. this paper believes that when this awareness is created, nigerians will see insurmountable reasons for the need to respect the value of human life, hence addressing the major issues causing the persistent disarray in the nation. there will be an expose of some incidences that will aid in the understanding of the work. key words: harmony, disarray, nigeria, philosophical anthropology and arbiter introduction harmony is what makes a nation great. it is a binding force that unites a people. according to landauer & rowlands (2001), … harmony… brings men together in peaceful cooperation to benefit their lives. it is the bedrock of society. it is why people choose to live in a society. unfortunately it is nowhere to be found in nigeria. ever since her independence in 1960, nigeria has being moving from one crisis to another which culminated in the civil war of 1967 to 1970 where millions of lives were lost and properties worth billions of naira destroyed. the thinking was that the civil war will put an end to those things that led to the crisis and harmony restored, but little did nigerians know that it will rather serve as a catalyst that will aggravate the disarray that will evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 iloanya, mmoneke & makwudo page 118 consume the little harmony left in the country. immediately after the civil war the state of nation became worst.. every string that binds the nation together became shattered and there came high level of disunity. the people are made to be frustrated due to the fact that the basic things that are needed for harmonious coexistence of the constituent groups that made up the society were being toiled with, with impunity. the fundamental right and privileges that ought to be enjoyed by every citizen of the country are made to be the exclusive of the few that belongs to a particular tribe and religion in the country—rule of law are not respected. the government always fail their own part of the social contract that they willingly entered with the people and when the people do the needful as stipulated by the law by taking to the street through civil disobedience as can be seen in the write ups of many philosophers such as john locke, thomas aquinas, etc. the government always tries to stop them with all the forces that one can imagine of, hence, disarray in the country. the disarray always deepens as the day goes by without the government taken any correction in the sense that they repeat the same thing they always do with the hope of achieving harmony but to no avail. it is as a result of this that this paper seeks to introduce philosophical anthropology as an arbiter in order to restore the harmony that has for long eluded nigeria as a nation. in the sense that it will help in fixing the major three among the vital issues-absence of freedom, insecurity and inequality that led to brokenness and disarray being experienced in the nation today. clarification of concepts harmony: harmony/harmonization among many meanings it possesses could be said to mean an effective way to optimally coordinate differences and productively and positively transform reality. in present context, it could be said to mean ability of people whether of homogenous or heterogeneous background to live together in unity without partiality or marginalization against a group(s) that are existing within the society or community. for chenyang (2008) h a r m o n y i s b e s t u n d e r s t o o d a s a comprehens ive p rocess o f ha r mon izat ion . i t enc ompass es spa t i a l a s we l l as t empor al dimensions, metaphysical as well as moral and aesthetical dimensions. it is a fundamentally open notion in the sense that it does not aim to conform to any pre-set order. harmony could simply said to mean orderliness. disarray: disarray could be said to be the opposite of harmony. it is the state of disorganization, whereby things or events are not following the rightful or duly order/process that it ought to follow in the course of movement towards evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 iloanya, mmoneke & makwudo page 119 achieving desired result(s). it can also said to mean the state of crisis or total breakdown of law and order in both physical and spiritual realms. itcould also mean the state of conflict that leads to underdevelopment and backwardness. nigeria: nigeria is a country in the continent of africa. it is located in the sub-saharan part of west africa. its coast in the south lies on the gulf of guinea in the atlantic ocean. it comprises 36 states and the federal capital territory, where the capital, abuja is located. nigeria is officially a democratic secular country (nigerian law, 2015).with 186 million inhabitants, nigeria is the most populous country in africa and the seventh most populous country in the world (the cia world fact book, 2014). nigeria has the third-largest youth population in the world, after india and china, with more than 90 million of its population under age 18(the cia world fact book, 2014). the country is viewed as a multinational state as it is inhabited by over 500 ethnic groups, of which the three largest are the hausa, igbo and yoruba; these ethnic groups speak over 500 different languages and are identified with a wide variety of cultures (otite:2015).official language is english. nigeria is divided roughly in half between christians, who live mostly in the southern part of the country, and muslims, who live mostly in the north. a minority of the population practice religions indigenous to nigeria, such as those native to the igbo and yoruba ethnicities. she is said to be the largest black nation in the world. philosophical anthropology: philosophical anthropology according to crystalink.com, is the discipline that seeks to unify the several…investigations of human nature in an effort to understand individuals as both creatures of their environment and creators of their own values. it is the field of philosophy that seeks to interpret philosophically the facts that has been discovered concerning the nature of man and of the human condition. it presupposes a developed body of… thought, and accordingly, in its program it aspires to a new, scientifically grounded metaphysics. it seeks to elucidate the basic qualities that make man what he is and distinguish him from other beings. (iresearchnet.com). philosophical anthropology is the study that places the value of man above every other value; the study that sees man as an end instead of a means to an end. consideration of the three major causes of disarray in nigeria there are many factors that cause disarray in nigeria but due to want of time and space this paper will be restricted to just the three that were depicted in the abstract of this work--absence of freedom, inequality and insecurity. absence of freedom: one of the rarest commodities in nigeria today is freedom, irrespective of the fact that it is among the fundamental human right which is said to be the evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 iloanya, mmoneke & makwudo page 120 “inalienable rights of people”--the legal entitlements which every citizen should enjoy without fear of the government or other fellow citizens. they are said to be the rights which cannot be given to man by man but are earned by man for being a human because they are necessary for his continuous happy existence with himself, his fellow man and for participation in a complex society. unfortunately, these rights of freedom are lacking in nigeria. even if they exist at all it is the exclusive of the leaders or the ruling class; akin to thrasymacus saying that justice is an advantage of the stronger (harlap, 347370: 1979). in nigeria today freedom is indeed the advantage of the stronger (the ruling party, the fulani, the northerners, etc). according 1999 nigerian constitution (as amended), the citizens of nigeria are entitled to some freedom such as: right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion, right to freedom of expression at the press, right to freedom of movement, right to freedom from discrimination, etc. all these rights and freedom enumerated above have been consistently violated in nigeria from time immemorial but it seems to be at its peak now. for instance the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion imply secularity in nigeria---guaranteeing the peoples entitlement to religious freedom including freedom to change religion or belief and manifest and propagate one’s religion or belief in worship, teaching, practice and observance. the law also provides: 1. no person attending any place of education shall be required to receive religious instruction or to take part in any religious ceremony relating to a religion not his own. 2. no religious community or denomination shall be prevented from providing religious instruction for pupils of that community or denomination in any place of education maintained wholly by that community or denomination. 3. nothing in the provision of the constitution shall entitle any person to form, take part in the activity or be a member of secret society. despite these constitutional provisions, however, there have been frequent reports of human rights abuses among cleric fundamentalists. nigeria has witnessed many clashes between christian and muslim adherents over the years (naijalegaltalkng.com).in some states of the federation, the way the government are behaving or approaching the issue especially in this current dispensation makes it seems as if they are partners in violating this particular right and freedom in the country. the case of kaduna state is one among the numerous examples where the state governor nasir el-rufai is making laws that are against christians and confiscation of their properties, withdrawal of their c of o and suspension of easter holiday in the state. this act goes a long evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 iloanya, mmoneke & makwudo page 121 way to show that what is contained in the nigerian constitution is a mere paper work for confusing the rest of the world or to be used when the tide is against the ruling class but truncated when they have advantage over others, hence the disarray in nigeria. freedom of expression is one of the costliest freedoms in nigeria currently. one is expected to observe but not to talk. once one says anything against the government in power he will be tracked by the directorate of secret services (dss), nigerian police force (npf) or economic financial crime commission (efcc). these are the three major agencies used in intimidating people from expressing their views in nigeria today. many elderly statesmen, opinion leaders, opposition members, journalists, religious leaders that expressed their views against the ruling government have visited these agencies all in the bid to shun and cow them into silence. some are still in their custody till date. it was on a tuesday september 4, 2018 that the house of chief edwin clark one of the most vocal and elderly statesman and one time minister of information in nigeria was searched by members of nigerian police force because he and some elders condemned the evil they discovered in the present administration. all these acts are in a bid to cow him into silence but rather making him to become quiet it triggered disharmony in the country, which led to the dismissal of the officers that went on that mission after the denial of inspector general of nigerian police that he is unaware of their illegal sojourn in the house of chief edwin clark in search of ammunition. and niger deltas seeing it as an affront and insult to one of their patriarchs threatened to go back to the creek to start bombing of pipelines and kidnapping of expatriates. vanguard newspaper reported it thus: “a coalition of niger delta militants said yesterday they were returning to the creeks to disrupt oil production in the niger delta, following last tuesday’s raid on the abuja house of elder statesman, chief edwin clark, by policemen over alleged illegal possession of arms and ammunition”. one can see that more disarray is achieved because of looking for harmony the wrong way. inequality one among the major causes of disarray in nigeria today is inequality. there is inequality everywhere in nigeria irrespective of the fact that equality is stated in our national policy on education--that our education is geared towards the attainment of egalitarian society. and article 17 section 1 of 1999 constitution of federal republic of nigeria as amended maintains that the state social order is founded on ideals of freedom, equality and justice. sub section 2 (a) of the same constitution maintains that every citizen shall have equality of rights, obligations and opportunities before the law. (constitution of federal republic of nigeria, 1999). unfortunately the issue as regards to evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 iloanya, mmoneke & makwudo page 122 equality is nothing but a mere paper work. it will be said that theoretically equality exists in nigeria but practically what we have is inequality in every sphere of our existence as a nation. there is no equality before the law. for in nigeria today, some people are above the law and have no respect for rule of law or decision of the court which in theory was said that everyone should be equal before. the current president of nigeria gen. mohammadu buhari and his government are typical example of people that are not equal with others; they are above the law and violate the rule of law at will. his penchant for violation of the law made him to say that rule of law should be subjected to national interest during the 2018 annual law conference. here is his exact word: rule of law must be subject to the supremacy of the nation’s security and national interest. our apex court has had cause to adopt a position on this issue in this regard and it is now a matter of judicial recognition that; where national security and public interest are threatened or there is a likelihood of their being threatened, the individual rights of those allegedly responsible must take second place, in favour of the greater good of society. (oyenigbehin, 2018). the above is an instance of a country where inequality reigns supreme when it has to do with the law. not adhering to court orders as it affects the releasing of some people like el-zakzaky the leader of shia moslem in nigeria and colonel dasuki sambo the former defence minister (which he later released late 2019 after so much pressure from international bodies) are some of the instances of inequality before the law in nigeria. apart from inequality before the law in nigeria; there are many other spheres where inequality exist in nigeria like was said earlier but due to want of time and space they will just be mentioned. the areas include: power sharing, education, government appointments, employment, state creation, infrastructures, scholarships, loans and grants, forces, etc. in nigeria, these mentioned sectors do not operate as demanded by federal character, but are normally structured or designed in a way that it will favour the people of a particular tribe, sex, religion and class; hence, manifestation of disarray and disharmony experienced in the country today. insecurity insecurity is one among the major challenges faced in nigeria presently. neither people’s lives nor their properties are protected irrespective of the fact evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 iloanya, mmoneke & makwudo page 123 that the constitution made it clear that; “every person has a right to life, and no one shall be deprived intentionally of his life, save in execution of the sentence of a court in respect of a criminal offence of which he has been found guilty in nigeria” (constitution of federal republic of nigeria, 1999). like all other things that have to do with the masses that are contained in the constitution this is also a paper work. every day people lose their lives and properties in nigeria with little or no effort made to protect them. from east to west, north to south of nigeria, the news of killing and maiming of people abound. the most unfortunate thing is that this killing and maiming is done by both nigerians and foreigners with the government making flimsy excuses to justify the killing and their inability to protect the people. the punch news paper corroborates: president muhammadu buhari demonstrated his cluelessness afresh on sunday when he blamed herders’ act of horrific violence on the shrinking lake chad and alleged biased media reports. his narrow narrative seeks vainly to explain away the campaign of terror and mayhem by bandits on the displacement of herdsmen from the lake area and hang the seeming helplessness of his administration in curbing the rampage on the mass media. this is ghastly. (editorial board, punch news paper september 4, 2018). the above is just an instance of the way the government reacts to the insecurity going on in nigeria, especially in this present regime. by september 2018 punch news paper quoting coalition for conflict resolution and human rights reported that fulani terrorists killed over 2,000 persons across the country that year, in nigeria. a tally by saturday punch attributed 3,094 persons killed by boko haram terrorists and fulani herdsmen between may 29, 2015 and may 2016; amnesty international counted 168 killed in january alone, while the benue state government said fulani marauders killed over 1,500 persons, including soldiers and policemen, in 47 different attacks in the three years to february this year. at least, 14 persons were again brutally murdered in plateau state yesterday (punch news paper september 4, 2018). the above instance is just a tip of an ice berg on the cases of insecurity currently existing in nigeria with little or no effort made to stop them. hence, the disarray experienced everywhere in the country. evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 iloanya, mmoneke & makwudo page 124 the effect of disarray in nigeria there are hundreds of effects resulting from disharmony and disarray in nigeria which will be too much for this paper to document. be that as it may, we are going to consider the effects in the area of poverty level, governance, fear and mistrust. poverty level: due to the disarray and disharmony in nigeria, her poverty level has increased greatly. there has never been any time in the history of nigeria she was tag the headquarters of poverty except this period. theresa may the british prime minister observed during her august, 2018 visit to nigeria that, “…. 87 million nigerians live on less than $1.90 a day making it home to more very poor people than any other nation in the world.”(pulse.ng). this is in line with, june, 2018 release of poverty clock, where it was stated that the current estimate of poor people living in nigeria is 44.2% considering its current estimated 196 million populations living on less than $1.25 a day (kharas & hamel, 2018). kharas & hamel (2018) opine …. nigeria has already overtaken india as the country with the largest number of extreme poverty in early 2018…. at the end of may 2018, our trajectories suggest that nigeria had about 87 million people in extreme poverty, compared with india’s 73 million. what is more, extreme poverty in nigeria is growing by six people every minute, while poverty in india continues to fall. this extreme poverty experienced in nigeria as has been said before is due to disarray because most bread winners in the course of the disarray were displaced or killed and businesses destroyed, hence their source of livelihood and survival put to shambles and this invariably affected the gdp of the nation. governance: there is no time it seems tough to govern a state than in her period of disarray; when there is no harmony. nigeria though not officially in a war situation is facing and experiencing a very big challenge more than some countries that have situation of full blown war. this is as a result of insurgency and pockets of terrorism going on in almost every part of the country. and this has made governance very difficult in the country as it stands. this also has made the execution of government policies difficult especially in those areas where disharmony is on the high side. the funds that are meant for the running of the government are spent in restoring peace and harmony. the funds that are meant for other developmental projects are being diverted into security in the quest to restore the country to a stable situation. evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 iloanya, mmoneke & makwudo page 125 pertinent to mention here is that disarray has led to absence of fundamental human rights which are very good ingredients for good and democratic governance. as it is well known, for there to be good government there should be room for expression of certain fundamental human rights most especially that of speech but absence of such rights and privileges have led to the exclusion of many from meaningful participation in the nation building and from other opportunities to better their own circumstances and advance their personal liberty in a country in which they are members and they are supposed to contribute to its governance. fear and mistrust there is high level of fear due to disharmony and disarray in nigeria today. people are afraid of everything, even afraid of the unknown. even the high and mighty is afraid; nobody is left out of this fear bedeviling nigeria. this fear is not farfetched. it could be ascertained to emanate from lack of peace, and this lack of harmony has made everyone to be a suspect to everyone. there is no trust any longer even when there is genuine reason for carrying out an action or doing anything due to fear and lack of trust it will be given a negative and bad interpretations and this has taken too much toll on the nation’s development. this fear is glaring among the government of the day hence, their intimidation and incarceration of anybody that tries to challenge them. and due to the high level of intimidation going on in the country recently many people are no longer willing and ready to talk. when one goes to various security offices in nigeria, so many people are in their custody just for the fact that they did what is expected of them but the government fearing that they will be exposed by them want to silence them by keeping them there. some are even silenced forever by killing them. the ordinary people on the street are also afraid. the fear of uncertainty possesses everyone because the nation is not secured in all spheres. nigerians fear for lost of lives and properties as could be seen in most regions of the country, people fear for the lost of job as could be seen in the recent release that nigeria has lost over 10 million jobs. mr. peter obi the former governor of anambra state in one of the channels television breakfast show in august 2018, maintained that, “unemployment is worsening. in 2017 our employment ratio moved from 14.8 to 18.8% this year 2018. this means that more people have lost their jobs” and many more are still losing their jobs. one tribe is afraid of the other, one religion afraid of the other, employer afraid of the employee, politician afraid of the governed and the ruled afraid of the government etc. there seems to be the fear of all by all. all these fear and mistrust is as a result of disarray and disharmony being experienced in nigeria. evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 iloanya, mmoneke & makwudo page 126 nigeria should not be allowed to continue on this path of trepidation. therefore, there is the need to find the solution to the unease hence the need for application of philosophical anthropology as a harmonious option for the stability and restoration of nigeria. philosophical anthropology and harmony restoration in nigeria one cannot claim to be ignorant of the degree of disarray in nigeria currently. the disarray in no small measure has crippled almost everything in the nation. and as it stands now, everybody and tribe in nigeria are ready to be on their own, irrespective of various efforts being made to make nigeria harmonious. the implication is that there is something not gotten right by these other approaches that have been previously applied. the thing not gotten right is the failure of the nation to understand and place properly the human person in its appropriate place when it comes to importance and value. it is the absence of the above that made this paper to consider philosophical anthropology as an avenue to harmony restoration in nigeria. this is because philosophical anthropology is that aspect of philosophy that studies the human person in its entirety together with its relationship with its fellow man and its environment most especially as it affects man’s value and worth. so for harmony to be attained in nigeria, it should be understood that the human person should be placed and considered above every other thing irrespective of the tribe, religion and sex of the person. neglect of these factors has been the cause of major disarray in nigeria today. but with the knowledge of philosophical anthropology the consciousness of the people will be equipped with the idea that all men are equal and the same; that some are not more equal, important and valuable than the others. according to aristotle, all human beings are the same in respect to form (that which constitutes them as human), and their individual differences are to be accounted for by reference to the matter in which this common form is variously instantiated (just as the different properties of golf and squash balls are derived from the materials of which they are made, while their common geometrical properties are related to their similar size and shape (crystalink.com). in nigeria just as already mentioned, inequality has held sway for a very long time. different treatment has been mated for different people, tribe, sex, religion, etc. philosophical anthropology will assist us to bring such practices to the bare in the sense that it will make the people to see our actions in the light of ‘categorical imperative’ which holds that, “one should act always in such a way that one could rationally, will the principle on which you act be a universal law” (moore & bruder, 2002, p. 238). when such is done the people will see the need for the equitable sharing of national cake, especially power. evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 iloanya, mmoneke & makwudo page 127 this will go a long way in assuaging the feeling of domination and marginalization by some ethnic group, religion, sex, etc. especially, the ethnic minorities (uduigwomen, 2013, p. 323), which often lead to quagmire and disarray in the nation. another importance of philosophical anthropology in bringing harmony in nigeria is that, it will help us to understand that the disunity that is experienced is not caused by any supernatural forces or god but rather by nigerians themselves. hence, reducing the rate of prayer that we say when we fail to do what we ought to do for ourselves, especially when the repercussions of what we fail to do start manifesting. this is because philosophical anthropology is the study of oneself by oneself and study of ‘i’ by ‘i’. that is to say in philosophical anthropology, man is both the subject and object of study (iloanya, n.d.). thus being the case, man is supposed to understand himself very well and if a person understands him/herself it will have no need of blaming another or divinity for what s/he fails to get right as is the case with nigeria where blame game is order of the day and which has drifted the nation from purposeful development but to disarray and underdevelopment. so, philosophical anthropology will enable nigerians to see that the nation is neither threatened by nature nor by the god who made nature, but by his own use of nature. that man's enemy is man, manmade structures, not the god who made man. when nigerians understand this they will be able to put their house in order for harmony to be restored. looking at the three major causes of disarray in nigeria as said earlier in this paper one will see that absence of freedom is one among them. there is no freedom in nigeria today and in philosophical anthropology one is made to understand that the human person is an independent substance of a rational nature (boethius, 1342). in the word of sartre (2009, p. 409) man is condemned to be free. so any activity that stops the human person including the nigerian person from enjoying his/her freedom is reacted against because it dehumanizes and decreases ones value. according to kierkegaard (n.d): it is the 'existential value' of freedom which determines the worth of individual(italics mine) and one's actions, that is to say, an action has 'existential value', it is the result of a freely chosen commitment. free choice is the mark of the 'truly existent individual', which sets him off from the 'crowd'. freedom is not a measure of the value of one course of action as opposed to another, but it is a measure of the value of a person in choosing some course of action (30). evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 iloanya, mmoneke & makwudo page 128 in fact, the central theoretical insights of philosophical anthropology consist in an affirmation of the individuality and sociability of man as ultimate values. this theory would seem to suggest a social organization that combines an optimum of free choice with the minimum encroachment on individual liberty that is compatible with a viable social coexistence. this is in fact the utilitarian image of man that has prevailed since the early nineteenth century in the english-speaking world, where this image of man has been internalized to such an extent that the discussion of ultimate metaphysical questions has predominantly given way to the discussion of means to assure the accepted end of mutual accommodation and individual discretion (iresearchnet.com).so, philosophical anthropology exposes the nation to the idea and understanding that people’s freedom constitutes part and parcel of their actions, authentic existence and living. freedom … means the power to realize one's authentic self (bhadra, n.d.). so, any attempt to deprive them of such freedom will lead to nothing but anarchy and disarray which as one can see is very glaring in nigeria. finally, philosophical anthropology if harkened to and channel properly will help in arresting bad governance and high level of insecurity in nigeria which is resultant effect of bad government. this responsibility philosophical anthropology has been able to achieve in facist italy, soviet union under stalin and nazi germany under hitler. all these governments undermined the value of the human person and caused a lot of insecurity in their countries till philosophical anthropology intervened. crystalink.com succinctly puts it: the use of philosophical anthropology … emerged in the first half of the 20th century with the tendency both in germany and in france to treat the problems of anthropology as the centre of all philosophical studies. its emergence at this time may be seen as a reaction to the totalitarian systems of the 20th century: italian fascism, soviet communism under stalin, and german nazism were powerful ideologies calling for the annihilation of the individual character of the person. the philosophical protests of the german phenomenologist max scheler, of the russian existentialist nikolay berdyayev, of the jewish philosophical theologian martin buber, and of the french personalist emmanuel mounier offered answers to this challenge; the philosophies of the person and of existence present to each individual the means to centre himself upon himself. evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 iloanya, mmoneke & makwudo page 129 the citizens of these affected countries adhered to the teaching and ideas of philosophical anthropologists hence, the relative harmony in those countries. therefore, if nigeria should like the countries mentioned above adhere to ideas and dictates of philosophical anthropology the peace and harmony that has eluded us over a long time now will be restored. conclusion everywhere in nigeria today there is strife. harmony has really eluded us but some of the reasons for the absence of harmony in nigeria this paper has been able to point out which are absence of freedom, inequality and insecurity. some of the effects were observed in some areas among which are: poverty level, poor governance, fear and mistrust. it is due to the above variables that philosophical anthropology has to come in because it has been observed that in nigeria, man has been alienated from his authentic nature through the replacement of its intrinsic value by means end relationships which heralded the age of crisis as can be seen everywhere in nigeria currently. so, the salvation of nigeria this paper believes is contained in understanding and implementing the ideas of philosophical anthropology as posited and suggested in this paper. once this is done, the peace and harmony that has for long missing in the country will found. references aristotle in crystalink.com. anthropology: the spiral of life and consciousness. https://www.crystalinks.com/anthropology.html bhadra, m.k. 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(2013). new strategies for achieving the spirit of unity. in a.f. uduigwomen (ed.), contemporary socio-ethical issues and problems: the biblical/moral perspective (pp.331-332). https://www.naijanews.com/author/joshua/ https://www.naijanews.com/2018/08/26/president-buharis-speech-at-2018-nba-annual-general-conference/ https://www.naijanews.com/2018/08/26/president-buharis-speech-at-2018-nba-annual-general-conference/ https://www.skyhorsepublishing.com/9781628734515/the-cia-world-factbook-2014/ https://www.skyhorsepublishing.com/9781628734515/the-cia-world-factbook-2014/ https://www.pulse.ng/news/local/theresa-may-says-nigeria-houses-highest-number-of-poor-people-id8780837.html https://www.pulse.ng/news/local/theresa-may-says-nigeria-houses-highest-number-of-poor-people-id8780837.html evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 1, number 2, october 2020 ilarious 103 spiritual leadership in the church: a critical examination james aruma ilarious, phd nnamdi azikiwe university, awka, anambra state, nigeria email: jamesaruma17@gmail.com abstract spiritual leadership in the church is the art of motivating a group of people to act towards achieving a common desired goal. spiritual leadership is nothing if not linked to collective purpose; and the effectiveness of the leadership must be judged not by press clippings but by actual social change, measured by intent and by satisfaction of human needs and expectations which on the long term will be visible on the church growth and development. spiritual leadership is about providing guidance and direction. it does not always have to be done from the front; and it is not an easy thing to achieve. spiritual leadership is the ability of someone who has the style, personal qualities, charisma, values, skills, experience and knowledge to mould consensus and mobilize other people to get things done together. spiritual leadership is defined as the ability to gain consensus and commitment to common objectives beyond organizational requirements which are attained with experience or contribution and satisfaction on the part of the working group (oluwasegun 2005). it can also be defined as the relationship in which one person /leader influences others to work together on related tasks to meet the leadership set goals. spiritual leadership is a means of direction, the ability of the church management to induce the subordinates to work towards achieving the group’s set goals with confidence and keenness. this paper is to critically examine spiritual leadership in the church, the principles and characteristics of church leadership. the findings of the study will indicate what the church authorities need to do or incorporate into the system to ensure growth and development both in physical and spiritual dimensions. the research will also serve as a resource base to other scholars and researchers interested in carrying out further research in this field. key words: spiritual; leadership; church; critical; examination introduction spiritual leadership is leadership that comes out of our life force, our human spirit which is nurtured by a connection to the spirit of god. this force / power controls, inspires, sustains, empowers and strengthens our human faculties as we engage in church ministry. spiritual leadership in the church has an important role to play in providing strategic direction for leaders and helping them foster commitment, shared aims and accountability. it fosters mailto:jamesaruma17@gmail.com evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 1, number 2, october 2020 ilarious 104 agreed and shared objectives and vision, including clarifying roles and responsibilities. these are features of effective spiritual church leadership. the fundamental goal of governing the church will not be compared to that of other institutions or organizations. the church is in the business of winning souls for the kingdom of heaven. the church leadership is answerable to god. god has set the goals for the church in the great commission: “therefore go and make disciples of all nations…” (matthew 28:19). spiritual leadership establishes accountability on both spiritual and administrative matters of the church. this is central to the purpose and function of church governance and management which is important for effective church leadership. with respect to church leadership, it implies one who shows the way, one who guides, and one who directs and one who reprimands and develops a set objectives along with the group and resolves individual or group needs as long as church leadership is concerned. this is perceived as the only way towards church growth and development. spiritual leadership means building of relationships, the process of guiding, directing and commanding others to achieve a desired goal or vision. the real qualities of spiritual leadership according to sanders (1987) “are to be found in those who are willing to suffer for the sake of objectives great enough to demand their wholehearted obedience”. true spiritual leadership is an internal quality of the spirit and requires no external show of force. it requires exercise of self-control in times of testing circumstances and to muster faith and courage as not to forfeit respect and loses influence. spiritual leadership is an embodiment of peace that recognizes the rights of every human being. it is much easier to keep the peace than to make peace where it has been shattered. an important function of spiritual leadership is conciliation – the ability to discover common ground between opposing viewpoints and then induce both parties to accept it. there are other qualities that detract from spiritual leadership, for example, an oversensitive and defensive attitude when checked or corrected. there is always an element of truth in such criticism, and self-vindication is an unproductive quality. an unwillingness to accept responsibility for failure, or the tendency to lay the blame at someone else’s door will forfeit confidence. while always aiming at excellence, the spiritual leadership should avoid the snare of perfectionism. the perfectionist usually sets goals quite beyond his ability to attain and then entertains a false sense of guilt because of failure to achieve. setting more modest and realistic goals would bring great release to many an idealistic perfectionist. the vision of spiritual leadership is to prepare people to become faithful and responsible citizens for the nation, and his desire to lead them to receive evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 1, number 2, october 2020 ilarious 105 salvation in eternity is of paramount to him. there are leaders in the church; pastors and bishops but not all are spiritual. spiritual leadership is not made by election or appointment by men or any combination of men, not by conferences or synods. only god can make them. holding position of importance in the church does not constitute or make one a spiritual, nor taking courses in leadership, or resolving to become a leader. the only method here is that of qualifying to be a leader. religious positions can be conferred by bishops and boards, but not spiritual authority, which is the prime essential of christian leadership. that comes – often unsought – to those who in earlier life have proved themselves worthy of it by spirituality, discipline, ability, humility and diligence, men who have heeded the command and dedicated their lives to serving god and humanity in whatever capacity and situation they find themselves. this study is aimed at critically examining spiritual leadership in the church, the principles and the characteristics of spiritual leadership. the master’s master principle for spiritual leadership: whoever wishes to become great among you shall be your servant; and whoever wishes to be first among you shall be slave of all, (mark. 10:43-44).s although jesus was not a revolutionary in the political sense, many of his teachings were startling and revolutionary, and none more so than those on leadership. the term servant in the contemporary world today has a very lowly connotation, but was not so as jesus used it. he elevated it, equated it with greatness, and that was certainly a revolutionary concept. most people would have no objection to being masters, but servant-hood holds little attraction. christ’s view of his kingdom was that of a community of members serving one another-mutual service. paul advocates the same idea; “through love serve one another” (galatians 5:13). this loving service of course, is to spread to the needy world around us. jesus well knew that such another-worldly concept would not be welcomed by a self-pleasing world of men. but nothing less than that was what he required of those who desired to rise to leadership in his kingdom. sanders (1987) says that the contrast between the world’s idea of leadership and that of christ is brought into sharp focus in mark 10:42-43: you know that those who are recognized as rulers of the gentiles lord it over them; and their great men exercise authority over them. but it is not so among you. but whoever wishes to become great among you evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 1, number 2, october 2020 ilarious 106 shall be your servant; and whoever wishes to be first among you shall be slave of all. this was a lesson james and john had not mustered. however, they took seriously the master’s promise: “truly i say to you, that you who have followed me, in the regeneration when the son of man will sit on his glorious throne, you also shall sit upon twelve thrones, judging the twelve tribes of israel,” (mathew 19:28). james and john in a selfish ambition used their mother in an endeavor to forestall their colleagues and preempt the prime positions in the coming kingdom. this is the common thing people even do today, placing relatives or even family members to key positions in their term of office as leaders. but jesus would have none of it. there must be no lobbying for office. “you do not know what you are asking for”, they wanted the glory, but not the shame; the crown, but not the cross; to be masters, not servants. their request afforded jesus the occasion to present two leadership principles of permanent relevance. there is sovereignty in spiritual leadership: “but to sit at my right or left us not for me to grant. these places belong to those for whom they have been prepared” (mark 10:40). our emphasis would probably have been, “it is for those who have prepared themselves for it”. but jesus emphasized the fundamental difference in leadership principles. “it is not so among you”. “places of spiritual ministry and leadership are sovereignly assigned by god” (sanders, 1987). the good news bible translation of verse 40 is: “it is god who will give these places to those for whom he has prepared them”. therefore, no theological training or leadership course will automatically confer spiritual leadership to qualify one for an effective ministry according to sanders (1987). there are some who have been given sound theological and leadership training, but are spiritually deficient. jesus later told them, “you did not choose me, but i choose you, and appointed you” (john 15:16). to be able to affirm, “i am not here by selection of a man or the election of a group, but by the sovereign appointment of god.” this statement gives great confidence to the christian worker or leader. there is suffering involved in spiritual leadership: “are you able to drink the cup that i drink, or to be baptized with the baptism with which i am baptized?” (mark 10:38).jesus was too straight forward and honest to conceal the cost in the service of the kingdom. for the fulfillment of the stupendous task entrusted to him, jesus needed men and women of quality character with eyes wide open, who would follow him to the death. evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 1, number 2, october 2020 ilarious 107 to the lord’s probing question, they returned the glib answer, “we are able”. jesus told them that they would indeed drink the cup and experience the baptism. again, they must learn that for an influential spiritual ministry there must be a steep price to pay – and that it cannot be paid in a lump sum. in the end, it cost james his head, and john finished his years in a concentration camp. this is cost of discipleship. recently the can leader paid the price with his life, a true example of spiritual leadership of our time who refused to renounce jesus christ in the hands of his persecutors, the boko haram for the sake of fulfilling the covenant between him and his master, jesus christ. james and john desired to attain leadership by “cheap means”, but jesus’ words soon disillusioned them. the fundamental lessons that greatness comes only by way of servant-hood, and that first place in leadership is gained only by becoming everybody’s slave, must have come as a great and unwelcome shock. this is true because of many shameful things one may encounter in the course of his leadership to obey the master (god). this is a position some leaders would not like to venture into it because of becoming a slave for the sake of others or to suffer for their sake. it is noteworthy that jesus once gave his disciples an example of serving as a slave; an example of true servant-hood when he washed his disciples’ feet, (john 13:15). and only once did peter say he had left an example – and that was an example of suffering (1peter 2:21). thus, we see in this the thoughts of suffering and servant-hood are linked, even they were in the life of the lord. jesus, in stating that the primacy in leadership comes by way of primacy in servant-hood, did not have in mind mere acts of service, for those can be performed from very dubious motives. he meant the spirit of servant-hood, which he expressed when he claimed, “i am among you as he that serves”. isaiah 42:1-5 is a messianic passage which reveals what the spirit of servanthood means. these verses are quoted in mathew 12:18-21 with reference to christ. they outline the features that would qualify the coming messiah as the ideal servant of the lord. the nation of israel and her leaders, though chosen by god, they failed him dismally at every turn. however, where israel failed, jesus succeeded gloriously, and the principles of his life must be the pattern for spiritual leaders. here are some of those principles: i. dependence on god “behold my servant whom i uphold” (isa. 42:1a). this is a statement with messianic significance. jesus, in fulfilling this prophetic intimation, voluntarily “emptied himself” (philippians 2:7), surrendering all privileges and the independent exercise of his will. though possessing all the powers evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 1, number 2, october 2020 ilarious 108 and prerogatives of deity, voluntarily became dependent upon god, his father. though jesus upholds “all things by the word of his power” (hebrew 1:3), so fully did he identify himself with the sinless infirmities of humanity, that in his manhood, he needed to be upheld. that divine paradox is one of the staggering aspects of christ’s condescension. when we, in the same measure adopt same attitude, then, the holy spirit will be able to impact us to become servant leaders. i. god’s approval the spiritual leader must be one that god has chosen and approved. “my chosen one in whom my soul delights” (isaiah 42:1a). gods’ approval of his ideal servant is highly reciprocated, for in another messianic reference the son says “i delight to do thy will, o my god” (psalm 40:8). ii. self-awareness spiritual leadership should know their own strengths and weaknesses. knowing yourself is so important. if you know your strengths, you will keep yourself focused on those things you intend to do. if you know your weaknesses, you will keep other people focused there. by not knowing yourself, you will try to do things you cannot do and you take on things you shouldn’t be taking on. spiritual people know themselves. they are always quick to say, “i can’t do that! someone else will have to do that because i know they will do it better. iii. empathy in spiritual leadership the spiritual leader should display the spirit of empathy. “a bruised reed he will not break and a dimly burning wick he will not extinguished” (isaiah 42:3). the lord’s servant would be sympathetic and understanding with the weak and the erring. failing men and women are often crushed under callous tread of their fellowmen; but not so with the ideal servant. jesus was to specialize in mending bruised reeds and fanning the smoking wick into a flame. many a times some leaders, even christian workers, ignore those who have failed and “pass by on the other side”. according to sanders (1987), such people “want a ministry more rewarding and more worthy of their powers – something more spectacular than bearing with the relapses and backslidings of frail humanity”; but it is a noble work to reclaim those whom the world despises. peter’s wick was burring dimly in the judgment hall, but what a brilliant flame blazed on the day of pentecost. peter’s interview with jesus after resurrection put him on the right path of spirituality. evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 1, number 2, october 2020 ilarious 109 iv. optimism in spiritual leadership fear and discouragement should not be associated with any spiritual leader. “he will not be disheartened or crushed, until he has established justice in the earth” (isa. 42:4). god’s servant would not be discouraged. a pessimist never makes an inspiring leader. hope and optimism are essential qualities for the servant of god as he battles with the powers of darkness for the souls of men. god’s servant would be optimistic until his full objective is achieved. v. the anointing of the spirit the preceding five qualities would be insufficient for the ideal servant of god to function. a touch of the supernatural is required, and that is supplied through the anointing of the spirit. “i have put my spirit upon him”. jesus of nazareth was anointed by god with the holy spirit and power, and went about doing good (acts. 10:38). the same anointing that jesus received from god is available for anyone else who has prepared himself for it. “until the spirit descended upon him at his baptism, jesus created no stir in nazareth, but then events of world-shaking importance began to happen. comparison between natural and spiritual leadership before going into the comparison between the natural and spiritual leadership/ leader, let us first try to understand in a general sense as to what is “leadership”? leadership in a general sense is the influence, the ability a leader possesses to influence others to the extent they accept to follow his lead. we can buttress this point by citing definitions from some men who have themselves wielded great influence on others. lord montgomery (1958) once a military leader defines leadership as: “the capacity and will to really men and women to a common purpose, and the character which inspires confidence”. in the religious realm, matthew & mott (1934), a world leader in student circles, defines a leadership as the “ability of a man who knows the road, a man who can keep ahead, and who pulls others after him”. on the other hand, chandapilla (1980), an indian student leader, defines christian leadership as: “a vocation where there is perfect blending of qualities that are both human and divine, or a harmonized working of god and man, given over to the ministry and blessing of other people.” president truman on the political angle defines leadership as: “a person who has the ability to get others to do what they don’t want to do, and like it”. sanders on his part seemed to agree that spiritual leadership is the blending of natural and spiritual qualities. however, according to him the “spiritual evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 1, number 2, october 2020 ilarious 110 qualities are not self-produced but god-given, and therefore can reach their highest effectiveness when employed in the service of god (and humanity), and for his glory.” although spiritual leadership partakes of those qualities, there are other elements that supplement and take precedence over them. for example, personality according to montgomery is a prime factor in spiritual leadership. “the degree of influence will depend on the personality of the man, the incandescence of which he is capable, the flame which burns within him, the magnetism which will draw the hearts of men towards him”. jason (2015) says “a strong leader in the non-church cannot simply walk into a church leadership role without possessing certain absolute spiritual qualities.” the person should first and foremost be called by god to lead. without this supernatural and sovereign call, none can lead god’s people (the church) effectively. secondly, spiritual leadership must have the power of the spirit flowing through him. spiritual leadership is ultimately the holy spirit empowering a particular person for a particular task within the body of christ. sanders; “there is no such thing as self-made spiritual leader. the spiritual leadership should be able to influence others spiritually only because the spirit is able to work in and through him to a greater degree than in those whom he leads”. marshall (1991) says that the spiritual leadership is the capacity and ability to deal with future. this ability or capacity to deal effectively with the future is called foresight. foresight requires vision, in the sense of imaginative insight or ‘seeing’ with the inner eye. vision according to nweke (2018) is what which enables leaders to ‘see’ the possible future further and more clearly than others, to be better than others at identifying opportunities and possibilities, and knowing how to respond to forthcoming events or likely situations. vision is an essential hallmark of all the great leaders. it marks out a moses or a joshua, a samuel or a david or a nehemiah. the question whether “spiritual leaders are born or made” attracts variety of answers from different schools of thought. but the consensus appears to advocate that the correct answer is, “both”. this could be so because leadership according to sanders 1987) has been defined as an “elusive and electric quality” that comes directly from god. on the other hand, it is clear that leadership skills can be cultivated and developed. each person from birth has been endowed to possess skills that either qualify or disqualify him for certain tasks. these skills often lie dormant until some crises call forth their exercise. they can and should be developed. some people appear to get into the corridors of power purely by reason of fortuitous circumstances. they happened to be available at the crucial moment and no one better qualified was on the horizon. but closer investigation will usually reveal that the selection was not accidental. behind the scenes a hidden training had been taking place in the life of the person involved that filled him for the position. joseph could be a perfect example. his elevation to evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 1, number 2, october 2020 ilarious 111 prime minister of egypt seemed to be purely fortuitous, but in fact it was the outcome of many years of rigorous, though hidden tutelage under the hand of god. the bible says: “joseph found favor with god, (gen. 39:4-6, 21). natural leadership and spiritual leadership have many points of similarity, but there are some respects in which they may be antithetical. this is seen when some of their dominant characteristics are set over against one another. sanders outlines the difference between natural and spiritual leader as follows: natural leader spiritual leader i. self-confident confident in god ii. knows men also knows god iii. makes his own decisions seeks to find god’s will iv. ambitious self-effacing v. originates his own methods finds and follows god’s methods vi. enjoys commanding others delights to obey god vii. motivated by personal considerations motivated by love for god and man viii. independent god-dependent it is to be noted here that testimonies of those men who have served god faithfully abound both in biblical and historical records of the past as well as of the modern times. tozer (1962) has this conviction: a true and safespiritual leadership is likely to be one who has no desire to lead, but is forced into a position of leadership by the inward pressure of the holy spirit and the pressure of external situation. such were moses and david and the old testament prophets… i believe it might be accepted as a fairly reliable rule of thumb that the man who is ambitious to lead is disqualified as a leader. the true leader will have no desire to lord it over god’s heritage, but will be humble, gentle, self-sacrificing and as ready to follow as to lead, when the spirit makes it clear that a wiser and more gifted man than himself has appeared. the fact that spiritual leadership and authority cannot be explained solely on the grounds of natural ability is strikingly exemplified in the life of saint francis of assisi, who on one occasion was mocked by brother masseo, who said: “why thee? why thee?” he repeated this over and over again. when francis realized that, he asked him “what are you saying?” brother masseo replied “i am saying that everybody follow thee, everyone desires to see thee, hear thee, obey thee, and yet for all that, thou are neither beautiful, nor learned, nor of noble family. whence comes it that it should be thee whom the world desires to follow?” evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 1, number 2, october 2020 ilarious 112 when francis heard these words, he was overwhelmed with joy and praised god with extraordinary favor. he then turned to brother masseo and said: thou wishest to know? it is because the eyes of the most high have willed it so. he continually watches the good and the wicked, and his most holy eyes have not found among sinners any smaller man, nor any more insufficient and sinful, therefore he has chosen me to accomplish the marvelous work which god hath undertaken; he chose me because he could find none more worthless, and he wished to confound the nobility and grandeur, the strength, the beauty and the learning of this world, (burns, 1909). saint francis of assisi was not highly a learned person, was very simple and humble. in the eyes of the world, was rated amongst the lower class of people, but the anointing of the spirit in his life was much more greater that enabled him to achieve greater things for god. that is what it takes one with spiritual leadership skills to sacrifice his life for the task. william carey (1761-1834) who was credited as the “father” of the nineteenth century missionary movement has his motto: “expect great things from god and attempt great things for god”. spiritual leadership does not necessarily require learned people. whether learned or not, most times they go extra miles because of the anointing god has put upon them for the task they should accomplish in his name. true and committed spiritual leadership in the words of casey treat (1989) are people who are not excited about their leadership, they don’t think about leadership or being a leader, rather, they think about where they are leading people. they think about their vision. they think about their goals. they think about their dream. they think about what they want to accomplish in life. if you ask, “are you a leader?” they might say, “no! i am just a person who has a goal, a vision, a dream and i am committed to getting it done. these indeed are the true colors of spiritual leadership. spiritual leadership is a dynamic reciprocal process of personal influence by which the leadership of the church shapes the attitudes and activities of church members towards the achievement of the church’s objectives. paul in the pastoral letters lists the roles, responsibilities, and qualifications for church leadership to ensure sustainable development, growth and survival of the church, (1 timothy 3: 1-7). these have remained the model for ages and they include: social qualifications and responsibilities; moral qualifications and responsibilities; personality qualifications and responsibilities; domestic qualifications and responsibilities; maturity qualifications and responsibilities; and mental qualifications and responsibilities. space cannot permit us to begin to explain these one after the other. however, for any spiritual leadership to evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 1, number 2, october 2020 ilarious 113 steer the ship – the church successfully, these roles / qualifications must be imbibed. but experience has shown that a marked departure from pauline list of roles and qualifications for spiritual leadership in the church has really affected the growth of the church. the level of understanding expected from both leadership of the church and the followers is missing in most cases, and this has resulted in crises within the “body of christ.” * according to the new testament, the terms “bishop” and “elder”are synonymous. bishop means and “overseer”, and the elders had the responsibility of overseeing the work of the church (acts 20:17,28; 1peter 5:1-3). “elder” is the translation of the greek word presbytes, which means “an old man.” paul used the word presbyteryin 1timothy 4:14, referring not to a denomination, but to the “eldership” of the assembly that ordained timothy. elders and bishops (denote same office titus 1:5,7) were mature people with spiritual wisdom and experience to ensure spiritual decency of the church of god. the word “pastor” means “shepherd”, one who leads and cares for both spiritual and physical needs of the flock of god (1peter 5:1-4). misconceptions about spiritual leadership: many a times, people conceive spiritual leadership as any ordinary leadership in the general understanding of the word. there is a clear demarcation between ordinary/natural leader and spiritual leader. jesus’ disciples had this misconception on many occasions. for example, the request made by james and john the sons of zebedee; “let one of us sit at your right and the other at your left in your glory” (mark 10:37). again, on another occasion, the disciples came to jesus and said “who is the greatest in the kingdom of heaven?” (mathew 18:1-4). jesus in reply to these misconceptions from his disciples gave a clear instruction expressed in very precise but pungent words that need no grammatical analysis, (akauni 2010). he began by referring them to what they all know: “you know that those who are regarded as rulers of the gentiles lord it over them, and their high officials (leaders) exercise authority over them. but not so with you,” (mark 10:42, 43). here, jesus first recognized the system of leadership among the gentiles – the unconverted, the uncircumcised and the worldly. he drew a line of demarcation and a boundary that is not adjustable. the boundary between two kingdoms: light and darkness. one is of the earth, the other is from heaven. jesus made his point clear. if you belong to the kingdom of light, you cannot stand on the other side. “it shall not be so among you”(kjv). evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 1, number 2, october 2020 ilarious 114 true greatness in jesus’ expression comes in serving others. most businesses, organizations and institutions measure greatness by high personal achievements. that is the world’s way. in christ’s kingdom, however, service is the way to get ahead – the task of the spiritual leader. the desire to be on top without first becoming a servant (slave) of all will hinder the purpose for any achievement. peter, who was one of the disciples heard this message and expands in 1peter 5:1-4. peter, by writing to the elders, identified himself as a fellow elder, not a superior and asked the elders to “be shepherds of god’s flock”, exactly what jesus had told him to do (john 21:15-17). peter was giving his own advice as he worked along with the elders in caring for god’s faithful people. his identification with the elders is a powerful example of christian/spiritual leadership, where authority is based on service, not power (mark 10:42-45). peter describes several characteristics of spiritual leadership in the church: a. they should realize they are caring for god’s flock, not their own; b. they should lead out of eagerness to serve, not out of obligation; c. they should be concerned for what they can give, not for what they get; d. they should lead by example, not by force. all of us lead others in some way. whatever our role, our leadership should be in line with these characteristics. characteristics of spiritual leadership: according to hyatt (2020), spiritual leadership has to recognize the value of imitating jesus and his leadership style. jesus christ was not a manager. his primary role was to function as a spiritual leader. however, it is true, of course, that you can have a leader who is also a good manager, or a manager who is a leader according to marshall (1991), but the two functions are quite different and must not be confused. management is essentially the stewardship of resources and its concern is with making the organization work effectively and efficiently. it involves itself with logistics, information, people and systems, it builds teams, controls budgets, measures performance, monitors progress, and initiates corrective action where needed. these operating functions are vital to the success of a venture but they have nothing essentially to do with spiritual leadership. these have to be entrusted into the hands of faithful god-fearing people, the example of the seven deacons (acts 6:2-4). we should note that, not all leaders in religious organizations are spiritual leaders. this is not a criticism as much as a distinction. distinguishing spiritual leadership from other forms of leadership can free people from unrealistic expectations of some spiritual leaders. at the same time making evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 1, number 2, october 2020 ilarious 115 this distinction can help identify who the spiritual leaders in your organizations are. here are six characteristics that identify most spiritual leaders according to hyatt, (2020).  they lead others into their own encounter with god: one of the most effective things about jesus’ life style was that he didn’t switch into another mode to introduce his disciples to the reality of god. whether standing in the synagogue, picking wheat along the path, or interacting with the father was so natural that others around him could not help but do the same. whether spiritual leadership is training a new employee or working through a difficult conflict resolution, the followers will discover their own connection to god and more deeply in the process.  they lead others to discover their own purpose and identity: spiritual leadership is characterized by great generosity. a spiritual leader genuinely wants others to fully discover who they were made to be. workplace issues and strategic development become tools to help followers discover their own identify and overcome obstacles standing in their way. people functioning in an area of their created identity and strength will always be more productive than those who are simply trying to fill a position or role.  they lead others into transformation – not just production: when the goal is spiritual growth and health, production will always be a natural outcome. people function at their peak when they function out of identity. helping your followers discover that their own transformation can happen on the job will engender loyalty and a high level of morale. spiritual leadership fosters passion in those who follow. passion is the ingredient that moves people and organizations from production to transformational impact.  they impact their atmosphere while we may not stop a tempest with our words, spiritual leaders recognize that they can change the “temperature” of a room, interaction, or relationship. changing the atmosphere is likely casting vision, only it is immediate. when there is tension, fear, or apathy, a spiritual leadership can transform the immediate power of these storms and restore vision, vitality and hope. a leadership that is spirit-driven can fill a room with love, joy, peace, patience, kindness, goodness and gentleness, even while speaking hard things.  they help people see old things in new ways: some people are stuck not in their circumstances, but in their perspectives and paradigms. the word “repent” means “to think differently, or to think in a evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 1, number 2, october 2020 ilarious 116 different way”. jesus called people to look again at old realities through new eyes. changing ways of thinking always precedes meaningful change.  they gain a following because of who they are – not because of a position they hold: spiritual leadership can be found in secular organizations, just as managers can be found in the church settings. spiritual leadership influence more than they direct, and they inspire more than they instruct. they instinctively recognize that they are serving something – and someone bigger than themselves and their own objectives. spiritual leadership: governance and contributions to nation building: it is generally believed that religions play an important role in society. from the facts of history we are made to know that religiouns according to abdul aziz (2013) “are the foundation for major world civilizations. religion also functions as the mechanism to diminish the constant dreadful rivalries among human beings. through religious worldviews, individuals (adherents) should align their characteristics and beliefs to suit these worldviews.” religion therefore plays an important role in the process of social and economic development. in most societies, especially in developing countries, religious beliefs strongly shape the political and economic institutions, and hence either hamper or spur overall development. given this approach, durkheim proposed that religion has three major functions in society: it provides social cohesion to help maintain social solidarity through shared rituals and beliefs, it provides social control and enforce religious-based morals and norms that help maintain conformity and control in society, and lastly it offers meaning and purpose to answer any existential questions. religion, for durkheim, is not “imaginary” according to bellah (1973), although he does deprive it of what many believers find essential. religion is very real; it is an expression of society itself, and indeed, there is no society that does not have religion. believers perceive as individuals a force greater than themselves and give that perception a supernatural face. when we express ourselves religiously in groups, this according to durkheim makes the symbolic power greater. religion is an expression of our collective consciousness, which is the fusion of all our individual consciousness, which then creates a reality of its own. having given this background let us then turn to the role spiritual leadership plays in order to make his contributions for nation building. nation building is one area of earthly life where the church has been very much involved. the church has been able to go beyond the tripod of preach, pray, and complain when it comes to issues of governance in our nation. the word nation is being evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 1, number 2, october 2020 ilarious 117 defined as “a community of people with some common heritage”. the role of national institutions as agencies is to mobilize, aggregate and harness citizens and resources to do the will of god, and to ensure the common good of all. if this is well understood it then follows that great nations can only be built by godly men, on godly principles. nations of the world including nigeria are groping in darkness and backwardness because of absence of leaders with proper mindset, commitment and zeal to do the will of god by investing in human capital by promoting peace and development in every part of this great nation. nations are built by her patriotic citizens, not by foreigners. as believers in christ and as citizens of nigeria, there are god-given responsibilities spiritual leadership should consciously execute as their own contribution to the building of our nation. conclusion the need for spirited, talented, vigorous leadership in the church today cannot be overemphasized. the world situation of our time demands a strong voice from the church and this can come only from spiritual leadership guided by god, devoted to jesus christ and to their responsibilities as god’s representatives on earth. sanders has made it clear that spiritual leadership is the blending of natural and spiritual qualities; and that even natural qualities are god given and their true effectiveness can only be reached when they are used to the glory of god. churches grow and people are helped when the leadership is strong and doing the right things. it is always the will of god for churches to grow and to equally make their contributions to the overall development of the nation. why some churches don’t grow is because the leadership is not spiritually equipped to spur both physical and spiritual growth level of the congregation. references abdul aziz, e. (2013). religions and nation building.retrieved 07/30/2020 fromhttps://www.thestar.com.my/opinion/columnists/ikimviews/2013/11/05/-religions-and nation-building. akanni, g. (2020). pathway to leadership.ghoko, benue state, nigeria: peace house publications. bellah, r. n. (1973). emile durkheim: on morality and society . chicago: university of chicago press. brengle; s. l. (1918). the soul winner’s secret london: salvation army. burns, j. (1909). revivals: their law and leaders. london: hodder and stoughton. https://www.thestar.com.my/opinion/columnists/ikim-views/2013/11/05/-religions-and https://www.thestar.com.my/opinion/columnists/ikim-views/2013/11/05/-religions-and evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 1, number 2, october 2020 ilarious 118 chandapilla, p.t. (1980). christian leaders and leadership. bombay, india: f.c. durham. hyatt, m. (2020).characteristics of spiritual leaders.retrieved 07/30/2020 from https://michaelhyatt.com/characteristics-of-spiritual-leaders. jason (2015).natural and spiritual; leadership.retrieved 07/26/2020 from https://jasndevries.wordpress.com/2015/12/23/natural-spiritualleadership. marshall, t. (1991).understanding leadership: fresh perspectives on the essentials of new testament leadership. england: sovereign world ltd. mathew, b. & matt, j.r. (1934). world citizen. new york: harper. montgomery, b.l. (1958). memoirs of field-marshall montgomery. retrieved 07/28/2020 fromhttps://www.goog;e.com/search?q=the+meoirs+of+field+marshall +montgomery nweke, j. (2018). principles of church management and administration in the contemporary society enugu: rabboni publishers. sanders, j.o (1987).spiritual leader. ibadan, nigeria: scripture union (nig) press and books. tpzer, a. w. (1962). the reaper.reterieved 07/25/2020 from https://www.google.com/search?q=a.w+tozer+%281962%29+the+r eaper&ie=utf-8&client=firefox-b-m. treat, c.d (1989). church management: leading people in church growth. washington: casey treat ministries https://michaelhyatt.com/characteristics-of-spiritual-leaders https://jasndevries.wordpress.com/2015/12/23/natural-spiritual-leadership https://jasndevries.wordpress.com/2015/12/23/natural-spiritual-leadership https://www.goog;e.com/search?q=the+meoirs+of+field+marshall+montgomery https://www.goog;e.com/search?q=the+meoirs+of+field+marshall+montgomery https://www.google.com/search?q=a.w+tozer+%281962%29+the+reaper&ie=utf-8&client=firefox-b-m https://www.google.com/search?q=a.w+tozer+%281962%29+the+reaper&ie=utf-8&client=firefox-b-m evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 3, december, 2022 49 the practice of traditional african education: a veritable tool in peace-building in modern africa longkat daniel dajwan +2347068134337/ +2349058592657/ longkatdan@gmail.com lecturer gindiri theological seminary, pmb 01001, affiliated to university of jos, nigeria abstract cultural values and events are some of the most vital aspects of human life in society because they can create and serve as a unifying factor among the people and can also transform their lives into peaceful coexistence. this paper examined the practice of traditional african education. first, it argues that african had an indigenous system of education prior to the advent of colonialism, because education itself is as old as man. second, traditional african education is instrumental to solving modern african problems and a mechanism for peace building because it is wholistic in developing man to become a responsible member of the society. third, many african societies had socio-political philosophy hinged on the concept of social solidarity and belongingness like ubuntu and mun vul along miisaak a muut and such values was ingrained in every child from birth, however, such virtues have being neglected in modern africa. the study used the survey, qualitative approaches and using theories of relational theory, constructivism and behaviourism. finally, this paper concluded that for africa to realize positive peace african traditional education which emphasizes moral values must be re-introduced into our educational curriculum to ensure peaceful co-existence and douse the prevalence of violent conflict in africa. introduction violent conflict is prevalent all over the world with africa being the worst hit, this has resulted in great human suffering through deaths, disease, rise in refugee/internally displaced persons and absolute poverty. many african countries are being crippled by conflicts and civil strife and this has resulted in africa being named the home of war and instability. therefore, the world is in search of peace, as noted by (mary and christopher 2006:35).”peace remains one of the deepest, most sublime and most universal aspirations of man in whatever era of human history” (okoro 2010). this paper submits that social conflicts arise from the way society is organized/structured; social conflict is tied to the socio-political and economic arrangements within a particular society. thus, injustice, poverty, disease, exploitations, inequality etc., breed social conflicts (okoro 2010). mailto:longkatdan@gmail.com evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 3, december, 2022 50 monopolization of resources by one group or individual, unequal resource distribution, greed is all characteristic of modern africa. however, in traditional african societies these vices were non-existent or found in the lowest minimum. traditional african societies practiced communal living and sharing, the african child from birth is taught to be his/her brother’s keeper. african had unique ways of communal living where each one looked out for the welfare of another. the child is taught from birth social values like honesty, respect for people and property, dignity of labour, hard work and productivity, man was developed holistically – mentally, physically, morally and spiritually to be a responsible member of the society. however, the modern african experience of war or violent conflict is as a result of the neglect of traditional african education. the advent of colonialism and westernization eroded those social norms and focused more on formal education, which in itself is individualistic and lays emphasis on competition and accumulation, oppression, corruption, greed and personal interest above collective interest. these vices are prevalent in nigeria where the desire for quick and i'll gotten wealth is the order of the day as seen in case of the dasukigate where millions of naira meant for arms acquisition was distributed among politicians with reckless abandoned. this was done at the expense of ordinary nigerians dying every day as a result of the boko haram insurgency. these practices result to clash of interests and conflict as is being experienced in modern african today. this paper posits that traditional african education is a viable instrument for peace-building if africa is to overcome the quagmire of violent conflict because in traditional african settings people thought of the general wellbeing of society above self. traditional african education must be re-introduced alongside the formal/western education; emphasis must be laid on social solidarity and the spirit of belongingness. every child from birth must be taught social responsibility. this will reduce the spate of violent conflicts in africa and in turn result in harmonious and peaceful co-existence. theoretical framework relational theory indigene settler question in nigerian politics, post-colonial syndrome and migration: ubuntu as a veritable tool in peace-building is being strengthened by relational theory. relational theories attempt to provide explanations for violent conflicts between groups by exploring sociological, political, economic, and historical relationships that has existed between groups. culture, values and interests all have a way of influencing the relationships between migrant’s – settlersindigenes more especially at the sociological evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 3, december, 2022 51 level where differences between cultural value is a challenge for groups identity formation processes which in turn, creates the tendency to view others as intruders who should be prevented from encroaching upon established cultural boundaries (best 2007:35-37). constructivism theory constructivism learning theory is defined as the active construction of new knowledge based on a learner's prior experience. john dewey (1933/1998) is often cited as the philosophical founder of this approach. bruner (1990) and piaget (1972) are considered the chief theorists among the cognitive constructivists, while vygotsky (1978) is the major theorists among the social constructivists (amy, f. brandon & anita, c. all 89-92). research confirms that constructivism learning theory, which focuses on knowledge construction based on learner's previous experience, is a good bet for e-learning because it ensures learning among learners (dajwan, 2020). constructivism places emphasis on situated learning, which sees learning as contextual. learning activities that allow learners to contextualize the information should be used in online instruction. in most pedagogies based on constructivism, the teacher's role is not only to observe and assess but to also engage with the students while they are completing activities, wondering aloud, and posing questions to the students for promotion of reasoning. constructivists see learners as being active rather than passive with the instructor playing advisory and facilitating roles, encouraging them to arrive at their versions of the truth, influenced by their backgrounds, cultures and worldviews said hung (2020). learning should be an active process, keeping learners active with high-level activities such as asking learners to apply information in practical situations, facilitating the personal interpretation of learning content, discussing topics within a group, assessment, and so forth. this theory of learning is important in this study as it underlines the importance of e-learning, which has been the kiss of life for many during the covid-19 lockdown and life in the post pandemic era for example (ikechukwu, 2020). behaviourism theory the behaviourist school or theory sees learning as a change in observable behavior caused by external stimuli in the environment. with a 1924 publication, john b. watson devised methodological behavior, which rejected introspective methods and sought to understand behavior by only measuring observable behaviours and events (1-6). it claims that it is the observable behaviour that indicates whether or not the learner has learned something, and not what is going on in the learner’s head (cooper, & higgins, 2015). for the behaviourists, the mind is like a “black box” that observes a response to a stimulus in a purely quantitative fashion-without taking into account the evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 3, december, 2022 52 thought processes occurring in the mind. skinner (2014) argued that since it is not possible to prove the inner processes with any available scientific procedures, researchers should rather concentrate on ‘cause-and-effect relationships’ that could be established by observation. the behaviourist theory explains that individuals learn based on what they see in their environment. the theory could also explain the difference that could be present in the learning abilities of primary school pupils or secondary school students whether in the classroom and at home. therefore, the researcher adopted the relational theory to shed more light and as it affects traditional african education. conceptualisation of terms education education is “the process of cultural transmission and renewal”. the process whereby the adult members of the society carefully guide the development of infants and young children, this is through initiating them into the culture of the society. for infant and young children, education often takes the form of indoctrination, that is, the process of compelling the child tom ‘eat’ or ‘play’ or to do his/her homework at particular times in the day adeyemi and adeyinka, (2002). barker (1994) in majoni and chinyonganya, (2204) defined education as all the processes of learning which enable a person to acquire skills, behaviors, knowledge, values and norms which are considered necessary to live a happy and successful life in the society to which he belongs. what seems to be a common thread linking the generality of definitions of education by varied scholars over time is the idea or preservation and perpetuation of the cultures of different societies through inculcation of the norms, values practices of the particular societies among the young in the context of educational practice (majoni and chinyanganya 2014). african traditional education this refers to the ways of teaching and learning in africa based on the knowledge accumulated by indigenous africans over long periods in response to different physical, environmental and social problems (majoni and chinyanganya 2014). traditional african education this on the other hand is described as mostly having no schools nor the formal organizations associated with conventional western learning. it does not divide curricular content into disciplines such as arts, sciences, agriculture, and economics or etc but wedges children's daily routines and livelihoods of evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 3, december, 2022 53 their family and community together, integrating skills and knowledge about all aspects of life into a single curriculum (majoni and chinyanganya 2014). african traditional education has been variously described as indigenous, pre-colonial and informal or community based education. the descriptions were predicated on the fact that there were no schools of the modern type and no professional teachers as found in the modern system. however, there were certain centers of initiation and the adult members of the community served as teachers (okoro 2010). unity merriam webster dictionary describes unity as “the state of being in full agreement, oneness, harmony and unification. the all nations dictionary describes unity as a quality and state of being united (753). the longman dictionary of contemporary english defines unity as the state of being one complete whole or condition of being united and or agreement of aim (1203). this paper will use the concept or term to mean the oneness and wholeness of the nigerian christians and groups within it (maina 491). the perspective is that of christians being united to pursue a common goal especially in politics. considering genesis 11:1-9, verse 6 says: the lord said, if as one people speaking the same language they have begun to do this, and then nothing they plan to do will be impossible for them. again, in psalm 133:1-3 clearly said “1 how wonderful it is, how pleasant, when brothers live in harmony! 2 for harmony is as precious as the fragrant anointing oil that was poured over aaron’s head, and ran down unto his beard, and onto the border of his robe. 3 harmony is as refreshing as the dew on mount hermon, on the mountains of israel. and god has pronounced this eternal blessing on jerusalem, even life forevermore”. peace-building this involves policies, programs and associated efforts to restore stability and the effectiveness of social, political and economic institutions and structures in the wake of a war or aims some other delibating catastrophic event. peacebuilding generally aims to create and ensure the conditions for ‘negative peace’ and mere absence of violent conflict engagement, and for ‘positive peace’, a more comprehensive understanding related to the institutionalization of justice and freedom (miller 2005). the peace philosopher johan galtung, (1976) distinguished ‘peace-building’ from ‘peacekeeping’ and ‘peacemaking’. peace-building was put into operation by the united nations in namibia in 1978. although conceptual evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 3, december, 2022 54 debates continue to surround it’s meaning. peace-building is generally acknowledged as the building of positive peace that is the institutionalizing of justice and freedom, addressing the root cause of conflict to stave off a return to war (erim 2007). an urgent call for peace-building in plateau nigeria constitutes the thrust of this paper. this is premised on the fact that peace has remained elusive in the state and country because government has failed to utilize a relevant strategy for attaining lasting peace. peace-building that engages a down-up strategy means, i suggest, much more than just sending security tax forces in violent conflict zones to enforce peace or the provision of relief materials to victims of violence. ambulance peace-building also transcends peace-making because peace-making fails to address the root cause(s) of violence by providing peacesustaining structures in place to forestall future occurrence of violence (dajwan, 2020:120-121). dajwan (2020) again argues that “peace-building involves all processes that build positive relationships, heal wounds, reconciles antagonistic differences, restores esteem, respects rights, meets basic needs, enhances equality, instills feelings of security, empowers moral agency and democratic participation, inclusiveness, and promotion of justice”. the former un secretary general, boutros-boutros-ghali, also conceptualized peace-building as “involving broad responsibilities in the economic, social, humanitarian, and human rights fields” (boutros-ghali, 1992). from the foregone conceptualizations of peace-building, one could conclude that peace-building does not wait for violence to begin; rather, it is as perceived by pokol (2019) and the researcher deliberately quote this at length because of its importance to the paper: [peace-building] involves those activities and processes that: focus on the root causes of the conflict, rather than just the effects; support the rebuilding and rehabilitation of all sectors of the war-ton society; encourage and support interaction between all sectors of society in order to repair damaged relations and start the process of restoring dignity and trust; recognize the specifics of each post conflict situation; encourage and support the participation of indigenous resources in the design, implementation and sustainment of activities and processes; and promote processes that will endure after the initial emergency recovery phase has passed (pokol, 2019:439-440). from pokol’s argument, one could argue that the plateau nigerian government has, and is continuing to waste material and human resources in its attempt to restore peace through peace-enforcement. indeed, government deals mostly with peace-enforcement while faith-based organizations especially stefano’s foundation deals with peace-building. the military personnel and para-military personnel that are engaged in maintaining peace evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 3, december, 2022 55 in plateau nigeria have only worsened the security situation of the state and the country respectively (danfulani, 2001). moral values of african traditional education of some africans ubuntu ubuntu is a concept from the bantu people of lower congo, conceived on the basis of their socio-political and moral philosophy, it means a ‘vital-force’ as the core of social harmony and solidarity. accordingly, the basic ontology expresses the highest form of being, of aspiration and of action of the bantu people about life in all its ramification, covering the divine, spiritual, human and other cosmic realities (okoro 2010). overtly, life is the supreme focus, motive and aspiration of the bantu being, thought and action. hence, bantu greatest pre-occupation concerns essentially the preservation and conservation of life. ubuntu in relation to african sociology means one-ness and wholeness of ontology and epistemology (ramosel 2007) in (okoro 2010). ubuis the generalized understanding of be-ing, may be said to be distinctively ontological, whereas ntuas the modal point at which be-ing assumes concrete form or modal living is the process if continual enfoldment may be said to the distinctively epistemological (ramosel 2007). against this background azouzu defines ‘ubuntu’ as being human, (humanness) humane, respectful and polite attitude towards others. ubuntu denote a sense of collective responsibility among human beings to distribute the life force for common benefit. ubuntu is equivalent to personhood as such symbolizes human existence, community living and solidarity. this nguini proverb brings out clearly the meaning of ubuntu in its traditional setting, ‘umuntu ngu – umuntu ngobanta’ south african concept meaning “i am because we are” which is the mbiti philosophy from kenya this therefore expresses the true meaning of african social existence (okoro 2010). ubuntu as a major concept in african social existence maintains that the true nature of man can only be realised through social relationship with others (lamle 2016). yonah explicating more on this socio-political concept maintains that the spirit of ubuntu is based implicitly on the union of the opposite, hence, while maintaining their inherent contradictions are not exclusive. it creates a unified and interconnected conception of human existence. the sense of collective solidarity characterized ubuntu through love, unity, caring, tolerance, respect, empathy, accountability and responsibility. ubuntu is the celebration of being in its trinity of manifestationthe human, natural and spiritual. ubuntu is a life force that helps maintain equilibrium of forces, natural, spiritual and human in evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 3, december, 2022 56 community of other person's in one’s existence and as such discrimination on basis of race, gender, status, certificate, ability or handicapped were diminished in the traditional african societies. ubuntu accepts all person's as belonging to the community of the living (yonah, 2006:37). munvul along misaak a muut concept of the mwaghavul people mun vul along, miisak a muut concept of unity is conceptualized to mean two are wealth and better than one, while individualistic lifestyle is considered as death. alone is miserable and destructive. this is the reason the mwaghavul people believe that if you have many children you are a great and wealthy person. the researcher is the second born in the family of nine (9) and with the name longkat from two roots words “long” and “kat” long means wealth and kat means gotten, meaning we have gotten wealth or riches. again, cultural values and events are some of the most vital aspects of human life in society because they can create and serve as a unifying factor among the people and can also transform their lives. they can also serve as sources of peace-building and income and economic empowerment for the people. one of these events is demonstrating the cooperation and unity of the mwaghavul man “mun vul along” is the pus kat annual cultural festival of the mwaghavul nation in plateau state of central nigeria. the pus kat annual cultural festival normally brings together the mwaghavul people and their neighbors both at home and in the diaspora. the festival normally serves as an avenue for unity, peace, progress, and development of the mwaghavul nation. the brief history of mwaghavul people are found in mangu local mwaghavul people are found in mangu local government area of plateau state, nigeria. they constitute the major tribe and form the bulk of the population in mangu local government area. the major cultural festival of the people that speaks of unity and solidarity is called pus kat with a number of other lesser festivals that are also celebrated in the various districts before the pus kat. these includes: the pus yaghalwus (panyam), ryem (pushit), kopshu (ampang west), bwanzuhum (kerang), didiu (kombun) and pus dar (mangun). in a sermon on good friday (15-04-2022) by rev. eli well bangs the former chairman rcc pushit said "the mwaghavul traditional way of handling crisis of sexual immorality is that anyone caught committing adultery will be asked to bring a chicken but anyone who is caught attempting to commit or on the process will be asked to bring a goat, this is because the one who is caught with adultery is with the consent of the woman. on the other hand the man who is at the process received greater punishment to detarred him and others from committing adultery". evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 3, december, 2022 57 however, these festivals provide opportunities and serve as an avenue for unity and cordial relationship among the people of the various districts. the festivals usually take place on different dates and times before the commencement of the farming season. as such, they form an important part of the people’s ways of life. according to lohor (2011:153), “the festivals range from agricultural festivals, hunting festivals, circumcisions, religious festivals to cultural dances”. these festivals therefore create another opportunity for the mwaghavul villages to interact and cooperate with one another (lohor, 2011). as a result of the importance of the festival to unity of the people, other smaller or secondary mwaghavul settlements and villages have been encouraged to organize their own festivals but usually before the commencement of the district festivals. the celebration of all these festivals usually precedes the pus kat which is referred to as the mother of all festivals in the land (gubak h, kromtit j. & gubam d. s 2020: 286-287). pus kat is however one of the biggest annual festivals that are celebrated in plateau state nigeria. the cultural festival is usually celebrated in april of every year ushering in the beginning of a new rainy season and providing the people with the opportunity to offer prayer and thank their gods and ancestors for protecting and blessing them throughout the previous year and for another successful farming season. it has always served as an opportunity for the mwaghavul people to offer prayer for another farming season (gubak h, kromtit j. & gubam d. s, 2020). mwaghavul sons and daughters both at home and in diaspora are expected to attend the cultural festival and participate actively which according to their beliefs give them more favour from their ancestors and gods. it is a big event which has a lot of tourist attractiveness power. being a motivator for unity and cooperation of the entire mwaghavul nation, pus kat festival also serves as a catalyst for the economic empowerment of the rural people. the event usually features traditional dance from different groups which made up of men, women and youth. it also features exhibition of different cultural materials or artifacts which reflect the ancient crafts of the people. a tour to the various cultural and historical sites in mwaghavul land usually precedes the event. rituals are usually performed by the chief priests and ritual priests in different shrines and grooves in the various districts before the commencement of the event to appease the gods and their ancestors. the cultural festival has a long history of existence and it depicts the true lifestyle of the mwaghavul people and their history. the cultural festival is not usually attended only by the mwaghavul people but also people from other evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 3, december, 2022 58 ethnic groups within and outside plateau state. in recent times, the event has been able to attract tourists or visitors from other parts of africa as well and as far as europe, australia, parts of asia and the americas. despite the bad nature of infrastructure within mangu town and neighboring villages like panyam, bungha dawo and mangu halle that are expected to accommodate the visitors; the event has continued to attract visitors from all over the world because of the attractions that usually characterized the period before and after the event. with the large population that usually attend the event, the festival provide an avenue for economic benefits to the people derived as a result of the festival such as sales of food, agricultural produce, transportation, accommodation, sales of souvenirs and other services that are provided to the tourists by the people of the immediate community (gubak h, kromtit j. & gubam d. s, 2020). from the foregoing, the cultural festival possesses the opportunity of not only contributing to the economic empowerment of the local people but can also contribute enormously to the development of culture and tourism and serve as one of the sources of income for the government and attract foreign investment in the tourism sector if adequately harnessed. acts of betrayal betrayal among the mwaghavul communities is viewed as an oddity that destroys the bond of trust. trust is important in any given family and other human society. since folktales generally often depict the society of their birth, it is thus understandable that trust should feature as a subject in mwaghavul tangcham. trust as a bond is built around friendship and other human relationships. trust is an ingredient of life and so life without trust is unimaginable. trust allows “the formation of bonds of utility, community and intimacy” (longdet, 2018). when trust is bridged in any given relationship an individual or group feels betrayed. as a theme, betrayal forms the kernel of narration; whether oral and written. stories that point to betrayal are not restricted to secular works, as one would have imagined. the bible contains sufficient instances of betrayal that can even attract a systematic investigation of same. some ready examples are the stories about samson and delilah; judas and his betrayal of jesus christ, and david’s betrayal of uriah.8 some literary works of notable example include the eponymous play of william shakespeare, julius is betrayed by brutus, napoleon’s betrayal of snowball and the tenets of animalism in george orwell’s animal farm and okonkwo’s feeling of betrayal by his clan in umuofia in achebe’s things fall apart, little wonder african folktales are replete with themes of betrayal (longdet 2018). evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 3, december, 2022 59 in explicating the theme of betrayal, this study cites which involves a girl, her fiancée (human and group of birds), and the girl features as the protagonist and betrayer in the tale. the titled laareep ɗí ra kwar mish shèefɨra (the young woman who disappointed her fiancé) narrated by jifosiah alex of panyam, the story is about a young girl nàakos who betrays her fiancé after she has been traditionally engaged to him. one day, nàakos and her friends are in the stream to bathe. as soon as the girls pull off their clothes and start swimming, the betrayed young man shows up and carries their clothes to the top of the tree. each girl takes turn to sing a song to redeem her clothes. when it is the turn of his lover, she uses the song to disclose her identity. as she continues to sing, the water level keeps rising until she is carried away by the stream. however, when she gets to a spot, she grabs the root of a tree and remains there. one day, her brother comes along the stream path to fetch some timber. she recognizes the sound of his axe cutting the tree, and begins to sing: mwaghavul english a wee can sheep ɗiisɨ ̀ who’s cutting this tree kaaɗyemkɨ na wumgtúghúrsɨ̀ ‘è ? like the son of na wumgtúghur? kàt a ɗyemkɨ na wumgtúghúr̀ if it is na wumgtúghur’s son ɓewu so kuwucètmwos gam kɨɓel then brew mwos to fill a small pot ku wujìkuwushang an ɗi. so you come and rescue me (longdet 2018). as she keeps singing the song, the boy recognizes the voice of his sister and quickly searches around. he finds her under the roots of the tree, at once he returns to tell his parents at home. at the first instance, the father is reluctant to believe the boy, but as the young boy insists; the father believes him and seeks help from the birds to rescue his daughter. he invites so many birds like ngooroo, nkɨ̀ling, nfyeem, nkuriit, ntaaseet, kɨ pák mo ɗɨkɨ zak. ri tyoorpoo mmo nne jir ngo ɗí ri sham mang nàakos (the pied crow, the black kite, the bateleur, the black bird, the cordon-bleu and others); but only the bateleur is able to rescue nàakos. as his reward, the bird is crowned the king of the birds that day (longdet 2018). this human-animal-moralizing tale portrays the consequences of betrayal. nàakos breaks the nuptial arrangement between her and the young man that she is engaged to marry. consequently, she is punished by naturethe rising tide of the river. coincidently nàakos’ redemption from her punishment, state is again through naturethe bateleur. this shows that the mwaghavul people believe in the interconnectedness of man and his physical environment. thus, while portraying betrayal as a vice, capable of instigating conflict, the story evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 3, december, 2022 60 teaches both adult and children the relationship between of man and his environment. implying that man can resort to nature to resolve conflict. cooperation/unity: perspective of mun vul along miisaak a muut cooperation is the art of working in unison for a common purpose, knowing that much can be achieved together than alone. this philosophy accentuates the igbo proverb which states that ayukatamamirionu o gbaufufu (when we urinate together it foams). this statement implies that the mwaghavul, like other africans, share a similar view on communality. as kɨkwee a pèeserɨɓet mu ɗik (the dog and the chicken at a marriage ceremony) narrated by pànɗák philemon from ampang west and ɓitlankɨ̀ kweekɨ as (the chicken and the dog on cooperative farming) narrated by christiana joshua of kerang affirm this philosophy. these animal-moralizing stories depict the theme of cooperation. this tells how the chicken helps the dog to eat at the marriage ceremony in fulani encampment. at the ceremony, the chicken is allowed to eat from the crumbs on the ground but the dog is chased away. after a while, the dog becomes hungry and wonders how to satiate his hunger. the dog discusses with the chicken and a plan is reached. when the host serves cereal beverage, the chicken will jump into it and make it unfit for consumption and in this way the hosts are forced to pour the beverage away. this gives the dog an opportunity to eat to his satisfaction. after eating to their fill, both animals leave for home. the dog expresses his gratitude to the chicken. this tells how the dog and the chicken establish a cooperative farming and how they take turns to farm for each other. however, in the course of the relationship, the dog tries to outsmart the chicken. the chicken becomes angry and pays back the dog by the same mischief. therefore, the food has a symbolic implication just as it is in greek myths and folklore. for example, in homer’s iliad, achilles and hector‟s father, priam, reconcile and share a meal, which dissolves an existing enmity and unites them. mikhail bakhtin for instance, briefly mentions the importance of the funeral meal in the iliad9. food, and the drinking and eating associated with it, is grouped with popular-festive forms, or themes and details taken from the popular culture of a given time, particularly the culture related to the carnivalesque. since food is “part of every folk’s merriment” it often accompanies comic scenes, but the meanings of these scenes are not simply humorous. the food scenes as expressed above may appear humorous on the surface, but a critical look shows that the food imagery heightens the theme of cooperation. these stories teach children and adults the importance of cooperation and the consequences of isolationism. the mwaghavul folktales teach that cooperation engenders success. folktales abound in other global evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 3, december, 2022 61 cultures with stories about the importance of working together and the dangers of individualism (longdet 2018). greed in mwaghavul culture, it is believed that greed leads to many social vices and breed conflicts that can degenerate into the killing. this is exemplified in mf23 narrated by tani amos of pushit it is entitled, himeɗí ni met ndaafwanmɓal (the insatiable appetite of the hare)in which the hare invites the guinea fowl to accompany him to the fulani cattle encampment. he warns her not to carry a ladle. the hare tricks the guinea fowl and drinks all the milk in two instances. so, the guinea fowl goes home hungry. as they are returning home, the hare employs the trick of the lip and succeeds in killing the guinea fowl. he roasts the meat and goes home. the next day the hare visits the bush fowl and invites her to accompany him to the fulani encampment. the bush fowl picks up a ladle and hides it under its wing. when they reached the cattle encampment, the fulani offers them milk. the hare asks the bush fowl to go home and bring a ladle. the bush fowl removes the ladle from under her wing. the hare becomes very angry and says; “kaa fii ɗiikagharak ni! a we sat nyinne mo njì cin mee wurlongmmun ’e?”(“what a smallish strong head of yours! who told you that we’d be given any milk?”). the hare and the bush fowl drink the milk. again, the hare tells the bush fowl to leave the ladle at this point, but the bush fowl hides the ladle and brings it out when they reached the next encampment. this makes the hare very angry. on their way home, he plans to use the lip trick to kill the bush fowl as he did to the guinea fowl. here, the bush fowl outsmarts him and he ends up killing his own children (longdet 2018). in the past mwaghavul people operated a basic subsistence economy. in other words, the provision of food played an extremely vital role in their lives, hence the food (meat) motif in all the stories that discuss greed. for comic effect, the hare surreptitiously takes advantage of the culture of hospitality and at other instances, takes advantage of people’s effort. this characteristic shows the hare as selfish and greedy two vices strongly condemned in mwaghavul society. we find him plotting to outwit others of their share of meat but ends up outwitted. the story teaches children the consequences of greed. the tale, condemns greed but emphasize hospitality and of good manners. affirming the intertwining of both vice and virtue, helen chukwuma states: the oral tale shows man in his many forms and in the various situations of life that show up the best and the worst in him. it can be said that there is a certain naturalistic element in oral tale in that it portrays the baser aspects of man: his greed, villainy, utter lack of sensitivity and evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 3, december, 2022 62 his egotism. amidst this clutter of vice and deceit, some virtue finds its way through and triumphs but not without a grim struggle (chukwuma 2002). chukwuma’s assertion aptly explains the scenario in the stories about greed. here the stories do not completely dwell on the trickery of the hare but woven into the fabric of the tales are virtues such as wisdom or commonsense, sharing of one’s possession (food) with the hungry, teamwork among others. children will learn consequences of greed in fostering conflict from this story. this fusion of vice and virtue further demonstrates the ambivalence of the mwaghavul folktales as in (longdet 2018). challenges/short comings of traditional african education despite the prospects and rich content of traditional african education, there exist a number of challenges and short comings in the practice. first, an instance of the faults of traditional african education was its rigidity and dogmatism in knowledge acquisition and generation whereby the elderly are regarded as the fountains of knowledge from which the less knowledge must ‘drink’. this system tended to dampen innovation and critical thinking among the less knowledge beyond the boundaries of experimental knowledge of the sages (masaka and chingombe, 2013). second, traditional african education is notably being overly conservative. as noted by tiberondwa, 1978 in (adeyinka and adeyemi, 2002). a major shortcoming of african traditional education is that the focused almost exclusively on the clan/tribe and hardly prepared its recipients for outside contact. practically, this meant that the skills and knowledge possessed by given ethnic group could not be easily transmitted to another tribe. third, the absence of literacy that affected the accumulated knowledge and skills could not be preserved in a written form. this prevented the transfer of the same from one locality to another and from one generation to the next. many wise africans have died with their own wisdom (adeyinka and adeyemi, 2002). conclusion this paper has established that traditional education remains a veritable tool for peace-building in africa. peace education starts from child’s birth to adulthood, the curriculum though undocumented, conservative and crude contained rich moral values and norms. however, the total neglect of traditional education is responsible for the experience of violent conflict in evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 3, december, 2022 63 africa. therefore, the fusion of elements of traditional african education into our western education curriculum offers great prospects for the creation of positive peace in modern africa. recommendations 1. the upbringing of a christian child should be the responsibility of the whole community not just the family alone. christians should ensure traditional african education should be inculcated into the western educational curriculum with certain modifications. 2. in this regard every child in contemporary africa should be taught from birth the principles of collectivism, oneness, solidarity and social responsibility as exemplied by the concept of ubuntu. the upbringing of a child should be the responsibility of the whole community not just the family alone. 3. it is important for government to be decisive, bold, and courageous in solving the crisis considering the numbers of lives wasted and properties destroyed. the inability of government to muster enough courage to deal with does fueling the crisis will spell doom for the country. 4. restructuring of the nation, is extremely necessary, as the current constitution of the federal republic of nigeria is not in favour of nonmuslims. social justice and peace-building must start from every citizen of the state and the country. 5. the non-natives must be willing to integrate into the culture of the host community by taking traditional titles, witnessing cultural festivals and high respect for its religion. this should be enshrined in the constitution of the federal republic of nigeria as means to promote peace. references adeyemi and adeyinka (2002). some key issues in african traditional education. mcgill journal of education, vol. 37 no 2, university of botswana. amos, panzak (2019). notes on educational psychology. gindiri theological seminary, gindiri plateau state, nigeria. asouzu, i (2007). ibuanyi danda: new complimentary ontology beyond world immanuetis: ethnocentric reduction and imposition, vol. 37 no 2, university of bostwana. basil, d (1969). the african geniuses: an introduction to african social and cultural history. atlanta, atlanta monthly press. chukwuma, h. (2002). igbo oral literature: theory and tradition. pearl press. evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 3, december, 2022 64 crowl, k. ; sally kamansky, david m. poddell (1997). educational psychology – windows on teaching. brown and benchmark, new york. dajwan, l.dajwan (2019). notes on educational psychology. professional diploma in education. college of education gindiri/ahmadu bello university zaria. erim, m (2007). the emergence of peace-building and development in peace research for africa: a critical essay on methodology. erim mccandless, abdul karim and mary king, addis ababa: university of peace. gubak h, kromtit j. & gubam d. s. (2020). event tourism and economic empowerment in nigeria: a case study of pus kat cultural festival in mangu local government area of plateau state, nigeria. international journal of science and research. james, w. vander zanden (1993). human development. mc-graw hill. new york. kuppuswamy, b. (2007). advanced educational psychology. sterling publishers. new delhi. lohor, s.a. (2011). internal and external relations, towards a mwaghavul history: an exploration. united states of america:xlibris corporation. longdet, p.s. (2002). an examination of potency of mwaghavul folktales in conflict resolution. academia: journal of humanities and social science. vol.23 issue 8, pp 25-33. majoni, c. and chinyanganya t.l (2014). integrating traditional african educational practices: suggestions for primary school pedagogy. greener journal of education and training studies vol. 2 (3), zimbabwe. marah, j.k (2006). the virtues and challenges of traditional african education. journal of pan african studies. 1(4) 15-24. masaka and chingombe (2013). towards a fusion of western and traditional african educational system in zimbabwe’s national school curriculum. africana, vol. 6, n 2. miller, e.c (2005). a glossary of terms & concepts in peace and conflict studies, university of peace, africa programme. nayak, a.k and rao, v.k. (2007). educational psychology. a.p.h. pub. corp. new delhi. okoro, k.n (2010). african traditional education: viable alternative for peace building process in modern africa. journal of alternative perspective in social sciences, vol. 2, no1, 136-159. wechsler, d. (1958). the measurement of adult intelligence (4th ed). baltimore:williams and wilkinis. evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 1, number 2, october 2020 chukwujekwu & anowai 43 a philosophical inquiry into the relationship of justice and love to civil society in the political thought of st. augustine stephen chijioke chukwujekwu, phd department of philosophy chukwuemeka odumegwu ojukwu university, anambra state, nigeria & eugene chukwueloka anowai, prof department of philosophy chukwuemeka odumegwu ojukwu university, anambra state, nigeria chukwueloka@yahoo.com abstract nigeria, like many underdeveloped countries of africa, is undergoing many social and political problems such as corruption, insurgency, terrorism, armed banditry, electoral frauds, examination malpractices, sexual abuses, etc. these problems are largely rooted in ethical behaviors of citizens in civil society. this paper critically interrogated the unethical foundations of the society based on saint augustine’s treatise on justice and love and their relationship to civil society. augustine rejected cicero’s idea of “highest justice” (summa justitia) and rather thinks that a “true justice” (vera justitia) in relationship to government is what “a people” (a republic) must recognize in order to be well governed. later, he redefined “a people” in terms of being bound together by “the objects of their love,” not by true justice. the question before us in this paper is whether augustine meant to undermine justice? or, did he really separate justice from love? with analytical method, we found that augustine, led by philosophy (reason) illuminated by faith, made the point that we fully understand civil society only when we understand its loves and hates. these give a better clue to its character than its constitution or systems of justice or formal declarations. our conclusion is that, following augustine, human realities are seen in a new light in civil society in terms of love, because god is love. applied to humans, his insight shows that citizens in civil society are what they love. key words: relationship, justice, love, true justice, a people, a republic, civil society introduction augustine certainly would not have thought of himself as a political or social philosopher as such, but the record of his thoughts on such themes as the evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 1, number 2, october 2020 chukwujekwu & anowai 44 nature of human society, justice, love, the nature and role of the state, the relationship between church and state, just and unjust war, and peace all have played their part in the shaping of western civilization. the classical philosophers of greece and rome acknowledged the importance of justice in the polis, but they also acknowledge the shortcomings of the actuality of justice therein. augustine’s assessment of justice in the city of man (civil society) includes an agreement with the classical philosophers concerning the importance of justice. however, since justice is an integral cornerstone of any society, he is more interested in also exploring why justice fails in the civil society. justice is an integral theme in augustine’s political theology, and justice is directly correlated and contingent upon his theology of love. since a republic, or any political order, exists in some manner to dispense justice (however imperfect), an understanding of the role of justice in the political thought of augustine rests upon the role of love in dispensing justice. that is to say, what people love affects how justice is dispensed in civil society since the dispensing of justice will correlate with love of self or love of others. to that end, it is necessary to do an exposition of augustine’s theology of love and his understanding of political justice. in trying to inquire into augustine’s political thought, we shall try as much as possible to concentrate on those elements in it which are of philosophical interest and importance. but then, it will become clear sooner that it is really impossible to separate augustinian philosophy from augustinian theology. in this paper, we shall first try to understand the meaning of the terms justice, love, and civil society. this will be followed by inquiring into augustine’s treatise on justice –his rejection of the definition of “a people” (a republic), and his conception of true justice. we shall also look at augustine’s treatise on love – whereby he redefined a republic in relation to the “objects of their love.” this will be followed by examining his notion of evil and disordered love. next, we shall look at what augustine sees as the political and psychological consequences of disordered love in a civil society. clarification of terms (a) justice ordinarily, justice is called an objective and social virtue, because it has to do with perfecting one’s actions as they affect or relate to the good of the other person. this is unlike the virtues of prudence, temperance and fortitude, which are called subjective virtues, because they are primarily concerned with ordering our individual or private actions. following aristotle, many authors usually define the virtue of justice simply as “the disposition to give everyone his due.” that is, it is the constant will or disposition to give each person what he/she rightly deserves or merits. it is based on this common understanding that william a. wallace defines justices as “the strong and firm will to give each his due. so understood, it is a habitual disposition whose subject is the will; in a broader context, the notion also includes the objective evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 1, number 2, october 2020 chukwujekwu & anowai 45 right that is owed to each person and community, on the basis of either natural law or legislation of the state, and, sometimes, the laws or statutes in which consequent obligations are expressed” (172-173). augustine believes that justice is something deeply personal but with social implications since humans are not atomized animals but essentially social. for him, the function of justice is “to assign to each his due.” but augustine’s definition does not stop there. justice is also something interior to the order of humans (here he follows plato). hence, there is established in man himself a certain “just order of nature,” by which the soul is subordinated to god, and the body to the soul, and thus both body and soul are subordinate to god. thus, for augustine, the love of god is the fountain from which justice flows; for it is only in the love of god, manifested in the love of others, from which justice can “assign to each his due.” as we shall see later, augustine will go further to make a distinction between justice and true justice, arguing that though the function of justice is important, the action of dispensing justice is more important. (b) love biblical theology, based on christian scriptures, defines love in terms of genuine and wholehearted service to god and one’s neighbor: “you shall love the lord your god with all your heart, and with all your soul, and with all your mind … you shall love your neighbor as yourself” (mt. 22:37-39). the scripture also defines love in terms of the golden rule: “do to others as you would have them do to you” (lk. 6: 31; mt. 7:12). the golden rule is probably the most well known thing that jesus ever said. it is the summit of ethics, of behavior, of righteousness (justice), and of godliness. in augustine’s political theology, justice is directly correlated and contingent upon his theology of love. true justice, for augustine, begins with the love of god and thereby extending to love of others since the love of others is the ultimate expression of love of god. hannah arendt affirms that “augustine’s perception and every remark about love refer at least to this love of neighbor” (3). elsewhere, arendt also observes that in a different context, augustine developed this notion of love “as the specifically christian and particularly explicit version of the natural, prereligious, and secular law [golden rule] of not doing to others what we would not have them do to us (quod tibi fieri non vis, alteri ne feceris)” (39). justice, to be effective, requires the right degree of loving other humans. without the right degree of loving others, the possibility of justice becomes null and void as it sinks back into becoming purely retributive – that is, self-centered. as mattox observes, “augustine is at pains to reiterate that love is incomplete without justice, and justice is incomplete without love, and no city can endure – let alone be called a republic – without the twin marriage of love and justice” (mattox, “augustine”). and to the question, who is my neighbor? augustine always replies in his soliloquies, “every man” (i, 7). thus, following, augustine, we understand love here in the christian context of “love thy neighbor as thyself,” which, observes arendt, “is understood in evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 1, number 2, october 2020 chukwujekwu & anowai 46 its literal sense by augustine, ‘love of one’s neighbor recognizes as its limitation the love of one’s self’” (18). (c) civil society there are many rival conceptions of society that have been advanced in social and political philosophy. of the many conceptions, two are especially important, namely society conceived as an association of individuals (individualism) and society conceived as a community (communitarianism). these two conceptions of society are best thought of as clusters of ideas, rather than precisely formulated theories. following graham, “at the heart of individualism is the view that in social philosophy, political theory and practice, in moral thought and action, it is individual human beings who must, in some sense, be regarded as prior to society” (8). in what sense precisely the individual must be thought primary is a topic that is outside the limit of this paper. it suffices here to note that we take the best version of this claim to carry with it an implied view of society, namely that society is a sort of association. by way of contrast, communitarianism regards society as a community, and this, as the very word implies, means that society is in some way a unity, a single thing in which individual members are bound together. whereas individualism is associated chiefly with political liberalism of various kinds, communitarianism is to be found underlying political ideologies of left and right. whatever the differences between political philosophies of left and right, there is at least this much agreement between them –that society is a community and not merely an association of distinct individuals –and it is one which explains partly their combined opposition to liberal individualism. in this paper, we shall understand society as a community (communitarianism). accordingly, the state is simply thought of as the custodian of the interests of the community and not just the protector of the interests of individuals within it. we use here the adjective “civil” to qualify society in a specific sense of “pertaining to ordinary life, not military.” civil society here also suggests lay, secular, temporal society, not ecclesiastical society. augustine’s treatise on justice augustine’s treatise on justice are glaring in his rejection of definition of “a people” (a republic), and his conception of “true justice.” (a) definition of “a people” (a republic) rejected as anthony j. parel rightly observes, the nature of relationship of justice and love to civil society has always been a subject discussed by political philosophers. the discussion is well known in plato’s republic. aristotle, on his part, asserts that friendship is the perfection of justice, and justice implies all other moral virtues (nicomachean ethics, v. 1). whereas both plato and aristotle see the basic harmony of love and justice in civil society, augustine sees them differently in exclusive terms. hence, parel affirms this of evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 1, number 2, october 2020 chukwujekwu & anowai 47 augustine: “his attitude on this issue was such he was obliged to redefine civil society as that which was held together not so much by justice as by love” (71). now, to the question why augustine rejects justice as the foundation of civil society, parel thinks that the short answer would be that the justice of the city is deficient and ineffective: “it does not, and cannot, achieve what it sets out to achieve, without violating the principle of justice which is that one should give each one his or her due” (72). in his critique of justice, augustine first rejects cicero’s famous definition of a republic as “a thing of the people.” and, for augustine, “a people” is a multitude gathered together by “consensus juris” and “utilitatis communion”: a consensus, a common sentiment or interest as to what constitutes right, the just; and by a sharing, a communion, in the materially useful things (de civitate dei ii. 21; xix. 21 & 24.) in analyzing this definition, augustine focuses his attention on the meaning of “jus”. he is interested in the moral and theological implications of “jus” (not its juridical meaning). this is because, he observes that cicero himself elsewhere (the republic) had interpreted “jus” in a moral sense, with reference to “summa justitia.” according to cicero, “a republic” could not be well governed without the recognition of the relationship of government to summa justitia (highest justice). but then, augustine substitutes cicero’s summa justitita with his own “vera justitia” (true justice), and the rest of his arguments in de civitate dei (dcd) proceeded along this line of thought. (b) his conception of “true justice” (vera justitia) yes, instead of cicero’s “highest justice” (summa justitia), augustine thinks that a “true justice” (vera justititia) in relationship to government is what a people (a republic) must recognize in order to be well governed. what does he mean by “true justice” (vera iustitia)? according to him, “true justice” implies more than a just relation between men. it rather presents a broader picture, an “ordo”: an order that establishes the proper relationship of various forces within man, between men, and between men and god; an order that reflects, in the final analysis, divine wisdom. accordingly then, augustine argues that a true justice can affect human affairs in the society only when the will is illumined by the divine light. it is only with such illumination can virtues become efficacious, and without it virtues remain only quasi virtues. one becomes just by making one’s souls conform to the immutable rules and lights of virtues dwelling eternally with the truth and wisdom common to all. thanks to this divine illumination, the will becomes disposed to seek to live lightly and honourably, and to acquire what augustine calls “good will.” and whoever possesses good will is incapable of wishing evil for anyone. so it will follow that “he does not harm anyone, and this can be the case only if he gives to each man his due” (gilson 131). thus, augustine rejected as false the view that there can be genuine virtues without reference to divine illumination. in his own words: evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 1, number 2, october 2020 chukwujekwu & anowai 48 for although some suppose that virtue which have reference only to themselves, and are desired only on their own account, are yet true and genuine virtues, the fact is that even then they are inflicted with pride, and are therefore to be reckoned vices rather than virtues. (dcd xix. 25) thus, only that virtue which is illuminated by divine light can establish proper order within each individual “so that the soul is subject to god, the body to the soul, and consequently both soul and body to god” (dcd xix.4). in his conclusion, augustine affirms that a man who does not serve god cannot be just, and that there cannot be justice in a community composed of such individuals. in his own words: hence, when a man does not serve god, what justice can we ascribe to him, since in this case his soul cannot exercise a just control over the body, nor his reason over the vices? and if there is no justice in such an individual, certainly there can be none in a community composed of such individuals. (dcd xix. 21) of course, we know from experience that human beings, based on their fallen nature, are not likely to possess complete good will in spite of their pursuit of divine illumination. however, given his notion of “true justice”, and given the condition for its effective realization, namely, divine illumination, it is not surprising that augustine should find the republic of (pagan) rome wanting in justice. thus, said augustine, “rome never was a republic, because true justice had never a place in it” (dcd ii.21). what was true of rome was true of civil society as such, whether the civil society in question was christian or non-christian. according to this criterion of “true justice,” there could only be one true just society, and that it is none other than the city of god. as augustine put it differently: “but the fact is, true justice has no existence save in that republic whose founder and ruler is christ . . . .” (dcd ii.21). any wonder then that a considerable part of the city of god (its first ten books) is devoted to a critique of pagan religion –its mythologies, its addiction to astrology, divination, and its civil theology. but in augustine’s own judgment, the worst aspect of polytheism is not its mythical fraudulent character, but its injustice towards the true god. for, polytheism gives to false gods that reverence and worship which belong only to the true god. parel observes that this has an implication: by implication, every civil society has the tendency to practice injustice of this sort, in so far as it attempts to develop a civil theology and to see religion as a secular phenomenon, and an instrumentum regni, a means of temporal felicity. (74) the case of roman imperialism fared no better. augustine endorsed cicero’s view that it was ‘unjust for some men to rule and some to serve’; yet the evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 1, number 2, october 2020 chukwujekwu & anowai 49 imperial city to which the republic belonged could not rule her provinces without having recourse to this injustice of keeping people in servitude. the empire was an undeniable sign that rome was not built on consensus juris. had “true justice” been the basis of civil society, asserts augustine, “all kingdoms would have been small, rejoicing in neighbourly concord; and thus there would have been many kingdoms of nations in the world, as there are very many houses of citizens in a city. therefore, to carry on war and extend a kingdom over wholly subdued nations seems to bad men to be felicity, to good men necessity” (dcd iv.15). generalizing on this theme, augustine moved on to wonder whether there was any real moral difference between civil society and organized brigandage. in a much quoted passage, he asks: “justice being taken away, then what are kingdoms but great robbers? for what are robbers themselves but little kingdoms” (dcd iv.4). it seems that the difference between the justice of civil society and that of a band of robbers is not one of substance but of scale. the band of robbers is made up of men; it is ruled by the authority of the leaders; it is held together by the compact of confederacy; and the booty is divided according to the rules agreed upon. if the band becomes large and establishes itself on a broad territory, “it assumes more plainly the name of a kingdom, because the reality now manifestly conferred on it, not by removal of covetousness, but by the addition of impunity” (dcd iv.4). augustine used with relish the alleged reply of a pirate to alexander the great. when the great emperor asked the pirate what he meant by keeping the hostile possession of a certain harbor, he answered with bold pride: “what thou meanest by sizing the whole earth; but because i do it with a petty ship, i am called a robber, whilst thou who dost it with a great fleet art styled emperor” (dcd iv.4). we can then see why civil society, christian or non-christian, is not founded on true justice. for, a civil society cannot render to god or to fellow human beings, or to other civil societies what is their respective due. on the contrary, it conceals this very injustice under the cloak of what it calls civil justice and religion which in today’s democratic parlance may be taken to mean political ideology. augustine’s treatise on love augustine’s treatise on love is visible from the point of view of his redefinition of “a republic” (a people) in relation to the “objects of their love.” it is quite absurd to suggest that there was no roman state simply because it did not meet augustine’s definition of “true justice.” it is necessary then to search for a new definition of a republic. based on this necessity, augustine writes: but if we discard this definition of a people, and assuming another, say that a people is an assemblage of reasonable beings bound together by common agreement as to the objects of their love, then, in order to discover the character of any evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 1, number 2, october 2020 chukwujekwu & anowai 50 people, we have only to observe what they love. (1950 xix.24) yet, says augustine, whatever it loves, it is reasonably called “a people” and it will be a superior people in proportion as it is bound together by higher interests, inferior in proportion as it is bound together by lower. according to this definition of ours, says augustine, the roman people are a people, and its wealth is without doubt a commonwealth or republic. of course, these assertions have generated debates and questions. for examples, did augustine mean to undermine justice? did he really separate justice from love? or is he saying that if justice is separated from “true justice,” if will is separated from the unchanging good, every assertion of will becomes tainted? it suffices here to observe that augustine did not proffer the new definition (of a people) in a fit of enthusiasm. he had slept over the problem for a very long time. following parel, augustine makes the point that we fully understand civil society only when we understand its loves and hates. these give a better clue to its character than its constitution or systems of justice or formal declarations. there is no doubt that he was led to this insight by philosophy illuminated by faith. thus, human realities are seen in new light, in terms of love, because god is love. applied to humans, this insight shows that people are what they love. hence, says augustine: “my love is my weight; i am carried by it wherever i am carried” (confessions, xiii.9). love moves the will, and so the whole man as its weight irresistibly carries a body to its natural position. thus, augustine says that when the self moves towards what it loves, there is desire (cupiditas); when it delights in what it loves, there is joy (laetitia); when it flees from its love, there is fear (metus); and when it actually loses its love, there is grief (tristitia). these four modes of love – desire, joy, fear, and grief, alone or in combination –constitutes the web of human existence (1950 xiv.7). man inevitably loves. to love is to go beyond oneself and fasten one’s affection upon an object of love. what makes it inevitable that man will love, says augustine, is his incompleteness. as for the object of love, there is a wide range of objects that man can choose to love, reflecting the variety of ways in which man is incomplete. augustine says that a person can love god, physical objects, other persons, or even himself. from these objects of his love, a person can derive satisfaction for some of his/her desires and passions. in what order must one place these four objects (god, things, persons, self) remains a decisive issue in every human life. augustine fully recognized the fact that our love for ourselves is constitutive of us. but he recognized that as creatures, this constitutive love, by itself, would not be enough: a more basic love than that would be needed, for that is the lot of all finite rational creatures. and that love is none other than the love of god, the immutable love in the possession of which all fear of losing it evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 1, number 2, october 2020 chukwujekwu & anowai 51 ceases, so that there is no grief, and the joy of possession is indestructible. but a rational creature is also free; it is free to choose aversion or conversion: aversion from god or conversion to him. augustine takes the fundamental position that we cannot love ourselves properly unless we are converted towards god. the same applies to our love for things. everyone expects to achieve happiness and fulfillment from love, yet men are miserable, unhappy, and restless. why? augustine lays the blame upon man’s “disordered love.” disordered love and its consequences augustine’s notion of “disordered love” could be seen from two perspectives: evil and disordered love, and political and psychological consequences of disordered love. (a) evil and disordered love in the scheme of things, original sin introduces the basic disorder in love. augustine interpreted original sin as the outcome of pride, that is, aversion from god and conversion to ourselves. according to him: “the soul abandons him to whom it ought to cleave as its end, and becomes a kind of end to itself” (1950 xiv.13). augustine understands aversion from god as the implication of turning towards nothingness, towards nihilism: “. . . to exist in himself, that is, to be his own satisfaction after abandoning god, is not quite to become a nonentity, but to approximate to it” (xiv.13). for, once you are, you cannot will yourself out of existence. the nihilist must be fooling himself or herself if he or she thinks that turning away from god is the same as murdering god. thus, says augustine, the idea of the death of god, as propounded by fredrick nietzsche, must appear as a pseudo idea, characterized more by self-delusion than by incoherence. for a god-averter cannot help being aware of what it is that he is averting. (b) political and psychological consequences of disordered love disordered love necessarily seeks to master others. it incessantly compels us to seek to do better than others, and to extract praise from them. it is driven by the love to possess and consume things, not for the sake of life but for the sake of exclusive delight. the most serious of these implications concerns domination. the disordered love, as it were, transforms man’s natural sociability into the will to dominate. it rebels against man’s natural equality. augustine says that the fallen man “endeavours to dominate those who are naturally his peers.” disordered love, he says, “abhors equality with other men under him; but instead of his rule, it seeks to impose a rule of its own upon equals. it abhors, that is to say, the just peace of god and loves its own peace” (1950 xix.12). thus, civil society understood as an arena of domination and for domination, is not natural to man, but it is his actual lot. this is, however, not god’s making; it is man’s own making. however, the deepest effect of disordered love is the discontent within the self. evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 1, number 2, october 2020 chukwujekwu & anowai 52 paradoxically, pride is paralleled by weakness of will to control itself. augustine asks in a memorable passage, what else is misery “but his own disobedience to himself, so that in consequence of his not being willing to do what he could, he now wills to do what he cannot” (1950 xiv.15). if the fall has introduced disorder in love, our nature, says augustine, in so far as it is created, is good and remains good. it is our will and our loves that have been impaired (ibid.). thus, even after the fall, observes herbert dean, “vestiges” or “shadows” of true justice in here in the soul, thanks to which the fallen man is able to establish some kind of civil order (97-99). however, these vestigial traces of justice are at the mercy of disordered love to such an extent that whatever civil society achieves, it achieves only if one presupposes coercion. coercion is, as it were, the price which one has to pay for self-love. as a certain author remarks, fallen men had come to need restraint. even man’s greatest achievements had been made possible only by an unremitting harshness. in civil society then, the pressure from self-love is manifested in the struggle for domination, for consumption, for recognition. these are the objects of love of civil society, and that is why consensus juris cannot be its true basis. on the contrary, civil society manipulates the vestiges justice and corrupts them. the justice of the city, accordingly, reflects the collective selfinterest of those who constitute the city. whatever it embodies, justice is not one of them. instead of jus determining national interest, national interest determines jus. however, augustine recognizes that there can be better states and worse states, depending on what they love. thus, there is a real difference between tyranny and constitutionalism; but these differences ought not to hide the common denominator of all states, christian or pagan, marxist or liberal, namely, the collective love of those who compose them. evaluation critics have noticed a certain ambiguity in augustine’s attitude towards civil society. on the one hand, it is an organized system of self-assertion, yet on the other, it does contribute something positive without which man, in the present conditions, cannot manage his affairs. his attitude towards rome illustrates this ambivalence. augustine suggested that, at its best, rome was moved by the love of praise; at its worst, it was moved by domination and the passion for consumption. he said that there is surely the difference between the desire for human glory and desire for domination. however, he insists that “it is not true virtue which is slave to human praise.” that is, the noblest of romans were defective in that they did what was honourable only because they wanted others to praise them for it. such virtues, the civic virtues, fall short of being true virtue. nevertheless, augustine believed that his new definition of a republic/a people took better account of the empirical reality of political life than did the definition (of cicero) he rejected. even the best state, at bottom, exists to serve the competing loves of their citizens. civic justice and positive law, when isolated from true justice (–illumined by god), are evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 1, number 2, october 2020 chukwujekwu & anowai 53 merely human invention that tend to reconcile, rationalize, coordinate these loves. civic justice is not a function to be despised, even by augustine’s standard, but neither must we think that it will lead us to beatific vision. nothing brings out augustine’s awareness of the deficiency of human justice, and his anguish over it, better than his celebrated analysis of the “wise judge” who had to sanction torture (1950 xix.6). the context of his analysis is the judicial system prevailing in the 4th century in his society. but the issues raised have a wide significance. they underline the imperfect character of human justice always and everywhere, the necessity under which it operates, and our necessity under dependence on such an imperfect instrument as positive justice. the root cause of the imperfection is the difficulty men have judging the guilt or innocence of fellow human beings. in analyzing the melancholy and lamentable aspects of human judgment (which often results in torture or detention in remand houses before the accused is proved to be guilty), augustine’s point is not to endorse any moral evil. rather, it is to argue that “judges are men who cannot discern the conscience of those at the bar.” truth is hidden from them. thus, the judge necessarily operates under an epistemological handicap. despite this, he has no alternative but to render a judgment. such “ignorance” of the judge often proves a calamity for the innocent. again, in spite of such condition of ignorance and darkness that shrouds social life, the judge is morally obliged to act, because not to act would be a greater calamity. it would amount to dissolution of society into anarchy. society then would be in a worse condition without such judges than it would be with them. one underlines here that an understanding of augustine’s theory of predestination, side by side with the notion of two cities, is crucial to understanding his notion of “true justice.” for want of space, suffice it here to point out that even though those elected for salvation and those elected for damnation live side by side in society, the distinction arising from their respective destinies gives rise to two classes of persons to whom augustine refers collectively and allegorically as “cities” –the city of god and the earthly city. citizens of the earthly city are the unregenerate progeny of adam and eve, who are justifiably damned because of adam’s fall. these persons, according to augustine, are aliens to god’s love (because they refuse to love god as evidenced by their rebellious disposition inherited from the fall). for augustine, the object of their love –whatever it may be –is something other than god. in particular, citizens of the “earthly city” are distinguished by their lust for material goods and for domination over others. on the other hand, citizens of the city of god are “pilgrims and foreigners” who (because god, the object of their love, is not immediately available for their present enjoyment) are very much out of place in a world without an earthly institution sufficiently similar to the city of god. following evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 1, number 2, october 2020 chukwujekwu & anowai 54 augustine, one underlines that no political state, nor even the institutional church, can be equated with the city of god. moreover, there is no such thing as “dual citizenship” in the two cities. every member of the human family belongs to one –and only one. now, there is no doubt that augustine had arrived at his conclusions about human justice because of faith illuminated by reason. seen from this perspective, augustine’s critique is a theological critique of justice. that is to say, it is not a full blown political philosophy, but a reflection on the limits of politics. thus, while justice has both external and interior elements, it is equally important that for the external dispensation of justice to occur that humans have their interior order properly subordinated. this is why true justice belongs to god. it belongs to the order of truth and not the false pretensions of fallen humans. but this is not to say that there is no justice in the city of man, or that there are no signs of justice in the city of man. it is to say rather that “the justice dispensed in the city of man is deeply flawed – often failing to dispense justice according to the dues that each person deserves. since social justice is the realization of the common good, founded on love of god extending to love of others, then justice is necessarily dispensed in accordance with the oriented love which defines the political” (mattox, “augustine”). in this way the justice of the city of man, which is oriented to solely the self, is flawed but retains seeds of the truths about the nature of justice defined by augustine as both incorporating interior and exterior elements. as mattox further observes, “this is crucial in understanding augustine’s view of justice – it is not that there is ‘no justice’ in the city of man. it is that the justice dispensed in the city of man is incomparable to the ‘true justice’ found in love of god which has relational and social ramifications for loving other creatures of god and coming to know the proper ordering and degree of loves given to each person” (ibid.) thus, following augustine’s theory of predestination and the notion of two cities, “true justice” is unattainable in civil society. for, augustine’s insights tell us that, though nature is not altogether corrupted, it nevertheless remains prey to self-love. that is, we cannot expect much from the justice of this world. furthermore, his insights invite us to take critical look at our loves in society. however, the implications of augustine’s doctrine of nature and grace for civil society are not without their difficulties. his deep insight into the condition of fallen man could have led to his emphasis on the role of grace in the sphere of nature. in his the confessions, augustine writes: i behold other things below you and i see they are not altogether existent nor altogether non-existent; they are because they are from you; they are not, because they are not what you are. for that truly exists, which endures unchangeably . . . (thus) if i do not abide in him, neither will i be able to abide in myself. (vii.11) evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 1, number 2, october 2020 chukwujekwu & anowai 55 this altered vision of reality is surely one of the consequences of his conversion from manichaeism to christianity. he recognizes the fact that one cannot be oneself unless one knows oneself as related to god. in the confessions, he writes again: “oh god thou haste created us for thyself so that our hearts are restless until they find their rest in thee.” in a more philosophical language, he makes the same point by saying that human nature is so made that “it cannot itself be the good by which it is made happy.” that man can find happiness only in god is thus no accident, since he was made by god to find happiness only in god. this aspect of man’s nature is what augustine elaborates through his doctrine of love. this is christian selfknowledge, one would say; and this cannot be revealed except by illumination by grace. granted this, one wonders whether it follows that to live the life of nature in the civil sphere, anything more than natural reason and natural justice would be required. that is, it is true that conversion to god which is man’s ultimate concern, is impossible without grace. but then, if the city is not man’s ultimate concern; and if that is granted, would grace be necessary for politics? thomas aquinas does not seem to agree with augustine under these circumstances. for, as etienne gilson observes, aquinas’ position is that even in fallen condition, the causality of the second created cause, that is, the natural causality of human nature, is not impaired. one does not intend here to stand in judgment between augustine and aquinas as to who is right on this matter. suffice it here to observe that augustine’s position on nature invites cautious treatment and criticism, as such criticism has relevance to the relationship of love and justice to civil society. more importantly, we do not presume to have answers to all possible questions that might arise from our inquiry into the relationship of justice and love in civil society based on augustine’s political theology. this is because one finds now and then curious contradiction to his original statements concerning love, justice, the notion of “two cities,” which makes his writings rather complex to understand precisely. conclusion we saw that, in his discussion on justice and love and their relationship to civil society, augustine rejects cicero’s idea of highest justice (summa justitia), and rather thinks that a true justice (vera justititia) in relationship to society is what a people (a republic) must recognize in order to be well governed. a true justice, which implies more than a just relation between men, is an order (“ordo”) that establishes the proper relationship of various forces within man, between men, and between men and god; and which, in the final analysis, reflects divine wisdom. why? a true justice can affect human affairs in the society only when the will is illumined by the divine light. augustine affirms that a man who does not serve god cannot be just, and that there cannot be justice in a community composed of such individuals. according to this criterion of true justice, there could only be one true just evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 1, number 2, october 2020 chukwujekwu & anowai 56 society, and that it is none other than the city of god. however, as earlier mentioned, it is not to say that humans are incapable of attaining justice in the city of man, or that there are no signs of justice in the society. augustine only suggests that the justice dispensed in the civil society is deeply tainted. in other words, fallen men often fail to dispense justice according to the dues that each person deserves so a civil society, christian or non-christian, is not founded on true justice. augustine’s dim assessment of the state, which is responsible for organizing the society, is not that he opposes political structure and order. it is that he is skeptical of the possibility of the state/government in providing the highest life possible for the human being in society. the state, in other words, cannot socially put order among humans towards their teleological end which, for augustine, is the ultimate happiness. for, ultimate happiness is to be found in the interior self coming to know god. to this end, augustine’s critique of the justice in the city of man is that it is devoid of true justice because it is self-oriented rather than relational and restorative. we saw also that in redefining “a people” in terms of being bound together by “the objects of their love,” not by true justice, augustine says that whatever a republic loves, it is reasonably called a people. nevertheless, he does not mean to undermine justice. he did not really separate justice from love. rather, led by philosophy illuminated by faith, augustine makes the point that we fully understand civil society only when we understand its loves and hates. these give a better clue to its character than its constitution or systems of justice or formal declarations. for, the justice of the city accordingly reflects the collective self-interest/love of those who constitute the city. for augustine, nature needs grace to act efficaciously even in the civil sphere after the fall of man. thus, following him, human realities are seen in a new light in the civil society in terms of love, because god is love. if we apply this to humans, his insight shows that people are what they love in the civil society. consequently, religion or the worship of god, understood and practiced correctly, adds values to politics, –which values ensure justice, love, peace and harmony in civil society. works cited arendt, hannah. love and saint augustine. edited and with an interpretive essay by joanna veechiarelli scott and judith chelius stark. the university of chicago press, 1996. aristotle. “nicomachean ethics, book v. ch. 1.” in introduction to aristotle. edited with introductions, by richard mckeon. the modern library, 1992, pp. 327-579. armstrong, a. h. an introduction to ancient philosophy. methuen & co. ltd, 1947. augustine. city of god [de civitate dei, dcd].transl. by marcus dods. random house, 1950. _ _ _. the city of god. transl. by gerald c. walsh & co. image books, 1958. evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 1, number 2, october 2020 chukwujekwu & anowai 57 _ _ _. the confessions. transl. by r.s. pine-coffin. penguin books, 1961. _ _ _. the confessions. transl. by william watts (in two volumes). university press, 1912. brown, p. religion and society in the age of st. augustine. harper & row, 1972. dean, herbert. the political and social ideas of st. augustine. columbia university press, 1963. gilson, etienne. the christian philosophy of saint augustine. transl. by l. e. m., lynch. victor gollanez, 1961. graham, gordon. contemporary social philosophy. basil blackwell, 1988. markus, r. a. saeculum: history and society in the theology of st. augustine. cambridge university press, 1970. martin, r. “two cities in augustine’s political philosophy.” journal of the history of ideas, vol. 33, april 1977, pp. 195-216. mattox, j. mark. “augustine: political and social philosophy” http:www.iep.utm.edu/wp.content.media/augustine.jpg paoluch, h. the political writings of st. augustine. gateway, 1962. parel, anthony j. “justice and love in the political thought of st. augustine.” in hugo a. meynell, ed. grace, politics and desire: essay on augustine. university of calgary press, 1990, pp. 71-84. wallace, william a. the elements of philosophy – a compendium for philosophers and theologians. alba house, 1977. evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, number 1, may, 2020 evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 1chukwuemeka iloanya, 2patrick c. bosah and 3chijioke a.c. okoye page 12 human person and social contract experience in nigeria: lessons from john locke 1chukwuemeka iloanya, 2patrick c. bosah and 3chijioke a.c. okoye 1department of philosophy, chukwuemeka odumegwu ojukwu, university 2 & 3department of political science, chukwuemeka odumegwu ojukwu, university 1cp.iloanya@coou.edu.ng; 2padosa.padosa@yahoo.com; 3ca.okoye@coou.edu.ng abstract social contract in civil societies visible in periodic elections predicates on protection and preservation of human lives and properties. but consistent absence of this expectation in nigerian state shows that successive governments have no regard for this contract. instead, these governments engage in policies and governance that foster their personal aggrandizement and threaten human lives, properties and survival. this paper analytically examines social contracts in nigerian state proposing john locke’s theory as that which will be functional in nigerian context. the study finds that the problem with nigeria is that of poor leadership. and this has encouraged a culture of neglect in almost every sector of the public service. the paper believes that application of john locke’s social contract theory will enhance a better understanding between nigerian government and the citizenry. the paper therefore concludes that john locke’s social contract theory has all it takes to make every government functional. this is especially the civil disobedience aspect of it which is a kind of revolution that topples governments, as well as an option left to the citizenry when the social contract is reneged by their representatives. key words: human person; social contract; government; good governance introduction it is an overstatement to state that nigerian government has reneged the tenets of social contract. this is based on the fact that there is no evident protection of human life and properties, nor promotion of the wellbeing of the citizenry. in social contract as seen in periodic elections, individual nigerian citizenry surrender the right to protect himself, property and promote his wellbeing to their representatives and the body that form the government. the main thrust of the social contract theory therefore is for government to exist at the behest of the citizens; to protect and to promote their wellbeing (ajayi, n.d.). unfortunately in nigeria, successive governments do not accomplish this task for which the people give up some of their rights in order to get the benefits of mailto:cp.iloanya@coou.edu.ng evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 1chukwuemeka iloanya, 2patrick c. bosah and 3chijioke a.c. okoye page 13 living in civil society. rather these governments turn around to exploit and kill the people. on this note, okwuagbala (2020) laments, it is so sad to hear that the government, which is set up to build the country and fight any form of corruption, is now stealing from her own people. in fact, nigerian government is likened to an organized crime syndicate that illegally organizes every decision to be in their favour without offering anything to the people that gave them their mandate. they use coercion to make people pay money to them for their personal aggrandizement. they are very corrupt, and reap where they did not sow. even when the governed do what the government ought to do, instead of them hiding their faces in shame, they sought for a way of forcing them to pay taxes on them. most times the tax payers’ money is used in frivolous activities and inanities even to the extent of using it to sponsor terrorism and all manner of hardship! many foreigners will find it hard to believe that in nigeria almost everything that the government ought to provide to the electorate is provided by the electorate themselves. for instance, security that suppose to be provided by government is provided by the individuals, good education that the government suppose to provide are done by individuals, people give themselves water, roads to their various destinations, electricity (power), housing, health care, etc. what the government does is only to collect taxes on these essential responsibilities that the people have taken over from them. against these backdrops, there seem to be no agreement between the citizenry and nigerian successive governments. it is based on these that this paper seeks to consider john locke’s social contract theory as a way of remedying the nigerian dilapidating socio-political condition conceptual analysis it is pertinent that some concepts are clarified and explained here especially as it is apt in the context here for easy comprehension of our discourse. the concepts that shall be elucidated here are those that formed the key words of this paper. human person: human person is seen as “an individual substance of a rational nature” boethius (cited in f.c. copleston, 1950: p.92). loyola university chicago (2020) sees the human person as physical being, as knower, as responsible agent, as a person in relation to other persons, to society, to god, and to the end, or purpose, of human life. human person is a being of inestimable value; that everything done in the globe ought to be in his favour. for our purpose here, the human person could also said to be that social and political being for whose sake social contract is made in order to protect his right to property, and ensure his peace, safety, and his good. human person is that end to which all other things in the world should serve as a means to satisfy his comfort. may we also say here that the human person evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 1chukwuemeka iloanya, 2patrick c. bosah and 3chijioke a.c. okoye page 14 is the being for which social contract is entered into for his protection, comfort and wellbeing. it is the being that all things that is done in government and governance ought to favour; a being that government was established to manage his affairs which is the reason he surrendered some of his rights and freedom to the magistrate/sovereign. oguejiofor in odumegwu (2008) concurs: …. the whole of ethics, social and political philosophy, philosophical anthropology, existentialism, etc are branches of philosophy among others that concentrate squarely on the human person and his operations in the world…. philosophy is in its tradition, all embracing. but it is also true that the human person stands at the center and at the root of the whole enterprise since without it, there would be no philosophy at all. (ix) social contract: palmer (1991) talking from hobbesian perspective says that: social contract is the agreement of individuals in a state to transfer their right to violence and their right to sovereignty over themselves to a mutually agreed upon sovereign (a parliament or a monarch), who now has absolute and political authority over them. in exchange for absolute power (including an army), this sovereign promises to pass laws that create a state of peace…. the sovereign promises to restrain and punish anyone who breaks the initial part of the contract and uses violence against any other member of this newly created artificial body, state. (p. 326) from locke’s perspective, palmer (1991, p. 334) sees social contract as “the consent of citizens to submit to political state their political authority only with the condition that such political authority will do whatever is necessary to protect their natural right”. these rights include right to life, property, equality, etc. he went on to opine that the citizen is bound to contract only as long as the government upholds its end of the contract. for moore & bruder (2002, p. 272), social contract is “thus an agreement between individuals who, for the sake of peace, are willing to make this absolutely unconditional and irrevocable transfer of right and power to the sovereign or leviathan…. it is the contract that delivers people from the evils of the natural state to civil society and a state of peace. from point of view of lock, moore & bruder (2002, p. 276) holds that “social contract is individuals’ agreement among themselves to establish a state to govern them, because the state, chiefly evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 1chukwuemeka iloanya, 2patrick c. bosah and 3chijioke a.c. okoye page 15 through its laws, offers the means to protect the right to property, and ensure ‘the peace, safety, and public good of the people’”. government: government is the body empowered by the people to see to their day to day management and every order thing that will ensure their wellbeing and safety. oxford english dictionary (2010) sees government as the system or group of people governing an organized community, often a state. the columbia encyclopedia sees government as “a system of social control under which the right to make laws, and the right to enforce them, is vested in a particular group in society”. way, holds that government is the agent, or instrument of political society of which the government is a part. governance involves interaction between the formal institutions and those in civil society. for british council, government refers to a process whereby elements in society wield power, authority and influence and enact policies and decisions concerning public life and social upliftment. good governance: healey and robinson define good governance as “a high level of organizational effectiveness in relation to policy-formulation and the policies actually pursued, especially in the conduct of economic policy and its contribution to growth, stability and popular welfare. good governance also implies an act of accountability, transparency, participation, openness and the rule of law”. good governance for tamayao (2014), is the exercise of power or authority by political leaders for the well-being of their citizens or subjects. the state of social contract in nigeria the government indeed has failed the nigerian human person in so many areas. the first area that the government of nigeria has failed the human person is security. a government must control the people it seeks to govern and protect. according to way (n.d.), “the government must maintain internal peace--i.e., peace among individuals and groups within the society”. however, there is general insecurity in nigeria. day in day out, nigerian’s lives are cut shot by different criminal groups such as boko haram, bandits, kidnappers, herdsmen, etc. indeed, okwuagbala (2020), affirms that the bombings, kidnappings, and other violent acts of boko haram prevent many nigerians from feeling safe. the precarious condition of human life in nigeria are therefore the rationale behind the global peace index ranking of the country in 2016 as the fourth country in the world with the highest number of “international conflict deaths.” according to the 2018 global terrorism index report however, nigeria again maintains the third position in terrorism for that year. boko haram is a well-known agent of destruction in nigeria. there are even rumours in some quarters that the nigerian government is the one sponsoring some of these criminal groups to unleash mayhem on her citizens. most of the soldiers sent to fight some of these criminal groups are also not motivated. sometime in march 2020 there was a video that went viral on evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 1chukwuemeka iloanya, 2patrick c. bosah and 3chijioke a.c. okoye page 16 internet where one of the generals that was sent to combat boko haram insurgents was complaining that they were not well equipped and that ammunitions were in short supply to them while the insurgents were well equipped. instead of the government to hearken to his complaint and act accordingly they rather changed him after two days. there are also many instances of nigerian security operatives being the ones abusing and in some cases killing the citizens that they were meant to protect as the social contract demands. this why obiano (2020) laments: in any civilized society, there are rules of engagement, especially when it comes to the military interruption and face-off with the people, the civilians. however, in nigeria it is anything goes…. the sad reality is that it is not new to see men on uniform, so arrogantly exercising powers that they shouldn’t. the men of nigerian army are at the fore front of this mess. they aren’t alone; lately also, men of nigerain police, attached special anti-robbery squad, sars unit are guilty as well….the members of sars intimidate, abuse, assault and even so recklessly, use their fire arms, many have died because of the foolishness of the men of sars unit…. the men of nigerian army are sadly also, in the habit of so recklessly abusing and torturing nigerians…. in warri, delta state, people were chased like thieves, abusively flogged, ruthlessly tortured, asked to swim in dirty mosquito-infested gutter water. who does that? how can someone ask another to swim in swamp and ditch? well, men of the nigerian military did that, in the video that went viral…. the above lamentation of obiano is one of the so many nigerian security brutality on the citizens that willingly entered into agreement with government with the anticipation of protection in exchange. in a nutshell, the nigerian crime problem gives many citizens in the country sleepless nights. in many places, people feel they can no longer walk around their own neighborhoods unharmed. public safety is the most fundamental responsibility of any state, and nigeria has failed in this regard (okwuagbala, 2020). another area that the government of nigeria has failed in keeping to its own part of social agreement is in the area of social welfare. social welfare according to way (n.d.), consists of government programs through which evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 1chukwuemeka iloanya, 2patrick c. bosah and 3chijioke a.c. okoye page 17 assistance is provided to the poor. these programs are designed to alleviate existing poverty, providing aid to particular categories of persons who are unable to adequately support themselves, due to circumstances widely perceived within the society to be beyond the control of the indigent persons. the categories of persons eligible for public assistance generally include (1) women with dependent children in families where the father is absent or unemployed and (2) persons who, though aged, blind or disabled, are not covered by social-insurance programs and are therefore ineligible for benefits under them. unfortunately, in nigeria the reverse is the case. instead of the government providing these set of people with assistance they impoverish them the more by using the money that ought to be used in carrying out these social responsibilities as security vaults and payment of sundry allowances to the politicians. this is why okogie (2020) observes: we continue to run the affairs of our country with a constitution that impoverishes and disables the citizens by establishing offices that do not serve the people…. the humongous basic salaries and allowances of our political office holders should become a thing of the past…government in nigeria is embarrassingly big, sinfully expensive, prone to corruption and scandalously inefficient. indeed, it is not news again that more than half the population of nigerians make and survive on less than $2 per day. in fact, about same half population manage to do two square meals per day. the rate of joblessness in nigeria is one getting up to high heavens. many nigerians survive on daily pay jobs. there are no good and coordinated access to soft loans and grants from lending institutions for small and medium scale enterprises….therefore, no miracle can sustain nigerians, except when the government rises to the responsibility (obiano, 2020). the money to sponsor this social welfare everyone know is available but the problem remains that those at the helm of affair always corner it for their own personal aggrandizement. falaiye &okoregbe (2016 ) politicians and public officers therefore turn government into a “cash cow” for personal aggrandizement. consequently, a culture of neglect in public service gradually creeps in, and there is utter neglect for the provision of basic amenities and infrastructure that promote the good life. (p. 11). furthermore, accountability and transparency are like two sides of a coin; both have gone on holiday in nigeria. information in nigeria is exclusive of those in power. any attempt by any individual or group to bring the government to account or make them be open to the citizen are frowned at; and many ways have been devised by the government ranging from use of force to evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 1chukwuemeka iloanya, 2patrick c. bosah and 3chijioke a.c. okoye page 18 legislations all in the bid by them to evade accountability and transparency. so many things are done in secrecy in nigeria. it is on record that nigerian government through the national assembly has tried severally to pass antiinformation bill. they have suggested severally for banning of social media under the guise of hate speech and all what not while other nations of the world are passing information bill law in their countries. if not for the international outcry, social media may not be in existence in nigeria by now. so many journalists are in custody today because they exposed the evil activities of the government. in nigeria, the government is the harbinger of misinformation and deception while they ought to be the right source of information and accountability because accountability is said to be a key requirement of good governance (sheng, 1997). apart from the use of force, intimidation and legislation, nigerian government has devised so many other means of evading accountability to the citizens. okogie (2020) captures it thus: on primetime television, we witnessed the spectacle of naira notes, and a minister of the federal republic was doing the distribution. but government could and ought to have used this moment to encourage nigerians to open bank accounts. a more transparent means of giving out the money would have been to ask each person for his or her bank verification number and to send the money into their accounts. apart from the fact that it would have encouraged more nigerians to open bank accounts, it would have made it possible to account for every naira that is given out. in the same vein, we have heard how billions of naira was being donated to government without government telling nigerians how the donation will be spent. the above observation by okogie was confirmed as some people set the accountant general of the federation’s office ablaze on wednesday 8th april, 2020, nine hours after the request by the national assembly to give account of two trillion naira that they claimed to have disbursed to the poorest of the poor to cushion the effect of covid -19 pandemic. on thursday 9th april, 2020 the finance minister zainab ahmed told nigerians that 700 billion naira was lost in the inferno. the above is one among so many other means the government has failed in the area of accountability and transparency as part of keeping to and honoring their own end of social contract. equity, inclusiveness and justice as the strongest tenets of social contract theory are not found anywhere in practice in nigeria; not minding that it is enshrined in our constitution. equity, inclusiveness and justice mean that all evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 1chukwuemeka iloanya, 2patrick c. bosah and 3chijioke a.c. okoye page 19 the members of the society, especially the most vulnerable ones or the grassroots level, must be taken into consideration in policy-making. everyone has a stake in the society and no one should feel alienated from it. particularly, those who belong to the grassroots level must not only be the subject of legislation but they must be given the opportunity to participate in decision or policy making. equity also refers to a kind of justice that gives more opportunity to the less fortunate members of the society. it is based on this principle that those who have less in life should have more in social law (tamayao, 2014). nigeria is made of more than 250 ethnic groups which mean that all of them ought to be involved in whatever good thing that come into the country but unfortunately caution is thrown to the wind and the opposite is the case. justice, equity and inclusiveness are now seen as a privilege and no longer a right in nigeria which is against the tenet of social contract. currently offices are allotted based on nepotistic and religious ground. once you are a northerner you are good to go. what happened with the appointment of the security service chiefs is a very good example, where almost all of them were selected from the same tribe, ethnicity and religion not minding their poor performances in securing the nations and heterogeneous nature of the country even when insecurity is at the point it has never gotten before in nigeria. in fact, the neglect of equity, inclusiveness and justice has graduated from discriminating against an individual to the level of discriminating against a region or an ethnic group. the recent 22.7 billion dollars that the government wanted to borrow is a very good example of what this paper is saying. the loan was to be shared among every other region excluding the south-east. this is a loan that they are expected to contribute in repaying. if a whole region is discriminated against, just imagine what can happen to minorities and individual, especially the vulnerable ones in such a country. infrastructural provision is another area that the government of nigeria has failed woefully. infrastructure is important that no country can make serious progress without it. one will wonder little why nigeria remain underdeveloped irrespective of all the resources both mineral and human that it is blessed with. in nigeria the power sector is corrupt and mismanaged, and many workers in the electricity sector are not equipped with the proper skills or training. domestic production suffers under these conditions; many foreign companies also find it difficult to conduct business in nigeria because of frequent power failures. this problem keeps nigeria a third world country year after year (okwuagbala, 2020). business suffers without a dependable road system. corruption and the embezzlement of public funds keep roadways in disrepair. many road accidents in nigeria that have claimed a lot of lives of the citizens of nigeria would not have happened if the roads are well fixed. it is because our federal government failed to fix federal roads that make some of these accidents happen. they do not fulfill their function to protect lives evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 1chukwuemeka iloanya, 2patrick c. bosah and 3chijioke a.c. okoye page 20 and properties of the people through this channel. in 2011, according to okwuagbala (2020), the world bank reported that only 67% of paved roads and 33% of unpaved roads were in good or fair condition. between 2001 and 2006, only $50 million of the needed $240 million were allocated for road maintenance. similar issues of inadequacy and corruption can be seen in water resources, railways and education. at the time of writing this paper the academic staff union of universities (asuu) are on strike due to government neglect, attempt to hoodwink them, and poor state of public universities. the government’s failure to invest adequately in the health-care system is also evident especially during this era of covid-19 pandemic. based on this okogie (2020), avers that “…covid-19 is also revelatory, a blessing in disguise, because it has exposed nigeria as a country where quality of leadership is of low grade. okogie (2020) again observes that “rather than invest in good health care service delivery in nigeria, we have a political arrangement that makes it possible, even encouraging, to waste nigeria’s money on government officials and health tourism abroad”. thus, the health services available are dysfunctional and inadequate which has led to high mortality rate especially on the side of expectant mothers, children and the aged people. it has also resulted to migration of talented doctors and nurses to advance countries; the remaining good ones are found in the cities, leaving nigerians staying in the rural areas to their fate. the foregoing have been issues that have bedeviled nigerians from the beginning of time and these infrastructural deficiencies are yet to end and the government never cares. effects of government irresponsibility to social contract in nigeria for every act of irresponsibility, there is commensurate repercussion, be it individually or generally. along this line, the breach of social contract by nigerian government has among other effects led to incessant revolt, endemic corruption, fear and mistrust. incessant revolt: due to government failure in keeping their own end of the social contract, there are so many agitations in various regions of the country. these agitations are not strange but in line with the dictates of john locke’s social contract theory that call for revolution or change of government when they fail in keeping their own end of the contract that they willingly entered with the people. locke (1964) captures it thus: …government are dissolved, and that is when the legislative or the prince, either of them, act contrary to their trust….the legislative acts against the trust reposed in them when they endavour to invade the property of the subject and to make themselves or any part of the community masters or arbitrary disposers of the lives, liberties, or fortunes of the people….since evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 1chukwuemeka iloanya, 2patrick c. bosah and 3chijioke a.c. okoye page 21 it can never be supposed to be the will of the society that the legislative should have a power to destroy that which everyone designs to secure by entering into society, and for which the people submitted themselves to legislators of their own making. whenever the legislators endavour to take away and destroy the property of the people, or to reduce them to slavery under arbitrary power, they put themselves into a state of war with the people who are thereupon absolved from any further obedience. (233) all the things that locke said that can lead to rebellion have all happened in nigeria. hence, most people believe that nigeria is sitting on keg of gun powder. the government has in all ramifications failed the citizens with no hope of any change in the nearest future. one will now wonder little why the boko haram are fighting in the north-east, niger delta militants agitating in the south-south, ipob looking for secession in the south-east and others carrying out civil disobedience in respective zones. all these are the repercussions of the government failure in keeping to the mandate and agreement that they willingly entered with the people. and when tyranny and irresponsibility becomes the order of the day; social disobedience becomes an obligation. from the preceding subheading one could see that the government of the country has failed her people and there is nothing that remains than to agitate. it is even a thing of wonder that nigeria still exist today as a nation because the irresponsibility and insensitivity of her leaders right from independent has gotten to an elastic limit. endemic corruption: another serious effect of government irresponsibility to the nigerian human person is corruption. it is experienced in every sphere of nigerian public and private existence. be it in politics, education, judiciary, businesses, religion, police, legislature, banks, ministries, etc (ugwuja, 2008). in nigeria corruption has become a culture; to the extent that it is synonymous with her (iloanya, et al., 2011, p. 242). irrespective of the fact that chapter ii, section 15, subsections 5 of the constitution of the federal republic of nigeria states thus; “the state shall abolish all corrupt practices”. unfortunately, no one is adhering to this instruction.the government personnel who are constituted to abolish corruption are careless about what is expected of them. also, the non-governing citizens who are also expected to be free from corruption are guilty of it (okwuagabala, 2020). indeed, nigerian leaders have made life difficult that everyone is looking for a way of survival, falaiye & okoregbe (2016, p. 12).nigeria has unjustifiably become a land of suffering, poverty, anguish, pain and hopelessness. it is all over the news that during the covid-19 pandemic lock down, that the law enforcement agents evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 1chukwuemeka iloanya, 2patrick c. bosah and 3chijioke a.c. okoye page 22 were asked to monitor the people and restrain them from moving around. but as usual they collected money from nigerians and allowed them to move around, even from one state to the other. this is one among many instances of corruption in nigeria. according to watch tower (2000 p. 4), “this endemic corruption is as a result of selfishness and greed” of nigerian leaders. when the leaders out of greed and selfishness violet the social contract by embezzling the common wealth, the citizens out of frustration engage in any means be it by hook or crook to secure some economic, political, financial or other advantages of their own so as to approximate some of such privileges flaunted by the leaders (iloanya, et al., 2011 p. 247). the corruption of the government makes them have lukewarm attitude towards matters of corruption knowing fully well that they are guilty of the same offence, hence, making corruption to escalate. iloanya, et al. (2011) aptly put it: the lukewarm attitude of those who are supposed to enforce the laws of the land (judges, police officers and public officials) could lead people to engage in corrupt practices, knowing full well that they would get away with it. the weakness of institutions established to interpret and enforce laws against corruption exacerbates and institutionalize corruption in nigeria. (249) more so, the current ruling government just like the previous ones is not performing its functions as promised, and officials are too busy filling their pockets instead of governing effectively. transparency international (2020) deemed nigeria one of the most corrupt nations in the world with 148th position as the highest in 2017 and 134 as the lowest in 2014 respectively. in 2019 ranking nigeria came 146th in corruption perception index out of the 180 countries measured. this shows that nigeria was the 34th most corrupt country in 2019. the above instances show how endemic corruption is in nigeria following the failure of the government to keep to their own end of social contract they willingly entered with the nigerian human person. mistrust: this is the height of repercussion of government persistent and consistent failure in keeping to their end of social contract. nobody in nigeria takes the government serious, the same with anything coming from them. following years of disappointment, failed campaign promises, unfulfilled state programmes, large-scale corruption and failure to deliver on the dividends of democracy; nigerian citizens largely distrust the government. in a 2016 afro barometer survey on the level of trust citizens hold for their governments in 36 african countries, nigeria recorded the least score with a mere 31 per cent indicating a positive attitude towards the government. in addition, in 2018, the world economic forum (wef) found that nigeria ranked 130 of 137 countries for citizen distrust of government officials evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 1chukwuemeka iloanya, 2patrick c. bosah and 3chijioke a.c. okoye page 23 (onapajo & adebiyi, 2020). consequently, anything the government wishes to do for the people is looked at with suspicion even when they have genuine intention. the fear and mistrust in government is instantiated in onapajo & adebiyi (2020) thus: in the wake of the rapidly spreading novel coronavirus (covid-19), with its debilitating effects on humanity, the nigerian government launched a social distancing campaign, restricting movements in certain parts of the country…. a major aspect of nigeria’s approach to the covid-19 pandemic has been the prohibition of gatherings that exceed 50 people, including worship places and all forms of social events… with much surprise, many nigerians have continued to defy the state directives. as at last week, churches and mosques opened their doors for worship, funlovers continued with their normal parties and clubbed like nothing was happening around them. when questioned about their refusal to follow precautionary measures established by the government, most of them dismissed the reality of the disease. one of the reasons being that several nigerians perceived the virus to be an attempt by political elites to create an emergency and siphon public money. for example, a middle-aged respondent confidently told reporters with legit.ng that he is a scientist and can confirm that, ‘nigeria’s weather is so harsh for coronavirus to survive…no individual has the virus in the country…there is no trace for the so-called confirmed cases…it is an opportunity to steal our money.’ the above quotation is talking about the corona virus, a deadly pandemic that is raving the whole world. just that the information on the necessary precaution to be followed to stay safe is coming from the government of nigeria. the people chose to die because of their previous experiences in the hands of the government. also, the current donations made by some nigerians to cushion the effect of corona virus pandemic is already believed to be cornered by the government for their private aggrandizement. little wonder some people like pastor david ogbueli the general overseer of dominion city church and apostle johnson suleiman of omega fire ministry refused to make any donations to the government, but rather reached out to the evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 1chukwuemeka iloanya, 2patrick c. bosah and 3chijioke a.c. okoye page 24 citizens themselves. the reason is because they believe that the government will not do justice in ensuring that their donations will get to the poorest of the poor whom it is meant for. moreover, majority of nigerians are of the same view because of consistent and persistent failure of the government in keeping to their own end of social agreement. the fear and mistrust in the government is not just observed in the economy but also in other aspects of their responsibilities. once more, our past experiences with nationwide threats provide enough examples. in 2015, the country got to know that most of the money meant to fight insurgency—about $2 billion—in north-eastern nigeria was actually pocketed by a few individuals. this was despite official assurances that nigeria was committed to fighting boko haram and that the terrorist group would soon be confined to history. in december 2015, six months after assuming office, president muhammadu buhari declared that boko haram had been ‘technically defeated’ and claimed displaced people in the epicenter of the conflict zone could start returning to their homes. among the buhari-led government’s campaign promises was to ‘kill corruption before it kills nigeria’. many nigerians rejoiced over the statement and voted for president buhari in 2015. however, since president buhari emerged as president, the reverse has been the case. corruption continues like before. one will now wonder little why the mistrust in nigerian government. john lock’s social contract theory: an antidote to social contract violation in nigeria rufus & eyo (2017) avers that in every social phenomenon the easy part has always been identifying the problem whilst the difficulty lies in proffering a solution. this paper having depicted these failures seeks to proffer solutions, hence, the position of john locke’s social contract theory as an antidote. locke’s social contract theory is deemed very apt in arresting the persistent bridge of social contract by nigerian government because it is the model for every modern state in dealing with her people to ensure that common good is achieved. nigeria being one of the modern states needs strictly to adhere to it. in locke’s social contract theory, the responsibility of the government is well spelt out while the obligations of the citizens were spelt out too, all geared towards the achievement of common good of all the parties in the contract. palmer (1991) opines, “the function of the political state is to guarantee our moral state…. the citizens consent to submit to political authority only with the proviso that such political authority will do whatever is necessary to protect our natural right”. (p. 334) according to locke (1997), contract was an agreement of each with all, a surrender by the individual of his personal right to fulfill the commands of the laws of nature in return for the guarantee that his rights as nature ordains them life, liberty and property should be well-maintained. the end for which this contract is made is the protection and preservation of property, in the broad sense of the word, that is, evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 1chukwuemeka iloanya, 2patrick c. bosah and 3chijioke a.c. okoye page 25 life, liberty and estate-against the dangers both from within and without the community (civilserviceindia.com). from the above one could vividly see that the reason for entering into social contract everywhere is for the society to have a strong institution that will ensure everybody’s survival. unfortunately as could be seen in the case of nigeria the reverse is the case. but with lockean social contract theory being posited as the template for an ideal social contract the nigerian leaders will see that the contract is not entered just for their self aggrandizement. rather, it is for the purpose of forming a formidable society where all that gave them their mandate can survive, their property protected and their lives saved. when this is well understood, it will enable our government to eschew the heightened culture of impunity that encourages incessant high level official rascality and dubious unconstitutional devices deployed in the steering of the state, and think on how to work for the good and safety of everyone in the state. again, lockean social contract theory will go a long way in making the nigerian government to buckle up on the areas of security. according to locke (1690) the end of people’s unity or living in the society is to build a commonwealth, preserve human life and properties. (p. 124) unfortunately the nigerian government has not lived up to this part of social contract. in nigeria just as has mentioned elsewhere in this work there is always harvest of blood and destruction of property, people’s wellbeing are not cared for and liberty is nowhere to be found. however, having lockean social contract theory as a model, the government will be made to live to their responsibility of protecting the people. when this is done nothing or less will be heard of boko haram, herdsmen, kidnappers etc. that in the recent time have been thorns in the flesh of human persons living in nigeria. furthermore, the incessant revolutions and agitations that occur in nigeria will naturally disappear if the government and the leaders understand that their occurrences is due to their failure in keeping to their own end of social contract bargain, which the lockean social contract theory will expose to them. friend (n.d.) captures it thus: when the executive power of a government devolves into tyranny… therefore denying the people the ability to make laws for their own preservation, then the resulting tyrant puts himself into a state of nature, and specifically into a state of war with the people, and they then have the same right to self-defense as they had before making a compact to establish society in the first place. in other words, the justification of the authority of the executive component of evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 1chukwuemeka iloanya, 2patrick c. bosah and 3chijioke a.c. okoye page 26 government is the protection of the people’s property and well-being, so when such protection is no longer present, or when the king becomes a tyrant and acts against the interests of the people, they have a right, if not an outright obligation, to resist his authority. the social compact can be dissolved and the process to create political society begun anew. seeing that tyranny and no clear adjudication are among the remote causes of most revolutions in the country as exposed by lockean contract theory; the government will now shun the manner at which they manipulate the constitution to their favor which left every one with the feeling that there is a lack of an established law known and acceptable to all. secondly, the dependence of the judiciary on the executive which portray an absence or lack of an independent/impartial judiciary to adjudicate the law will be discouraged. also the orientation that the nigerian judicial system is weak and can be easily manipulated by the elite/ruling class thereby making the common man to resort to jungle justice at every slightest opportunity should be changed. and improved effort by the government to keep to their part of the contract by ensuring that the lives and property of the populace is secured will stop the people from resorting to self actions and responsibilities towards surviving and coping with insecurities. finally, john locke’s social contract theory will make it possible for the people to see and understand that the time for social disobedience and ousting of the present leaders in government is long overdue. since the government has violated all the social contract agreement among which are: respecting the social contract, upholding the citizen’s rights to life, health, liberty, and possessions. palmer (1991) concurs: the citizen is bound to contract only so long as the government upholds its end of the contract. locke thought that the populace should not go lightly into a condition of revolt. because of seriousness of such a condition, all sorts of attempts should be made to correct the abuses of power before a revolution is declared. but if the state not only fails to uphold the citizen’s rights to life, health, liberty, and possessions but also becomes the violator of those rights, then revolution is justified. (p. 334) the above quotation is typical of the situation in nigeria. so the lesson learnt from locke’s social contract theory should encourage the people to revolt and not to shy away from it, since it is the basis for establishing most modern political state. moreover, it will bring to the awareness of the people that it is evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 1chukwuemeka iloanya, 2patrick c. bosah and 3chijioke a.c. okoye page 27 not a vice to over throw an erring government and that it is the only option remaining for them to make nigeria work like most developed countries of the world. some of the countries that revolted in the past such as: france, england and america, etc. though paid heavily but they are better for it. and considering the nature of nigeria, it seems that it is only civil disobedience will open up the corrupt leaders, tyrants and everything, hence, usher in the positive change that the nigerian human person for long desired. consciousness of the civil disobedience as an obligation in a country as nigeria will enable all the tribes in nigeria to understand that various agitations going on in different regions in nigeria is not geared towards fighting each other. rather it is geared towards their common enemies who are the politicians that do not have tribes, religion or sex when it comes to exploiting and breaching the social contract. armed with this idea they will join forces to either oust them as the locke’s social contract theory demands or make them to be responsible. conclusion the persistent and consistent failure of nigerian government in keeping to their own part of social contract bargain is redeemable; irrespective of the fact that it has had so many negative effects on the people and has led to under development and frustration among human persons. however, as this paper projects, a strict adherence to the dictates of lockean social contract theory will correct the anomaly currently experienced, because it has established the fact to nigerians that the civil society is a collection of individuals and groups with visible leadership that take responsibility for the protection and security of the people and their property. it has also provided framework for the organization of socio-economic interactions, in such a way that if the various political structures are properly harnessed then human person’s progress and security are better ensured. it is believed by this paper that when the needful as contained in john locke’s social contract theory are done the desecrated social contract of nigerian human person will be amended. references ajayi, s. 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(2020) covid-19 is a big scam’ citizens’ distrust and the challenge of combating coronavirus in nigeria. https://republic.com.ng/february-march-2020/distrust-nigeriacoronavirus oxford english dictionary (2010).government.oxford university press. oxforddictionaries.com https://www.civilserviceindia.com/subject/political-science/notes/western-political-thoughthttps://www.civilserviceindia.com/subject/political-science/notes/western-political-thoughthttp://www.nigeria-/ http://law.org/constitutionofthefederalrepublicofnigeria.htm https://www.researchgate.net/publication/308477261_social_contract_theories_and_governance_ https://www.researchgate.net/publication/308477261_social_contract_theories_and_governance_ https://www.iep.utm.edu/soc-cont/ http://www.gdrc.org/u-gov/governancehttp://www.gdrc.org/u-gov/governancehttp://m.guardian.ng/ https://soapboxie.com/world-politics/challenges-in-nigeria-and-solutions https://soapboxie.com/world-politics/challenges-in-nigeria-and-solutions https://republic.com.ng/february-march-2020/distrust-nigeriahttps://republic.com.ng/february-march-2020/distrust-nigeriaevaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 1chukwuemeka iloanya, 2patrick c. bosah and 3chijioke a.c. okoye page 29 palmer, d. (1991). does the center hold? an introduction to western philosophy, 2nd edition. mayfield publishing company. penguin dictionary of philosophy (1999). mautner, t. (ed.), social contract theory. london: penguin books. rufus, a., & eyo, d.e. (2017). the lockean state of war and the nigerian state: a comparative analysis. global journal of human social science. volume xvii issue iii version i.http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0 sheng, y.k. (1997)united nations economic and social commission for asia and the pacific: what isgood governance? undp (1997) governance for sustainable human development.united nations development programme.www.unescap.org/pdd supply-side liberal (2018, june 17) c o n f e s s i o n s o f a s u p p l y s i d e l i b e r a l the social contract according to john locke. https://blog.supplysideliberal.com/post/2018/6/17/the-social-contractaccording-to-john-locke tamayao, m.j.m. (2014). law, politics and philosophy:what is governance? https://tamayaosbc.wordpress.com/2014/08/21/what-is-governance/ the columbia encyclopedia 6th ed., (2000).governance. columbia university press. transparency international (2013 january, 3), corruption perceptions index. transparency international (2014 april, 17), corruption perceptions index. transparency international (2020)nigeria corruption rank1996-2019 data | 2020-2022 forecast historical | chart. https://tradingeconomics.com/nigeria/corruption-rank ugwuja, m. (2008). community development: socio-economic dimension. condolec prints ltd. way, a.l. (n.d.). political science 201: the american system of government. politics & government in the u.s.a. politics & government: the essentials.https://www.proconservative.net/cunapolsci201partone b2.shtml http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0 http://www.unescap.org/pdd https://blog.supplysideliberal.com/ https://blog.supplysideliberal.com/ https://blog.supplysideliberal.com/post/2018/6/17/the-social-contract-according-to-john-locke https://blog.supplysideliberal.com/post/2018/6/17/the-social-contract-according-to-john-locke https://tamayaosbc.wordpress.com/2014/08/21/what-is-governance/ https://tradingeconomics.com/nigeria/corruption-rank https://www.proconservative.net/cunapolsci201partoneb2.shtml https://www.proconservative.net/cunapolsci201partoneb2.shtml evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, number 1, may, 2020 evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 meze michael ejike page 160 effects of foreign direct investment on agricultural production in nigeria: 1985 to 2018. meze michael ejike department of economics nwafor orizu college of education, anambra state email: mezemichael386@gmail.com abstract the study determines the effect of foreign direct investment inflow into the agricultural sector and the productivity of the sector in nigeria from 1985 to 2018. it employed the ordinary least squares technique, co-integration test and error correction mechanism which minimizes the possibility of estimating spurious relations while at the same time, retaining long run information. amongst other findings, the research reveals that foreign direct investment has significant positive impact on agricultural production. the findings also revealed that corruption perception index and exchange rate have negative impact on agricultural production in nigeria. the study thus recommends, among other things, an enactment and reformation of extant laws and policies that could boost the ease of doing business in nigeria. this could be done by enforcing investment attracting mechanisms like tax holidays and tax waivers in order to attract more investment in the agricultural sector. keywords: foreign, agriculture, investment, production, investment inflow. introduction agricultural sector is an important area in which foreign direct investment (fdi) has proven effective in tackling the fundamental issues confronting africa. this is as foreign direct investment (fdi) has brought increase in agricultural productivity and growth and this is critical for reducing poverty enhancing sustainability and food sufficiency in the developing world (msuya, 2007). prior to fdi lending by commercial banks to agriculture has fallen across developing nations with sub-sahara african countries recording less than 10% of the total credit. along this line, sectoralcredit allocation in nigeria shows that 3.0% of the total volume of credit was allocated to agricultural sector in 2014 and 2015 (food and agricultural organization and central bank of nigeria (2016). to compound the problem of credit to agricultural sector, the issue of collateral and moratorium period attached to agricultural borrowing as well as the volume of capital required to boost the evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 meze michael ejike page 161 agricultural sector makes borrowing from microfinance and other specialized financial institutions unsuitable either (akpan, udoh&umoren,2017). worse still, the development assistance directed to agricultural sector in developing countries like nigeria sometimes does not meet the critical need of beneficiaries. this assistance often tied to project of interest of the donor rather than that of the recipient. for instance the maputo declaration on agriculture food security and the 10 percent national budget allocation to agricultural and rural developments implementable within five years was an illusion to many african countries including nigeria (fao, 2016).following these shortfalls in funding of agricultural sector in developing society such as nigeria, the need for alternative sources of funding with less stringent condition became overwhelmingly necessary. hence nigeria resorted to fdi to boost her agricultural sector. consequently nigeria has absorbed new technologies made use of their low-cost labor and her agricultural products have become largely present in the international market (tvaronavičienė, grybaitė and korsakienė, 2008). indeed, fdi is a globalization strategy that enables investing firms to retain world market share by rearranging their production lines both at home and abroad. it constitutes one of the fundamental exogenous sources of capital available to several developing economies especially in the sub-saharan africa (dabour, 2000). it represents a viable channel through which issues like increasing poverty incidence; low capital accumulation, low savings and relatively weak capital and money markets are resolved in developing and sub-saharam africa countries (iddrisu, immurana & halidu, 2015). it contributes immensely, to financing of agricultural projects and dissemination of technologies among farmers in developing economies like nigeria (msuya, 2007). in nigeria therefore, there has been a tremendous rise in foreign investment inflow over the years. between 1980 and 1990, fdi inflows in nigeria averaged over $740 million, over $2 billion between 1991 and 2000, over $ 7 billion between 2001 and 2014 and over 8 billion between 2017 and 2018 (cbn statistical bulletin, 2018). this substantial increase notwithstanding, there seem to be varying opinions on the effect of such increases on agricultural production in nigeria with some analysts claiming that such increases have not yielded expected effects. and so, this paper investigates the effects of foreign direct investment in boosting nigeria’s agricultural sector. conceptual analysis for the purpose of this study fdi in this context points at oversees investments by private multinational corporations. similarly, agricultural production has to do with the total annual national output or monetary value of agricultural sector in nigeria. evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 meze michael ejike page 162 foreign direct investment includes external resources that embrace knowledge and capital in technology, managerial and advertising. all of these have a significant effect on the productive capacity of the host nation, and the achievement of public measures to stimulate the productive base of the economy mainly depends on its ability to regulate appropriate amounts of fdi comprising managerial, capital, and technological resources to boost current manufacturing capacity (omankhanlen, 2011). lipsey and chrystal (2004) describe fdi as a non-resident investment in the form of an acquisition or capital investment in a national branch, plant or subsidiary in which the investor has voting control. the international monetary fund (imf, 1993, section 359) describes fdi as an investment reflecting the goal of acquiring a resident's lasting interest in another economy... lasting interest means the presence of a long-term connection between the immediate investor and the (foreign) undertaking and a significant degree of impact on the leadership of the undertaking by the investor. foreign direct investment simply implies transfer of resources in the form of capital and technology to another country. examples of this include management and advertising. these have been seen to significantly affect the productive capacity of the host nation and the achievement of measures to stimulate the productive base of the economy, therefore, depends on its ability to appropriately regulate the amount of fdi comprising managerial, capital and technological resources that boost current manufacturing capacity (omankhanlen, 2011). baraja (2010) defined agriculture as the science and practice of producing plants, other crops and animals for food, other human needs for economic gain david and fuller (2014) contend that agriculture is the most comprehensive word used to denote the many ways in which crops, plants and domestic animals sustain the global human population by providing food and other products. agricultural output on the other hand deals with quantifying the output of the sector. according to olabanji, adebisi, ese and oduntan (2017) agricultural output is the value of agricultural products which, free of intra branch consumption are produced during the accounting period and before processing are available for export and consumption. statement of the problem in spite of the concentration of government on oil revenue, the agricultural sector still contributed to the economy in terms of gross domestic product, foreign earnings and employment creation. yusuff, afoloyan and adamu(2015) aver that agriculture accounts for about 40 percent of gdp and provides employment for about 60 percent of nigeria’s over 170 million people. with this huge contribution, one would expect that the sector would attract greater attention from the government, but this has not been the case evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 meze michael ejike page 163 owing to the total reliance of the economy on crude oil (akpan et al, 2017). agricultural sector continues to witness drop in productivity of major farm produce which has resulted in the importation of consumable products that could be produced in the country. also agricultural sector has been experiencing under funding in the recent years which is due to fall in allocation of funds to the sector in the budget. financial institutions have also turned away from providing credits to agricultural sector as they prefer lending to industrial and oil companies who could give them more returns, a situation which has made agricultural sector to remain in subsistence nature and rely on crude equipment (yusuff et al, 2015). though, the nigerian economy has benefited from foreign direct investment, however, the recipient sectors have been the communication, banking, education, and industrial sectors with manufacturing sector being the major recipient. considering the unstable nature of oil price which has resulted in dwindling oil revenue successive governments have made diversification of the economy into agricultural sector their leading agenda (udoh&akpan, 2007; aya&akpan, 2009 &akpan et al, 2017). over the past 20 years, statistics on nigeria have shown that, value-added per capita in agriculture in the country was less than one percent per annum. the federal ministry of agriculture and rural development in 2008, revealed that, food (crop) production growth rate was far below the population growth, resulting in rising food imports and declining levels of national food self-sufficiency. indeed, the dominance of small holder farmers with inadequate resources to practice large scale mechanized agriculture for the past twenty years especially in developing countries like nigeria has resulted in low productivity and dwindling agricultural production (iddrisu et al 2015). however, the poor fundamental infrastructure such as power supply and transportation further complicate issues in the agricultural sector. and questions regarding the effects of foreign direct investment inflow into the ageicultural sector and the relationshipagricultural production and trade openness have remained unattained to especially in the work of akpan et al (2017), idrissu et al (2015) and anyanwu (2011). hence this study seek to provide answers to these questions while at the same time accounting for nigeria’s capacity in attracting fdi and its inflow into the agricultural sector from 1985 to 2018. purpose of the study this study is geared towards determining the impact of foreign direct investment on agricultural production in nigeria. specifically, the study will determine if a. increasing foreign direct investment in nigeria has resulted in improved agricultural production. b. trade openness and credit to private sector help to boost productivity of the agricultural sector. evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 meze michael ejike page 164 research questions to what extent does increase in foreign direct investment in nigeria result in improved agricultural production? how do trade openness and credit to private sector help to boost productivity of the agricultural sector in nigeria? how do corruption perception index and exchange rate affect agricultural production in nigeria? theoretical framework the cobb-douglas production function this production function is used to show the relationship between the quantities of two or more inputs employed in the production of specified quantities of an output. these inputs can be physical capital and labour. hence cobb douglas production function can be used to explain the relationship between fdi inform of capital (technology or funds) transfer and output of the agricultural sector. (ogbuabor&nwosu, 2017). this function relates input and output in a multiplicative function thus: q = f(k, l) = akalb where a, a, and b are all positive constants and q is the output level. q can be assumed to be the monetary value of all goods produced annually in the economy, l = labour input which is the total number of person-hours worked in a year, k = capital input or the monetary worth of all machinery, equipment, and buildings; a is total factor productivity, a and b are the output elasticities of labour and capital, respectively. koutsoyiannis (2002) opined that these constants are determined by available technology. the predictions of this theory indicate that if agricultural output were to be represented by q, given that inflow of foreign direct investment yields more capital to thehome country, k can be taken to mean foreign direct investment while l which is the total labour force can represent the absorptive capacity of the recipient country. the stochastic frontier production function the stochastic frontier production function (sfpf) was developed by aigner, lovell and schmidt (1977) and meeusen and van den broeck (1977) and utilized by battese and coelli (1993)to estimate production and goal attainment functions of a firm. production function shows the technical relationship between given input and output of a firm (battese and coelli 1993) and (hossain, alam and uddin, 2015). based on this theory, agricultural production is aggregated for all the farmers to obtain the aggregate farmer therefore defines the frontier. deviation from this frontier could emanate from mismeasured production factors. estimation of the evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 meze michael ejike page 165 frontier presupposes that the boundary of the production function is defined by optimal farmers. if a firm moves away from the boundary, this is accommodated since the estimation procedures are stochastic. this theory can therefore, be employed to depict the relationship between the input inform of capital (funds and technology) and labor transferred as fdi and agricultural output. theory of productive efficiency the theory of productive efficiency was proposed by farrel (1957). he classified the theory into allocative efficiency and technical efficiency. technical efficiency implies the ability of a firm to produce a given level of output with minimum quantity of input under a given technology. allocative efficiency is a measure of the degree of success in achieving the best combination of inputs in producing a specific level of output with consideration given to the relative prices of these inputs (arene, 2003). based on this theory, therefore, the agricultural farmer is assumed to allocate and utilize inputs obtained through fdi in an efficient way to generate an optimal level of production. according to umoh, (2006), maximum efficiency of a firm is attained when it is impossible to reshuffle a given resource combination without decreasing total output. the link between foreign direct investment and agricultural production in nigeria there is a significant connection between fdi and agricultural production in nigeria. el-wassal (2002) pointed out that there is connection between fdi and growth in agricultural production. he categorized the connection into the positive view, the negative view and the dependent impact view. according to him, the positive impact view which stems from the neoclassical economic growth theory that classifies the positive impact into direct and indirect impacts. the direct impact considers the impacting of fdi on growth from augmentation of domestic capital based on the proposition of the philosophy that it is capital that drives growth. this implies that given the increased capital inflow through fdi more capital will be available for agricultural production. the indirect impact view on the other hand results from knowledge and technology that are included as factors of production, the transfer of which in form of fdi will lead to improvement in techniques of agricultural production (romar, 1994), (kumar and pradham, 2002) and (moran, grabam and blostrom, 2005). the negative impact view implie that fdi is connected to agricultural production by widening agricultural income inequality hence negatively impacting agricultural output in the recipient economies (bomschier, chase-dunn and rubinson, 1978) and (nolan, 1983). evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 meze michael ejike page 166 as for the dependent impact view, fdi is connected to agricultural production through its absorptive ability of the host country’s characteristics. these characteristics include rate of domestic investment, well developed financial market, export orientation and trade openness (blomstrom, lipsey and zejan, 1994), lautier and moreaub (2012), (alfaro and charlton 2007), (balasubramaryan, salisu and spasford, 1996). effect of foreign direct investment on agricultural production in nigeria on the impact of fdi on agricultural production, there have been divergent views and findings by researchers with these findings revolving around the positive view, negative view and the dependent impact view. for example, oloyede (2014) studied the impact of fdi on the development of the agricultural sector in nigeria using time series data covering the period 1981 and 2012 and employing the ordinary least square (ols) estimation technique. the author finds fdi to positively impact agriculture. the author also finds instability of the political environment to inversely affect the agricultural sector. adeyeye (2016) looked at the impact of foreign direct investment on the growth of nigeria's agricultural sector. the research covered the 1981-2015 periods. multiple regression method was used in the research. the findings showed a favorable and substantial impact of fdi on agricultural production. thus, the research found that foreign direct investment has a beneficial impact on nigeria's agricultural sector growth. in 2016, fauzel, seetanah and sannasee also conducted a survey to tackle the significant issue of whether foreign direct investment in the agricultural sector enhances the sector's productivity in mauritius using information from the 1980-2010 time series. using a dynamic vector error correction model, catering for dynamic endogeneity and causality, the findings indicate that fdi in the agricultural sector has actually contributed to overall productivity factor as well as long-term labor productivity while inflation and exchange rate are negative contributors to the productivity of the agricultural sector. analyzing the outcomes of the short run, the research discovered that fdi continues to affect productivity in the agricultural sector, but the effect is very low. on the negative view, ogbanje, okwu and saror (2010) used pearson product moment correlation analysis to determine the relationship between agricultural fdi and agricultural gdp and found a strong negative relationship. olayide (2014) examined the impact of foreign direct investment on agricultural sector in nigeria by employing secondary time series data which spanned from 1981 to 2012 using multiple regression. it was found in the study that fdi impacted negatively on agriculture not only in the short-run but also in the long-run. abu et al., (2011) explored the relationship between foreign direct investment and agricultural production in nigeria. it was revealed that foreign private investment had negative but insignificant effect evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 meze michael ejike page 167 on agricultural output while government expenditure had positive effect on agricultural output. on the dependent impact view, yusuff et al (2015), researched on analysis of foreign direct investment on agricultural sector and its contribution to gross domestic product in nigeria in which they investigated the impact of agricultural foreign direct investment on agricultural sector productivity in nigeria and used descriptive statistics and simple linear regression with the result showing that the inflow of foreign direct investment to agricultural sector did not follow a regular pattern, but that the sector’s contribution to gross domestic product was in direct relationship with the inflows of foreign direct investment. daniel and maiwada (2015) analyzed the nature and volume of chinese trade and investment in nigeria’s agricultural sector and its impact on the nigerian economy. the study revealed that the agricultural sector which hitherto dominated the economy especially as a source of revenue soon gave way to crude oil and it was revealed that chinese trade and investment in nigeria’s agriculture is very low compared to other sectors and has not focused much in the development of the sector in nigeria owing to its dependence on the characteristics of the nigerian economy. agricultural production and trade openness djokoto (2013) looked at how trade openness impacts agricultural performance in ghana by using fdi as a proxy for openness and data covering the period 1995 and 2009. the study revealed that trade openness is a major determining factor of agricultural production in ghana as it positively affects the performance of the agricultural sector. sakyi (2011) found a long run relationship among agricultural growth, openness of trade and foreign aid in nigeria by using autoregressive distributed lag (ardl) bounds test approach and data covering the period 1984 and 2007. insah (2013) found a positive relationship between trade openness and agricultural sector growth in ghana. using the same data coverage of between 1980 and 2010, antwi, mills and zhao (2013) found a similar result on ghana by establishing that trade openness has a positive relationship with agricultural sector growth in ghana. saqib, masnoon and rafique (2013) reviewed the effect of trade openness on pakistan's agricultural sector growth from 1981 to 2010. they used six variables where agricultural sector contribution to gdp is specified as dependent variable while independent variables were trade openness, total debt service, gross domestic savings, inflation. the results suggested an important adverse connection between trade openness and agricultural sector growth. there was also an adverse connection between debt, inflation and trade and the performance of the sector. koojaroenprasit (2012) used evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 meze michael ejike page 168 secondary data for the period 1980–2009 to explore the effect of openness to trade on south korea's agricultural sector development. the research used multiple regression analysis. this research discovered that the effect of openness on south korean agricultural sector growth is significant and positive. moreover, the research showed that human capital, jobs and exports also have a favorable and substantial effect, while national investment has no significant effect on agricultural sector growth in south korea. the empirical relationship between openness to trade and agricultural sector growth in nigeria between 1970 and 2008 was also explored by umoh, jacob and chukwu (2012). they used concurrent and single equation schemes to examine this connection. their findings indicate that from agricultural growth to openness and from openness to agricultural growth, there is a beneficial cause. methodology and instrumentation data for this study will be obtained through secondary sources and analyzed to answer the research questions. a multivariate ordinary least square model will be adopted. in their study on the impact of fdi on agricultural productivity, fauzel et al (2016) specified a model where fdi, inflation rate exchange rate and interest rate served as the explanatory variables. given the nature of the present study, the model used by fauzel et al (2016) will be adopted with little modification. given that the present study intends to account for nigeria’s characteristics which form the absorptive capacity of the country and given the objectives of this study, the model used by fauzel et al (2016) will be modified through the addition of the variables like trade openness and absorptive capacity variables such as institution quality and financial institutions capacity, while excluding some variables from their model. following from the above modifications therefore, the model for this study is specified as follows: ),( .  iii xfay 3.1 where yi is the observed output by the producer i; xi is a vector of k inputs used by the farmer i, ),( ixf is the production frontier and  is a vector of technology parameters to be estimated. ia represents technical efficiency defined as ratio of observed input to maximum feasible output. let us assume that ai is a stochastic variable with a normal distribution function that is common to all rice farmers, then, we can write }exp{ ii ua  where 0iu . suppose we add a stochastic component; }exp{ iv , that captures random shocks affecting the production of rice such that each rice farmer faces different shocks, the production function becomes: evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 meze michael ejike page 169 )exp{ . )exp{).,( iiii vuxfy  3.2 now if we assume a log-linear cobb-douglas production, then (3.2) would become a translog stochastic production frontier of the form: iiik k i uvxy   ln ln k 0 3.3 where k  is a 1 x k vector of unknown parameter to be estimated the systematic error component, vi, is assumed to be independently and identically distributed (i.i.d) random error having normal distribution with mean zero and variance 2 v , that is, vi ~n(0, 2 v ). iu are non-negative random variables associated with the technical inefficiency of production. given that fdi also involves technology transfer, k  in the model will capture this technology transfer through fdi while xi which is a vector of inputs will capture all other explanatory variables in the model. agdp = f(fdi, di, tro, cpi, cps, exr) 3.4 the mathematical form of the model is specified as: agdp = α + β1fdit + β2dit + β3trot + β4cpit+ β5cpst + β6exrt -` 3.5 given that there are other variables that affect agricultural production, but for simplicity, these other variables were not explicitly included in the model, the error term will be introduced in the econometric form of the model; the log form of some variables will also be introduced into the model in order to reduce the extreme values of those variables and avoid the problem of explosive modelling. the log-linear econometric form of the model is therefore as specified below: logagdp = α + β1logfdit + β2logdit + β3trot + β4cpit +β5logcpst + β6exrt + µt 3.6 where: logagdp = log of agricultural sector contribution to gdp (proxy for agricultural production) logfdi = log of foreign direct investment. logdi = log of domestic investment tro = trade openness (calculated as the ratio of export and import to gdp) cpi = corruption perception index (proxy for institutional quality) cps = credit to private sector (proxy for financial institutions capacity) exr = exchange rate α = intercept. 9 evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 meze michael ejike page 170 β1, β2, β3,β4,β5and β6 are the coefficients. µ = error term (representing other variables that affect agricultural production but are not explicitly specified in the model) t = time factor the choice of the multivariate ordinary least square is hinged on the fact that among other estimation techniques for linear models, the ordinary least squares (ols) is the best because if produces parameters that are unbiased, consistent and efficient (gujarati, 2007). the multiple regression analysis will also be carried out in view of the multiple nature of the models. it is expected that all the variables will positively affect agricultural production except for corruption perception index and exchange rate which are expected to have negative effect on agricultural production. the “t statistics” will be employed to answer research questions while the “r2” and adjusted r2 statistics will be employed as the coefficient for determination to measure the goodness of fit of the regression line to the observed sample values of the variables while the “f statistics” will be used to test the overall significance and predictive power of the model. the unit root test,conitegration test and the error correction modeling techniques will be adopted. the secondary data will be sourced from the publications of the central bank of nigeria (cbn) statistical bulletin (2018) and the world bank’s world development indicators (wdi, 2018). presentation and analysis of results unit root test the analytical techniques discussed in the previous chapter were applied to the models of the study and the results are presented in this section. since empirical analysis based on time series data would be biased if the underlying data are non stationary, the unit root test is therefore necessary to check for the stationarity of the variables. the test used for observing the stationarity of the time series data used for analysis in this study is the phillips-perron unit root test. the results are summarized in table 1 below: evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 meze michael ejike page 171 table 1 summary of phillips-perron unit root test result variables adf statistics order of integration r e m a r k s d(agdp) 6 . 1 2 0 6 4 1 ( 1 ) stationary at first difference d ( f d i ) 4 . 4 5 4 5 1 0 1 ( 1 ) stationary at first difference d ( d i ) 9 . 9 1 0 5 6 5 1 ( 1 ) stationary at first difference d ( t r o ) 6 . 0 5 8 6 9 1 1 ( 1 ) stationary at first difference d ( c p i ) 4 . 0 5 5 8 0 7 1 ( 1 ) stationary at first difference d ( c p s ) 9 . 9 7 5 6 6 6 1 ( 1 ) stationary at first difference d ( e x r ) 5 . 0 1 8 3 7 9 1 ( 1 ) stationary at first difference e c m 5 . 2 5 9 5 8 7 1 ( 0 ) s t a t i o n a r y i n l e v e l source: researcher’s compilation using eview 9 (2019). as seen in table 1, all the variables were stationary at first difference. the ecm was stationary in level. this provides a strong criterion for the cointegration analysis. cointegration test since short run equilibrium has been revealed to exist among the series, there is the need to investigate the existence or otherwise of long run equilibrium among these series. this test will be done using the johansen and juseliuscointegraion test. hypothesis: h0: the series do not cointegrate h1: the series cointegrate decision rule reject the null hypothesis if the trace statistic > the 5% critical value or if the probability value < 0.05. the cointegration test tables are presented below: table 2: cointegration test result hypothesized no. of ce(s) eigen value trace statistic 0.05 critical value p r o b * * n o n e * 0 . 5 7 4 8 3 8 7 5 . 0 3 5 7 6 6 9 . 8 1 8 8 9 0 . 0 1 8 0 a t m o s t 1 * 0 . 4 7 8 7 9 7 4 5 . 9 5 6 0 6 3 7 . 8 5 6 1 3 0 . 0 4 4 6 a t m o s t 2 0 . 3 6 5 2 9 9 2 3 . 8 0 1 1 0 2 9 . 7 9 7 0 7 0 . 2 0 9 0 a t m o s t 3 0 . 2 1 0 9 2 3 8 . 3 4 4 6 7 7 1 5 . 4 9 4 7 1 0 . 4 2 9 3 a t m o s t 4 0 . 0 0 8 5 0 5 0 . 2 9 0 3 9 0 3 . 8 4 1 4 6 6 0 . 5 9 0 0 source: author’s computation using eviews 9(2019) from table 2 above, there were two cointegrating equations in the series. hence we reject their respective null hypotheses while concluding that the series has long run equilibrium relationship. this therefore means that in the long run (that is, the period when all factors are variable) the variables directly or indirectly influence the behavior of each other. evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 meze michael ejike page 172 since the short run and long run relationships cannot individually explain the exact behavior and nature of relationships between variables, it is necessary to combine both the short run and long run components in order to ascertain the speed of adjustment and the level of disequilibrium/discrepancies in the previous period that were actually corrected in the present period. this therefore necessitates the error correction model. again, to determine the maximum lag length so as to enable a parsimonious regression result, the optimal lag selection criteria was adopted and lag 1 was adopted as the maximum lag for the three models using the akaike information criteria as evidenced in the table below: table 3: optimal lag length selection criteria l a g l o g l l r f p e a i c s c h q 0 -479.2687 n a 4.28e+16 52.60404 52.82851 52.68059 1 -712.9348 257.222* 2.17e+13* 44.87852* 46.22530* 45.33781 2 -890.1344 21.34875 4.13e+13 45.41967 47.88878 46.26171 source: author’s compilation (2019) where * indicates lag order selected by the criterion summary of the regression result: dependent variabled(agdp) ecm (short run) model v a r i a b l e s c o e f f i c i e n t s t d . e r ro r t s t a t i s t i c p r o b . c 0 . 0 2 2 0 5 8 0 . 0 1 0 5 9 4 2 . 0 8 2 1 7 9 0.0463 d ( f d i ) 0 . 0 6 9 3 6 9 0 . 0 1 5 3 6 7 2 . 2 6 0 4 2 5 0.0176 d ( d i ) 0 . 0 5 0 5 1 9 0 . 0 0 0 3 2 3 3 . 6 0 9 0 9 9 0.0184 d ( t r o ) 0 . 0 5 1 6 0 9 0 . 5 4 5 4 1 0 2 . 1 0 2 7 4 5 0.0443 d ( c p i ) 0 . 0 1 3 3 3 2 0 . 0 3 2 2 5 6 1 . 5 1 3 4 7 8 0.4015 d ( c p s ) 0 . 0 3 0 0 6 9 0 . 0 4 7 4 3 9 1 . 0 4 8 7 3 0 0.2109 d ( e x r ) 0 . 0 1 0 3 3 1 0 . 2 1 0 4 9 2 1 . 0 8 2 7 4 7 0.3201 e c m ( 1 ) 0 . 5 8 2 3 7 6 0 . 1 5 2 8 4 8 3 . 8 1 0 1 7 5 0.0007 r2= 0.527281 f stat= 46.69436 r2adj= 0.445777 f proby=0.00037 source: researcher’s compilation using eview 9(2019) 11 evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 meze michael ejike page 173 table 5: summary of the regression result: dependent variableagdp long run model v a r i a b l e s c o e f f i c i e n t s t d . e r r o r t s t a t i s t i c p r o b . c 6 . 8 5 5 8 4 7 0 . 4 5 3 8 8 4 1 5 . 1 0 4 8 6 0.0000 f d i 0 . 0 8 1 2 5 3 0 . 0 0 7 1 9 0 4 . 3 0 1 1 2 7 0.0009 d i 0 . 0 6 0 2 8 0 0 . 0 0 0 3 4 2 3 . 8 1 6 7 8 2 0.0203 t r o 0 . 0 6 7 1 1 1 0 . 0 2 3 6 1 0 2 . 0 8 0 6 3 8 0.0362 c p i 0 . 0 3 1 3 6 1 0 . 0 1 9 9 8 0 1 . 0 7 1 1 2 7 0.3044 c p s 0 . 5 0 3 8 3 0 0 . 9 3 7 3 8 7 2 . 3 4 7 4 8 2 0.0103 e x r 0 . 2 0 4 7 4 9 0 . 9 8 3 1 6 3 1 . 5 3 7 3 9 1 0.4592 r2= 0.743972 f stat= 130.5745 r2adj= 0.736743 f proby=0.00000 source: researcher’s compilation using eview 9(2019) from tables 4 and 5 above, the estimated coefficients of 0.069369 in the short run and 0.081253 in the long run for foreign direct investment shows that a percentage increase in foreign direct investment will subsequently increase agricultural production in nigeria by about 6% and 8% in the short and long run periods respectively. similarly, the coefficients of 0.051609 in the short run and 0.067111 in the long run for trade openness show a positive relationship between trade openness and agricultural production in nigeria. this indicates that a percentage increase in trade openness will increase agricultural production by about 5% and 6% in the short and long run periods respectively. the coefficient of -0.013332 in the short run and -0.031361 in the long run for corruption perception index shows that a percentage increase in corruption perception index will decrease agricultural production by about 1% and 3% in the short and long run periods respectively. the coefficient of 0.030069 and 0.053830 in the short and long run periods respectively for credit to private sector shows that a percentage increase in credit to private sector will increase agricultural production by about 3% and 5% in the short and long run periods respectively. again, the coefficient of -0.010331 in the short run and -0.204749 for exchange rate shows that a percentage increase in exchange rate will bring about a 1% and 2% decrease in agricultural production in the short and long run periods respectively. finally, the negative coefficient for the ecm shows that in the previous period, the long run component of the ecm model (i.e., εt-1) had a value that was > 0 which means that the value of the regressor and in the previous period was above its equilibrium value, hence, the ecm short run component (i.e., α) needed to take a negative value to restore the value of the regressor and back to equilibrium in the long run. therefore, from the result, the coefficient value of -0.582376 for the ecm shows that about 58% of the disequilibrium/discrepancies in the previous period (short run) were corrected in the present period (long run). this therefore shows a high speed of adjustment to long run equilibrium. evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 meze michael ejike page 174 discussion of findings since the long run period represents the period when all factors of production and all variables vary, the discussion of findings in this section will be based on the long run regression output. the result indicates that a percentage increase in fdi inflow into the agricultural sector brings about an 8% increase in agricultural production. this implies that as fdi inflow into the agricultural sector increases, agricultural production will also increase. this is expected given that fdi inflow leads to technology transfer. these technologies may come inform of machineries and other mechanized farming equipment and improved seedlings and fertilizer which goes a long way in improving capital formation in the sector. the improved capital formation will consequently lead to an improvement in labour efficiency and effectiveness thereby leading to an increase in output per labour and the general productivity of the sector. this finding is in line with that of oloyede (2014) and adeyeye (2016). the result also shows that a percentage increase in trade openness will increase agricultural production by about 6%. given that trade openness will increase is the ratio of import and export to the gdp, it goes to determine the extent to which engagement in trade affects the domestic economy. hence, an increase in trade openness would mean that the domestic economy benefits from international trade. such benefits increase foreign exchange earnings leading to further appreciation of domestic currency which increases the gains from agriculture thereby leading to an increase in farmers’ income with an attendant increase in agricultural production through expansion and acquisition of improved farming implements. these findings were in line with those of agrawal (2015); melnyk et al (2014) and djokoto (2013). on corruption perception index, the findings showed that increases in corruption perception index which is a sign of deteriorating institutional quality will decrease agricultural production. this result is predicated on the fact that a decline in institutional quality will lead to a decline in the ease of doing business index which will further exacerbate fdi inflow into the economy and agricultural sector in particular leading to further decline in domestic investment and general agricultural production. the findings further showed that increases in exchange rate will decrease agricultural production in nigeria. given that an increased exchange rate means a depreciation of the domestic currency, such depreciation leads to an increase in the cost of importation which invariably affects the importation of agricultural implements leading to a decline in agricultural production. these findings are in line with that of fauzel et al (2016). evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 meze michael ejike page 175 summary this study was undertaken to empirically evaluate foreign direct investment and agricultural production in nigeria from 1985 to 2018. the study was specifically carried out to determine the effect of foreign direct investment inflow into the agricultural sector on the productivity of the sector, the agricultural production-domestic investment nexus, and the relationship between agricultural production and trade openness in nigeria. in order to achieve these objectives of the study, an econometric model was specified. the data used for the research were from secondary source obtained from central bank of nigeria (cbn) statistical bulletin (2018) and world bank’s world development index (wdi, 2018). the findings of the study showed that foreign direct investment, domestic investment, trade openness and credit to private sector (financial institutions capacity) have significant positive effect on agricultural production while corruption perception index (proxy for institutional quality) and exchange rate have insignificant negative impact on agricultural production in nigeria. recommendations given the findings of the study, the policy recommendations are given below:  an enactment and reformation of extant laws and policies that could boost the ease of doing business index for nigeria. this could be done by reinvigorating investment attracting mechanisms in the less invested sectors of the economy such as the mining and quarrying and the agricultural sector.  enhancement of international competitiveness through an improved exportation which will increase the trade openness index and further improve the already existing positive effect of trade openness on the performance of agricultural sector. this will also help to minimize the negative effect of exchange rate vagaries on agricultural production. conclusion in a bid to ascertain whether the research questions of the study were upheld, the following conclusions were drawn from the findings of the study:  increasing foreign direct investment helps boost agricultural production in nigeria.  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(2012). foreign direct investment and economic growth in nigeria: an analysis of the endogenous effects. current research journal of economic theory, 4(3), 53–66. yusuff, m.a., afoloyan, o.t. &adamu, a.m. (2015).analysis of foreign direct investment on agricultural sector and its contribution to gross domestic product in nigeria. journal of economic trends in economic and management sciences, 6(2), 94 – 100 evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, number 1, may, 2020 evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 rev. sr. dr. clara m. austin iwuoha page 108 reviving igbo apprenticeship culture for sustainable development rev. sr. dr. clara m. austin iwuoha department of religious studiesfaculty of humanities imo state universityimo state, owerri email: ausiwuoha@yahoo.com abstract apprenticeship is a system by which a person learning a craft or trade is instructed by a master for a set of time under a set condition. the apprenticeship culture which has its origin traceable to the pre-colonial igbo was an indigenous effort aimed at cushioning the adverse effects of the civil war on the igbo people. under this system, teenage boys stay with their rich relations or neighbours under a tutelage arrangement in which they are exposed to the necessary rudiments and practice of a particular trade or craft. the apprenticeship arrangement, which may not necessarily be sealed with any formal agreement, lasts between five years and ten years, after which the apprentice is settled by his mentor to start his own business or craft as the case may be. apprenticeship among the igbo is a value that was once cherished, celebrated and encouraged but this particular value system amongst others is now in the past. this research is poised to investigate the problem that has necessitated the loss of this culture among the igbo with a view to re-evaluate the benefits accruable from it which in the view of the researcher is needed in the 21st century quest for sustainable development. this research adopted the phenomenological method with a view to reviewing the benefits in the past as well as investigating the problems that have led to the loss of this culture. the paper recommends that in view of high rate of unemployment and the need for sustainable development, it is germane to revive this culture through value reorientation among the youths; most especially among those incapable of affording higher education. keywords: apprenticeship;, culture; sustainable development introduction for the sake of history, it will suffice to note that igbo apprenticeship system is a culture that has lasted since the pre-colonial era. but this system rather became rampant; more general and more pronounced among igbo people after the civil war in order to cushion the effect of the war.shortly after the nigerian civil war in 1967, majority of the igbo people lost virtually all their business and investments. following the 3rs policy of gowon shortly after the civil war, a pacification of £20 withdrawal was approved by the nigerian evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 rev. sr. dr. clara m. austin iwuoha page 109 government irrespective of whatever deposit in the bank this harsh policy of the nigerian government that made the adoption of the system inevitable as poverty hampered business funding. many people through this apprenticeship system have achieved tremendous success and unimaginable progress and excellence in their businesses. the reason for these successes was because they were adequately settled to start their own business at the end of their apprenticeship by their boss. many notable and outstanding business owners in igboland attribute their success to what they learnt as an apprentice. to the apprentice, the system offers them the opportunity to acquire business acumen, discipline, good customer relations and exposure to suppliers and this apprenticeship system has helped to spread wealth from the rich to the poor in igbo communities; and many of the successful igbo business men of today affirm to have gone through this system. this culture created a sustainable and enviably raw initiationincubation/training-investment system that continues to soar as a means of livelihood and sustainable wealth in the south eastern part of nigeria. shortly after the civil war, the igbo were monetarily not able to continue their legacy of staying ahead of other tribes in nigeria. being aware of this limitation, they turned their troubles into a model, worthy of emulation. today that tough choice has metamorphosed into a positive lifestyle. conceptual clarifications apprenticeship apprenticeship is a system by which a person learning a craft or trade is instructed by a master for a set of time under a set condition. apprenticeship is also a system of training a new generation of practitioners of a trade or profession with on-the-job training. this system is often accompanied with a study (classroom work and reading). what is development? according to karl pearson, “development is an ancient concept but one which, in our modern age, has acquired new meaning and purpose. its pursuit unites two strands of human thought: the belief in progress and the conviction that man can master his destiny” (2011:104).development has varied interpretations depending from the scholar’s viewpoint. the concept of development and in this case development in nigeria lacks a unified definition as different scholars tend to view it from varying perspective. while some scholars look at development from the aspect of educational training, others view it from the angle of availability of infrastructure within a community. koffi annan, a former united nations secretary general, provides a good example of an international relations scholar by suggesting in a 2003 united nations human development program report that “development embraces evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 rev. sr. dr. clara m. austin iwuoha page 110 human rights and good governance, access to education and health care and ensuring that each individual in rural and urban areas has opportunities and choices to fulfil his or her own potential” (undp, 2003) sustainable development according to uche (1995), sustainable development is a socio-economic and political movement or strategy that has a global appeal whose main focus is on the dual issues of environmental protection through a conservation process and economic development that would make life on the planet earth pleasant for the inhabitants. for world development report (1992), sustainable development refers to meeting the needs of the present generation without compromising the needs of future generation. apprenticeship system among igbo nigerians among the igbo, hard work is encouraged and independence is a culture that frowns at laziness and teenagers perambulating the streets without handwork. in case one is unable to go to school, his parents ensure that he learns a trade. usually, arrangements would be made to intern with a relative who runs either a spare parts, building materials, supermarkets business etc for a specific period of time to learn the trade. it is an unpaid apprenticeshipbut meals, clothing and transport fare are provided for. there are some who are sent to learn craft such as motor electrician, mechanics, carpenter, wielding, etc. when the agreed years are over and the individual has been proven to be good to operate independently, the master sets up the business/trade for the apprenticeship. sometimes, in order to prevent the apprentice from misappropriating the capital, the master tells him that at the end of one year, a certain percentage should be returned. the apprentice graduate in turn also gets his own apprentice who learns under his tutelage. there are cases of apprentices managing a business branch with little to or no supervision. this is done with ownership mind-set that the success of the business guarantees theirs. it also in the long run encourages them to commit enough sweat equity into it. according to robert neuwirth (2018), the igbo apprenticeship system is the largest business incubator platform in the world because when an apprentice serves, his master is expected to set him up in business. he further added that apprenticeships that work like locally generated venture capital and systems for allocating scarce resources can propagate and scale these models that could help communities thrive from the bottom up. for example, chiagoziem is a 34 year old marble store owner in dei-dei, abuja. according to him, “my oga gave me n12 million after 9 years. i joined him at 16 years, and 30 percent of that n12 million is a loan to be evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 rev. sr. dr. clara m. austin iwuoha page 111 repaid over my first 5 years. i finished paying 9 years ago, but he gave it all back to me.”. many of the rich men in igbo land like mr innocent chukwuma of innoson motors, mr cosmas maduka of coscharis motors, chief chidianyaegbu of chisco motors, chief alex chika okafor of a-z petroleum/chicason group, etc, went through this apprenticeship scheme. many of today’s rich igbo men came from very poor families. this apprenticeship scheme gave them the foothold to rise to wealth, for their parents would have not been able to pay their school fees or give them the money required to start a business that has prospect. peculiarities of igbo apprenticeship system the igbo apprenticeship in comparison with the apprenticeship system in the south-west (predominantly yoruba) region reveals an interesting similarity. to the yoruba, the apprentice, upon completion of their apprenticeship pays the master a ‘freedom fee’, buys drinks and throws a party according to his/her financial abilities before they can graduate and get on with their trade officially. the period of apprenticeship is usually 2 – 3 years on the average. the apprentice is usually presented with a certificate. the apprentice does not necessarily live under the care of his/her boss and is responsible for his/her own feeding in most cases. conversely, in the igbo apprenticeship model is a departure from the above. apprentices join an established business person; leave their parents/family to live under the care and supervision of the master. the apprentice is often closely related to the master. they do not travel home during festivities to their family without the consent of the master even if the master and family are in the same city (okoro, 2018). igbo apprentices also do other domestic chores in the house like car washing, ironing and cleaning whenever they are not in the shop. they are appraised based on not just work ethic while learning and growing the master’s businesses but on performance in non-business related areas like respect for the master’s spouse/family etc. at the end of the apprenticeship, they are compensated with a take-off fund which they use for shop rent, goods, equipment (if needed) and in some cases, accommodation for a given period of time. this does not in any way prevent collaboration with the master despite being a competitor. in some cases, due to the apprentice’s weak buying power, a master can assist with goods procurement for a former apprentice to help them reduce overhead importation/exportation cost. evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 rev. sr. dr. clara m. austin iwuoha page 112 apprentices avoid the malicious use of the master’s resources as it is believed that such actions could inhibit success in their own future businesses. this fear engenders honesty during the years of service as every proven act of theft, diversion of fund, flamboyant use and wastage of business finances terminates the arrangement (okoro, 2018). no master would want to incur the wrath of the community back home, by failing to keep to the terms of apprenticeship after the agreed number of years of service. in view of the fear of labelling as a master with a reputation for not settling apprentices a tag that lasts generations, the master does everything possible to fulfil their obligation. apprentices accept a small settlement package given with the master’s blessings rather than a fat but stolen fund from his master. influence of civil war on igbo apprenticeship system during the nigerian biafran war that lasted from 1967 – 1970, igbo entrepreneurs, business owners and workers suffered unimaginable losses leading to untold hardship and poverty. the federal government through her draconian policy permitted only a withdrawal from banks a paltry amount of 20 pounds no matter what amount the individual had in the bank. as if that was not enough obnoxious, their properties were also declared abandoned. the hardship that these policies brought to bear on the igbo people is better experienced than explained. however the entrepreneurial acumen of igbo people was not taken away and this underscored their concerted efforts to rejuvenate igbo economy. this has also deepened igbo apprenticeship system which is already a way of life for the survival of the igbo man. according to stears tosin adeshokan in aake (2018), “...by the end of the war in 1970, the region was so devastated that money and human capital were scarce.”(p.43). in his views, “thousands of people were unable to return to homes they previously owned in other parts of nigeria. not only was the hope of biafra lost, but livelihoods were also halted. petty trade became one of the few ways money could be made.”(p.45). he further notes that prior to the civil war, the igbo were largely in their third generation of foreign-trained professionals, at least a step ahead of the yoruba. the civil war actually destroyed all of such ambitions. muhammed haruna writing an article in the nation newspaper titled 'people and politics', states that “by 1963, the igbo were producing their second generation in law, medicine and engineering.” (the nation, october, 2015) evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 rev. sr. dr. clara m. austin iwuoha page 113 benefits accruable from apprenticeship culture apprenticeships system generally stimulates economic development. when the right things are done for people in a community, business grow and economic development is engendered. industries may become involved in other local and regional workforce development efforts as well as government support to ensure development. however, industries and governments cannot do it all but what is required to sustain growth and development particularly in nigeria is the apprenticeship culture which the igbo is dubbed. skills acquired through the apprentice system become lifelong and longlasting. soft skills and habits is often needed to be developed in many people who lack a high school certificate or bachelor’s degree. coupled with that, there are few, well-paying jobs for those who must have acquired higher education. apprenticeship system creates independence and distribution of wealth. an apprenticeship program encourages apprentices to be independent and foster wealth creation and distribution, thereby leading to economic growth needed for sustainable economic development. it’s not by compulsion for individuals to participate. over time, if willingness is developed, it will engender economic development as well as cultural development. apprenticeships among igbo people improve corporate culture. giving people the opportunity to grow and develop has had a positive impact on corporate culture. apprentices trust they can become the best for their benefactors and also aspire to become the best version of themselves. human resource development, wellness, job creation, and other initiatives offered in-house in apprenticeship system inspire more people to participate in the process. apprenticeships help with knowledge sharing. the youngest and least experienced apprentices will take on attitudes of older, skilled ones. one needs not wonder why apprenticeships system help create a society where people think as a community to nurture and educate one another for society. when a boss provides training and opportunities for his apprentice to acquire the necessary skills to excel personally and they are financially supported and established, the apprentice will be happy and in turn extend such good gesture to others. apprenticeship helps businesses develop highly-skilled employees. apprenticeship programs also reduce turnover rates, increase productivity and lower the cost of recruitment. no doubt, apprentices provide manpower. additionally, apprenticeship  helps in producing results and highly-skilled businessmen, tailored to the specific needs of businesses, evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 rev. sr. dr. clara m. austin iwuoha page 114  increases knowledge transfer through on-the-job learning from an experienced mentor, combined with education courses to support work-based learning.  are structured training programmes which give you a chance to work (literally) towards a qualification. they help you gain the skills and knowledge you need to succeed in a chosen skill.  give fantastic experience apprentice in the working world and shows that he can ‘hit the ground running’ and provide real chance to put skills acquired and practice with confidence in a chosen environment. problems militating against igbo apprenticeship culture one of the major problems militating against igbo apprenticeship culture in the contemporary times is the evil of get-rich-quick syndrome. the get-richquick syndrome is doing more harm than good to the nigerian society. as such, most youths today are no longer interested in apprenticeship neither do they care about the dignity in labour to them hard work encouraged under the apprenticeship system is a waste of time, all they care about is making money at the expense of others. this accounts for the reason why our mechanic, carpentry and wielding workshops are replete with old men. instead, these youths delve into armed robbery, political thuggery, kidnapping, “yahoo and yahoo”, money ritual etc which are vices that are not helpful to nigerian society. a visit to a mechanic workshop in alaba market owerri, an old mercedes mechanic has this to say “the young boys of today are no more interested in learning the job even when they come; they leave within a week; some who stay a little longer, hardly complete their training.” they are dissuaded by flamboyant display of ill-gotten wealth. what is more worrisome is the fact that most youths detest higher education because they believe it is a waste given the fact that unemployment is on the increase.. obviously, the igbo apprenticeship scheme can serve as a panacea to a society of saturated labour market and dearth of employment. unfortunately, the youth are not interested. another problem militating against the apprenticeship culture is the fact that most boss renege on agreement to settle and set up the business/trade for their apprentice after graduation from the apprenticeship. as much, it is not in doubt that some of the apprentices are the architect of their own misfortune, but the obvious remains that most wicked masters tactically deny their apprentice of their entitlement of faithful stewardship. this they do by accusing them of embezzlement, insubordination, etc. there is also some unverifiable accusation of untimely death of apprentice which is linked to the unwillingness of their masters to fulfil their required obligations. evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 rev. sr. dr. clara m. austin iwuoha page 115 reviving igbo apprenticeship culture much has been said about the uniqueness of igbo apprenticeship system popularly called ‘imu-ahia’, which literally translates to ‘learning market/trade’. it has been considered as perhaps, one of the major factors that helped pull majority of south-eastern families out of poverty shortly after the biafran civil war. there have also been the calls for a restructuring and mainstreaming of the apprenticeship system in accordance with the contemporary realities of business funding, processes and training. and based on the benefits inherent in the system, the researcher enjoins the people as well as the nigerian government to revive this culture as it holds the prospect of wealth creation and distribution. learning a trade has always been the norm with the igbo people of south-east nigeria. an igbo person believes in controlling his financial ‘destiny’ and the best way to guarantee this was through commerce and venture into business. reviving this culture has become germane in view of the much talked about sustainable economic development and in reconsideration of the benefits discussed above conclusion the writer has discovered that the igbo apprenticeship culture sufficed in providing economic stability for the people of eastern nigeria after the devastating effect of the nigerian biafran war and beyond. it was also observed that this culture has nosedived due to the identified problems discussed above. but the researcher is of the view that the culture must be revived going by the benefits and prospects it holds not just for the people of the southeast but for the country. the need to grow businesses in nigeria cannot be overemphasized in an economy with a very frightening level of unemployment. the igbo apprenticeship culture holds great prospects for sustainable economic development, hence it should be revived. the apprenticeship system which has long been part of igbo culture is such that purports a form of responsibility on established businessmen in urban areas to pick up teenagers-young adults from their homes and give them an informal, but raw and practical, cutthroat business education. the idea centres on taking them off the streets and the perilous tendencies of an idle mind to give them a purpose, worthy of emulation, so they can also continue the trend when they are established. in the end, the igbo apprenticeship system is more gratuitous than the strict business of modern incubation. the igbo have always stayed ahead of the business curve, in an ideal that originates from their struggles. if this trend evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 rev. sr. dr. clara m. austin iwuoha page 116 continues and nigeria somehow finds a way to encourage it, aba and other igbo business hubs, might take absolute control of another channel of national wealth creation different from crude oil. this apprenticeship culture is what has helped to spread wealth from the rich to the poor among the igbo. it helped the igbo to recover fast after the devastation of the nigerian civil war in which they lost virtually all their wealth and received the “ex gratia” payment of £20 irrespective of their deposits in the banks. it helped to spread the art of trading and money management among the igbo. it helped to teach igbo how to fish rather than giving them fish. nigerian venture capitalists should also look to modernize the igbo apprenticeship system. references karl pearson (2011) theories of development: concepts and applications, sixth edition. william crain. prentice hall. chineduokoro(2018). “what makes the igbo apprenticeship model tick and critical considerations before taking it mainstream” from: https://techpoint.africa/2018/11/07/igbo-apprenticeship-systemfor-startups/. 28/11/19 motolani alake (2018).”the igbo apprenticeship system that builds wealth and started the incubation system” retrieved from https://www.pulse.ng/gist/imu-ahia-the-igbo-apprenticeshipsystem-that-builds-wealth-and-started-the-incubation/q50ps44. 28/11/19 robert neuwirth (2018) “igbo apprenticeship system is world’s largest business incubator platform” information nigeria. retrieved from https://www.informationng.com/2018/11/igboapprenticeship-system-is-worlds-largest-business-incubatorplatform-robert-neuwirth-reveals.html 28/11/19 uche, s.c. 1995. education and sustainable development. in m.b. lawal, e.j. aniah, s.c uche& i.a. animashaun (eds.).education for sustainable development. macmillan, lagos. united nations development programme commission on human security. (2003) human security now, new york. (hereinafter referred to as “commission report”), p4. https://www.pulse.ng/gist/imu-ahia-the-igbo-apprenticeship-system-that-builds-wealth-and-started-the-incubation/q50ps44.%2028/11/19 https://www.pulse.ng/gist/imu-ahia-the-igbo-apprenticeship-system-that-builds-wealth-and-started-the-incubation/q50ps44.%2028/11/19 https://www.pulse.ng/gist/imu-ahia-the-igbo-apprenticeship-system-that-builds-wealth-and-started-the-incubation/q50ps44.%2028/11/19 evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 1, number 2, october 2020 elechi & jaja 16 the ethico-political implications of legitimacy crisis on democratic governance in nigeria maraizu elechi, phd & jaja, ibifuro robert department of philosophy rivers state university port harcourt, rivers state, nigeria email: drmaraizuelechi@yahoo.com phone: 08038954871 abstract legitimacy is a virtue of political systems and governments. it is integral to the defining lineament of democracy and democratic governance. the demand for legitimacy has increased as democracy gained traction over the years in nigeria. although nigeria practices democracy, it faces a lot of legitimacy crisis resulting in a lack of support and obedience, and in most cases, an outright rejection of government and its authorities by the citizenry. the implications of these are that it poses a great danger to the political system and society in general as the citizens often resort to protests, civil disobedience, lawlessness, and crime. the inability of the leaders to gain the acceptance of the people also slows down the pace of development and growth of the country because the absence of legitimacy does not create the political atmosphere for citizens’ participation and exchange of ideas, which are crucial for national development and citizens’ happiness. this paper, therefore, adopts critical and analytic methods in appraising the concept of legitimacy to expose its significance in a democratic regime. it provides explanations and solutions to the severity of the legitimacy crisis in nigeria and contends that legitimacy, which is the people’s mandate to govern is an essential moral requirement that validates authorities and governments. in conclusion, the paper proposes that nigerian leaders should earn legitimacy by constitutional democratic means whereby the exercise of power will reflect a genuine justification of the mandate of the people for them to govern. keywords: legitimacy, legitimacy crisis, national development, democratic governance, citizenry introduction legitimacy is the moral foundation for political power and authority. a legitimate government can be a de facto government and a de jure government. this means that a legitimate government can be derived in two ways as mentioned above. a de facto government is a government that is legitimized not only by the people’s consent but also by the lack or absence of opposition in the government. lack or absence of opposition in a government is understood, politically speaking, as implied consent and as such considered as constituting political legitimacy. the role of the opposition in a government evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 1, number 2, october 2020 elechi & jaja 17 cannot be underestimated especially in leading constructive and unbiased criticisms against a government in power. the main benefit of which is for the potent and timely delivery of the requirements of good governance to the people much more than showing that the government in power is failing or has failed. de jure government, on the other hand, is government by law, which is a legal government, that is, a government of law and by law, which is equally a legitimate government. this means that legitimacy can be conferred by the people as well as by law. a democratic government, for instance, is the only form of the political system that can be characterized as both a de facto and a de jure government at the same time. this is because it is founded on the people's consent and equally based on the rule of law. a genuinely democratic government is formed based on mutual respect for the human person, majority rule, and a high sense of responsibility and responsiveness to the people. (nnamdi 36-37). this is why democracy is aptly defined as the 'power of the people'.in his reflection on democracy as it relates to the consent of the people, elechi’s records that, it is now regarded as a form of government in which the people rule themselves either directly or indirectly through their representatives. it is a political system in which the eligible people in a polity or society participate actively not only in determining the kind of people that govern them but also in shaping the policy out-put of the government. this means that democracy anchors its authority on the express will of the people. consent and participation of the governed are therefore essential in a democracy, its understanding, and practice (166). legitimacy brings about a peaceful atmospheric condition for governance because such government is accommodated by cooperation, mutual participation, and mutual exchange of ideas to bring about better living conditions in the state.the fact is that government is complemented by followership and followership presupposes the consensual relinquishment of individual powers to a group of persons granted the authority to make binding decisions in a civil society. hence, legitimacy as a virtue of political systems emanates from followership. it lies at the heart of all political discourses and determines much political competition in both developed and less developed societies (clement,15). the efficacy of power and authority exercised in any system of government is hinged on legitimacy, given that the privileges and rights of political office holders are not arbitrary, but conferred upon by the followers. legitimacy is the basis of stable government: all governments seek legitimacy. how they achieve it and keep it is essential to the study of a democratic political regime.according to nnamdi, the government can be said evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 1, number 2, october 2020 elechi & jaja 18 to be legitimate when it is willed by the people it governs, which can be achieved only in a voluntary agreement. the issue of agreement here strikes the thought that legitimacy is like a social contract by which the basis of political power is founded and derived on the agreement, consensus, or consent of the citizens. miller records it thus: “at the heart of social contract theory is the idea that legitimate government is the artificial product of the voluntary agreement of the moral agent – that there is no such thing as ‘natural’ political authority” (478-9). the democratic system of government has no doubt gained traction over the years because one of the essences of democratic theory is the legitimate governing authority (scharpf 6). this is as a result of the rule and consent of the majority. one can argue that the seeming legitimacy of authorities in a democratic system of government is one of the reasons the democratic system of government has gained popularity over the years. for locke, the consent of the majority (representative of the whole) which is a feature of legitimacy is foremost to democracy. according to dahl, democracy and legitimacy are inextricably connected. the relationship between legitimacy and democracy is such that a democratic government must be legitimately derived from the people and the rule of law. it is the people that grant the right to rule if such a government is to be considered legitimate. such right or mandate to rule must be grounded in the common good and shared moral evaluations (gilley 5). an agreement, consensus consent, and participation are therefore preconditions for true and valid legitimacy. consent is therefore understood as a concrete and practical endorsement or acceptance which is demonstrated through a voluntary and continued participation of the citizen in the public affairs (nnamdi 23). hannah arendt records that, … we may say that consent, not in the very old sense of mere acquiescence, with its distinction between rule over willing subjects and rule over unwilling ones, but in the sense of active support and continuing participation in all matters of public interest… (85). a system that is based on the consent and participation of the people guarantees a legitimate government. however, it appears the nigerian situation holds otherwise. nigeria practices a democratic system of government yet faces legitimacy crises. in the exercise of power, nigerian political office holders disregard the fact that power is limited by the sovereignty of the people and the claim of consensus. the questions, therefore, are: how did a democratic state like nigeria come to face a legitimacy crisis? what are the effects of the legitimacy crisis on nigeria’s democracy? this paper shall attempt to critically answer these questions and evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 1, number 2, october 2020 elechi & jaja 19 subsequently make recommendations to solve the legitimacy crisis faced in nigeria. conceptual discourse of legitimacy: the right to govern democratically the prominence of legitimacy in a regime and political discourse in general spurs the urge to carry out a conceptual discourse on the concept and to unravel its significance in a state. derived from the latin word legitimus, meaning lawful, legal, and legitimate, its definition has changed constantly and is used in a wide range of different contexts (delbruck 2-3). here, legitimacy will be seen as the right to democratically govern. legitimacy as the right to govern assumes that consent plays a major role therein (cutis 10). to fully grasp this, a clear understanding of the term right is necessary. right is the freedom or entitlements accorded individuals based on natural laws, the legal system, or social convention. the right to govern is not natural, it is borne out of a social convention. it is the governed that confers on the governor this right. this is the case in all systems of government including the monarchical system of government where political power is inherited. the rights, immunity, and authority of a monarch are not natural as it always seems. it is bestowed by the people who have given their consent to be ruled by a particular lineage that gives a monarch power. monarchs can lose their power if the people withdraw their consent. there are several instances of abolition or revolution against monarchs that give credence to this claim. for instance, napoleon iii, the last monarch to rule france was overthrown and the monarchical system of government was replaced with a republican government as the french lost faith in their monarchy. it is important to note here that rights have limitations including the right to govern. the right to govern although gives governments the authority to make and enact binding decisions, it is not without boundaries. political authorities are expected to express the rights of governance within the dictates of the constitution (written or unwritten) or claim of consensus. the governmental rule is made rightful, both in its claim to authority and in its exercise of authority (fredrick 3-25). when public office holders act in discordance with the constitution or the consensus in their claim to authority or their exercise of it, the regime is faced with a legitimacy crisis. if the right to govern is a social construct, that means, it can be deconstructed. that is to say that the right to govern is not abiding, but susceptible to change. a regime can have legitimacy at one point but lose it at some point. for instance, robert mugabe's regime in zimbabwe had legitimacy when he was first elected president in 1987. however, his regime in the later years faced a legitimacy crisis as opposed to his sit-tightism (a refusal to leave office, after his tenure elapsed) grew until he was ousted from office in a coup. legitimacy emanates from the people and the law. hence, it serves as a check on the powers of any evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 1, number 2, october 2020 elechi & jaja 20 regime, including that of monarchs. today, the constitutional monarchy has gained traction, as the popularity of the notion of the absolute monarchy declined substantially after the french revolution, which promoted theories of government based on popular sovereignty. for, to each right corresponds a duty (cutis 11), the right to govern is not different. in the right to govern, the duty goes two ways: the duty of the government and that of the governed. the government has to rule while the people have to obey. the people complement their consent with civil obedience, respect, loyalty, and support. hence, civil obedience is one of the features of a legitimate regime. the power of perceived legitimacy to compel obedience is so great that it frequently makes people act against their selfinterest. legitimacy compels civil obedience so much so that the citizenry acts following the laws even when there is no authority there to compel obedience. for instance, most road users waive their self-interest and obey the traffic light (laws) even when there is no authority to compel obedience. perhaps the greatest evidence of the role legitimacy plays in fostering obedience to the law can be seen in situations where that sense of legitimacy is lost on a large scale. an instance is the uprisings in america. people have flouted the lockdown order and restrictions on social gatherings to protest against police brutality and racism. the african-americans are displeased with the constitutions or the laws of the land. they are however concerned with the legitimacy of the government that enact these laws, especially the police and law enforcement agency of the executive arm of the government that have misused their powers times and time again. we have argued that civil disobedience can manifest or result in a regime without legitimacy however, it is not always clear if the existence of obedience itself discloses legitimacy or whether legitimacy rests on additional sources of validation (fredrick 23). civil obedience might also be present in a regime without legitimacy. nazi germany is a clear instance. during hitler’s regime which was a dictatorship, civil obedience was a feature as citizens that opposed hitler were imprisoned or killed. despite the seeming civil obedience in hitler’s regime, the regime passes as a copious example of an illegitimate government. civil obedience as pointed out above does not necessarily indicate legitimacy. legitimacy rests on an additional source of validation, which is free will. thus, a dictatorship or totalitarian government cannot boast of legitimacy. legality and legitimacy: a comparative review this paper recognizes the complexity and significance of the debates about the relationship between legality and legitimacy in political discourse. to carry out a contrastive review of the concepts, it is proper we differentiate between legality and legitimacy by a way of definition. legality refers to what evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 1, number 2, october 2020 elechi & jaja 21 fits within the law and is compliant with a legal framework (jerez 15).legality stipulates the dos and don’ts of the society based on the laws or constitution. legitimacy, on the other hand, involves social acceptability hinged on a consensual agreement of the people. this is why arendt avers that the moral obligation of the citizen to obey the laws is traditionally derived from the assumption that he either consented to them or was his own legislator (84). legitimacy also limits the actions of people. itis directly linked to the people. for something to be said to be legitimate it must be borne out of the social convention. legality on the other hand is what fits within the framework of the law. laws are not necessarily social conventions. some laws do not garner social acceptability. for instance, according to nida, in india child marriage is illegal but in rajasthan it is legitimate and still, people get their children married. legitimacy reinforces legality. laws that are odds with social norms are likely to be unenforced. according to the united nations policy brief 2008, tax as an example, evasion is not seriously penalized in nigeria because it is perceived as normal, whereas in the united state of america it is a serious crime. in extreme circumstances, legitimacy can introduce constructive flexibility in international law, as illustrated by the 1999 kosovo intervention. the decision of nato to launch an attack against the federal republic of yugoslavia (fry) contravenes the international norm of nonintervention. however, it was widely accepted as legitimate as it was allegedly done to prevent the ethnic cleansing of kosovar albanians. legitimacy needs law as much as the law needs legitimacy—law cannot be respected if seen as illegitimate, while appeals to legitimacy must be based in law to prevent opportunism. political legitimacy and democratic governance in nigeria legitimacy is a virtue every government and authority seek. the popularity of democracy, a system in which sovereignty lies in the hands of the people has increased the demand for legitimacy. however, a lot of countries especially african countries face a legitimacy crisis. nigeria is one of such countries. the question raised is how is it that nigeria, a democratic nation faces a legitimacy crisis? the answer to this question cannot be exhausted in a single sentence. the nigerian situation is a peculiar one. as the nature, dimension and severity differ from other systems. the legitimacy crisis in nigeria is not borne out of a crisis of change from tradition to modernity as lipset notes. it is a bit more complex than that in the nigerian context. according to fredrick, the concept of legitimacy as a political concept is inherently complex in that it involves at least three distinguishable components: the electoral (constitutional) right to rule; the procedural (normative) rightfulness in the exercise of rule; and the substantive (teleological) rightness in the ends of rule (26). evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 1, number 2, october 2020 elechi & jaja 22 each of these components encompasses problems of its own in nigeria. in the area of the electoral constitution, which involves the processes of power acquisition, if a democratic government is to be seen as legitimate, the people's mandate must be freely given not stolen or taken by force. the nigerian electoral system has failed in the enhancement of political legitimacy. the nigerian electoral system has been bastardized as elections are marred by widespread irregularities such as logistics failure, misconduct, and poor technical know-how of independent national electoral commission (inec) ad-hoc staff and security lapses. the people’s mandate has been stolen time and time again. late president umaru musa yaradua admitted that the elections that produced him as president "had shortcomings" and promised electoral reforms to correct the system (abdul-rahman, 27). unfortunately, the electoral process has worsened over the years. the political gladiators in nigeria have militarized the elections, not for security reasons but to ensure voter's apathy as well-meaning nigerians are not willing to get in harm's way in a bid to cast votes that probably might not count. these vices present in almost all elections held in nigeria has negatively influenced the acceptability of the government by the people. other than electoral malpractices, ethnic and religious sentiments have influenced the conferment of legitimacy on most administrations in nigeria. hillary aptly captures the nigerian situation as she rightly notes that, ethnicism has taken the center stage of nigeria's political system and has always acted as a threat to the survival of its democratic system. it comes more dreadfully fierce when various ethnicities begin to complain bitterly over political marginalization, from nigeria's new and most lasting democracy since the year of independence in 1960 (81). the divide between ethnic and religious lines is made very obvious in the nigerian political environment where it ideally should have no place. nigerians especially gullible ones barely legitimize an administration led by a person outside their ethnic or religious group. the muslim people of the northern part of nigeria are largely unsupportive of a president who is a southerner and a christian. this practice is done for the notion of 'born to rule' ingrained in the mind of an average northerner. on the other hand, the christian southerner sees the northerner as commonly unexposed and as such unfit for office. these stereotypes and prejudices have contributed to the legitimacy crisis faced in the political system of the nation. the administration of former president goodluck ebele jonathan faced a legitimacy crisis as the hausas were largely against his administration not as a result of underperformance or marginalization of their group but for merely being an “outsider”. in the same vein, the buhari led administration is faced with a legitimacy crisis as the southerners are largely against the government not evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 1, number 2, october 2020 elechi & jaja 23 only due to underperformance but the mere fact of being a northerner. every regime in nigeria is likely to face a legitimacy crisis as there is hardly a consensual acceptance of a government. ethnicism present in nigeria's political environment is propagated by corrupt politicians who being aware of the ethnic and religious sentiments of the people appeal to it. the notion peddled by nigerian politicians is that the development or otherwise of a people is based on the ethnic or religious affiliation of the political office holder. these unfounded lies told during political campaigns have motivated a legitimacy crisis borne out ethnicism. abuse of political power by political office holders in nigeria has also bolstered up the legitimacy crisis faced in the nigerian state. nigerian politicians have abused the power and authority of their offices for their aggrandizement or that of their ethnic group. the rule of law has not been held in high esteem as most of the decisions and actions of the political office holders are contrary to the dictates of the constitution. despite the recognition of the universal declaration of human rights, there are still several instances of abuse of human rights in nigeria. nigerian politicians have misused the right to govern conferred on them by the people to violate the rights of the people. this is because contrary to democratic ethos, the state is still largely authoritarian in leadership and security operations (akhaine et al. 103).police brutality is currently a serious menace to the nigerian state. respect for human rights is at the lowest point in nigeria. also, the right to an adequate standard of living is grossly violated in nigeria. most of the economic policies have had negative consequences for the citizenry. in addition to lack of jobs for young school leavers, insecurity and shortage of power supply have rendered most entrepreneurial efforts null and void. the ripple effect is an increase in crime rate and poverty. according to the united nations development programme (undp) document of 2011, over 70 percent of the populace lives below 1 dollar per day. the poverty rate soars as the years go by. this is regrettably caused by corruption and the embezzlement of funds by public officials. the misuse and abuse of power by nigerian political office holders and its resultant impoverishment of the nigerian people has spurred revolutionary movements. however, the government has employed unconstitutional means to stop these revolutions in their track. the illegal detention of activists leading revolutions is a violation of the people's right to self-determination. the recent case of omoleye sowore is a clear depiction of this violation. sowore who called for a revolution of the people against the government was still being held in custody even after a court had ordered for his release. the many instances of usurpation and neutralization of the powers of the judiciary by the executive arm rampant in this current administration led by president buhari are typical of a tyrannical government. the judiciary is the hope of the common man; its freedom signifies the freedom of the ordinary people. if the powers of the judiciary are neutralized or usurped then evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 1, number 2, october 2020 elechi & jaja 24 the freedom of the people is compromised. without the freedom of the populace to self-determination, the nigerian government cannot boast of legitimacy. the ethico-political implications of legitimacy crisis legitimacy crisis presupposes a decline in the confidence of the populace in the government of the day. the ripple effect of this lack of confidence and distrust in the government is civil disobedience. weyler contends that, ...history shows us that civil disobedience is often necessary when the relatively weak face the relatively strong. when power is out of balance, as in most cases of social justice advocacy, civil disobedience may be one of the few tactics left for citizens. and thus, the weak have confronted the strong throughout history: the quakers, gandhi, the chipko movement, the suffragettes, labour movements, martin luther king, rosa parks, mairead corrigan maguire, nelson mandela, aung san suu kyi, greenpeace, and countless others. peaceful confrontation, not just words, creates social change (8). there have been instances of civil disobedience in nigeria by different groups and movements; however, these groups and movements have culminated in violence and loss of lives. the movement of the survival of the ogoni people (mosop) is an example of civil disobedience that went awry as thousands of ogoni sons and daughters lost their lives. other than the large scale of disobedience experienced in nigeria, there are small scales instances noticeable in every sphere, nook, and cranny of the nigerian state. indeed, without legitimacy, even the most general legislation is impossible to explain. the legitimacy crisis faced in nigeria has prompted the citizenry to question and disobey the basic laws of the state. the attitude of the nigerian people to the measures put in place for the covid-19 pandemic is a case in point. the deep distrust the nigerian people have for the government has made them doubt the existence of the virus in nigeria. they believe it exists in other countries but see it as a ploy for nigerian leaders to embezzle funds in the country. this has endangered the lives of virtually every nigerian residing in the country. civil disobedience is neither condemned nor commended directly (adelakun17). it can bring about positive change but at the same, it can destabilize the growth and development of a state. the tripod of corruption, ethnicity, and religious intolerance are the consequence of the cyclical legitimacy crisis and the underdevelopment of nigeria. an illegitimate government cannot be said to emanate from the evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 1, number 2, october 2020 elechi & jaja 25 people. it is the people that confer the legitimacy of a government in a democracy otherwise the government will suffer rejection from the people. disapproval or rejection of a government is the foundation of other moral and political issues like the breakdown of law and order, instability, violence, youth restiveness, and terrorism. the legitimacy crisis is founded on the lack of good government because there is no good governance when a government is not derived from the people and when it is not participatory as well as promote rule of law, even when such government brings about economic or material development. the united nations development programme (undp) document of2012 records that: 'good' or 'democratic governance exists when the authority of the government is based on the will of the people and is responsible for them. it is when open democratic institutions allow full participation in political affairs and when human rights protections guarantee the right to speak, assemble and dissent. it is when government and governmental institutions are pro-poor, promoting the sustainable human development of all citizens (1). good governance is founded on transparency, accountability, protection of human rights, and the promotion of legitimacy. it brings corruption to a minimal and enhances national development. the fact is that corruption challenges the legitimacy of a democratic authority or government because it breeds the poverty of the people. illegitimacy breeds poverty through corruption, armed robbery, and kidnapping for ransom. it gives rise to tyranny, oppressive tendencies, and irresponsibility in governance. it is, indeed, very bad and unacceptable for one to be forced on the citizens against their will in the name leadership or governance. such a person will not gain the respect, loyalty, and support from the people. a good government is not only one that brings about economic development but one that is all-inclusive, participatory, consensus-oriented, responsive, equitable, and transparent. it is first and foremost one that derives its mandate to govern from the people since it is an act of illegality no to do so. illegality and illegitimacy are acts of corruption, the crudest forms of corruption in that matter that constitute impediments to rule of law, justice, equity, fairness, and public accountability. corruption destroys democracy, good governance, and brings national development to a standstill. it is one of the widespread phenomena among the political class in nigeria that has brought shame, embarrassment, and ridicule to the country over the years with the international community even with the institution of a democratic system of government. again, the united nations development programme (undp) document of 1997 avers that, … the totality of the exercise of authority in the management of a country's affairs, comprising evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 1, number 2, october 2020 elechi & jaja 26 of the complex mechanisms, processes, and institutions, through which citizens and groups articulate their interest, exercise their legal rights, and mediate their differences. it encompasses the political, economic, legal, judicial, social and administrative authority and therefore includes government, the private sector and civil society (9). the citizens or the people are the state or what maritain refers to as the government. this is to say that the people constitute the government, which must, in turn, be accountable to the people. according to him “the people are the very substance, the living and free substance, of the body politics. the people are above the state, the people are not for the state, the state is for the people” (26). maritain believes and rightly so that the common good of the people is the final aim of the state. the foundation of common good and happiness is embedded in the idea of collectivity which is the moral product of legitimacy. conclusion history shows that legitimacy is not abiding, it is a virtue of governance that needs constant work for it to be retained. although the nigerian political environment is currently replete with a legitimacy crisis, it can still be salvaged. democracy is still the best form of government for the country if it is practiced in its true essence. legitimacy emanates from the people therefore it is logical that the panacea to legitimacy crisis should also come from the people. first, the nigerian populace should unlearn or emancipate themselves from the whims of the corrupt politicians and leaders because the mandate to govern a people is betrayed when the governor or leader engages in the act of corruption to enrich himself rather than provide adequate leadership that will benefit the people and develops the nation. the ethnicity crisis that is obviously at the center stage of politics in nigeria should be taken to the sidelines. in choosing our leaders, excellence and competence should be placed over religious and ethnic affiliations. the leaders on the other hand are acquired to exercise power for the good of the citizens bearing in mind that the right to govern is not natural, it is rather a social construct that can also be deconstructed. legitimacy is the ultimate justification of political power. with it, governance is made easy as civil obedience and loyalty are guaranteed. in the same vein, the consequences of illegitimate government are grave on the general wellbeing of the people and the development of a nation. legitimacy cannot be attained through machiavellian principles; therefore, nigerian leaders need to earn it through constitutional democratic means since legitimacy justifies political authority. evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 1, number 2, october 2020 elechi & jaja 27 references abdul-rahman a., abdullahi m. g., & andrew w., (2007). “nigeria: yar’adua admits election flaws,” daily trust, https://allafrica.com/stories/200705300320.html. adelakun, adewale j. 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(2015). between legality and legitimacy: which is more important? responsiblemines.org,https://www.responsiblemines.org/en/2015/11/b etween-legalityand-legitimacy-which-is-moreimportant/accessed 4 july 2020. maritain, j. (1951). man and the state, chicago: university of chicago press. nida. (2017). “what is the legal difference between "legality" and "legitimacy”? quora.com,https://www.quora.com/what-is-the-legaldifference-between-legality-and-legitimacy, accessed 4 july 2020. nnamdi, b.s. (2011). political obligation and civil disobedience in hannah arendt: a politicophilosophical perspective, nigeria: blestgrafix. project.com “election and political instability in nigeria.” project.com, n.d. https://iproject.com.ng/political-science/election rigging-and-political-instability-in-nigeria/index.html accessed 4 july 2020. scharpf f.w. (1998). governingin europe: effectiveand democratic, oxford university, oxford. web. pdx.edu “the consequences of legitimacy” web.pdx.edu,n.d. http://www.web.pdx.edu/~gilleyb/righttorule_ch5.pdf accessed 4 july 2020 weyler, r. (2014). “civil disobedience: why direct action is necessary.” greenpeace.org, https://www.greenpeace.org/archiveinternational/en/news/blogs/makin gwaves/civil-disobedience-whydirect-action-is-necessary/blog/48294/ accessed 5 july 2020. umass.edu “the power of legitimacy in obedience to the law.” umass.edu, n.d. https://www.umass.edu/legal/hilbink/250/s07%20model2.pdf united nations policy brief, (2008). “legality and legitimacy in international order,” https://www.files.ethz.ch/isn/89752/pb_0805.pdf accessed 4 july 2020. united nations development programme (undp), 1997, african governance forum: conceptual framework. mimeograph. united nations development programme (undp), 2011, international human development indicators (nigeria). undp.org. http://hdrstats.undp.org/en/countries/profiles/nga.html accessed 5 july 2020. united nations development programme (undp), 2012, briefing paper on governance. retrieved on september 5, 2012, from www.un/org/an/globalissue/governance/ ttps://www.longdom.org/articles/ethnicismethnocentrism-inhttps://www.responsiblemines.org/en/2015/11/between-legalityhttps://www.responsiblemines.org/en/2015/11/between-legalityhttps://www.quora.com/what-is-the-legal-difference-between-legality-and-legitimacy https://www.quora.com/what-is-the-legal-difference-between-legality-and-legitimacy https://iproject.com.ng/political-science/electionhttp://www.web.pdx.edu/~gilleyb/righttorule_ch5.pdf https://www.greenpeace.org/archiveinternational/en/news/blogs/makingwaves/civilhttps://www.greenpeace.org/archiveinternational/en/news/blogs/makingwaves/civilhttp://www.umass.edu/legal/hilbink/250/s07%20model2.pdf https://www.files.ethz.ch/isn/89752/pb_08-05.pdf https://www.files.ethz.ch/isn/89752/pb_08-05.pdf http://hdrstats.undp.org/en/countries/profiles/nga.html%20accessed%205%20july%202020 http://hdrstats.undp.org/en/countries/profiles/nga.html%20accessed%205%20july%202020 evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, number 1, may, 2020 evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, number 1, may, 2020 orji and ekemezie page 154 feminism: towards restoring the dignity of igbo women orji, francisca i. & ekemezie, uchenna g. anambra state polytechnic, mgbakwu, anambra state email: orjifrancisca1@gmail.com; drekemezie@asubeb.gov.ng abstract women over the years have engaged in feminism activities against men and the society in general. this has brought untold consequences to the family and society we found ourselves today. in their fight against men oppression, they have thrown their roles in the family and society to the background and in exchange pursue power, fame, authority, and money instead. the biological, cultural and physiological roles of the women add value to our existence and these roles can be passed-on or transmitted irrespective of the status of women. igbo women should see “dos” and “don’ts” hung on their neck as a means of enhancing sustainable and eternalizing woman dignity which helps every igbo woman to understand the essence of motherhood as the significant roles in the home, such as caring for the children, home upkeep, cooking for the family, moral training of the children etc lie in the mothers. keywords: restoring, dignity, roles, status, igbo concept of a woman. introduction although, it is common to discuss women in the developing world as a unified group, this oversimplification ignores the complexity that characterizes developing countries. old values, challenged by new values, continue to influence relations between men and women among themselves. in some islamic societies, some women insist on wearing a veil and yet others reject veiling. however, throughout the developing world, women are the principal initiators of changes that will improve their lives. modernization and globalization are eroding cultural boundaries and weakening the control that some men, the government and some women exercise in an effort to maintain the status quo. according to payne and nassar (2006), access to education and economic opportunities has enabled many women in asia, latin america and africa to develop a decree of social and financial independence that most women in the united states and other industrialized countries enjoy. elias (2004) stated that the un development program created the gender empowerment measure (gem) to focus women’s participation in economic and political activities. it also concentrates on gender disparities in government and economic opportunities. global changes have not affected all women in the same way. development has, in some cases helped to widen economic and social gaps among women. he however noted that rural women evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, number 1, may, 2020 orji and ekemezie page 155 and urban women do not necessarily face the same problems or opportunities. furthermore, george (2003) explained that each country has its own traditions and policies relating to women. the differences make it difficult to generalize about women in developing areas. nonetheless, there is wide spread agreement that women throughout the developing world are bringing about economic, social and political change, but the change should not be used to erode the value of women in the family and society which gives dignity to womanhood roles of women the roles of women can be looked at from biological, cultural and psychological perspectives. the most important and enduring consequences of industrialization for women has been the emergence of the modern role of house wives payne and nassar (2006). there is a mingle between biological and cultural role of women. women are disadvantaged by their biology. stromquist and nelly (1998) stated that menstruation, the menopause and child birth are all physical burdens for women, but pregnancy and breastfeeding have the most serious social consequences. at these times, when women are pregnant or looking after infants, they are dependent on males for physical survival. women dependence on men is increased by the long period during which human infants depend compared to the infants of other species. the interdependence between mother and child, and in turn their dependence on men, has been found in every society and it has influenced the psychology of every human being. dependence on men produced unequal power relationships and power psychology. ortner in haralambos and holborn (2000), argues that women are universally defined as closer to nature because their bodies and physiological functions are more concerned with the natural processes surrounding the reproduction of the species. (payne and nassar) these natural processes include menstruation, pregnancy, child birth and lactation processes for which the female body is naturally equipped. women’s role is linked to the family; the family itself is regarded as closer to nature compared to activities and institutions outside the family. thus activities such as politics, warfare and religion are seen as more removed from nature, as superior to domestic tasks, and therefore as the province of men. oakley’s conclusions in haralambos and holborn (2000) stipulate that gender roles are culturally rather than biologically determined. the mother role is a cultural construction. in fact, women’s role in the society and community is a combination of biological and cultural factors. women are universally oppressed and devalued. it is not biology that ascribes women to their roles and status in society, but the way to which every culture defines and evaluates female biology. evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, number 1, may, 2020 orji and ekemezie page 156 john bowlby in haralambos and holborn (2000) examined the role of women and, in particular, their role as mothers, from a psychological perspective. he argued that a mother’s place was in the home, caring for her children, especially during their early years. bowlby conducted a number of studies of juvenile delinquents and found that the most psychologically disturbed had experienced separation from their mothers at an early age. many had been raised in orphanages, and as a result had been deprived of maternal love. they appeared unable to give or receive love and seemed compelled to adopt a career of destructive and anti-social relationships. he therefore concluded that it was essential for mental health that the infant and young child should experience a warm, intimate and continuous relationship with his mother. bowlby’s arguments imply that there is a genetically based psychological need for a close and intimate mother-child relationship. thus the role of the mother is firmly attached to the female. there is also socio-biological perspective of women’s role. although all the arguments allow some variation in the way gender roles are played, none holds out much hope for those who seek to abolish them. status of women all members of society occupy a number of social positions known as statuses. statuses are culturally defined, despite the fact that they may be bases on biological factors such as sex. some statuses are relatively fixed and there is little individuals can do to change their assignment to particular social positions. each status in society is accompanied by a number of norms that define how an individual occupying a particular status is expected to act. thus, the status of a wife is accompanied by the role of a wife. stromquist and nelly (1998) explained that, women naturally have a lower status than that of men in most societies, including those in the industrialized world. status refers to one’s position in the social, economic and political hierarchy. according to them, men are generally regarded as occupying a higher place than women occupy in the social system. these positions are largely socially constructed primarily by men. this means that society use subjective standards to determine who will have a higher or lower status. these standards are subjected to change as societies change. tradition, religion, political and social beliefs, and economics determine status. women in societies where religion does not play a dominant role generally have a higher status than women in countries where social relations are based on religion. as societies become more industrialized and as women are economic position is strengthened, the gap in status between men and women narrows. traditional igbo concept of a woman igbo people in the past held igbo women in a very esteemed and high position hence, the “dos” and “don’ts” hung on her neck. these “dos” and “don’ts” evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, number 1, may, 2020 orji and ekemezie page 157 were designed to enhancing sustaining and eternalizing women dignity which helps every igbo woman to understand the essence of motherhood and the significant roles in the home that lie on them udechuwku (2015). unfortunately, because of the coming of the white men with their culture and civilization, there have been negative assumptions of igbo people’s view about the igbo woman. consequently, most present-day igbo women have neglected their duties as mothers, and are only after the positions to be shared with their male counterparts. udechukwu (2015) also explained that over the years, people in various facets of the society have been entangled with much hues and cries concerning the falling standards of moral attitudes in the contemporary igbo society. when one sits to give deep thought to this ugly situation, it is found that there is visible parameter that could be useful for substantiating the assertion. the parameter includes the increasing incessant violent crimes and some other unwholesome behaviors that are exhibited by the citizenry, it was only when the woman activists started preaching the dangerous sermon – “that what a man can do, a woman can do it better” that the traditional igbo concept of women crumbled. effects on the family the family institution is regarded as the bedrock and cornerstone of society from which every individual developed his or her self concept through the acquisition of a set of socially constructed norms and behaviors that essential for survival. women are often regarded as the mother of all living. women by nature are programmed to reproduce and care for children and they are very essential to the well being of the children. thus, a woman’s role and position in the family can be characterized as expressive in that she provides warmth, security and emotional support to the family. her role is essential and effective in the socialization of the young children. it was observed that as the women’s movement turned fanatical and ugly in the 1960 and 70 the focus began to shift from reform and equal opportunity to hatred and abuse of men. based on gottfried (2001) theory, it was discovered that the feminist leadershumorless, militant, pugnacious, and angry with their particular lot in life, launched programs that were anti-god, anti-capitalism, anti-family, anti-birth, anti-heterosexual and fostered a virulent hatred of anything having to do with males. they no longer wanted to equalize the status of women, but instead wanted to irreversibly alienate women from men and vice versa. home and traditional family values are no longer accepted answers to the questions, “who am i?” and “what am i here for?” the pre-eminent purpose for some women has become their careers, and they decided against the value of home and family. this has resulted to divorce, abortion, lesbian rights and all worthless practices among women which to them are preferable to their duties and values to the family and society. gone are concerns about equal pay, evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, number 1, may, 2020 orji and ekemezie page 158 assertiveness, and expressing one’s individuality. in their place are women ensconced in bitterness, hatred and resentment. they certainly do not want males to be able to exercise any control over them. they don’t need men to be happy. with men being precluded from the ultimate decision-making process regarding the future of life in the womb, they are reduced to their proper inferior role. women were liberated from the home, liberated from their authority. children were liberated from limits, from rules, even their parents. and the entire population was liberated from moral and ethical standards. yet it turns out that those things were precisely what held society together. “family values” have been so scorned that the societies are left with neither families nor values. militant feminists and extreme feminism have been a force for social evil as it has destroyed much. gay marriage is equally linked to this too. conclusion women should go back to bases to restoring particularly the dignity of igbo women. women’s roles are assigned to them by god and described by the society they find themselves. it is not men’s oppression on them nor their suppression and taking advantage of them. failing in these roles means disobedience to god the creator of all things. most surprisingly, some of these women struggles are organized under church(es). what an irony? women’s struggles for human rights often position them in opposition to family and social networks where their roles and rights have been defined. however, because of the sanctity of the family; they should not choose to seek empowerment and freedom which sets them against their kin. it is crucial to find ways for women to be protected as individuals against abuses. doing so should not mean that the family will be undermined as an important social institution. family is the place where individuals learn to care, to trust and to nurture each other. the law should protect and privilege that kind of family and no other. references elias, j. (2004) fashioning inequality. burlington, vt: ashgate. george, e. (2003). ”eurafricans in western africa: commerce, social status, gender, and religious observance from the sixteenth to the eighteenth century”. west african studies. athens. ohio university press. gottfried, p. (2001). trouble with feminism.lewrockwell.com. haralambos, m. &holborn, m. (2000).sociology. themes and perspectives 5th ed, london: collins educational publishers. evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, number 1, may, 2020 orji and ekemezie page 159 payne, j.r. &nassar, j.r.(2006). politics and culture in the developing world.the impact of globalization. illionis, u.s.a. pearson longman. stromquist, & nelly, p. (1998) “roles and statuses of women” in nelly, p. stromquist, ed. woman in the third world. new york. garland publishing. udechukwu, g. i. (2015). women and politics: the igbo example. nkpor: brystevand publishers. evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 1, number 2, october 2020 makwudo & obijekwu 58 conflict resolution and african indigenous knowledge: igbo perspective kenechukwu k. makwudo & matthew ike obijekwu, phd department of philosophy, chukwuemeka odumegwu ojukwu university, igbariam, anambra state, nigeria email: mi.obijekwu@coou.edu.ng; ugochimelueze1@gmail.com 08063795889 abstract conflict resolution theorized as the approaches and routes involved in enabling the peaceful ending of tussle and struggles, vengeance and retribution. its importance and utility of the processes lie in the fact that they strive ‘to restore a balance, to settle conflict and eliminate disputes’, through the customs and traditions of peoples of africa. this study will examine how the igbo society of african descent resolved dispute. the method of analysis is used. african conflict resolution method promotes consensus-building, social bridge reconstructions, as well, enactment of order in the society. further, it finds out that, while the western world placed more emphasis on the judicial system presided over by council of elders, kings’ courts, peoples (open places) assemblies, etc; for dispute settlement and justice dispensation. african traditional conflict resolution techniques such as mediation, adjudication, reconciliation, and negotiation, as well as cross-examination employed by them in the past, offers great prospects for peaceful coexistence and harmonious relationships in post-conflict periods than the modern method of litigation settlements in law courts. key words: conflict resolution, african indigenous knowledge, mediation, reconciliation, adjudication, negotiation introduction in traditional african society, conflict exists whenever or wherever incompatible events occurred and may result in “win-lose character”. the resolution, transformation, knowledge applied as well, management of conflict most at times produce win-win situation, why? because, conflict resolution in traditional african societies precisely in igbo nation provides opportunity to interact with the parties concerned, this interaction provides consensus-building, social bridge reconstructions and enactment of order in the society. conflict is as natural as the concept of peace contrary to the global or universal conception. africans have particular ways of conceptualizing conflict. according to, onigun, otite and albert, conflict is “a struggle over values and claims to scarce status, power and resources in which the aims of the opponents are to neutralize, injure or eliminate their mailto:mi.obijekwu@coou.edu.ng mailto:ugochimelueze1@gmail.com evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 1, number 2, october 2020 makwudo & obijekwu 59 rivals”.1 african traditional conflict resolution processes are well-structured, time-proven social system geared towards reconciliation, maintenance and improvement of social relationships. these processes and regulations are deeply rooted in the customs and traditions of africans. however, for choudree, the traditional processes of handling conflict are relatively informal and therefore, less intimidating, why? because those who use them are also more at ease in a familiar environment. the role of chiefs, elders, family heads, and others is not only to resolve conflict but also to anticipate and stop/or intercept conflicts. group relationships and rights are as important as individual ones as emphasis is on restoring relationships and reconciling groups2. hence, this study examined the patterns or mechanism for conflict resolution in traditional african societies with particular reference to igbo societies in nigeria. further, submits that the western world placed more emphasis on the judicial system presided over council of elders, kings’ courts, people (open place) assemblies etc; for dispute settlement and justice dispensation. it concludes that traditional conflict resolution techniques such as mediation, adjudication, reconciliation, and negotiation as well as cross examination which were employed by africans in the past, offer great prospects for peaceful co-existence and harmonious relationships in post-conflict periods than the modern method of litigation settlements in law courts. conceptual analysis conflict takes various forms and dimensions in african societies. it is significant to note that conflict is difficult to be defined from the perspective of the africans. for, it seems to be part of excitement for networking relationship, whether negative or positive. consequently, conflicts are in the magnitude of rage, rift, misunderstanding, family and market brawls, skirmishes and wars, public insurrections and assault. it also includes chieftaincy and boundary disputes. these storms of conflicts are wide spread in africa. according to omotosho, conflict is a situation that emerges when two or more parties could not agree on an issue. the parties to such conflict may not necessary be the government or nation states. in an incompatible stage among nation states, every part involved seeks to achieve certain objectives, such as additional or more secure territory, security, access to markets, prestige, alliances and the overthrow of an unfriendly government.3 however, the study of conflict in africa has not always been mindful of the need to consider the interaction of local and international factors in the evolution of conflicts between african nations. african conflict is not susceptible to prediction, although it can be explained. for robert in his german: political conflict on the horn of african, “overt manifestations of conflict are seldom unremitting, even in relations between rival cultures”4. for quincy wright, conflict is a particular relationship between states or rival evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 1, number 2, october 2020 makwudo & obijekwu 60 factions within a state which implies subjective hostilities or tension manifested in subversive economic or military hostilities.5 conflict can thus be described as a condition in which are identifiable group of human beings weather tribal, ethnic, linguistic, religious, socio-political, economic, cultural or otherwise is in conscious opposition to one or more other identifiable human group because these groups are pursuing what to be incompatible goals. moreso, conflict arises from the interaction of individuals who have partly, incompatible ends in which the ability of one actor to gain his ends, depends to an important degree on the choice or decisions that other parties will take. conflict could be violent on uncontrollable dominant or recessive, resolvable or insolvable under various sets or circumstances. for a. mohammed, he argues that conflicts are inevitable wherever severe resources are unequally distributed among competitors and inequity is reflected in cultural and political relationship between groups.6 with regards to various issues in dealing with conflict, it is important to bear in mind not just overt, physical violence, but also the sometimes subtly disguised forms of structural and cultural violence brings in conflict. in fact, robert’s position on conflict, states, that there is nothing wrong with conflict, because, it is a critical mechanism by which goals and aspirations of individuals, groups are articulated, it is a channel for a definition of creative solutions to human problems and a means to the development of a collective identity. hence, he assert that “the repercussion of conflicts between person to person, group to group, community to community, state to state or nation to nation rarely cease with the termination of overt hostilities”7 why, because conflict can solve contentions issues between nations or it can further exacerbate them, in any case, the consequences of conflicts are usually felt for some time after war ends. thus, the consequences that may arise is what africans are more interested in, and how best to curtail it for further occurrence, as well, achieve permanent peaceful coexistence. many scholars have defined conflict in many ways from different perspective. but, we submit to the definition given by wadinga which portrays african conflict in perspective. wadinga described african conflicts as phenomenon which are frequently brushed and dismissed as been chaotic, or worthy of some value pity or humanitarian concern, but rarely of any in-depth political analysis. he further says that, the divide and rule policies of colonial administrators assured the docility of different ethnic groups and this shielded them from the menace of insurrection.8 this is how african conflict is been seen among scholars from african perspective. hence, need to its solution, which indigenous knowledge among igbo-african sort to provide. the onus lies, how african indigenous knowledge would be a panacea to conflict resolution? thus, the crux of our next sub-heading would be how african indigenous knowledge will bring a lasting peaceful coexistence among the people. evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 1, number 2, october 2020 makwudo & obijekwu 61 essence of conflict resolution and african indigenous knowledge in igbo-african context in the pre-colonial days, there were many principles involve in conflict resolution in the traditional african societies. this is because for those who want their conflict resolved must have confidence in the tribunal that would resolve the dispute. these include elders, chiefs, priests, priestesses, secret cult where necessary etc. this disputants must have confidence in them. they (disputants) must be ready to summit themselves to these constituted authorities. however, conflicts in traditional understanding can be interpersonal, or inter-communal, and these may range from person to person, person to community, nation to nation. moreso, we are meant to know that “truth” is a major significance of conflict resolution in african traditional knowledge, and what makes it to be so, is because, the presence of the ancestral forces belief, has been the major factor that always make both disputants to be truthful, likewise the mediator, arbitrator and judge. this belief goes onto the extent that some may be forced to say the truth because of the ancestral forces factor. the mediator, judge and arbitrator must be well prepared because truth is not static. truth is also a covenant logo disputant or parties in conflict must not miss. for one of the conflicting party to have come to the tribunal, it means that party is ready or agreed to settle or resolve dispute. however, in traditional african societies, the law enforcement agents, traditional police and courts were responsible for ensuring compliance with the laws of the land. disputants often take their cases to elders and neighbourhood mediators who can be depended upon to resolve conflicts with dispatch in local language using familiar standard of behavior. these agents listed above have their method of resolving conflicts, but before we discuss about these method, let first bring to bear scholars ideas on conflict resolution through the indigenous knowledge. for f. mensah, traditional conflict resolution mechanism is a social capital, he defined it as “the capability of social norms and customs to hold members of a group together by effectively setting and facilitating the terms of their relationship i.e sustainability that facilitates collective action for achieving mutual beneficial ends”.9over the years, these have developed inter group conflict over land; increasing reliance on formal contracts to regulate relationships and crate understanding; and shifts in methods of conflict resolution, for the fact that, mediation seems to have given way to more confrontational statutory approaches based on formal court procedures, despite these, traditional methods still prevail, especially at the grassroots level. for kealotswe, there is a need to manage conflict optimally, so that it won’t escalate and lead to broader crisis. according to him, conflict resolution deals with settlement of conflicts that has already existed, and it is different from evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 1, number 2, october 2020 makwudo & obijekwu 62 ordinary peace building that has to do with reducing crisis through any means. he opines that africans has spiritual dimension method of conflict resolution, “the spiritual dimension of conflict resolution refers to creating and restoring impaired relationship with god, the spirits, ancestors, family and neighbours as the case might be, this is critical in restoring other relationships at the physical level”10. in all these, rituals play an important role in the reconciliation process. they help to link people to the past, present and future. moreso, for brock-utne, conflict must be understood in their social context, involving ‘values, beliefs, fears, suspicion, interests and needs, attitudes and actions, relationship and networks…’ thus, the root causes of conflicts must be explored to emphasize shared understandings of the past and present. brock-utne notes that: “the immediate objective of conflict resolution in african knowledge is to mend the broken or damaged relationship, rectify wrongs and restore justice”.11 another aim is to ensure the full integration of parties into their societies again, and to adopt the mood of cooperation. in african indigenous knowledge, these objectives of conflict resolution, is to move away “from accusations and counter accusations, to settle hurt feelings and toreach a compromise that may help improve future relationship”.12 the effectiveness of the process and sustainability of the outcomes, generally, are attributed to such factors as simplicity, participatory nature, adaptable flexibility, complete relevance, and comprehensiveness. also, roles of the key players may change from time to time as the situation demands since there is no standard model. this approach is flexible and dynamic, the whole process and content are too influenced by the social context. the social situation of those involved is also important. the approach also seeks to build consensus, often requires tact and patience. therefore, when agreement is reached, it is shared with all parties involved. moreso, indigenous conflict resolution knowledge has general advantage, because it gives room to ‘shared understanding of the conflict’, encourages harmony through active participation of all parties in the process. for okrah, traditional societies understand conflict as something resolved through internal and external social controls. “the internal social controls use processes of deterrence such as personal shame and fear of supernatural powers. external controls rely on sanctions associated with actions taken by others in relation to behaviours that may be approved or dispapproved”.13 indigenous conflict resolution mechanisms focus on the principles of empathy, sharing and cooperation in dealing with common problems which underlie the essence of humanity. for murithi, cultural approaches to resolving and managing disputes play a vital role in promoting peace and social order in communities. hence, he opines, “cultural values and attitude provide the basis for interaction and the norms by which individuals and the norms by which individuals and communities live”.14 these also promote sharing and equitable distribution of resources, thus promoting a climate for peace. african cultural principles relate to the very essence of existence and evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 1, number 2, october 2020 makwudo & obijekwu 63 being human, and how all humans are inextricable related. conflict resolution in african indigenous knowledge is underscored by the principles of reciprocity, inclusivity and a value system for giving and receiving forgiveness. this is because society places greater emphasis on communal life. therefore, creating and sustaining positive mutual relations which are shared tasks involving everyone, it is believed that people are linked to each other including disputants as perpetrators or victims. generally, conflict resolution is a community process involving the identification of the root cause of the problem, and bringing all parties involved to address the underlying issues. this usually ends with the quilty accepting wrong doing, leading to reconciliation which may include compensation or just forgiveness. the process of conflict resolution has to do with how indigenous structures and systems ensure action in bringing peace at the individual and community level relationships. in this respect conflict resolution procedures are generated from general cultural life and daily experiences of living. in this context, for kendie and guri, indigenous “refers to the structures and the units of organization in a community and encompasses also the norms, values, beliefs and cosmo-vision that guide social interaction”.15 thus, african understanding of conflict resolution comprises a complex network of forces surrounding the parties in the conflict. it is a healing process in which all stakeholders contribute positive energy. the task is to re-establish the energy flow within individuals, families and communities so as tore-build social harmony. for ndume, he asserts that, “reconciliation often requires symbolic gestures and associated rituals including exchange of gifts, and slaughter of animals (chickens, goats, sheep, cows) and these are done by stakeholders involved in the crisis, so as to establish lasting peace and harmony”.16 conflict resolution methods among igbo-africans here, we are going to briefly consider some of the methods of conflict resolution among indigenous africans which includes; mediation, adjudication, reconciliation, arbitration and negotiation, then, also extends to extra-judicial devices and usage of legal maxims to persuade people out of conflict. mediation: mediation is an old method of conflict resolution. it involves non-coercive intervention of the mediators called third party either to reduce or go beyond, or bring conflict to a stop. olaoba, described this mediation as a method of conflict resolution that had been so critical to traditional society. “the mediators usually endeavoured that peace and harmony reigned supreme in the society at whatever level of mediation”.17 this is also usually coincided with the dictum of ‘no victor… no vanquished’ as buttressed by the maxim, if we apportion blame to the quality person, we must do the same to other party in conflict. mediators are sought from elders within the communities or evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 1, number 2, october 2020 makwudo & obijekwu 64 societies of the parties concerned. elders are respected as trust worthy mediators all over africa, because of their accumulated experiences and wisdom. according to bright-brock, their roles depend on traditions, circumstances and personalities.18 accordingly these roles includes; pressurizing, making recommendations, giving assessments, conveying suggestions on behalf of the parties, emphasizing relevant norms and rules, emisaging the situation if agreement is not reached, or repeating of the agreement already attained. adjudication: in traditional african society, adjudication is a very vital method in conflict resolution. for olaoba, he defined it as a process which involves bringing all disputants in the conflict to a meeting usually in the chambers or compounds of family heads, quarter heads and palace court as the case may be for a dialoque.19 this dialogue entails much, because, it was linked with the adjudicatory processes in traditional pattern of african society. reconciliation: this was the most significant aspect of conflict resolution. it is the end product of adjudication. after the disputants have been persuaded to end the dispute, peace is restored. this restoration of peace and harmony is always anchored on the principle of give a little and get a little. this buttresses the idea of the disputing parties to give concessions. a feast is usually organized to confirm the readiness of the conflicting parties towards reaching points of compromise. at least, as characteristic of african traditional society, conflict resolution method is the use of arbitration. olaoba opines, the reconciliation function is practiced by the authority that mediates between conflicting parties but is empowered to make binding judgments. the purpose is not to render a judgement in law but to reconcile the conflicting parties and its norms. the relationship, between the authority and the community is cushioned by community representatives who advise authority.20 negotiation: for william, negotiation is, “the secret is to harmonize the interests of the parties concerned”.21 thus, even when the conflict is between one and his society, there is an emphasis on bring the errant member back into his place in the society. the reinstatement of a dissident member can just as well be seen as the restoration of the harmony and integrity of the community, which gives room for negotiation which serves as a consensus value in conflict resolution method among africans, as well, plays the role of social cohesion that favours the concerns parties. these methods has played a vital role among igbo-africans from time immemorial till date. its uses can never be over emphasized, and its benefits is there to be seen. evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 1, number 2, october 2020 makwudo & obijekwu 65 conflict resolution and african indigenous knowledge: igbo perspective the crux of our discussion here would be centered on the “igbo perspective of conflict resolution” which happens to be the nucleus of our study. here, our instances should be drawn from selected communities in igbo nation which includes; umurebo-umokuzu, umuleri-aguleri-umoba-anam. these communities patterns of conflict resolution as well, other communities across igbo nation have ushered in a lasting peace among the people till date. thus, the igbo traditional institutions for conflict resolution as seen in these communities which include; the family, amala (council of elders), okpara system (eldest male), umunna (clan), umuada (female born in a town but married out), age grades, assembly of the people, ohanaeze (assembly of the people and the king), hunters’ association (where necessary) and agbara (local deities or oracles), are very significant in conflict resolution among the people of igbo nation and their role is paramount in every pattern the conflict resolution will take place, perhaps, these institutions are not different from the one found in other traditional african societies. however, olurunsola, wrote, that prior to the advent of the europeans, the igbos consisted of over two hundred independent territorial groups divided into villages. the internal organization of these groups rested upon patrilineal clans and lineages. these groups were autonomous with regards to governmental processes, but social bonds were strong among them.22 the piece of land with regad to umunebo and umuokuzu communities is called alaihuokpaula or alamkpoku, it is located between umunebo and umuokuzu clans of obokwu village in obinze, which is in the owerri west local government area in imo state, eastern nigeria. several peace efforts geared towards resolving this land dispute prove abortive.even the elders of obokwu village made several futile third party mediation efforts. the nwanwa grouped (men and women whose mothers were born at obokwu village) also intervened but failed. the autonomous traditional ruler (obinze) and his cabinet also intervened. while these efforts were heading for roots too, a decisive warning were receiving by both clans from the ancestors through the chief priest of obinze, the messenger of aka-iwn (big earth deity) saying that they are seeing an impending blood flow, insisting that there must be no bloodshed henceforth, therefore, the dispute over the land must be settled peacefully. thus, this becomes the end of the communal clash. moreso, coming to aguleri-umeleri clash, since 1933, the pathetic dimension of the conflict is that the aguleri and umuleri people have one ancestral origin in eri, and had been living peacefully side by side in otuocha for decades before the focus of division and anarchy emerged. the land conflict, before the disastrous war had passed through the court’s strategy, political, bureaucratic, and military strategy without solution and peace in sight, before evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 1, number 2, october 2020 makwudo & obijekwu 66 the traditional strategy was applied. according to nwolise the traditional formula which led to the peaceful resolution of the aguleri-umuleri-umuobaanam war involved oath-taking declaration of “no more war” peace treaty and the performance of a cleansing ritual called ikomue.22 the first traditional oath which took place on 25th january, 2000 involved only aguleri and umuleri, while other communities latter join in order to avoid further wars and destabilization in the omambala area. all those communities came with their respective representatives, as well as local deities (oracles) to indicate their commitment to peace. the oath which is binding on every indigene of the participating communities was taken to the effect that the contracting parties accept peace and there would be no more war and bloodshed amongst and between the communities. violators of this oath face the wrath of the deities present, and the ancestors, who in the presence of the gods constitute the source of moral sanctions and peace guarantors. this first oath taking process relaxed tension in the war torn area and paved way for the processes that brought the final peace. however, before this oath taking, it must interest us to know that the traditional methods previously discussed were adopted in the peace treaty making by traditional rulers and leaders of thought led by igwe kelly nzekwesi, for sanity and rigidity. it was however observed that the traditional leaders and rulers were also being touched, encouraged and propelled into action by the message on peace and the direct challenge to them in president olusegun obasanjo’s speech when he visited aguleri-umuoba-anam conflict area. in his words: “i will be addressing our traditional and religious leaders here. what are we saying in the communities in which we are? what are we saying and what are we doing to really dampen these types of senseless killing, this type of senseless destructions of lives and properties? you only need to go down there (otuocha) and you will anybody tell me that these three communities are not related? are they not brothers and sisters? the governor told me that they came here and asked same questions and you said you are not… a small community like this, you have turned it into ghost town. a community, that known god as it should be known, this type of thing will not be happening… what has happened to our traditional way of life where elders intervene and help to resolve differences? are there no more elders in the community? have they abandoned their responsibility? if not, then what are they doing?”24 evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 1, number 2, october 2020 makwudo & obijekwu 67 hence, this led to oath taking in the year 2000. after the first oath process of 25th january, 2000, a second oath took place on 6th april of the same year. in this second oath, the leaders of aguleri, umuleri, and umuoba-anam were invited to the centre of the field. each community was asked to come with a big goat, a small he-goat, some kolanuts, etc; along with symbol of their community deity and its chief priest (ezemmoo). after reading the contents of the oath, each community appointed one representative to take oath on its behalf and in the presence of its deity, and other communities’ deities (oral interview with ediagbonya michael). on the igbo traditional institutions, one cannot but agree that the two case studies focused upon viz; umuerebo-umuokuzu, aguleri-umuleri, provides serious evidence of continued efficacy of both traditional methods as well as sanctions for conflict resolution. nwolise, noted that given the christians in these communities were called out to swear according to christian doctrine, i.e to christian ritual performance. all these communities mentioned were led by their respective priest of the catholics and the anglicans with their bibles. each denomination appointed a representative who took oath on behalf of others.25 without sacrifice, it would have been difficult for members of these communities to eat together. it is also believed in the eri kingdom that the spirit of those killed in the war would go on vengeance against their own people who eat together with their murderers. from that day, peace was restored, true reconciliation began and social harmony was restored among these communities. benefits of indigenous methods of conflict resolution among igboafricans indigenous methods of conflict resolution among igbo african has a lot of benefits which include; it creates opportunity to interact with the parties concerned, with the hope of at least reducing the scope, intensity and effects of conflicts. during formal and informal meetings, conflict resolution exercises permit a reassessment of views and claims as a basis for finding options to crisis and to divergent point of view. those who organize conflict resolution exercises or meetings usually constitute the third party in a triangular arrangement and consist of traditional rulers (kings, chiefs, etc). conflict resolution performs a healing function in african societies. it provides opportunity for the examinations of alternative positive decision to resolve differences. failure to resolve conflict over access to commonly valued scarce resources, and over divergent perceptions of socio-political situations, has the high potential of degenerating into genocide or fratricide. in traditional african society, extra-judicial methods were employed in conflict resolution. these took the form of ordeals and the innovation of supernatural forces to expose all sides to the conflict. olaoba has shown quite evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 1, number 2, october 2020 makwudo & obijekwu 68 clearly that oath taking which was one of the extra-judicial methods usually assisted the judge or adjudicators to locate areas of weaknesses in the conflict. conflict resolution promotes consensus-building, social bridge reconstructions and re re-enactment of order in society. conflicts hardly break up societies, as stated by otite and others. for conflict resolution, the obvious implication is to view conflicts as non-isolated events in its social context. such perspective is not narrowly focused on a conflict and its resolution. it takes into account the cultural settling and the social context. it looks at the history of preceding events which led to the conflict concerned. and while concentrating on the conflict itself and process of resolving it, it takes possible implications for the future seriously.26 a wider look is taken than one which just includes the disputing parties, possible consequences for others in their families and social network are also taken into consideration. potential effects on relationship and interests are envisaged. conclusion in conclusion, each people, race, or identity group has their own ways of doing things especially as they concern conflict resolution. while in europe, for example, the police is the agent of crime detection. however, several african societies relied on oath-taking and divination in pre-colonial times. these methods still thrive today in some places on a very limited scale alongside torture and skull breaking in the name of interrogation and confession extraction. also, while the western world placed emphasis on a judicial system presided over by lawyers and judges; traditional africa uses council of elders, king’s court, people (open place) assemblies, etc. for dispute settlement and justice dispensation. nwolise, opines, that in africa, conflict takes various forms and dimensions. it is worthy to note that conflict does not have a single definition from african perspective. it could be a kind of social unrest or relationships, whether positive or negative.27 consequently, conflicts are in magnitude of rage, rift, misunderstanding, family and market brawls, skirmishes and wars. these kinds of conflicts are wide spread in traditional african societies. nwolise further says “a society which neglects the instructive value of its past for its present and future, cannot be self-confident and self-reliant and will therefore lack internally generated dynamism and stability”.28 the essence of dispute settlement and conflict resolution in traditional african states include to remove the root-causes of the conflict; reconcile the conflicting parties genuinely, to preserve and ensure harmony, and make everybody involved in the resolved conflict happy and be at peace with each other again, and this required getting at truth; to set the right milieu for societal production and development; to promote good governance, law and order, to provide security of lives and property and to achieve collective sellevaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 1, number 2, october 2020 makwudo & obijekwu 69 being and happiness. these are different from what does obtain today where nobody cares about the truth. it africans have to put the falling apart together; her original values must be revisited. we conclude that, it is the advent of the slave drivers and colonial masters in africa, that adulterated, and in some areas, wipes out the african methods of monitoring, preventing, managing and resolving conflicts. africans also had their peculiar ways and manners of effecting peacemaking, peace building and confidence building. these peculiar and very effective methods have today been wiped out by the forces of colonialism, including psycho-war forces. this resulted to instability and retarded development. dialogue between disputants is today replaced by fighting, and the mediating role of elders, and other more peaceful institutions as age-grades, highly revered societies are replaced in several clashes with police actions (teargas) military “peace keeping” operations, and endless court proceedings. this reminded us to the old saying that a people live out their culture and tradition for self-confidence, self-reliance, positive change and stability, and that a people without their culture are as dead and forgotten. work cited onigu, otitie & albert, i.o. (eds), community conflicts in nigeria, management, resolution and transformation. (ibadan, nigeria: spectrum books limited, 2001), p. 3. r.b.g. choudree, “traditions of conflict resolution in south africa”. african journal on conflict resolution. http://www.accord.org.sa/ publications1;) choudree.htm.accessed 20th august 2010. p.1. o.b. olaoba, “ancestral focus and the process of conflict resolution in traditional african societies”; albert, a.o. & omotosho (eds), in perspectives on peace and conflict in africa in essays in honour of general (dr) abdul salam a. abubakar, (ibadan: john archers ltd, 2005), p. 22. f. robert, german: political conflict on the horn of african, (usa: praeger, publisher, 1981), p. 5. q. wright, (ed), the escalation of international conflicts in clajelt smith conflict resolution: contributions of behavioural science. (london: noitre dame press 1971), p. 8. a mohammed, “inter-group conflicts and customary mediation: experience from sudan in african. journal on conflict resolution vol. 2, no. 2, 2000, p. 13. op. cit, w. wadinga, “post-colonial conflict in africa: a study of richard ali’s city of memories in international journal of arts and humanities, vol. 2 (4), s/no. 8, september, 2013. pp. 310-312. http://www.accord.org.sa/ evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 1, number 2, october 2020 makwudo & obijekwu 70 f. mensah, benk, “nugormesese: an indigenous basis of social capital in a west african community”. ik notes, no. 86, november 2005, world bank. p. 3. o.n. kealotswe, “acceptance and rejection: the traditional – healer prophet and his integration of healing methods” http://www.ubrisa.ub.bw/bitstream/ handle/1031/352ikpe.accessed:14th september 2010,p. 20. brock-utne, bright, “indigenous conflict resolution in africa”. a draft presented to weekend seminar on indigenous solution to conflicts held at the university of oslo, institute of educational research, 23-24 february 2001, p. 13. ibid; p. 15. 1. k.a. okrah, “toward global conflict resolution. lessons from the akan traditional judicial system”. journal of social studies research, fall http:www.findartides.com/p/articles/mi-qa3823/is200210/ai-nq304242. accessed 17th august 2010, p. 1. 2. t. murithi, “practical peace making wisdom from africa: reflections on ubuntu”. the journal of pan african studies, 14th june 2006, pp. 25-34. 3. s.b. kendis and b. guri, iindigenous institutions, governance and development: community mobilization and natural resources management in ghana. (cape coast, ghana, centre for development studies, university of cape coast, 2006) p. 333. 4. k. ndumbe, the spiritual dimensions of resolution mechanisms and international education, institute for educational research, accessed 23 feb. 2001), p. 6. 5. op; cit. 6. op; cit. 7. op; cit. 8. loc; cit. 9. z.i. williams, (ed). traditional cures for modern conflict. african conflict medicine 2000. (lynne reiner publisher inc. 2000), pp. 22-23. 10. v.a. olorunsola (ed), the politics of cultural sub-nationalism in africa (ibadan achor books, 1972), p. 157. 11. o.b. nwosile (ed), traditional models of bargaining and conflict resolution in africa: perspective on peace and conflict in africa (ibadan: john archer ltd, 2005), pp. 10-12. 12. op. cit, p. 9 13. loc; cit, 14. op; cit, 15. op; cit. 16. ibid; pp. 153-154. http://www.ubrisa.ub.bw/bitstream/ evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, number 1, may, 2020 evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 dr. helen udumaga aghamelu page 132 the community and character formation of the youths in the emeka nwabueze's lachrymose dr. helen udumaga aghamelu department of theatre and film studies, nnamdiazikiwe university, awka e-mail:aghameluhelen@gmail.com abstract most social vices displayed by youths are traceable to poor character formation. since this group of the citizenry are also regarded as the greatest asset of any society, it is necessary that the right set of values are inculcated in them early enough to ensure that they display good character. character formation is a holistic role that needs to be performed at every developmental stage of an individual. however, it is also observed that character formation is a product of many variables within the environment of the individual. in line with the foregoing, this, paper highlighted the role the community can play in forming the character of youths within its domain, as represented in the play, lachrymose by emeka nwabueze. using content analysis method, the paper discovered that the community is a formidable force in this quest and recommends that the community, through its various agencies should see it as a duty to direct or redirect the youths towards a positive character display. keywords: youth, character, community, character formation. introduction playwrights since time immemorial have adapted the medium of play as a tool to express their thoughts and beliefs pertaining a given issue in a society. thus, plays reflect contemporary issues within a given society. lanre adenekan and ogakason rasheed assert that “the contemporary nigerian playwright bears a mark of ideological commitment and patriotism in his plays”(69).drama is a presentation of life actions. the dramatist, through his works attempts at presenting a better understanding of the human nature. nzebunachi thus observes that “elements of drama the audience to experience solidarity and commitment to basic values which in turn impacts their ethical fiber “(15). every dramatic work therefore has a function to perform because as h.l.b. moody observes, “ a drama speculates not only on what is bad but on what ought to be or what must not be”(31). drama therefore is an effective means of creating societal awareness because it has a unique way of presenting events in a vivid and realistic manner. emeka nwabueze is a nigerian playwright that has used his plays to expose his commitment to the needs of the society by using “his art to make his audience conscious of the short comings of the society “(163).his reflections on art and the society in general are quite constructive. the choice of the play lachrymose in this paper is based on the playwright’s unique manner of evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 dr. helen udumaga aghamelu page 133 presentation of the subject matter and his subtle manner of using characters to animate the character display of youths. to this end, this paper examines the approaches highlighted by nwabueze that the community can adopt to ensure that the youths are inculcated with the right character so as to contain social vices among them. this study, therefore focuses on the impacting role of the community in directing or redirecting the youths in their character displays as is represented in the play lachrymose by emeka nwabueze. the community and character formation of youths character is the behavioural quality that distinguishes an individual from others. it is a reputation that differentiates one person from another. a dictionary definition of character states that it is “the stable or distinctive qualities built into an individual’s life which determines his or her response regardless of the circumstances. “character therefore is not different from behaviour which is defined by uba emmanuel as “the exhibition of sensibility, attitudes, beliefs, skills and dispositions that render an individual morally matured”(42). character formation therefore is the grooming of quality/qualities of behaviour that are either positive or negative. character formation is a result of competing influences around the individual. psychologists such as sigmund freud jean piaget, albert bandura, etc, believe that character formation is influenced by many variables which must be closely observed in relation to the character of the individual. the environment/community in which the individual domiciles is one of such variables. the community is literally defined as a group of people who live together within a geographical location. every community has the characteristics of providing opportunities for the youths to explore, express, learn etc, through such avenues as families, neighbours schools, religious centers, recreational centers etc. this gives it a good position in the character formation of its members. according to hobson and spanglar, “the religious and spiritual activities available in the community could be means for positive youth development as they enhance association among community members… and provided sustained sources of activities for youths”(15). youths are believed to be highly influenced by the opportunities or constraints available to them in the community. this is because every community has rules and regulations that guides its behaviour. detecting deviant or positive character is therefore possible because these behaviours are categorized by the community as either on the positive side or on the negative side. a community needs to view itself as being responsible for the moral growth of its young generation by encouraging them to adhere to accepted norms and values. this can be encouraged by monitoring and observing the character development of evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 dr. helen udumaga aghamelu page 134 the youths and either direct or redirect them as is deemed necessary. a popular african proverb states that “it takes a whole village to train a child“. this witty saying sums up the importance of the community in the character formation of youths. brief synopsis of the play lachrymose lachrymose is a play that vividly x-rays the erosion of moral values in the society. through the family of ezennia and ochiora, nwabueze makes vital comments on the various influential factors on the behavioural display of youths. he uses the characters to capture the variables responsible for youth behaviour with particular emphasis on the family, the government, the peer group and the community in general. using such themes as corruption, intergenerational conflict, deception, greed etc, nwabueze creates a play that touches every member of the community. set in a contemporary nigerian town, the play opens with the rehearsal of a dance meant to be used to welcome the dignitaries that are coming to aid the victims of flood disaster that has recently ravaged the town. the women use the gathering to voice out their opinion on some issues concerning the community. in the course of the discussion, the women realize that they are not sure of equitable distribution of the funds meant for the victims of the flood disaster, due to corruption. to abate this, some women decide to visit ochiora to intimate her on the character of her daughter, nkechi, which is affecting the entire community negatively. in addition to this, some pensioners also decide to effect change by embarking on a business aimed at remixing some popular philosophical musical tunes in order to redirect the thinking of the society especially the youths. however, their effort is thwarted by the kidnapping of ezennia, one of the major contributors to the project. nkechi and ikenna are later arrested for the offence and handed over to the law. nwabueze in the play presents community as an influential factor that plays an observatory role in the character formation of youths. the community and character formation of youths in the play lachrymose the playwright through the activities of the women portrays a community which regards the character display of their young ones as a communal affair. three major communal responsibilities are brought into focus in the play. these includes establishment of rules, observation/monitoring and redirecting. the three women that paid oçhiora a visit demonstrate this spirit of observation/monitoring..it is this observational spirit of the community that the playwright uses to avail the women the opportunity to discover the negative character of nkechi and their resolve to redirect her by informing her mother, whom they expect to take positive action. this is seen in the conversation below: evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 dr. helen udumaga aghamelu page 135 ochiora: you are welcome my sisters… ocheze: ..ochiora umu-agbala, we are here on an important errand. we’ve come to speak to youabouta very important matter that pricks our hearts…(18). omelogo: … we are friends not enemies, and our mission is a friendly one. beatrice: …the art of being wise is the technique of knowing what to overlook and what to amplify (19). the conversation above is used by nwabueze to prepare ochiora on the seriousness behind the visit. though the information may not be palatable, the women feel that there is need for their observation to be made known to the mother of the offending youth. the playwright also uses the visit of the women to emphasis that character building is a communal responsibility and should not be left for the parents and care givers alone. this is also revealed thus: beatrice: the wisdom of being a christian mother is the ability to stand beside your colleagues in periods of stress and difficulty. it entails one being ones sister's keeper…(19). ochiora: i’m waiting. beatrice: we have come to talk to you about your daughter, nkechi… you have an only daughter, nkechi. her waywardness is shameful and it is our duty to call your attention to it if you are not aware…(20-21). ocheze: we are christian mothers and it is our duty to protect the integrity of our colleague’s daughter (23) the above reveals that the women, after observing the direction nkechi’s character is going decide to embark on this task because they perceive it as an obligatorycommunal function that will help the young lady, nkechi, to re trace her footstep and desist from the observed negative character display. the women therefore use the opportunity to demonstrate their communal concern in the character formation of nkechi, the women’s visit was initially resented by ezennia and ochiora but having realized the communal obligation and importance of the visit, ezennia soft pedals on his stand and tries to convincehis wife to give the women a listening ear. ezennia: mydear, take it easy, let’s hear them out… although ochiora is shocked by her husband’s decision to listen to the women, ezennia further stresses this need with the following proverb: ezennia: my dear, whoever sees a fowl shuffling over faeces should drive it away for no one knows who will eat the fowl’s leg…(26). evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 dr. helen udumaga aghamelu page 136 the need for communal responsibility in character formation of the youths is emphasized by nwabueze in the above proverb. he is suggesting that the character display of every child, in the long run, affects every member of the society, hence the need for all to have a sense of obligation to be part of their character formation. this means that the community should be free to exercisesome form of commitment in nurturing the young generation towards positive character formation. as ezennia further states: ezennia: …one finger alone cannot catch a louse from the head.(26). the proverb above also gives further insight into the sentiment nwabueze shares regarding the role of the community in the character formation of youths. it vividly supports the idea that it is the combination of the efforts of people around the child that actually contribute to the shaping his character. raising a child in the traditional african society is therefore a collective responsibility. it is not left alone for the parents to shoulder. it is worthy of note that detecting negative character display is only possible when the characters are categorized by the community as either being acceptable or unacceptable. nwabueze is able to effectively establish through the characters that for the community to succeed in the character formation of youths, there should be set down rules that govern the character of the youths. it is in this aspect that the playwright offers an appealing dimension that the community should have established norms and values that are acceptable by all within the community. thus some norms and values in the community are emphasized by the women in the play. in order to stress the communal abhorrence of promiscuity associated with having indiscriminate sexual relationship with different men, the playwright weighs this with the communal acceptance of sticking to one sex partner even if it means eloping the person. thus omelogo explains to ochiora: omelogo: …it is better to concentrate on one man…than to jump from one man to another which constitute your daughter’s behaviour.(23). the women emphasize the community’s preference of nkechi eloping with one man than having indiscriminate sexual relationship with many men. on the issue of abortion, nwabueze reveals through the women that the community would rather prefer a girl having a child outside marriage than engage in indiscriminate procurement of abortions as nkechi is observed to engage in. beatrice informs ochiora thus: evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 dr. helen udumaga aghamelu page 137 beatrice: … to have a baby at home is better than aborting it. abortion is murder. and that is the stock-in-trade of your daughter and her friends.(23) nwabueze uses the conversation above to highlight some vices that are not acceptable in the community which nkechi is observed to be displaying. close monitoring enables the community to detect any form of anti social character display amongst its youths. members of the community should therefore be very vigilant and make the observation early enough to be able to reverse such unwanted character. the community is also presented by nwabueze as an advisory agent for immediate family in the characters formation of the youths. because most of the characters of youths are displayed outside the family, the community should see it as its duty to advice the immediate family of the youths on what should be done to keep them on the right track by playing some advisory role. thus ugodie advises ochiora: ugodie: you should teach your children to listen to elders and comply with their directions…(12) beatrice also emphasizes her displeasure with ochiora in the following words: beatrice:…we are disappointed that your philosophy crumbles when one weighs it with the actual situation of your family(20) the women also observe that nkechi is also involved in corrupt practices. beatrice informs ochiora that nkechi also “colluding with the officers of the committee to streak and sell materials donated to the flood victims”(25). all these information are necessary to help ochiora to bring her daughter to order in order to avoid eventualities as ocheze warns: ocheze: you may not know it but ashes are known to fly back into the face of the one who throws them…(25). the above is to remind ochiora that once the community, as represented by the women, is done with its duty; it is left with the immediate family to adhere to the advice given and to take positive action regarding their children’s character formation. failure to do so, they should be ready to face the consequences. this prophecy is later fulfilled in the play as nkechi is later arrested for masterminding the kidnapping of her own father. conclusion the study is an attempt to give some insight into how the community could contribute in the formation of youths’ character. the community is presented in the play as a vital force in shaping the character of youths. this can be evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 dr. helen udumaga aghamelu page 138 achieved through their monitoring ability, insistence on adherence to set rules, and their ability to advice the immediate family of the concerned youth. the paper therefore advocates that all hands should be on deck in the character formation of youths since the resultant effect of the youths’ character affects the whole society either positively or negatively. it therefore re-echoes the proverb “whoever sees a fowl shuffling over faeces should drive it away for no one knows who will eat the fowl’s legs” (nwabueze,26). the cited works adenekan,qasim, lanre and ogakanson, rasheed.“counter terrorism in yerima's pariand osofisan's morountodun”in nigerian theatre journal, 19.2(2019):68-80. hobson, h. and spangler, k. resources for youths and community development in isolated communities: stories from ten communities. 1991. moody, h. l. b. literary appreciation. essex: longman,1987. nwabueze, emeka. visions and re-visions. selected discourse on literary criticism. enugu: abic books, 2011 ………………………. lachrymose enugu: abic books, 2014. nzebunachi, a. i. current english for junior secondary schools2.nnewi:misfav publishers, 2012. uba, emmanuel, e. psychology for beginners. onitsha: sumex media ltd., 2002. evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 1, number 2, october 2020 timin & doose 93 effect of early marriage in the nigerian society: the benue experience luther anumtimin department of religion and cultural studies benue state university, makurdi email: luthertimin@gmail.com; 0805068221 & tsekeh jesse doose department of philosophy and religious studies nassarawa state university, keffi email: jessetsekeh411@gmail.com; 08061217515 abstract the effect of early marriage is still one of the most disturbing and painful problems bedeviling the people of benue state and generally the nigerian society in the 21st century. it is still the case today in benue state and many other regions of nigeria, especially in poor areas, that some families force their daughters to get married at very early ages. the thrust of this paper is therefore to undertake an assessment of early child marriage in benue society with a view to making recommendations that could stem the tide. the study adopted the qualitative research design by relying on secondary sources of data collection. the expository and evaluative methods were used for data analysis. the study found out that many factors are responsible for early marriage including poverty, ignorance, chauvinism, etc. the study also discovered that the effects of early marriage are severe on the individuals concerned, the family and the society at large. the study recommended, inter alia, that there should be adequate awareness, poverty alleviation, and implementation of relevant legislations towards curbing early marriage. the study concluded that the marriage of a person less than 18 years is illegal and should be discouraged on all fronts. keywords: child, early, marriage, nigerian society introduction early marriage, also referred to as child marriage, is defined as any marriage carried out below the age of 18 years, before the girl is physically, physiologically and psychologically ready to shoulder the responsibilities of marriage and childbearing. while more women are marrying in their thirties in developed countries, overall, 20 to 50 percent of women are married by the age of 18 in the developing world with the highest percentages in west mailto:luthertimin@gmail.com mailto:jessetsekeh411@gmail.com evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 1, number 2, october 2020 timin & doose 94 african within sub-saharan africa and south asia (afolabi and abatan, 1). the context of early marriage in this zone must be understood within an environment of poverty, gender inequality, and cultural taboos against premarital sex for girls, religious beliefs and patriarchal predisposition for controlling female sexuality. it is also true that culture differs in every society and they have some basic norms and beliefs that guide the people (2). jain, bisen, sing & jain refers to child marriage as any marriage carried out below the age of eighteen (18yrs) years before the girl is physically, physiologically and psychologically ready to shoulder the responsibilities of marriage and child bearing (2). the benue society is plagued with a number of challenging issues, one of such issues is early child marriage. child marriage represents a fundamental breach of human rights. however, a number of benue societies accept and practice it. the benue society recognizably places expectation on females to marry and become submissive to their husbands, and in some cases drop their personal interests and ambitions. child marriage as a phenomenon is today getting renewed attention among policy makers worldwide due to the realization of the dangers involved in it. this, also, is in part because child marriage remains highly prevalent despite efforts by many governments of developing countries to discourage and even outlaw the practice. obviously child marriage is a violation of the rights of the girl children who are forced to marry early, and it profoundly affects their lives through substantially lower education prospects, economic prospects, health complications, higher likelihood of acquiring hiv/aids, higher levels of infant mortality with early pregnancies, and higher risks of violence. the concept early (child) marriage early marriage, also referred to as child marriage, has been variously defined. some of these definitions are culture-dependent or conditioned by demographic differences. in the case of nigeria, alabi, bahah and alabi defined early marriage as “any marriage carried out below the age of 18 years, before the girl is physically, physiologically and psychologically ready to shoulder the responsibilities of marriage and childbearing” (78). drawing a contrast, unicefreports that “while more women are marrying in their thirties in developed countries, overall, 20 to 50 percent of women are married by the age of 18 in the developing world with the highest percentages in west african within sub-saharan africa and south asia” (43). in the same connection, usugh notes that approximately 40% of women aged 20-24 worldwide who were married before the age of 18 live in sub saharan africa, thus resulting in early marriage being largely subsaharan african phenomena (2). evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 1, number 2, october 2020 timin & doose 95 the female section of the population has however faced societal prejudices from discrimination because of their gender as well as stigmatization as a result of failure to meet societal standards and customs. one of these prejudices is the expectation within the society that females must become married in order to gain audience in their society. it is estimated that more that 20-50 % of females in developing nations particularly in the sub-saharan region of africa go into marriage before the age of 18. the above phenomenon today is known as girl child marriage (jain, bisen, sing & jain, 13).child marriage is an ancient tradition which could be defined as any marriage that occurs when the girl is not physically, mentally or physiologically ready to bear the pressures of marriage and child bearing. scholars have emphasized that the human rights of the girl-child is violated through early marriage as globally, international bodies recognize 18 years as the legal age of marriage (gage, 2). this is because child marriages are most times carried out without the valid consent of one or two of the parties. although more emphasis has been given to girls as the experience for boys is, less likely to be exploitative or physically harmful as it is for girls. the imposition of a marriage partner on children or adolescents who are in no way ready for married life, and whose marriage will deprive them of freedom, opportunity for personal development, and other rights including health and well-being, education, and participation in civic life, nullifies the meaning of the convention on the rights of the child’s core protections for those concerned. child marriage in benue early child marriage is a common practice in most developing countries. in benue state and most parts of nigeria, many girl and boy-children are married off against their will. with these young girls married off, their educational pursuits are terminated and dreams aborted. to an average benue person, early marriage is just a “custom”, a “tradition”, part of people’s “culture”. as a matter of fact, early marriage is a thing of pride to an average benue person. a benue parent is happy and proud when his or her son or daughter gets married early. it is assumed that they can be privileged to see their grandchildren and take care of them as they are still yet younger. although the emergence of civilization is wiping away this believe. marriage is a union ordained by god and is the only remarkable event in a human life that is associated with choice. the choice to be married and stay married which is a personal decision, is thwarted since they are forced into marriages at early age without their approval. this is glaring as a 2017 unicef report states that about 17% of nigerian young girls are married before 15years and 43% are married before they attain 18years. and this is in stark contradiction to, and contravention of the constitution of the federal evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 1, number 2, october 2020 timin & doose 96 republic of nigeria section 23 which states that; “a person under the age of 18years is incapable of contracting a valid marriage; and in the event such marriage holds, it should be proclaimed null and void”. the negative effects of this menace of early marriage are legion and ugly. unfortunately, even with the modernity and civilization of the 21st century the practice does not seem to be abating among the cultural norms of the tribes in benue state. notably, the 21st century globally is an age when every person, regardless of age, gender and social status, can act to follow their dreams with full support from their societies. sadly, in benue many young girls do not have a voice in the matter – they are raised to believe that they are made for serving their husbands, without a chance to get proper education and profession. their health is often severely damaged by early pregnancy, especially as there is usually no proper healthcare around in rural areas. thus, the dreams of many girls to become amazing professionals are simply dashed when they are forcefully married to some man they barely know, can actually cause harm to them. the young brides are socially disadvantaged since they have no education, no good healthcare provision, no skill of socializing with other people and no future of their own. there is therefore need for a clarion call on all and sundry to put hands on deck towards curbing the tide of this monster. factors responsible for early marriage in benue state various causes have been pointed at by scholars as either remotely or immediately being responsible for the prevalence of early marriage. in benue, the following factors are largely accountable for early marriage: financial challenges poverty is a critical contributing factor to early girl-child marriage in benue state. the crippling poverty in benue state is most felt in the rural areas where most people are struggling to barely survive. most parents who earn very little to maintain normal lives and support a young daughter choose to force her into marriage. girls suffer from it because they often get married against their will at the age of 10 or even younger. on the one hand, where the parents of the child are faced with acute financial challenges, their young girls may be seen as expensive and a burden on the family. this can lead to the parents marrying her off to an older man at a very young age in order to reduce the financial burden on the family. on the other hand, marrying off the girl child could be seen as a way of increasing the wealth of the family. in traditional society in benue which includes the tividoma and igede people, the bride’s family usually receives various items and cash from the family of the groom (ayenge, 18). thus, poor families tend to marry off their girls earlier in order to receive bride-wealth which is considered a source of income to the family. evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 1, number 2, october 2020 timin & doose 97 family alliances kanyi (2008) is of the opinion that conventionally, marriage is a union between two families and some parents lure their girl-children into marriage in order to consolidate family alliances. according to findings by malhotra (2017), some marriages in tivland and in fact all of africa are seen as a means of strengthening the relationships between families or settling disputes. such female children are quickly forced into marriage so as to prevent them from eloping or getting pregnant at their parents’ home. according to a report by maiangwa & amao(2015), in some cases the children are betrothed even before birth. ignorance abdallah (2011) opines that one of the significant causes of early girl-child marriage is ignorance on the part of the parents. this is ignorance in the sense that some parents have the opinion that their daughters are safe form sexual attacks and violence when they are married off early (109). this is compounded by the fact that scores of tiv population still lack education. this therefore exposes them to a lot of societal superstitions and misinterpretations of marriage. thereby, making them susceptible to any superstition or misconceptions that have been passed down from generation to generation regarding early-child marriage. according to atim (2017), the education of parents greatly affects the timing and type of marital union in benue. ignorant parents give out their children earlier in marriage than informed parents. lack of education propels parents to believe that training a girl-child is a waste of resources, that marriage is the only alternative that will protect her without knowing the precautions of the act. they are also made to believe that it is safer, more economical to train a boy because it entails limited resources compared to a girl. many of them do not know the aftermath of early child marriage due to the fact that they still hold on to their ancient beliefs. fear of unintended pregnancy the traditional benue tribes generally frowns upon pregnancy prior to marriage. as such, most families seek to marry off their girl-children before they get pregnant outside marriage. a report by unicef established that unmarried girls are seen as liability to the honor of the family and in order to guarantee chastity and virginity of the bride they are married off early to avoid dishonoring the family (28). msugh matthew asserts here that the society has become very sexually-minded. once children are allowed to mature properly before marriage, there is a tendency of them getting entangled and getting pregnant, thereby bringing shame to the family. in order not to allow girls bring such shame to the family, most families marry out their children early enough in order to prevent them from having sexual knowledge so as to prevent unintended pregnancy. evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 1, number 2, october 2020 timin & doose 98 gender inequality it is apparent that in benue, there are still rural areas with ancient patriarchal beliefs that prefer male to female children (ayenge, 2018). often, people are convinced that the boy child is a good luck, while the girl child is not, and she can only be used as a future bride. such female children are not offered educational opportunities by their parents as their male counterparts. rather, at an early age they are unceremoniously given out in marriage. fear of witchcraft this is a major cause of child marriage in benue. there is the fear that envious family members could through witchcraft prevent a girl who has come of age from getting married. the general belief here is that it is in the nature of witches and wizards to hate the progress of family members. thus, such witches and wizards who may be family members but scared of their victim’s progress might prevent suitors form marrying their daughters. to forestall this, many people give out their daughters in marriage earlier than required. iorpenda moses corroborates this by narrating how he gave out his three daughters’ into marriage at the ages of 14 and 15 years because of his elder brother who prevented any girl that gets to 18 years from marrying in the family. upon further inquiry, iorpenda revealed that his elder brother was childless and so would not want any other person to enjoy the bride price of a matured daughter in the family. because of this fear, many people in benue give out their children in marriage at a very tender age. displacement following the invasion of villages and killing of local farmers in benue by fulani herdsmen, victims at the internally displaced persons camps pass through unsavoury situations because of lack of food, clean water, medic and sleeping materials. in the midst of all these, teenage girls displaced by the conflict and settling in idp camps have been at the receiving end of even more hardship. many of them are being married off to men old enough to be their fathers because of the ever increasing poverty in the camps (oche peter, oral interview). in addition to this, this is africa reports that at an idp camp in agan, mercy toso, 11, was married off to a man of about 40 years of age. her mother,ayiga, asserted that she married mercy off because they did not have money for food, clean water and sleeping materials. ayiga had lost her husband when the herdsmen attacked their village, leaving them with no one to provide for the family. she had no option than to give her daughter off in marriage for n5000.00 when the opportunity presented itself. effects of early marriage on the nigerian society: the benue experience child marriage in benue as in other parts of nigeria has enormous unpalatable impacts on the victims, their families and the society at large. the following are the major effects of child marriage on the benue society: evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 1, number 2, october 2020 timin & doose 99 domestic violence early girl child marriage makes such children susceptible to domestic violence. most men are inpatient when they marry a young girl forgetting the fact that the so called wife is a child that needs to be corrected with love. they unleash their anger at every mistake by the child, thereby causing physiological damage and psychological trauma to the child (atim, 27). often times such girls live in fear of the unknown, due to the series of abuses from the husband or his family members. inflated injuries from violence or physical abuse pose a threat to her existence; it can lead to premature death. it’s on record that most girls lose their lives in the name of marriage;, for when they run back to their parents they are sent back., as such, they digest all the violence because they are made to believe that marriage is for better, for worse. illiteracy bayisenge (2012) rightly notes that in many parts of benue, illiteracy has refused to abate despite attempts by successive governments to make education accessible to all. it is discovered that once a girl gets married, the parents stop educating her, believing that she does not need education once she is a wife. in most cases, during the marriage the man promises to send the girl to school but does not keep the promise as the girl is turned to baby making factory. this increases the rate of illiteracy among benue people and kills so many bright people’s potential. health risks there are several health challenges that may occur as a result of early pregnancy. ayenge (2018: 74) observes that “in most cases child marriage results in many issues one of which is vesico vaginal fistula (vvf); this is a hole between the female vagina and the bladder, which erupts from a prolonged obstructed labour of a girl-child”. the child suffers this after child birth on a long run basis. during the period the girl-child leaks urine or feces sometimes uncontrollably. often times vvf leads to chronic medical issues like constant infection, kidney diseases and infertility. ordinarily, the girls face the challenges of severe pain during intercourse due to the fact that their sex organs are not developed enough. adedokun, tochukwu and adedeji aver that the normal age for pregnancy is at least 18-20 years old, and if one gets pregnant earlier, there is a high risk that she will have to deal with health issues (51). sometimes it is lifethreatening both for the mother and the baby, considering that healthcare in the rural areas is not entirely developed. this partly explains why there is still high rate of mother and child mortality during birth in benue state. other complications may also arise due to lack of proper medical care which results in so many health issues in the long run evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 1, number 2, october 2020 timin & doose 100 social stigma victims of child marriage are often sidelined by their friends and families. they hardly identify or associate in any occasion or ceremonies as they are enclosed to forced life of introvert. the stigma of lack of education, not being able to express one’s self among peers, or contribute to discussion or knowledge of the things happening in the community also affects the girl. the way forward in the light of the foregoing discourse, the following recommendations are necessary to stem the tide of early girl child marriage in benue state: education education is central to the enhancement and improvement of the welfare of a nation as it reduces the impacts of poverty, improves health and nutrition, reduces inequality and increases the participation of women in the labour market. the research therefore recommends that government and relevant authorities should create better programmes and policies that would allow and encourage children and even elderly parents to get educated. education should be affordable and accessible to both male and female children equally. to buttress this, regular workshops and seminars organized by stakeholders such as government, health bodies, ngos and religious bodies should be available for parents, intending parents as well as intending couples to enlighten them on the importance, significance of education as means to ensuring stability in marriages and empowering their love ones to prevent abuse and negligence. awareness creation the prevalence and dangers of child marriage has not received proper attention over the years. many people claim they do not know the magnitude of the problem. it is therefore necessary to create more awareness on the rate and bad effects of child marriage in benue. more people need to know about the problem and attempt to take action. the rural inhabitants need to be educated more about the consequences that child marriage can cause, and about the harm it can do to their children. stricter legislations one must observe that even though laws exist that prohibit child marriage, they are not strict enough and/or are not well executed. there is therefore need for a stricter law against child marriage as well as its execution. the problem should be frequently reported to the authorities who can punish people exploiting children. maybe all the cases will not be prevented, but if at least some will, this is a victory. evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 1, number 2, october 2020 timin & doose 101 fighting poverty it is a common realization that poverty is one of the biggest problems in benue, and many people marry their children to strangers because they need money. all relevant authorities must take measures to resolve this issue, and if there is a smaller amount of struggling people in benue, the child marriage rate will decrease too. conclusion in benue state as in many states of nigeria, a lot of 10-12-year-old girls, whose reproductive system is not ready for intimate activities and childbirth yet, are forced by their parents into marriage. they are stopped from going to school and getting an education and are exploited for serving their husband and giving birth to children. the reasons usually adduced to perpetuate and defend the evil menace of child marriage include poverty, unwanted pregnancy, parental pressure, peer pressure and developmental stage among others. more so, it has a negative trend on the girl child which include; emotional and mental distress, intolerance, early widowhood, frustration and hatred for the man. the implications of early marriage on the girl-child that negatively impacts her wellbeing and that of the society include education, lack of economic empowerment and lack of knowledge on reproductive health services which will enable them take informed decisions, enhance their ability to leverage resources and participate in community decision making. it is therefore necessary for all benue well-meaning sons and daughters to put hands on deck towards curbing this unhealthy practice. works cited abdallah, b.a. “girl child marriage and women development in nigeria: contemporary issues”, journal of development and psychology 14(9): 2011. print adedokun, g. n. tochukwu, h. e. and adedeji, o.o. “early childhood marriage and early pregnancy as a risk to safe motherhood”, a report on the regional conference on traditional practices affecting the health of women and children in africa, 19-20 nov. 2012. print adekola, p. o., akanbi, m. a., and olawole-isaac, a. “a qualitative assessment of the effects of child marriage on female education and entrepreneurship in northeastern nigeria,” international journal of scientific research in multidisciplinary studies isroset, 2 (1), 7-15, 2016.print alabi t., bahah m., alabi s.o. “the girl-child: a sociological view on the problems of girl-child education in nigeria.” european scientific journal, 10 (2) 06-13, 2014. print atim, g. “girls not brides: ending child marriage in nigeria.” journal of gender, information and development in africa (jgida), 6(1-2), 2017. print evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 1, number 2, october 2020 timin & doose 102 ayenge, j., “early marriage as a barrier to girl’s education: a developmental challenge in africa”. journal of gender, information and development in africa (jgida), 6(1-2), 2018. print bayisenge, j. “early marriage as a barrier to girl’s education: a developmental challenge in africa”, journal of social psychology 12(6): 2012. print gage, h. understanding the concept of child rearing in sub-saharan africa, mcgraw hill, new york, 2011. print icrw “how to end child marriage: action strategies for prevention and protection” international centre for research on women: usaid, new delhi. [online] 2007. available: [https://www.icrw.org/publications/how-to-end-child-marriage/] accessed feb 2018. print jain, g., bisen, v., sing, s.k. & jain, p. “early marriage of girls as a barrier to their education”, international journal of advanced engineeringtechnology 2011. print kanyi, b. for better or for worse.longman publishers, lagos, nigeria, 2008. print maiangwa, b., &amao, o. b. "daughters, brides, and supporters of the jihad: revisiting the gender-based atrocities of boko haram in nigeria.” african renaissance, 12(2), 117-144 jan 2015. print malhotra, a. “causes and consequences of child marriage: a perspective.” international journal for research on women.2(2), 35-41, 2017. print this is africa. “nigeria's idp camps where child marriages take place”.allafrica.com. accessed 20/03/2020. print unicef, “the effects of traditional and religious practices of child marriage on africa’s socio-economic development: a review of research, reports and toolkits from africa”. [online] oct 2015. available: [https://au.int/sites/default/files/documents/31018-doc5465_ccmc_africa_report.pdf] accessed march 16, 2018. print usugh, j. future options foreclosed: girls who marry early. new york, usa: unicef, 2014. print appendix list of informants s/n name sex age status place of interview date 1 iorpenda moses m 59 traditional healer gboko 12/05/2020 2 msugh matthew m 67 elder ushongo 01/06/2020 3 oche peter m 50 chief otukpo 09/06/2020 http://thisisafrica.me/ https://allafrica.com/ evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 1, number 2, october 2020 obiejekwu, enemuo & aghamelu 71 gender equality discourse: critique of the feminists’ view in igboland matthew i. obijekwu, ph.d1; johnpaul c. enemuo2; & helen u. aghamelu, ph.d3 1department of philosophy chukwuemeka odumegwu ojukwu university, igbariam, anambra state email: mi.obijekwu@coou.edu.ng; 08063795889 2department of philosophy, nnamdi azikiwe university, awka, anambra state email: reachbaron@yahoo.com; 08063925912; 3department of theatre and film studies, nnamdi azikiwe univerity, awka; email: aghameluhelen@mail.com; 08103481670 abstract gender equality has been raising serious academic and social discourse amongst scholars around the globe over the years. this has led to the emergence of a school of thought popularly known as “feminism”. among the famous feminist scholars was the french feminist, simone de beauvoir, who argued on the rights and equality of women amongst their men counterparts. the feminists advocate the rights and equality of women amongst men. as the ideal of equality is conceptualized globally, and enshrined in the conventions of most international organizations such as the united nations, as appeared amongst the 2030 sustainable development goals (sdgs) items. hence, realizing this has been considered a serious challenge in igboland of nigeria. the challenge seems to be predicated on what we can simply describe as the “pseudo-dignity of women” in igboland. applying analytic method, we shall analyze the concepts of gender equality and inequality in relation to the feminists’ views. we also give a global understanding of gender equality as contained in the projections of the united nations' charter and sdgs. we argue that these rights, as projected by the feminist school of thought, are yet to find their place in igboland of nigeria due to the "pseudo-dignity" of women. we also contend that the igbo people of nigeria do not disregard womanhood, its dignity and equality with men, but that women disregard themselves by distorting their own womanhood. key: gender, inequality, gender equality, discourse, feminism, and igboland introduction gender equality discourse is predicated on the claim that women are not respected and never considered on the same pedestal with their male counterparts. this misconception has led to the emergence of feminist theory influenced by the works (or thoughts) of a french famous feminist, simone de mailto:mi.obijekwu@coou.edu.ng mailto:reachbaron@yahoo.com mailto:aghameluhelen@mail.com evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 1, number 2, october 2020 obiejekwu, enemuo & aghamelu 72 beauvoir. enemuo and obijekwu (2018) in their article titled “the natural dignity of womanhood: the need for woman to celebrate woman as woman” pointed the misconception regarding the said inequality between men and women. this paper took a different position on the said claim of the feminists. they argued that by nature women are bestowed with some natural powers or responsibilities which may likely not be same with men due to their natural and existential purposes. these natural and existential purpose or characteristics do not mean that they are not equal with men. the fact remains that they are assigned with different responsibilities in the universal enfoldments (enemuo and obijekwu, 2018). this position is slightly different from the feminists’ argument that women have not only been accorded rights inferior to those of men, their status is implicitly taken as inferior and as a result of that, it has dampened their emotions, thoughts, activities and subjugation in social relations(enemuo and obijekwu, 2018: 33).this claims also portrays that woman are powerless in the society and that men are domineering and have relegated women to the background: politically, economically, religiously, culturally, and even socially (enemuo and obijekwu, 2018: 33). the authors contrarily argued that it is out of place to hold that women are powerless in the society or rather to claim that women are powerless because if what it takes to be powerful is for one to get what one wants, then women should be far kept from the definition of powerless. women from history have always the natural and the fundamental capacity to get what they want, be it academic qualification, wealth …the only difference between men and women in power acquisition lies in their approach and methodology (enemuo and obijekwu, 2018: 34). feminists have continued to advocate for the equality of men and women which from the time immemorial was there, and was not denied of them. even the scripture attested to equality of men and women from creation. the book of genesis gave the act of creation of men and women on equal basis and as god’s plan for making a world which he considered perfect and good for man and woman (chukwuedo, 2018). in creation, there is no indication for inequality between men and women. ogbodo (2016) cited in enemuo and obijekwu (2018) asserted that feminism developed from a position of opposition, opposition not to men but the “oppression” of opposition. for nweke (2004) feminism centers its demands on the basis that men constantly frustrate the right of women to take control of their own destiny. with this claim, feminists strive to equalize themselves with men in all areas of life. in this work, we argue that women have been the ones that have been denying themselves this equality due to their behaviour or mishandling of their nature. they have been the ones that have initiated their claimed oppression or subjugation. evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 1, number 2, october 2020 obiejekwu, enemuo & aghamelu 73 we also argue on the “pseudo dignity of women” in general and igboland in particular. this paper considers the feminist position which bothers on the defense of the rights and equality of women amongst men. it draws from the ideals of equality as conceptualized globally, and enshrined in the conventions of most international organizations such as the united nations with reference to the 2030 sustainable development goals (sdgs) item on gender equality. the main position of this work is that these rights, as projected by the feminist school of thought, are yet to find their place in igboland of nigeria due to the pseudo-dignity of women; not that the igbo people of nigeria disregard womanhood, its dignity and equality with men, but that women disregard themselves by distorting their own womanhood. conceptual analysis gender merriam-webster (2020) defines “gender as the behavioural, cultural, or psychological traits typically associated with one sex”. world health organization (2020) defines gender as the roles, behaviours, activities, attributes and opportunities that any society considers appropriate for girls and boys, and women and men. (haig, 2004) notes gender is the range of characteristics pertaining to, and differentiating between, masculinity and femininity. this depends on the context which may include biological sex; that is, the state of being male, female, or an intersex variation, sex-based social structures, that is, gender roles, or gender identity. obasis (2018), in her work titled “gender and sex education in africa”, defines gender as the socially constructed roles, behaviours, activities and attributes that a given society considers appropriate for men and women. in line with this, akpabio(2005) sees gender as the socially and culturally defined and constructed roles that men and women play in societies; roles which are shaped by economic, historical, and cultural determinants. collaborating with this definition, ogbuagu(2005) cited in obasi(2018) notes that gender is socially constructed for the purpose of allocating power, duties, responsibilities, statuses, and roles in any given social milieu or context. commenting further, ogbuagu (2005) states that the concept, gender is universally conceptualized either as an organizing concept which can be innocuously interpreted as neutral (that is without bias) or as a value-laden concept which is applied to imposed discriminatory practices against one group by another within a given setting. from the foregoing, we can deduce the following points: first, gender is a social construct; culturally, socially or psychologically constructed unlike the concept of sex which is a natural or biological phenomenon (male and female, boy and girl); second, gender as a social construct is socially constructed to assign duties, responsibilities or roles to males and females or men and evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 1, number 2, october 2020 obiejekwu, enemuo & aghamelu 74 women in societies and as well indicates statuses, behaviours, activities and attributes; and finally, gender carries discriminatory imports. equality and inequality equality and inequality are two opposite terms. stanford encyclopedia of philosophy (2007) notes the concept equality is a loaded and highly contested concept. in the world of politics, it has been a controversial concept, and probably the most controversial of the great social ideals. this controversy lies on its precise definition or notion. the term “equality” signifies a qualitative relationship; it signifies correspondence between a group of different objects, persons, processes, or circumstances that have the same qualities in at least one respect, but not all respect, i.e., regarding one specific feature, with differences in other features (stanford encyclopedia of philosophy, 2007). merriam-webster dictionary (2020) defines equality as the state of being equal, especially in status, rights, or opportunities. equality is ensuring individuals or groups of individuals are not treated differently or less favourably, on the basis of their specific protected characteristics, including areas of race, gender, disability, religion or belief, sexual orientation and age (https://www.ed.ac.uk, 2020).cambridge advanced learner’s dictionary defines equality as the right of different groups of people to receive treatment. according to cambridge academic content dictionary, equality is a situation in which men and women, people of different races, religions, etc. are all treated fairly and have the same opportunities (cambridge university press, 2020).on the other hand, inequality is a situation where people or a group of people are treated different maybe due to race, sex, gender, disability, ethnicity, religion, etc. it is simply an absence of equality. gender equality combining gender and equality we have “gender equality” which has been so prominent in the 2030 agenda for sustainable development goals (sdgs). for decades now, united nations (un) has been advocating for gender equality around the globe. un, in the article, "united nations: peace, dignity and equality on a healthy planet" notes that gender equality, besides being a fundamental human right, is essential to achieve peaceful societies, with full human potential and sustainable development. to avoid confusion here, let us define gender equality. the phrase "gender equality" is defined as when the different behaviours, aspirations and needs of women and men are considered, valued and favoured equally. this does not imply that women and men have to become the same, but that their rights, responsibilities and opportunities will not depend on whether they are born male or female (wikipedia, 2020). the article number five (5) of the sustainable development sets its goal as: to achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls. gender equality from the notion of sdgs is not only a fundamental human right, but a necessary foundation for a peaceful, prosperous and sustainable world. https://www.ed.ac.uk/ evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 1, number 2, october 2020 obiejekwu, enemuo & aghamelu 75 contrary to gender equality is gender inequality, which the feminist thinkers have been waging war over the decades now by defending the equality of men and women. these discrepancies are attributed to cultural and social phenomenon or manipulation to place men over women. gender inequality is a situation where men are acknowledged to override or dominate women. in this situation, women are considered unequal with men due to some biological, cultural and psychological constitutions or differentiations. despite the biblical account of creation of men and women, which the feminists considered inadequate and illogical, the feminists project the equality of men and women believing that what men can do, women can do it better. they advocate for the inclusion of women in leadership and politics; other areas include rights of women in the societies, proper education as their male counterparts, economics, health, etc. simone de beauvoir, feminism and defense of gender equality: a critique the french known feminist, simone de beauvoir has made effort to reposition women back to their original position; not the one assigned to them by their male counterparts. simone de beauvoir, a french writer, intellectual, existentialist philosopher, political activist, feminist and social theorist, championed the course of women. most of her postulations are seen in her works which include; the second sex; she came to stay; and mandarins. the second sex remains most outstanding among other of her works. the work was first published in 1949 in french where she reinterpreted and changed the known existentialist maxim that existence precedes essence into a feminist one when she said that “one is not born but becomes a woman”(beauvoir, 1949: 267). her sex-gender distinction was the offshoot of this assertion. prince (2005) and neil r (2010) note that the distinction between sex and gender differentiates a person’s biological sex from that person’s gender, which is based on either social roles (gender role) or personal identification of one’s own gender based on an internal awareness(gender identity). according to mikkola (2018) sex-gender distinction is the distinction between biological sex and the social and historical construction of gender and its attendant stereotypes. beauvoir argues that “the fundamental source of women’s oppression is its (femininity’s) historical and social construction as the quintessential other” (bergoffen, 2015). this beauvoir’s position maybe considered incorrect or rather fallacious here. women’s oppression or socalled inequality is not “fundamental” source as she said or used the word, because feminine nature of women is intrinsic and natural to them as a sequential character and attachment to their ontological nature. we may rightly say that the fundamental source is the women’s approach to their nature and womanhood; their attitude towards their nature. this is exactly where the initial oppression might be originated. the feminists ideology or evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 1, number 2, october 2020 obiejekwu, enemuo & aghamelu 76 movement to reconstruct their hampered or distorted ontological structure, which they themselves destroyed decades or centuries back, and which many have continued to be destroy even in contemporary society, has been an unending project. . hawkesworth (2006); longermann & niebrugge(2010); laura brunell and elinor burkett, 2019), describe feminism as a social movement, political movement, and ideologies meant to define, establish, and achieve the political, economic, personal, and social equality of the sexes. this approach, taken by women, is on the basis that men are more recognized in the society, their voice is more heard than that of women. this, for women, is an unfair treatment. so their campaign for rights include: rights to vote, to hold public offices like men, to work, to earn fair wages, equal pay and elimination of gender pay gap, to own property, to receive education, to enter contracts, to have equal rights within marriage, and to have maternity leave; they fight to ensure access to legal abortion, and social integration and to protect women and girls from rape, sexual harassment, and domestic violence (echols, 1989). all these and more are the demands of the feminists initiated by beauvoir’s work as one considers the assertion, according to beauvoir, that women are as capable of choice as men, and thus can choose to elevate themselves, moving beyond the "immanence” to which they were previously resigned and reaching "transcendence”, a position in which one takes responsibility for oneself and the world, where one chooses one’s freedom.(beauvoir,1949). enemuo and obijekwu (2019) argue in support of this beauvoir’s position in their work mentioned above.…women, right from creation, in the natural order, was created equal with men in the original order (gensis 1: 26-28). this is purely a biblical account of masculinity and femininity of men and women. hence, the down-fall of man was as a result of woman’s attitude. both the man and woman were chased out from the garden of eden – the beautiful garden. this singular act created fear in man. the case of the biblical samson with delilah; king david with uriah’s wife; and other cases seem to have infused fear in men from antiquity. putting the record straight, women’s oppression or whatever nomenclature it bears is due to fear of destruction and reducing the heroism of men in antiquity as seen or observed in centuries past. describing women as “weaker sex” is not because of gender issue or reducing their equality with men, but because of the manipulative powers, or rather their sensual powers which can reduce a hero to a slave. that is the reason, in ancient greco-roman empires, the nobles, war heroes and powerful men do not go home or meet their wife during the war or on noble assignment to avoid failure. typical example was uriah, in the scripture who refused going home to meet his wife when king david advised him as such. even in traditional igbo society, noble men keep away from the wives. we shall elaborate on this as we go further. evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 1, number 2, october 2020 obiejekwu, enemuo & aghamelu 77 from the foregoing, we come to a contrary view or position different from simone de beauvoir’s that women’s oppression, or inequality with men, is fundamentally based on the women’s femininity. this view we consider fallacious, incorrect, and baseless here. we posit that women’s oppression is fundamentally based on the women’s distortion of their ontological nature and see themselves as sex tools, as pleasurable tool for gods and goddess in antiquity, that is, as tools for pulling down heroes in the ancient greco-roman empire. the fall of adam due to eve’s conviction to eat the forbidden fruit; the fall of king david, the man after god’s own heart with basheba, the wife of uriah, and other biblical narratives regarding the fallen of some famous heroes or powerful men in the scripture has shown the power of women. buttressing this further is the poetry of homer and hesiod which collaborated on the activities of gods and goddesses in the affairs of humanity with regard to womenfolk as sexual tools in the service and worship of gods and goddesses. chukwuedo (2018:18) also refers to aphrodite pandemos, and thousand goddesses, who were consecrated to her service while describing the worst moral sins of the city of corinthians as dishonesty, drunkenness, and above all, sensuality which linked directly to the worship of the aphrodite pandemos. so we re-emphasize here that the observable societal distinction between women and men, or the so-claimed inequality between men and women is not solely as a result of women’s femininity as beauvoir claimed and being contemporarily advocated, but women’s mishandling of their nature, and destroying of their womanhood; destroying their attached dignity. gender equality and pseudo-dignity of women in igboland what is considered as pseudo-dignity of women in igboland could be globally applied where women claim that the “body is my body”; by going naked in movies, music and display their womanhood publicly, and at the same time seek to be respected, valued and rated equal with men. though, the main focus is on igboland, a part of nigeria. igbos are predominantly located in the south-eastern geo-political zone of nigeria which comprise five states in nigeria which include: anambra state, enugu state, abia state, ebonyi state and imo state. igbo people may also be seen around south-south geopolitical zones of nigeria. generally, igbo people are scattered all over nigeria and across the globe. they are known for their uniqueness and republican way of life, both male and female. respect for women is amongst the things igbos are known for. it is one of their cherished values, and should at present, be promoted and encouraged. one may wonder if gender equality as advocated by the feminists, even radical feminists, is achievable in igboland. put differently, can gender equality be achieved in igboland? if gender equality is to be achieved, under what condition can it be achieved? evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 1, number 2, october 2020 obiejekwu, enemuo & aghamelu 78 for decades now, the un has set out amongst its 2030 agenda for sustainable development goals realizing the gender equality in the world and nigeria. igboland is not excluded from the agenda. this paper has argued that the agenda will not be realized if women do not revisit or go back to the original status or ontological nature. their current state is what this paper considers an exhibition of “pseudo-dignity” of women. there are two wars women over the years have been waging against their counterpart – men, that is; a) war against inequality, and b) war for dignity of women. the idea of equality has been extensively being discussed above. let us discuss that of dignity here. the difference between equality and dignity is ontology. the ontological equality between men and women is intrinsic and inherent which women have been fighting to regain, which them themselves destroyed over time now. the concept dignity is the state or quality of being worthy of honour. it is an attachment factor to the being of human person be it men or women both the male-folks and female-folks alike. dignity is one of the most important things to the human spirit. it means being valued and respected for what one is, believe in and how one lives his or her life (familyeducation.com, 2019). according to cambridge advanced learner’s dictionary& thesaurus (2020), dignity is the importance and value that a person has, that makes other people respect them or makes them respect themselves. it is the quality of a person that makes him or her deserving of respect, sometimes shown in behaviour or appearance (cambridge academic content dictionary, 2020). igbo people have very rich culture, and cherish so much their tradition which has much restriction in certain behaviours or attitude considers abominable, which of course other cultures may consider worthwhile. culture is considered as people’s ways of life. culture is an embodiment of entirety of people’s ways of life, that every aspects of their living. in the traditional igbo, husband and wife do not live in the same hut. it is not that they are not equality, but the man is trying to protect his power and strength from the woman, that is, to avoid the manipulative power of the woman. achebe’s things fall apart gives the scenario of okonkwo and his wives living in different huts (achebe, 1958). women are invited when they are needed to discuss family issues. each of these actors was carrying out their individual responsibilities, and oknonkwo, as the head of the family, protects his household. igbo people respect and adore their women, and their dignity being accorded to them. though, the women due to their nature and have assigned responsibilities that may sometimes be different from that of the men. obviously, women do not embark on the works reserved for the men likewise men. some tedious works or engagements are done by men like engaging in battle or war; wrestling in evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 1, number 2, october 2020 obiejekwu, enemuo & aghamelu 79 traditional igbo society; serious farming like cultivation of yam is reserved for men, while cassava and minor farming or weeding the farm are reserved for women. often times, in a loving family or household, the man and the woman do the weeding together. it does not show weakness on the side of the man. even in this contemporary time, it happens. above is as a result of women’s disposition and misinterpretation of the nature and being, which men capitalized on and used as an advantage over them. that is why they are seen as a weaker sex; avoiding challenges due to them and their nature. nature shares roles and responsibilities. so there is no sense of inequality attached to it. pseudo-dignity of women in igboland only what is considered as an issue is the question of “pseudo-dignity” of women caused by women themselves. pseudo-dignity of women in igboland is a situation where women have distorted their dignity and hoping to gain it back. the term pseudo is being apparently rather than actually as stated, that is being sham, spurious; false or pretence (merriam-webster dictionary, 2020). dignity as defined above it attaching worth to one’s way of life, behaviour or attitude. many girls, even mothers move around the street naked, promoting sexual promiscuity, promoting rape which has been rampart today in the society. this is as a result of the abominable lifestyle of most child-girls and mothers in various universities and streets. pseudo-dignity is when women are clamouring for gender equality and dignity of which themselves are to ready to accord themselves. it is not that they would not regain it but should do the needful as regards respecting the core values of decency of womanhood. most of gender equality items as contained in the chart of the united nations are contrary to igbo culture. for instance, right to abortion, etc., for one to desire to be valued, one must first and foremost value himself or herself; attach to his or her person, way of life and even respecting social values of decency, modesty, and moderation in life or behaving with dignity. conclusion in this paper, effort is made to understand the notion of gender equality which has been standing in philosophical discourse amongst the feminists. the feminists have over time now tried to advocate the equality of women with men. this work traces the foundation of this feminist position to work of simone de beauvoir, the famous french feminist philosopher. moving against the beauvoir’s argument that women’s oppression is fundamentally based on the femininity of women, this paper argues that the oppression, social discrimination or exclusion of women is as a result of fear of women that often leads to destruction or down-fall of men. historical instance were given evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 1, number 2, october 2020 obiejekwu, enemuo & aghamelu 80 both scripturally and historically where women have given themselves as sexual tools to the service of gods and goddesses. this work also argues from igbo perspective that women posit pseudo-dignity or equality due to their style of life. with this anti-valued and anti-social attitude or way of life, they have distorted the dignity and reduced their sense of equality with men. this often has led to social discriminations or exclusion from economic, politics, and other aspects of societal activities. we argue that these rights, as projected by the feminist school of thought, are yet to find their place in igboland of nigeria due to the pseudo-dignity of women. we also contend that not that the igbo people of nigeria disregard womanhood, its dignity and equality with men, but that women disregard themselves by distorting their own womanhood. until women, in extreme commitment reshape and re-establish ontological state, regain their lost dignity, they will continue to rigmarole in so-called fight for gender equality, which will continue to be a mirage. reference achebe, chinua. 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(2018). “gender and sex education in africa.”in kanu and ndubuisi (ed.) gender equality and power relations in africa insight from religious and socio-cultural perspectives. mauritius: lap lambert academic publishing. ogbuagu, s. c (2005). “gender and the democratic process in nigeria: issues of concern.” in ogbuagu, csa; ogbuagu, c.s and akpuruaja (eds.), political executives and higher civil servants in a democratic order.snapp press limited in collaboration with dawn functions nigeria limited. enugu, nigeria. world health organization.(2020). https://www.who.int.retrieved 20 june, 2020). https://www.familyeducation.com/ https://www.merriam-webster.com/ https://www.who.int/ evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 1, number 2, october 2020 ogbu 82 gender-based violence in workplaces: a critical examination of its implications in the contemporary society ogbu, esther department of philosophy federal university ndufualike ebonyi state email: somaga17@gmail.com abstract gender-based violence is a global issue. it is so common that one begins to wonder whether women are safe to work. gender-based violence stops women and girls from reaching their potentials. it also increases women's risk of a number of other health problems, physical disability, drug abuse, depression, chronic pain etc. however, the causes of gender based violence are multi-dimensional; they include social, economic, cultural, political and religious factors. but in work places the senior and male coworkers have been reported to be the main perpetrators. hence, this article argues that, there is immediate need to establish work friendly environment so that all senior as well as junior workers treat each other as a family member and also encourage victims to report violence, whenever it occurs. in order to achieve this, the article made use of newspapers, textbooks, conference and workshop papers, internet material, reputable journals etc. the method adopted in this study is philosophical analysis keywords: violence, workforce, women, inequality, society introduction the issue of violence against women in the work force is so prevalent in the society that one begins to wonder whether women are safe to work. the high prevalence might be due to lack of rules and regulations, lack of self-defence and empowerment, patriarchal society etc. it could come inform of rape, incest, sexual harassment at work or at school, sexual violence against women detainees or prisoners, trafficking in women, domestic violence etc. genderbased violence reflects and reinforces inequalities between women and men (glenn et al 2009). it is one of the most important and widespread obstacles to women’s economic empowerment, autonomy and independence and to the realisation of gender equality. it stems from a social and political hierarchy that values and enforces traditionally defined masculinity as an expression of power and prestige. it reinforces a gendered hierarchy within workplaces and this perceived threat to the natural order, combined with women’s isolation creates an atmosphere where many of these workers are subjected to abuse. mailto:somaga17@gmail.com evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 1, number 2, october 2020 ogbu 83 gender-based violence is a phenomenon deeply rooted in gender inequality and continues to be one of the most notable human rights violations within all societies. both men and women experience gender based violence but the majority of victims are women and girls (https://eige.europa.eu/gender-basedviolence/what-is-gender-based-violence). the issue has become a priority for women’s organisation and the subject for feminist thought during the united nations decade for women equality, development and peace (1976 – 1985). it is also a cause of concern for a number of international organizations. this is based on its individual, physical and psychological consequences. genderbased violence against women in the world of work is an epidemic that requires a systematic response. meaning of gender based violence gender-based violence is an umbrella definition including a wide range of expressions of violence. gender-based violence is defined as violence that reflects the existing asymmetry in the power relations between men and women and that perpetuate the subordination and devaluation of the female as opposed to the male. this violence exist within the frame work of the patriarchy as a symbolic system that engenders an array of day to day practices which deny women their rights and reproduced existing imbalance and inequity between the sexes. the world bank defines gender based violence as ‘violence that is directed against a person on the basis of gender. it constitutes a breach of the fundamental right to life, liberty, security, dignity, equality between women and men, non-discrimination and physical mental integrity’. sida defines gender based violence as ‘any harm or suffering that is perpetrated against a woman or girl, man or boy and that has a negative impact on the physical, sexual or psychological development or identity of a person’. the cause of the violence is founded in gender-based power inequalities and gender based discrimination. as a general term, it captures violence that occurs as a result of the normative role expectations associated with each gender, along with the unequal power relationships between the two genders, within the context of a specific society. it is a key social mechanism for perpetuating the subordination of women. since male hegemony (power being considered the generic patrimony of men) is based on social control over women. gender-based violence was significantly associated with place of residence, witnessing parental violence, substance abuse, marital status and educational status. it includes physical, sexual and psychological abuse from intimate partners or non-partners. indeed, all acts of aggression against women exhibit some characteristics or other that provides a basis for their classification as gender based violence. gender-based violence is different from other types of violence because they risk factor is the mere fact of being a woman. though men tends to experience slightly higher levels of physical violence while women experience https://eige.europa.eu/gender-based-violence/what-is-gender-based-violence https://eige.europa.eu/gender-based-violence/what-is-gender-based-violence evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 1, number 2, october 2020 ogbu 84 marginally more verbal abuse and sexual assault. these could be due to some men’s socialization into gender patterns of behaviour that may lead them to be more likely to meet aggression with aggression, while women may be better at defusing, coping with and avoiding aggressive incident. concerning males as victims of violence, groups more vulnerable include those who work in nightshifts in small stores, as they are more frequently exposed to armed robberies and related violence; men are also over represented in law enforcement jobs (chappell et al 2006). the term violence against women means any act of gender based violence that results in or is likely to result in physical, sexual or psychological harm or suffering to women, including traits of such acts coercion or arbitrary deprivation of liberty whether occurring in public or private life. violence against women encompasses but is not limited to the following: (a) physical, sexual and psychological violence occurring in the family, including battering, sexual abuse of female children in the house hold, dowry-related violence, marital rape, female genital mutilation and other traditional practices harmful to women, non-spousal violence and violence related to exploitations; (b) physical, sexual and psychological violence occurring within the general community including rape and sexual abuse, sexual harassment and intimidation at work, in education institutions and elsewhere, trafficking in women and forced prostitution and (c)physical, sexual and psychological violence perpetrated or condoned by the state wherever it occurs. acts of violence against women also include forced sterilization and forced abortion, coercive/forced use of contraceptive, female infanticide and prenatal sex selection (hari et al 2014). forms of gender based violence throughout history various forms of violence have manifested themselves in the society as a consequence of certain sectors or groups domination over others. they include: a. domestic violence: gender-based violence in the household is a behaviour pattern that has become assimilated as a type of marital relationship. it is usually covered up by the society because of the existing bias against intervening in the privacy of married and family life. the truth of the matter is that domestic violence causes more harm to individuals than auto accidents, rape and muggings combined (alpert et al 1998). the main victims of domestic and family violence are normally children, the elderly and women, but research shows that the most victims are women. in the views of lee “victims come from a mixed range of backgrounds as do abusers and domestic violence happens to a wide variety of individuals, regardless of socioeconomic and educational levels, age, race, sexual orientation or religion”. (lee 2005). evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 1, number 2, october 2020 ogbu 85 b. sexual harassment: sexual harassment not only arises out of objective differences in the amount of power held in the work place but also out of the cultural power which men exercise over women in accordance with the predominant gender system which discriminates against women through the control, disposition and use of their sexuality and bodies. there are also cases therefore of sexual harassment among colleagues or on the part of lower ranking employees of women managers. harassment is a mechanism used to debase their role in the work place, their professional capabilities and their leadership abilities and to draw attention to their sexuality. harassment happening on the job site can create a work environment that feels unsafe, unsupportive, dismissive or even threatening. this can cause employee’s stress, anxiety, fear and disrupt concentration, which can lower productivity. the problem of sexual harassment is usually related to the position women occupy in the hierarchy. so, policies and laws must be made to prevent such conduct in order to promote equal opportunities in the work place and to improve the status of women in general. in 1991, mexico made sexual harassment an offence under title xv of its penal code, and it is punishable by up to 40 days in prison. sexual harassment is an issue that affects both men and women. in the united states, sexual claims by men doubled between 1990 and 2009, although in other countries, men may feel embarrassed or less willing to report harassment. reflecting a growing consensus, an increasing number of countries are making workplace sexual harassment illegal (ellen 2014). c. sexual tourism/illegal trafficking: sexual tourism, illegal trafficking and their exploitation through prostitution are other forms of gender based violence which merit special attention, especially in the light of the increase of poverty and unemployment in the society both of which are aggravating factors. d. forced or compulsory labour: forced or compulsory labour is when work or service is exacted from any person under the menace of any penalty and for which the person has not voluntarily offered. a state or individuals can threaten such persons and keep them in such work against their free will, withholding food or wages, threatening or committing physical or psychological violence restricting the labourer’s movement or threatening denunciation to the authorities. forced labour can take the form of debt bondage, trafficking for labour or sexual exploitation and other forms of slavery-like practices such as forced domestic servitude, farm workers kept against their will by illegal tactics with little or no pay. causes of gender based violence the origins of gender based violence can be traced to a variety of sociocultural factors, namely, hierarchical relationship between men and women, evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 1, number 2, october 2020 ogbu 86 the differentiated socialization of boys and girls, the political, economic and legal discrimination faced by women, the use of violent means to restore interpersonal conflict and unequal symbolizations and valuations of women’s and men’s bodies and sexuality. others include: (a) job precariousness, young age and inexperience, for example, a young nurse with little professional work experience may more likely be the target of sexual harassment than an experienced nurse with a permanent contract. (b) the incapacity of the state to put an end to social, economic and cultural conditions that expose women to gender based violence. the state’s failure to actively contribute to eradicating injustices and inequalities that manifest themselves in gender relations. (c) it is difficult for victims to prove that they have been harassed which heightens the negative consequences not only for their mental health but also in the work place, hence, harassment effects female workers, efficiency and productivity, their attitude towards work, their professional development and the overall atmosphere at the work place. (d) the victims are often blamed and their version of the facts is placed in doubt, the severity of acts of aggression is often down played especially, when it is associated with such factors as drunkenness and adultery and there is a great deal of resistance to recent legal changes. when employees attempt to access their legal rights by filling a complaint form with a state or federal agency or pursuing a civil lawsuit, they face a number of challenges (sara et al 2016). (e) none of the cases of sexual violence like emotional violence had been reported to the police station and even when it is reported, sometimes the police response to the demands of victims of gender based violence is unsatisfactory and exhibit a tendency towards secondary victimization. in other words, systematic failure of police, justice personnel and armies put women and girls at risk of violence and prevent access to justice. (f) poverty and socio-economic insecurity is also one of the factors contributing to gender based violence particularly trafficking, early marriage and sexual violence in displacement. (g) segregation into jobs or occupations which are mainly female or mainly male also often increases the risk of exposure to gender based violence. evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 1, number 2, october 2020 ogbu 87 the reality of gender based violence in reality, gender based violence is based on gender stereotypes such as ideals linking masculinity to the provider role, macho behaviour and violence as well as ideals linking femininity to chastity, submission and victimhood. evidence has it that, at least one in every five women around the world is estimated to have been coerced into sex, physically beaten and or otherwise abused in her life time. but in reality, they put up with violence because they are economically dependent on the aggressor. it is obvious that women in sectors like construction that are traditionally male-dominated, experience some of the highest rate of gender based violence. even, a woman might lose her job for challenging a violent colleague. in the us, gender based violence is responsible for approximately $8 million in lost paid work days per year. in australia, for each woman who experiences violence, there is an estimated $1,500 in lost production related activity (amy 2016). in client-facing, tip-based service industry, workers, such as restaurant, entertainment and hospitality workers, are frequent target of gender based violence by bosses, co-workers and customers. due to public facing nature of their jobs, managers are likely to encourage women workers to dress “sexier” and wear more revealing clothes, creating a climate where commenting and focusing on physical appearance is encouraged and normalized. unfortunately, the society fails to take measures to defend the human right of women and also denies the public discussion of these crimes, their political significance and societal means of redressing them. gender based violence and womanhood in the past it was assumed that the majority of women are concentrated in lower paying and lower status jobs with little decision making powers while men predominate in better paying and higher status jobs. women form a significant percentage of workers in occupations at higher risk to violence such as teachers, social and health care workers and as shop and bank clerks. women are over represented among workers holding typical and precarious jobs and they often lack both individual and collective bargaining power. some domestic workers who are also predominantly female are especially vulnerable to violence as they work and often live in private homes and hence are isolated from their own families and support systems. they are particularly exposed to risk as migrant workers and domestic workers as dependent family workers and within the informal economy. poor women are more vulnerable to all forms of violence because they typically live in uncertain and dangerous environments. violence against women is the main outcome of gender-based inequalities creating far greater consequences for women’s wellbeing and empowerment than previously thought. this is evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 1, number 2, october 2020 ogbu 88 acknowledged in paragraph 117 of the beijing platform for action, which states that “the fear of violence including harassment is a permanent constraint on the morbidity of women and limits their access to resources and basic activities. violence against women is one of the crucial social mechanisms by which women are forced into subordinate positions……”. (united nations: the beijing declaration and platform for action, 1996, p.75) implications of gender based violence in the contemporary society gender-based violence is one of the most prevalent and tolerated human rights violations in the world. of the varied ways in which sex discrimination manifests itself across the globe, such violence is exceptionally dehumanizing, pervasive and oppressive. no other form of sex discrimination violates so many fundamental human rights, as articulated in the 1984 united nations universal declaration of human rights (udhr, un, general assembly resolution 217(111). gender-based violence including domestic violence, sexual violence, stalking and other forms of family violence and abuse have long affected women’s lives. in fact, whether violence occurs within the workplace or outside, the detrimental effects of gender based violence at the workplace are substantial (heise et al 2008). gender-based violence is a global public health problem that poses challenges in health care with a higher prevalence in developing countries (palitto et al 2006). gender based violence not only plays a significance component in the morbidity and mortality of women, but this form of violence disproportionately affects the health status of women and their children, (garcia-moreno et al 2013). it increases women’s risk of a number of other health problems example physical disability, drug abuse, depression, chronic pain, gynaecological disorders etc. in the views of bloom and others, gender based violence victims showed cognitive defects in working memory, verbal learning and recall, therefore it can be deduced that gender based violence is a predictor of poor performance on neuron cognitive functioning (bloom et al 2008). the fear of gender based violence or the stigma associated with having being victimized, is also an obstacle to accessing information, care and treatment for hiv/aids. gender-based violence not only causes pain and suffering but also devastates families, undermines work place productivity, diminishes national competitiveness and stalls development. in addition to pain and suffering, it has direct and indirect costs. direct costs include those resulting from victim absenteeism and turnover, illness and accidents, disability or even death while indirect costs include the victims decreased functionality and performance, quality of work and timely production. it stops women and girls from reaching evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 1, number 2, october 2020 ogbu 89 their potentials and perpetuates the devaluation of women and their subordination to men. gender-based violence in the world of work not only has profound negative effects on survivors, it imposes high costs on employers, the economy and society at large. it creates an environment in which women may be afraid to go to work. it has a negative impact on all workers, on the victims who are targeted, the perpetrators and other co-workers who might be witnesses to the violence. wherever gender based violence occurs, it is a major obstacle for the achievement of gender justice, posing a serious threat to democratic development. in other words, violence prevents women from contributing to and benefiting from development by restricting their choices and limiting their ability to act. it also inhibits women from playing a role in decision making within the household, at work and in the political, economic and social spheres and therefore directly influences their participation in public activities and hence the exercise of their citizenship. hence, it is obvious that if women, girls, men and boys are not safe, they cannot be full citizens nor fully participate in the development of their own society. furthermore, in an organization or company violence can also negatively affect the working climate, motivation and commitment among staff. the equality of opportunities for men and women in the labour force is jeopardized by the sexual harassment of women in the work place, which is a violation of the rights to equitable and satisfactory working conditions as well as the rights to sexual freedom. in the views of williams, violence experienced at home led to absenteeism, lower efficiency at work, resignation and difficulties in recruiting and promoting women”(williams c 2014). in all, when women are not safe they cannot fully participate in political life or in peace processes and recovery effort. roxanna carrillo, the author of violence against women was of the view that: “violent acts against women, the world over attack their dignity as human beings and leave them vulnerable and fearful. conditioned to undervalue their skills and abilities and paralyzed by real fears of violence and retribution. women are marginalized in society and forced out of the decision making process which shape and determine the development of their communities. violence against women is not limited to any one country. the acts range from battering, incest, assault, rape worldwide to female circumcision in africa, dowry, deaths in india and militarization in the philippines. along this continuum one must also include the limited employment opportunities for women, the lack of access to education, women social isolation and sexual harassment that women experience daily. the manifestations of violence against evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 1, number 2, october 2020 ogbu 90 women simply alter their forms according to the social, economic and historical realities in which they occur”. solutions the psychological, physical, emotional, financial and health implications of gender based violence in the contemporary society makes its solution an imperative. in order to solve the problem of gender based violence, the following must be observed: (1)the united nations should organize meetings of groups of experts on violence against women and take various steps to bring the issue to the attention of the commission on the status of women, the economic and social council, the division for the advancement of women, the united nation statistical office and the committee on crime prevention and control. the agreed conclusion of the 57th session of the united nations commission of the status of women (2013) call on government to take measures to ensure that all work places are free from discrimination, exploitation, violence, sexual harassment, bullying etc (http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/csw/57sess.htm#ac). (2)society should respond to the phenomenon of gender based violence by eliminating the institutional hurdles facing women, which leads to secondary victimization. (3)specific measures should be taken to uphold the human rights of women and to address the gender based violence to which they are subjected. (4)in technical institutes and universities, effort should be made to incorporate the issue of gender based violence and human right into academic programmes for the professions whose future practitioners will probably come into contact with the victims of abuse and violence. (5)the crimes associated with gender based violence must be defined as such in the laws of each country and commensurate penalties established so as to put an end to the impunity enjoyed by aggressors and guarantee the judicial protection of their victims. (6)trade unions, together with feminist organisations and other civil society allies should campaign for a ground breaking international labour convention on gender based violence in the world of work. (7)the government should consider introducing legal provisions on sexual harassment in the work place as a key step towards ensuring women’s protection at work. evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 1, number 2, october 2020 ogbu 91 (8)effective training programmes should be organized which will eliminate the cultural and societal norms that perpetuate gender based violence and engage men as well as women in changing the culture in the work place. conclusion women’s rights should receive the same attention as the rest and should be considered in conjunction with those regarded as being the most pressing or important. emphasis should also be laid on interconnected strategies, which includes preventing violence, strengthening legal/policy framework and improving judicial and responsive services for survivors. also, it is important to work towards transformed norms around gender relations and masculinity, in order to put an end to gender based violence in the society. works cited alpert, e.j., freund, k.m., park, c.c., patel, j.c. and sovak, m.a. (1998). partner violence: how to recognize and treat victims of abuse: a guide for arizona health care providers. phoenix: arizona medical association. amy luinstra, “in papua new guinea, empowering women is smart business” world bank blog, august 2016, https://blogs.worldbank.org/voices/papua-new-guinea-empoweringwomen-start-business. bloom, p and gelman, s.a. (2008) psychological essentialism in selecting the 14th dalai lama. trends in cognitive science, 12, 24 chappell, d. and di martino, v. 2006 “violence at work” (3rd edition) ilo, geneva, p.293 christina palitto, c., jansen, h.a., ellsberg, m.,heise, l., watts, c.h., 2006, who multi country study on women’s health and domestic violence against women study team. prevalence of intimate partner violence findings from the who multi country study on women’s health and domestic violence. lancet 68, 1260-1269. ellen pinkos cobb, sexual harassment law evolving globally “society for human resource management”, december 3, 2014, https://www.shrm.org/resourcesandtools/hr-tropics/globalhr/pages/sexual-harrassment-law-global.aspx garcia –moreno, c.,palitto, c.global and regional estimates of violence against women: prevalence and health effects of intimate partner violence and non-partner sexual violence: who: geneva, switzerland, 2013. glenn, s. melis, s. and withers, l. gender inequality in the labour market: an overview of global trends and developments, international trade union confederation, brussels, 2009, p. 42 https://blogs.worldbank.org/voices/papua-new-guinea-empowering-women-start-business https://blogs.worldbank.org/voices/papua-new-guinea-empowering-women-start-business https://www.shrm.org/resourcesandtools/hr-tropics/global-hr/pages/sexual-harrassment-law-global.aspx https://www.shrm.org/resourcesandtools/hr-tropics/global-hr/pages/sexual-harrassment-law-global.aspx evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 1, number 2, october 2020 ogbu 92 hari, p, anju, a, nirmala n, dipendra k.y, sudarshan, s, manisha, h (2014) gender based violence at workplace: are women safe in international journal of health sciences and research (www.ijhsr.org) vol.4, issue 12 pg.302-307. heise l. (1999), “addressing gender based violence through usaid’s health programmes (2nd edition), igwg, 2008. lee johnny (2005). addressing domestic violence in the workplace amherst: hrd, press. roxanna, c. “gender violence: a development and human rights issue”. http://www.cwgl.rutgers.edu/publications/espanol/374-gendervoilence-a-human-rights-and-development-issue. sara hinkley, annette bernhardt and sarah thomason, “races to the bottom, how low-road subcontracting affects working conditions in california’s property services industry”, university of california, berkeley. center for labour research and education, march 8, 2016. available at http://laborcenter sida (2007) action plan for sida’s work against gender based violence 2008 – 2010. sida gender secrétariat. http://www.sida.se/contentassets/b7c778a855dc4e9295a9da1bebc48b0 a/action-plan-for-sidas-work-against-gender-based-violence-20082010_680.pdf the universal declaration of human rights, un general assembly resolution 217 (111) united nations, new york 1948. world bank “violence against women resource guide”, world bank, http://www.vawgresourceguide.org/terminology. williams, caroline. how to calculate the cost to business of gender based violence in papua new guniea. review of existing approaches and methodologies, london, odi, 2014. 3 www.ilo.org/global/topics/forced-labour/lang-en/index.htm united nations: the beijing declaration and platform for action, 1996, p.75 un women, “what is sexual harassment?” http://www.un.org/womenwatch/osagi/pdf/whatissh.pdf http://www.un.org./womenwatch/daw/csw/57sess.htm#ac. https://eige.europa.eu/gender-based-violence/what-is-gender-based-violence http://www.ijhsr.org/ http://www.cwgl.rutgers.edu/publications/espanol/374-gender-voilence-a-human-rights-and-development-issue http://www.cwgl.rutgers.edu/publications/espanol/374-gender-voilence-a-human-rights-and-development-issue http://laborcenter/ http://www.sida.se/contentassets/b7c778a855dc4e9295a9da1bebc48b0a/action-plan-for-sidas-work-against-gender-based-violence-2008-2010_680.pdf http://www.sida.se/contentassets/b7c778a855dc4e9295a9da1bebc48b0a/action-plan-for-sidas-work-against-gender-based-violence-2008-2010_680.pdf http://www.sida.se/contentassets/b7c778a855dc4e9295a9da1bebc48b0a/action-plan-for-sidas-work-against-gender-based-violence-2008-2010_680.pdf http://www.vawgresourceguide.org/terminology http://www.ilo.org/global/topics/forced-labour/lang-en/index.htm http://www.un.org/womenwatch/osagi/pdf/whatissh.pdf http://www.un.org./womenwatch/daw/csw/57sess.htm#ac https://eige.europa.eu/gender-based-violence/what-is-gender-based-violence evaia: international journal of ethics and values, vol. 2 no. 1, december 2021 (issn: 2787-0448) igwebuike, kujoh & ayuk 13 e-learning facilities and implementation of educational technology curriculum in collages of education in cross river state, nigeria osedumme igwebuike (phd) department of curriculum and teaching university of calabar, cross river state, nigeria. osedumme83@gmail.com or osedumme_igwebuike@yahoo.com 07062806398 & jude ubuh kujoh department of continuing education and developmental; studies, university of calabar, cross river state, nigeria judekujoh123@gmail.com 08039270815 & godwin omah ayuk department of environmental education university of calabar, cross river state, nigeria ayukomah@yahoo.com 07037824793 abstract this study investigated the influence of e-learning facilities on educational technology curriculum implementation in colleges of education in cross river state, nigeria. to achieve the purpose of the study, a research questions were posed and a null hypotheses formulated and tested at 0.05 level of significance. review of literature was carried out according to the variables of the study. the study adopted the ex-post facto research design. the sample of the study compromise one hundred and eighty-one students (181) from year two in college of education akamkpa and college of education obudu, all in cross river state. the instrument for data collection was a 15 item structured questionnaire developed by the researcher. the instrument was titled “elearning facilities and educational technology curriculum implementation in tertiary institutions questionnaire (efedtcitiq)”. simple linear regression analysis was used to analyze the hypothesis. the findings of the study revealed that there is a significantly influence of e-learning facilities on educational technology curriculum implementation in colleges of education in cross river state nigeria. it was recommended that the government and school administrators should provide computers and other ict facilities in the schools to aid students in learning and research. there is equally the need for modern mailto:osedumme83@gmail.com mailto:osedumme_igwebuike@yahoo.com mailto:judekujoh123@gmail.com mailto:ayukomah@yahoo.com evaia: international journal of ethics and values, vol. 2 no. 1, december 2021 (issn: 2787-0448) igwebuike, kujoh & ayuk 14 technology in learning such as the use of interactive board in different faculties in the institutions to aid learning processes. also the government and school administrators should make sure there is constant power supply (electricity) in the institution to power the e-learning facilities such as computers and its accessories. keywords: e-learning, facilities, curriculum implementation, educational technology, colleges of education, cross river state. introduction in the contemporary era the role of technology has been a powerful instrument in the advancement of industrialization as well as enhancement of efficiency. the vast opportunities created by technological revolution plays a fundamental role in improving the quality of working facilities, providing efficient humanitarian support and assisting the education sector in the protection of educational core values and standard (ivowi, 2004). with reference to curriculum implementation which is all about putting into practice (implementation) all the learning experience prescribed by the institution, e-learning facilities could play a crucial role in actualizing this objective. electronic learning (e-learning) may involve the use of mobile technologies such as, personal digital assistance (phone or handled personal computers), mp3/mp4 players and also include the use of web-based teaching materials such as rooms or website discussion, collaborative software, blogs, wikis, text-chart computer aid assistant, educational animation, simulation, games, learning management software, and so opn (ogunsola, 2005). an elearning facility has become increasingly popular learning approach in higher educational institutions due to vast growth of internet technology. it directly improves student’s performance in general rodgers (2008). e-learning is the act of taking a coupe online using a modem, wireless, or cable connection to access academic course materials from a computer, phone or other devices. bermejo, (2005), e-learning centers on the intersection of education, teaching, and learning with ict. okoro, (2000) defined e-learning as education that uses computerized communication systems as an environment for communication, the exchange of information and interaction between student and instructors. computer-assisted learning (cal) is presently an important element in the process of teaching and learning in our tertiary institutions (ogunsola, 2005). computer usage allows more flexible (asynchronous) and more personalized learning. it offers new methods of delivering subject at all education level. examples of these computers include broad band services, interactive boards and so on. notwithstanding the availability of these new e-learning technologies in most of our tertiary institutions, without the availability of evaia: international journal of ethics and values, vol. 2 no. 1, december 2021 (issn: 2787-0448) igwebuike, kujoh & ayuk 15 electricity these facilities cannot be used even when available. the application of interactive whiteboard is one example of technology use in the classroom because of its ability to improve the teaching-learning experience by providing useful means to interact with the electronic content and learning context (campbell, 2010). an interactive whiteboard allows information exchange between the computer, on one hand and the teacher and his students, on the other hand through screen touch. an interactive whiteboard offers both teacher and student a wide range of multimedia that enable them to activate the written text, still images and authentic materials on the internet by using powerpoint presentations, audio and video in an exciting way in the classroom, (silva & cruz, 2008). an interactive whiteboard is used in the classroom because of its ability to use attractive presentation, colors in the display monitor, and impressive signs on students' responses. it also makes a balance between the different learning styles, whether audio, visual, or motor by choosing certain tools to promote each other on the screen. electricity is a form of energy usually carried by wires or supplied by batteries used to power machines and computing, communications, lighting, and heating device (wikipedia). e-learning facilities are and can be accessed but cannot be used without the availability of electricity. the lack of electricity at schools is unfortunate, because of the multiple services it can provide in the classroom. lighting can enable classes to be taught early in the morning or late at night. electricity access facilitates the introduction of icts into the classroom such as computers and televisions. electrified schools can enable principals to recruit and retain better qualified teachers, and have been correlated with improvements on both test scores and graduation rates. as one study states, electricity ‘'allows the access of lower-income people to lighting, communication, as well as a variety of educational delivery opportunities a major impact of electrification has been reducing illiteracy and improving the quality of education, isangideghi (2003). the it network is a background of the modem learning environment and when power is interrupted, nobody earns a passing grade mitch, (2019). the power crisis imparts both teachers and students, limiting their ability to fully engage in the digitally enabled educational environment, leaving in many cases, the educational process to rely on archaic method or system rankin (2019). today, technology is a tool used to remove geographical barriers and facilities everybody uses to learn anytime and anyway without the presence of the lecturer dorcas (2003). the main purpose of e-learning facilities is to increase accessibly of education and reducing cost time as well as improving student’s performance. therefore, the survival of environmental education student in the 21st century will increasingly rely on various forms of electronic facilities that are in available in market as requirement for educational flexibility it is on this evaia: international journal of ethics and values, vol. 2 no. 1, december 2021 (issn: 2787-0448) igwebuike, kujoh & ayuk 16 basis, this study seek to investigate the influence of e-learning facilities and academic performance of environmental education students. successful curriculum implementation need the knowledge of the correlation, responsibilities of stakeholder within the institutions. this concept of implementation has to do with operationalization of a good ideas and theories in educational development. that is to say that to implement involve putting into action ideas or theories. mezieobi (2003), sees implementation to be ways of transforming agreed educational plans proposal, idea decisions and policies into actualization. according to mezieobi (2003), success or failure could be the end product of any conceived plan. implementation when not obtainable, a plan will only remain a wish or rather intention. on one hand, curriculum within a school system is viewed as planned learning experiences given to students in school. enukoha, umoren and esu (2004), sees curriculum to be the whole learning experience a student is given been guided by a teacher. offorma (2005), opined that curriculum has three basic parts: “programme of studies, programme of guidance and programme of activities”. curriculum is hence the guide or instrument the schools employs in translating, hope as well as societal values to desired reality or outcome. garba (2004) sees implementation of curriculum as transmitting curriculum from paper to field towards achieving of the desired goal of designed curriculum. okebukola (2004) stated that curriculum implementation has to do with translation of aims of the curriculum from paper to practice. it has to do with the level of curriculum process when within of learning processes, tutors and students been involved are at work geared towards enhancing learning. it involves the interactive phase of curriculum process that occurs within classroom in agreement with the teachers, students, school administrators as well as parents. it involved the use of physical equipment’s in addition to the good teaching techniques. the curriculum implementation is bedrock of its scientific, economic, political as well as technological wellbeing of societies. and of cause, it is often said that societies don’t rise above the system educational standard. however, the main challenge of nigerian educational system is how to put into practice the well-intended as well as articulated curriculum through feasibility as well as full-scale commitment in implementation. in agreement with the above statement, mezieobi (1993) stated that within nigeria, many curriculum proposals have remained virtually inert and never put into use. that is to say that, any curriculum could be well articulatd but remain useless if implementation is not well effected. “no matter how well formulated a curriculum may be, its effective implementation is a sine qua non toward achieving the desired goals of education, this is because the problem of most programmes arises at the implementation level, acknowledging this, mkpa evaia: international journal of ethics and values, vol. 2 no. 1, december 2021 (issn: 2787-0448) igwebuike, kujoh & ayuk 17 (2005) stated that in nigeria, it is at the implementation stage that many excellent curriculum plans and other educational policies are marred, giving reasons for the failure of curriculum in nigeria, mezieobi (1993) stressed that curriculum with all its well-conceived goals is failing, largely as a result of implementation dormancy or fault” (p;99). this challenges is volatile, taking up a level of national as well as institutional practices within nigerian system of education. more so, izuagba and atuobi (2009), opined that the more complex of the nigerian society is now resulted from social as well as cultural changes an equally has different effect on implementation of curriculum especially at the tertiary level. that is to say that, nigeria tertiary educational institution had is grossly unable to satisfied the man power require for societal development and growth. consequently, izuagba and atuobi (2009) stated that within last twenty years, graduate of nigeria tertiary institutions are so highly deficient in practical as well as professional skills by employers of labour within public and private own industries. educational technology is a programme of study in our tertiary institutions. the term educational technology has to do with technology in education. it is the type of education that concerns itself with the use technology as a tool to enhance effective teaching and learning process across all subject areas. richey (2008) posited that educational technology is the study and ethical practice of facilitating learning and improving performance by creating, using and managing appropriate technological processes and resources and aids to improve the progress of human learning. faizi, shakil, and sidra-tul-muntaha (2013) view educational technology as a system in education in which machines; materials, media, men and methods are inter-related and work together for the fulfillment of specific educational objective. there are different types of e-learning facilities used in our educational technology department that enhances learning processes, these includes; powerpoint presentations, calculators, interactive board, computer, tv and internet and so on. through educational technology students develop a wider range of knowledge and understanding of concepts for higher productivity through improved learning processes. educational technology in our institutions is therefore concerned with designing the system as a whole, identifying aims and objectives, planning the learning environment, exploring and structuring the subject matter, selecting appropriate teaching strategies and learning media, evaluating the effectiveness of the learning system and using the insights gained from evaluation to improve that effectiveness for the future (ololube, 2006) evaia: international journal of ethics and values, vol. 2 no. 1, december 2021 (issn: 2787-0448) igwebuike, kujoh & ayuk 18 theoretical framework this study is anchored of the following theories: 1. lave and wenger situated learning theory (1991) 2. jerome bruner’s constructivist theory of learning (1966) 1. lave and wenger situated learning theory (1991) situated learning theory was postulated by lave and wenger (1991). they theorized that learning as it normally occurs is a function of the activity, context and culture in which it occurs (it is situated). this contrasts with most classroom learning activities which involve knowledge which is abstract and out of context. social interaction is a critical component of situated learning as learners become involved in a community of practice which embodies certain beliefs and behaviors to be acquired. as the beginner or newcomer moves from the periphery of this community to its center, they become more active and engaged within the culture and hence assume the role of expert or old-timer. furthermore, situated learning is usually unintentional rather than deliberate. other scholar has developed this theory of situated learning. researchers like brown, collins and duguiid (1989) stated that the concept as cognitive apprenticeship: cognitive apprenticeship supports learning in a domain by enabling students to acquire, develop and use cognitive tools in authentic domain activity. learning, both outside and inside school, advances through collaborative social interaction and the social construction of knowledge, brown et al (1989) equally acknowledged the need for a new epistemology for learning one that emphasizes active perception over concepts and representation. the implication of this theory to this present study, is that it clearly explained that for there to be effective implementation of curriculum in the higher institutions and indeed by extension the general public, the environment and indeed culture has a role to play in influencing the students to imbibe the culture of sustainability that is in practice or otherwise may be misled making the aim of the programme ineffective. therefore “social interaction is a critical component of situated learning whereby learners become involved in a community of practice which embodies certain beliefs and behaviors to be acquired”. the theory is effective in understanding and explaining some variables under study which is e-learning which enhances students’ academic performannce. this is so because the practices of a place has a way of shaping the attitude and behavior of a new comer toward adopting a concept. 2. jerome bruner’s constructivist theory of learning (1966) the theory proposed by jerome bruner (1997).; bruner introduced the concept of learning by discovery. bruner is of the view that learning is effectively engaged in, if the learner is given the opportunity to discover facts by evaia: international journal of ethics and values, vol. 2 no. 1, december 2021 (issn: 2787-0448) igwebuike, kujoh & ayuk 19 him/herself. bruner argues that mere presentation of information will not enhance effective solution of a problem. the theory stresses cognitive effectiveness. because of this, some referred to bruner’s theory of learning as bruner’s theory of cognitive development. according to bruner such inconsistencies lead to intellectual discomfort that will stimulate (i.e. motivate) the students to initiate individual discoveries through cognitive restructuring (i.e. internal reorganization). the intellectual discomfort created by the inconsistencies makes the learner to attempt to bring order out of this confusion by engaging in mental processes i.e. discovery activities which involve observation, hypothesizing, measuring, stating problem, data collection, classifying, inferring, and so on. through mental processes, the student can generate facts from his/her desperate experiences. experiences gained during the mental processes enable the students to sense the disparity. according to bruner there are two forms of discovery processes which are assimilation and accommodation. assimilation occurs when a student recognizes a new situation that is familiar to one of the elements in the existing structure of knowledge (i.e. cognitive structure) and he/she easily assimilates it. accommodation is when a new situation (i.e. a new knowledge) is incompatible to the existing structure of knowledge (i.e. cognitive structure) the learner first restructures (i.e. reorganizes) his/her cognitive framework (i.e. cognitive structure) in order to be able to accommodate the new knowledge. according to bruner (1966), students should find out information on their own using mental processes. the theory places great emphasis on the three types of human activity for learning i.e. the three information processing systems which are: physical activity (motor activities) called enactive representation, imagery called ionic representation and symbolic activities. the three activities coexist with each other and for this reason; the attainment of one does not mean the total abandonment of the others. at enactive stage, the child manipulates the learning materials directly by neuro muscular activities. at ionic stage, the child deals with mental images of objects, but does not manipulate them directly. at symbolic stage the child uses language. the interpretation of the above is that when a child, at secondary school level shows deficiencies in his/her learning capacity especially in symbolic representation, it could be that he/she was deficient in early stages (i.e. enactive and ionic stages) which he/she skipped. it is therefore necessary to fill in the missing gap by providing concrete support that will make up for the deficiency. discovery learning, when encouraged in science instruction also aids problem solving because learning by discovery stalls with problem solving (aknmoyewa, 1992). discovery learning also stimulates creativity in the student, which is one of the major objectives of science teaching/learning. evaia: international journal of ethics and values, vol. 2 no. 1, december 2021 (issn: 2787-0448) igwebuike, kujoh & ayuk 20 the theory is related to this study because it helps the learners in interpreting information in a simple and language they understand to peers for readily assimilation and make them better participant of the course. it also highlights the facts that the knowledge of e-learning facilities is exponential and can be acquired through past knowledge. it emphasis is on the active involvement of student in constructing knowledge for themselves and building new knowledge and past experiences. e-learning and curriculum implementation the major objective of education is growth of skill and knowledge for students. therefore education is all about learning as well as knowing, that is never gotten only in institution of learning and or books. education so useful in the life of people. modern society can only be enhanced through education. the usefulness of education is witnessed in the whole level of education both at primary, secondary, high secondary as well as in tertiary institutions which universities happen to be the main institutions which provide higher education. today, technology is a tool used to remove geographical barriers and facilities everybody uses to learn anytime and anyway without the presence of the lecturer (dorcas, 2003). the main purpose of e-learning facilities is to increase accessibly of education and reducing cost time as well as improving student’s performance. therefore, the survival of student in the 21st century will increasingly rely on various forms of electronic facilities that are in available in market as requirement for educational flexibility it is on this basis, this study seek to investigate the influence of e-learning facilities and academic performance of environmental education students. access to computers in schools may improve student outcomes in several ways. computer software has the potential to provide self-paced instruction that is typically difficult to achieve in group instruction (koedinger et al 2000). likewise, the content of instruction may be individualized to the strengths and weaknesses of the student. because students can use instructional programs without the direct supervision of a teacher, icts and computer aided instruction hold the promise of increasing the overall amount of instruction that students receive (cuban 1993 and barrow, markman, and rouse 2009), while still allowing parents and teachers to monitor student progress. computers, the internet, software and other technologies, because of their interactive nature, may engage school children in ways that traditional methods cannot (cuban 2003) bajoolvand, et al. (2014) identified the impact of interactive whiteboard use on reading comprehension of (14-15) year-old students who were learning english as a foreign language. results showed a significant difference between the performance of the experimental group students in reading comprehension and evaia: international journal of ethics and values, vol. 2 no. 1, december 2021 (issn: 2787-0448) igwebuike, kujoh & ayuk 21 the performance of their peers in the control group in favour of the experimental group that was taught via the use of interactive whiteboard. besides, there was an impact of the interactive whiteboard that encouraged students to be fully engaged in the lesson and raised their enthusiasm and motivation. moronfola (2004) carried out a research in ilorin local government area of kwara state. the researcher used questionnaires to collect data on the availability of electricity, related these to students’ achievements in each of the selected subjects and to the amount of resources available for the teaching of the subjects. finding showed a significant effect of electricity availability on the student’s academic performance. electricity allows for them to read in the night than the use of rechargeable lamps which also depends on energy to get functioning. adeyemi (2000) studied the effect of utilization of instructional materials in teaching literary classes in kwara state and found out that such materials as projecting material, radio and television contributed to real understanding. the unfortunate thing is that they are not readily used by the teachers and also lecturers due to the unavailability of light and this tends to affects the academic performances of the students. the results obtained from the study shows that lectures carried out using learning facilities such as interactive board and computers helps in the development of manipulative skills which in turn increases the performance of the students. e-learning have been an indispensable tool in global educational system which has plunged many educationist, academia's, collegiate and college of allied educators into various researches on the effect of these facilities and the academic performance of students. imperatively from the literature reviewed, the researcher centres on the positive influence of the utilization of elearning facilities on students and their academic performances. that the students have laudable access to many research materials and tutorials at ease that improve and enhances their profoundness of their academic knowledge as well as their information retrieval. research methodology population of the study the study population is made up the whole students of curriculum and teaching/educational technology in the colleges of education in cross river state 2018/2019 academic year. these include, college of education akamkpa and college of education obudu. the selected departments have a total population of five hundred and seventy (570) students. evaia: international journal of ethics and values, vol. 2 no. 1, december 2021 (issn: 2787-0448) igwebuike, kujoh & ayuk 22 sample the sample compromises of one hundred and eighty year one students of curriculum and teaching/educational technology department across, college of education akamkpa and college of education obudu. research questions a research questions wear raised to give direction to this study as follows: 1. how does e-learning facilities (in terms of computers, interactive board, and electricity) influences the educational technology curriculum implementation in colleges of education in cross river state? research hypotheses a research hypothesis was subsequently formulated to give answer to the research questions. it is stated as thus: 1 there is no significant influence of e-learning facilities (in terms of computers, interactive board, and electricity) on the educational technology curriculum implementation in colleges of education in cross river state. . data analysis in this section, each of the hypotheses of the study was re-stated, and the statistical analysis carried out to test it using simple regression analysis. it is presented and interpreted. each of the hypotheses was tested at 0.05 level of significance. ho: 1 there is no significant influence of e-learning facilities (in terms of computers, interactive board, and electricity) on the educational technology curriculum implementation in colleges of education in cross river state. result of the analysis is presented in table 1. table 1 simple regression analysis of the influence of e-learning facilities (in terms of computers, interactive board, and electricity) on the educational technology curriculum implementation in colleges of education in cross river state variable r r2 adj. r2 std. error computer application .210a .044 .043 4.13545 source of variation ss df ms f sig. regression 537.960 1 37.960 31.456 .000b residual 11629.313 179 21.102 total 12167.273 180 *significant at .05 level. from table 2 above the analysis showed that the adj r2 is 0.043. this implies that 4.3% of the variance in the dependent variable (educational evaia: international journal of ethics and values, vol. 2 no. 1, december 2021 (issn: 2787-0448) igwebuike, kujoh & ayuk 23 technology curriculum implimentation) could be accounted for by e-learning facilities (in terms of computers, interactive board, and electricity) in the colleges of education in cross river state. however, though the percentage contribution is small, a cursory look at the table showed f=31.456 (at p<.05). since p (.000) is less than p(.05), it implies that there is a significant influence of e-learning facilities (in terms of computers, interactive board, and electricity) on the educational technology curriculum implementation in colleges of education in cross river state. hence the null hypothesis is rejected. discussion of findings e-learning facilities and implementation of educational technology curriculum the result of hypothesis five showed that there is a significant influence of elearning facilities (in terms of computers, interactive board, and electricity) on the educational technology curriculum implementation in colleges of education in cross river state this above stated conclusion is in line with the work of agil and ahmad (2011), who stated that the computer is a system that allows for the storage of information in files or documents. it carries various information and services such as electronic mails, online chat, file transfers, the interlinked web pages and other documents of the world wide web (www). thus, the advent of computer has heralded the emergence of a new form of knowledge production distribution in the soft form. most of the research on technology in schools indicates that computers have had little effect on teaching practices or classroom activities. dhindsa & emran (2006) also compared between the university students' grades in the pre and post tests after the study of six lessons in chemistry using or not using the interactive whiteboard. results revealed statistically significant differences between students' grades in both groups in favour of the group that was taught via the interactive whiteboard. galtin (2007) investigated the results of interactive whiteboard use in teaching mathematics, english, and science to pupils in grades four, five, and six respectively. results asserted the fact that the performance of students in the three experimental groups who were taught via interactive whiteboard was better than their peers' performance that were taught without using the interactive whiteboard. in the same manner, moronfola (2004) carried out a research in ilorin local government area of kwara state. the researcher used questionnaires to collect data on the availability of electricity, related these to students’ achievements in each of the selected subjects and to the amount of resources available for the teaching of the subjects. finding showed a significant effect of electricity evaia: international journal of ethics and values, vol. 2 no. 1, december 2021 (issn: 2787-0448) igwebuike, kujoh & ayuk 24 availability on the student’s academic performance. electricity allows for them to read in the night than the use of rechargeable lamps which also depends on energy to get functioning. conclusion with reference to the results of this research work result a conclusions were reached that that there is a significant influence of e-learning facilities (in terms of computers, interactive board, and electricity) on the educational technology curriculum implementation in colleges of education in cross river state. recommendations based on the conclusion of the study, the following recommendations were made: 1. .the government and school administrators school provide computer and ict facilities in the school to aid students in research 2. there is need for modern technology in learning such as the use of interactive board in different faculties in the university to aid learning processes 3. as a matter of urgency government and school administrators should make sure there is constant power (electricity) in the institution as its importance in immeasurable. references brown, j.s., collins, a. & duguid, s. (1989). situated cognition and the culture of learning. educational researcher, 18(1), 32-42 esu, a. e. o., enukoha, o. i. & umoren, g. u. (2006). curriculum development in nigeria for colleges and universities. calabar: media mark associates. faizi, w., shakil, a., & sidra-tul-muntaha (2013). the effects of using educational technology in private secondary schools of karachi, pakistan. international journal of academic research in business and social sciences, 3(4), 163-171. garba, m. (2004). the critical role of educational resources on curriculum implementation. in noah, a. o.k., shonibare, d.o., ojo, a.a. & olujuwon, t. (eds). curriculum implementation and professionalizing teaching in nigeria. lagos: central education service. ivowi, u.m.o. (2004). curriculum implementation: implications for schools administration. in noah,a.o.k, shonibare, d.o., ojo, a.a and olujuwom (eds) curriculum implementation and professionalizing teaching in nigeria. lagos: a-trial associates izuagba; a. c. & atuobi, a. o. (2009). quality education through innovation: examples of tertiary institution in nigeria. european journal of social sciences 10 (4) 605-613. evaia: international journal of ethics and values, vol. 2 no. 1, december 2021 (issn: 2787-0448) igwebuike, kujoh & ayuk 25 lave, j., & wenger, e. (1991). situated learning: legitimate peripheral participation. cambridge, uk: cambridge university press lesley, c. g. & michael, a. g. (2005). field trips and their effect on student achievement and attitudes. journal of college science teaching: research & teaching, 3(1) mezieobi, d. i. (2003). effect of instructional materials on the teaching social studies in secondary school in edo state. unpublished m.ed thesis. delta state university, abraka. mezieobi, k. a. (1993). social studies curriculum. owerri whyte and whyte. mkpa, m. a. (2005) challenges of implementing the school curriculum in nigeria. journal of curriculum studies, 12(1), 9-17. myers, b. & jones, l. (2015). effective use of field trips in educational programming: a three stage approach”, agricultural education and communicationdepartment offorma, g.c. (2005). curriculum issues, resource provision and use in the arts and language teaching. curriculum and media technology research, 1 (1), 162 –178 okebukola, p. (2006). the state of nigerian university in borishade, b and okebukola, p (eds) repositioning higher education in nigeria. ibadan: heinemann education books. okebukola, p.a.o. (2004). curriculum implementation in nigeria: strategies for the21st century in noah, a.o.k., shonibare, d.o., ojo, a.a. & olujuwon, t. (eds). curriculum implementation and professionalizing teaching in nigeria. lagos: a publication of central education service ololube, n. p. (2006). teachers’ instructional material utilization competencies in secondary schools in sub-saharan africa: professional and non-professional teachers’ perspective. in conference proceedings of the 6th international educational technology conference emu, 19-21 april. north cyprus. richey, r.c. (2008). reflections on the 2008 aect definitions of the field. tech trends, 52(1) 24-25. http://www.nsta.org/publications/news/default.aspx?id=157&sub=education evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, number 1, may, 2020 evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 mmoneke, samuel ifeanyi (phd) page 80 african philosophy and indigenous languages: the critical nexus mmoneke, samuel ifeanyi (phd) department of philosophy, chukwuemeka odumegwu ojukwu universityigbariam campus email: si.mmoneke@coou.edu.ng abstract african philosophy is the way of life and thought pattern of the african people. these african lives and thought pattern could extent to the african worldview, african culture and tradition. they were all derived, defined and expressed in the african indigenous languages. as such, african indigenous language goes a long way in promoting and unveiling the secrets of african philosophical worldview, extending to the african culture and tradition. in the light of these, a critic of the nexus of african philosophy and african indigenous languages, became necessary, so as to discover the relevance of african indigenous languages in the changing society. comparative analytic method was adopted for a proper examination. the study discovers that no meaningful understanding will be made of african philosophy and worldview without the peoples’ indigenous language. the paper also determines that the problem of interpretation of african philosophy and worldview lay most on the inadequate use of african indigenous languages. based on this, the paper opines that african indigenous languages should be given its proper place in the interpretation of african philosophy, african cultural, traditional activities and african worldview. as such, the paper recommends that scholars should be thought their indigenous languages. africans must be more interested in their indigenous languages so as to be properly guided in the interpretation of not only african philosophy but also african culture, tradition and worldview. key words: african philosophy; indigenous languages; critical; nexus; worldview introduction the emergence of african philosophy as an academic discipline is an important development in african intellectual history. africans’ have suffered so much humiliation and violation in the hands of the racist western powers. these powers dominated, distorted and devastated african lives, cultures and identities for centuries. the african philosophical discipline provides africans with a frame work to explore and explode those western framed myths, misconception and misrepresentation of african personality. some of these prejudices include the notion that africans are inferior in thought, and therefore lack the capacity of rational thinking or philosophy. evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 mmoneke, samuel ifeanyi (phd) page 81 however, time and events since 1990s has taken over the question of the existence and nonexistence of african philosophy. since then, african philosophy has gone beyond folklores and myths otherwise referred to as ethno-philosophy. african philosophy as accomplished numerous works in the political, social and economic areas of africans. as we appreciate the debate on the existence and nonexistence of african philosophy, it was particularly in the case of a discipline that is seeking for recognition or relevance. african philosophers, haven moved beyond debates on the idea itself into actual philosophizing, should acknowledge that indigenous languages remain the best option for the interpretation of african philosophy, culture, tradition and worldview. especially at this juncture that much of what we are seeing now are real philosophizing in the african context. africans are naturally communalistic and as such should instill a new interpretation into african philosophy by moving away from imitational western individual philosophizing to “group philosophizing” or hard thinking ethnic, tribal or traditional philosophizing, which is purely communalistic. otherwise the problem of interpretation occasioned by the application of foreign language into african philosophy will persist. the deficiency in african philosophy as a result of inadequate grasp of african indigenous languages usually occur each moment foreign language is preferred to indigenous language in interpretation of african philosophy. scholars still view african philosophy with the eye of western philosophy and as such fail to present african philosophy as “group philosophy”, not even minding the communal affiliation that enable us refer to it as african philosophy. african philosophical thoughts are often presented in the form of personal or subjective philosophy as a result of the language application. the mode of philosophizing remains stagnating and inhibitive of the needed individual, in order to be part of communal decision in a critical perspective on wide range of issues. therefore, there is the need to liberate african philosophy from the slavery of western philosophical thought. such liberation that will instill indigenous african spirit into the discipline. this can only be achieved through proper use of indigenous language. furthermore, african philosophy will experience a new lease if african scholars can get rid of certain stereotypes and mental blocks that undermine genuine philosophizing like the idea-of presenting or insisting that everything african philosophy is to be based on religion or on one god or spirit or the other. most africans in the course of their lives, history and upbringing come under diverse religious influences or non-religious, theistic, atheistic, naturalistic, and super-naturalistic. these serve as raw data for philosophical enterprise. it is on these raw data that this, work hope to base its critical nexus. so there is need for a new conception of african philosophy that recognizes, evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 mmoneke, samuel ifeanyi (phd) page 82 admits and acknowledges the diverse philosophical experiences of african people in their diverse indigenous languages. conceptual analysis (african philosophy) a number of vital concepts will at this point be briefly define for a better understanding of the topic under discussion. these concepts include: philosophy, africa/african, indigenous language, critical, nexus and worldview. onyibor marcel among numerous philosophers saw philosophy as, “some form of rational activity, a critical examination of all reality, of all areas of human experience including man himself”, (2003, p,94).philosophy in most philosophical discuss usually asks the question ‘why’. the ‘why’ of philosophy remains the ultimate philosophical question and preoccupies itself with the nature, meaning and essence of all that is in the past, present and future and of all that can be said to be in one way or the other. this is both in their particularities (as beings), in their relationships to one another and in their totality (as being). there is a natural quest in man to discover the inner reality of things both in themselves and as they confront reality. this natural quest is a universal phenomenon. it is found in all cultures, in various manners and at all times. the african participates in this search for meaning and coherence and only by the application of their indigenous language can these be attained. on the part of african as a concept, iroegbu opines that the true africans must include the african geo-political and socio-cultural entity englobed by the continent of africa. it should also include the old afro-islamic egypt, subsaharan black central as well as white south african in this geo-political definition. equally included are the historically afro-african originators. although they no longer leave in african continent, yet they are tied by history, language and origins to africa. they are part and parcel of african reality, (1994, p.121).other africans involved and those who can do african philosophy are those who, though not africans by geo-political delineation but are sufficiently informed, versed and interested to reflect on the african mystery just as some non-westerners do reflect on the western reality. with the above “as” african” iroegbu actually told us who really african philosophers are. african philosophy on the one hand, according to iroegbu, is a reflective inquiry into the marvels and problems that confront one in the african world, in view of producing systematic explanation and sustained responses to them, (1994, p.116).on the other hand, it is a critical investigation into the ultimate cause of reality in the african world; the way through, which africans both pre-modern and contemporary look at the problems in their world and finding solutions to them. k. c. anyanwu in okolo (1993, p.12) saw african philosophy as that “which concern itself with the way in which african evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 mmoneke, samuel ifeanyi (phd) page 83 peoples of the past and the present make sense of their existence, of their destiny and of the world in which they live”. okolo, (1993), saw it as “a path to a systematic, coherent, discovery and disclosure of the african as a being in the african world. though this knowledge and disclosure of himself and his world by critical reflection, okolo continued, the african grasp reality, that is to say, attains the truth about man and the cosmos in its entirety”, (p. 8). as a creative rational inquiry, african philosophy seeks to understand, clarify and explain every aspect of african experience. it was kwame gyekye in okolo (1993) who maintained that african philosophy held the view that “philosophy of some kind is behind the thought and action of every people. it constitutes the intellectual anchor of the life in its totality. african philosophy in this context was then referred to as ethno-philosophy, folk-philosophy, traditional thought of the african peoples’, mythical folklores”, (p.8). as it were, no meaningful explanation would have been given to any system of a people without their language. those philosophical ideas must be expressed in the peoples’ indigenous language toenhance meaningful understanding. again iroegbu, (1994, pp.118-121)insisted that theseinquiries must be of two aspects, philosophical and african. as philosophy, hereferred to it as a philosophia, meaning a quest for (african) wisdom. it is the reflective and systematic investigation into the fundamental questions that touch on african reality as a whole, empirical and meta-empirical. those include questions concerning the universe, humanity, the neighbor, the self, life and supernatural beings, such as god, the spirits and the afterlife and only by the application of the peoples’ indigenous languages can the answers to these fundamental questions be found. in summary, african philosophy remains a critical inquiry into the being of the african people, their culture and tradition as well as their experience of reality.it“is philosophy done in african context such as; mythico-religious, historio-political-moral, ethnic-linguistic, existential, phenomenon, logical pragmatic, etc contexts”, (p.121), iroegbu added. indigenous languages every people have something that is theirs, that which is indigenous to them: their worldview, their philosophy, their culture and tradition. the only means through which to express these indigenous principles to the people is with the peoples’ indigenous language. indigenous language is therefore that language that is generally used and understood by the people. that which is theirs and can freely be applied in the interpretation of any indigenous concept. it could be spoken language signs and symbols. it becomes indigenous if and only if it is understood by the people who make use of such language. it is used in reaching out to the people, in communicating to the people as well as passing any form information to the people. it is therefore proper to use the peoples’ evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 mmoneke, samuel ifeanyi (phd) page 84 language in reaching out to the people and as far as african philosophy, is concerned african indigenous language is the most suitable in the expression, communication and interpretation. critical advance learners dictionary*, saw a critic as one who expresses opinion about the good and bad qualities of an establishment. it could be a book, a theory, a culture or tradition. this expression could also be an approval or disapproval of such establishment. critic is a noun form of the adjective, critical, which could be defined as the expression of disapproval of something or somebody and saying what one think is bad about them, in other words, disapproving an established fact and stating the reasons for the disapproval. critical could also be seen from the point of extreme importance meaning, the subject is extremely important because a future situation will be affected. critical could mean serious, uncertain and possibly dangerous, thus a critical moment in the history of country or community, as is the case with nigeria since 27th february, 2020 with coronavirus pandemic. critical could also mean a situation involving making fair, careful judgement about the good and bad qualities of somebody or something. as such african philosophy and indigenous language require such a fair and careful judgement, to avoid accepting opinions without questioning. they should be given unprejudiced, dispassionate and unbiased critical attention so as to buttress the huge importance of indigenous language in the interpretation of african philosophy. nexus african philosophy is vast. it cuts across every aspect of african life and events, which cuts across their social, political, religious and economic conduct rooted in the african culture and tradition. as sucha complicated series of connections between these ideologies become very necessary in the treatment of african philosophy. to make it truly african, it has to be in her indigenous language. nexus simply put is a complicated series of connections between different things. it is therefore our arm in this paper to critically connect african philosophy and african indigenous language to the above aspects of african life and events. african world-view like every other conceptual definition as was above, african worldview will be defined in two parts: “world – view” and “african world view”. worldview according to onuoha is “a conceptualization of the universe providing a structural and unified picture of the cosmos and defining man’s place and role in it. it comprises a set of values, perception and interpretation of facts and evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 mmoneke, samuel ifeanyi (phd) page 85 events”, (1987, p.11). ikenga metuh on his part saw world-view as “the complex of people’s beliefs and attitudes concerning the origin, the nature, structure of organization and interaction of being in the universe with particular reference to man”, (1998, p.50).in all, world-view has to do with the idea of man and the universe, the picture of cosmos and man’s place in it. african world-view is therefore seen as “something natural coeval and peculiar to pre-modern african man. it comprises of their beliefs, origin, nature, structure of organization and interaction in the world handed down as the sum total of assumptions entertained from one generation to another”, (mbaegbu,2004, p.129). following the assertion of mbaegbu, african world is not to be seen as a global world but the world around them. it could be a family or a community, village, town, thus their worldview could be handed down from one generation to another. it is the world conceived as contemplated, perceived by people who live in it especially within the ambit of human environment. he also maintains that it is a body of beliefs about the universe which are common among the members of any society and existentially demonstrated in their value systems, such as their philosophy of life, social conduct and morality, folklores, myths, rites and rituals, norms, rules, ideas, cognitive mappings, theologies etc., (2004, p.129). worldview is said to be the blue print upon which a people’s activities are based. it contains the totality of all the things that give sense of direction and purpose to the peoples’ lives, which enable themto act purposefully in, and exercise a measure of control over their environment. it is our sub-conscious guide through life. furthermore, the worldview is said to be the blue print which a people’s activities are based because it contains the complex of people’s beliefs and attitude concerning the origin, the nature, the structure, organization and interaction of beings in the universe with particular reference to man. it is upon this worldview that the peoples’ philosophy depends. a people’s philosophy is actually that which makes them who they are. it is the about the people. it is sometimes difficult to differentiate a people’s worldview from their philosophy. thus the peoples’ worldview could also be their philosophy and as such seriously require the peoples’ indigenous language cradle of african philosophy and african indigenous language (thought) africa as a continent were never acknowledged as a people by the european. for them africa had no history. instead of appreciating and recognizing africa as the cradle of world’s civilization, eneh, remarked that africa was rather labelled as a dark continent influenced by hot weather, infested with hunger, mosquitoes, diseases, superstition and stagnation, (1999:1-2). that the evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 mmoneke, samuel ifeanyi (phd) page 86 western world found it difficult to acknowledge africans as a people, did not put to doubt the existence of africa. as a people that they are, they are ways of life and philosophy. african philosophy had been defined as the way and method of african’s thinking about issues that concern their culture and tradition. these ways and methods were seen and described by african philosophers as ethnophilosophy, philosophical sagacity, nationalist ideological philosophy and professional philosophical thought. it should be noted that most of these african thoughts or philosophies before now were not written in any papyrus or paper. it is in-fact oral thought/philosophy that was embedded in oral literature, myths, rituals, proverbs, name, socio-cultural and religious institutions. these thoughts were just moved from hand to hand orally until the recent past when they were documented in papers and today they have moved from being analogue to being digitalized, yet nothing african was removed. african philosophy began as a myth, just as every other thing thatis, has a beginning. anowai, (2014:4), is of the opinion that, “the pre-philosophical thought can be characterized as ‘mythopeic’, ‘mythopetic’ or ‘mythic’ thought. mythopeic, taken from its root, means making,(poien, from which the word poet is derived)”. anowai, (4), went on to say that “myths are stories about persons, who may be gods, heroes or ordinary people”. mythology before the digital era in history was the only means through which african philosophy could better be expressed to the african people, of course in their native language. it was with this mythology that the various african beliefs, traditions and cultures were being expressed. with mythology their philosophical thoughts were being expressed as proverbs, folktales and even in the derivation of african names etc. to understand the african philosophical thoughts therefore one need to also understand african mythological stories. the nuances of definitions above showed that what we generally designate as the african world-view evolved from a particular situation. that a worldview, in each case, is as a result of the effort of a people and a community to understand the world, or the reality around them. thus its outcome is always context-dependent and that explains the wide variations and the narrower nuances that are comparative features of different world-views. the effort at interpretation that gives rise to a worldview is characterized by a primordial attempt to react to the uncontrollability of nature. in the interpretation of peoples’ world-view, what differentiate one from another is the application of the people’s language. according to william abraham; evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 mmoneke, samuel ifeanyi (phd) page 87 the primordial reaction to this reality is twofold: on the theoretical level there is a projection of origin in which the situation was much different, a sort of paradise that was lost. this is usually represented in idyllic myths of origin. on the practical level, there is ritual, which tries to project man beyond here and now on the ideal original situation, to symbolically bring him in contact with a world that was more predictable. such conceptualization and ritual projection are therefore primarily aimed at survival, (1985, p.19). the theoretical explanation for the difficulties of nature or life contains explanation, which at the same time reveals the finitude of man in finding answers. worldview represents the sedimentation of a people’s conception of the way things are and how they should be. more specifically, the african worldview emerged from a situation of relative poverty and development. it is a worldview marked by survival, which is an outcrop of relative poverty with some characteristics. among these is coalescence of the divine and the human, the supernatural and the natural. the division between heaven and earth becomes less and less clear, so is the separation between dead and living, and those yet to be born. life becomes a huge circle in which each of these dimensions is strongly linked with the other. a possible explanation of these coalescence is the factor of interdependence. this is in turn born of the vision engendered by life threatening situation, which has been described as precarious vision. in turn such a vision gives rise to the quest from all conceivable sources, divine and human. this presupposes a conception of the sources of trouble, which can also be taken to be both terrestrial (human) and supra-terrestrial (spiritual). it is thus not surprising that the traditional african religious world is the one peopled by a number of deities detailed to take care of specific aspects of life. these also serve as counter forces against other spiritual beings that are considered to be life threatening. there is usually the supreme being and also the cosmic forces, the numerous lesser spirits or deities, as well as the ancestors. working in opposition to all these are countless evil spirits. even lower beings, animals and plants are not use in the struggle for survival and wellbeing. they are usually imbued with power or influence, and the rational being can manipulate these powers to influence the life of another rational being. only indigenous language is capable of driving home all the african worldview had to offer. evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 mmoneke, samuel ifeanyi (phd) page 88 such a vision also gives human beings certain clout and independence. the deities and the ancestors to a certain extent are dependent on them for their “well-being” and continued relevance in the affairs of men. humans can turn their attention to ineffective deities and ancestors. these are mainly relevant because of their ability to provide protection for the living. it means that worship is not primarily aimed at spiritual beings. it is not for the ultimate aim of praising them that the votary takes his pain, but to obtain his needs and be liberated from his numerous problems. that is why the deities could be discarded or even punished. thus interdependent of deferent spheres of reality entails that each sphere has its function, and it is on account of that function that it is recognized in the life of humans. the background of this attitude is the readiness to believe untested explanations. let us name it credulity for want of better word. credulity results from the failure or inability to investigate in any modern scientific conception of the word. it involves complete trust on the powers and effectiveness of experts like the diviner and the medicine men who are ready to attach unnatural cause to unwanted phenomena, occurrences and situation. the unwanted is usually due to wicked ancestors, angry gods, jealous or envious neighbors, colleagues or cheer evil men. this in turn overflows to the confidence in the power of the deities to purvey the only possible solace before the enormity of life-problems. it is possible to interpret some of the practical effects, this belief on the level of psychological satisfaction, nevertheless what underlies such satisfaction of the confidence in the power of the deities. such powers are often viewed in a magical way, depending on the manipulation of certain physical objects, accompanied by incantations by experts to bring the desired effects. but this is not always so. in many cases, prayer to the divinity in question accompanies the offering of the votary, with the promise of even better sacrifice in future if the supplication is heeded. this touches on the question of the difference between magic, which in subjection to the will of the absolute is implicit. what is notable, is the view of the supernatural as intervening, directly and constantly, to make determinant difference in the day-to-day lot of man. finally, such feature we mention above are the coalescence of the divine act, human inter dependency of all realities, the central position of man, the functionality of all levels of being, divine and human, the disinclination to seek for natural causes, the attribution of these cause to magico-religious beings which tend to stop all scientific inquiries, the belief in the efficacy of the spiritual beings and also in the manipulation of these lower creatures to effect harm on rational beings, inclination to believe in the presence of uncanny inferences in native without sustained search for attentive possible cause. the interpretations and better understanding of all these must be done evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 mmoneke, samuel ifeanyi (phd) page 89 only in african local languages otherwise, the philosophical thought behind the african world view will not receive the desired treatment. african philosophy and indigenous languages: the critical nexus african philosophy in the various definitions we had already concerned itself with who the africans are, their practices, what realities are for them and the interpretation of the world around them. the african worldview cuts across the ambient of the african culture, tradition, religious practices, belief system, social contact and morality. language, according to ozumba is defined as “a means of communicating ideas and thought”, (2004, p.18). as such, african language can be defined as a means of communicating african ideas and thoughts. moreover, language is an essential tool in the constitution, transformation, and expression of people and cultures. the most distinguishing mark of any ethnic group is its language or dialect. following the communicational role of language some go to the extent of identifying language with the essence of a people or of a person. in fact, some think that the most universal element in all humanity is the power to communicate through language. it is through language that all the ambient of african life could be transmitted to the africans however, different african languages, belong to different language family, within each family. there are many language groups in africa and each have a language through which they can be reached. the niger-congo family for instance has such language group as benue-congo, mande, kwa etc and each are identified with a particular language group. each of the african languages belong to one of the language family group. interestingly, the african languages that belong to a particular language group exhibit some characteristic features in their phonology, morphology, and/or syntax that are glaringlysimilar. this fact makes one confident to generalize, and with a high degree of precision too that certain findings in an african language indicate that others that belong to the same language group possess the same language characteristic features. interestingly, african ethnic groups numerous as they are and african languages and dialects as various and varied as they are, constitute according to iroegbu, “very fundamental philosophical point-de-depart for african philosophy”, (1994, p.120)7. but one unfortunate handicap that persists in this area according to h. odimegwu in his inaugural lecture is “the use of foreign languages to undo african philosophy. until this handicap is overcome, african philosophy will not actualize its originality evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 mmoneke, samuel ifeanyi (phd) page 90 rationale behind the centrality of african indigenous language in african philosophy haven seen philosophy as a critical enquiry into nature or realities, through their ultimate causes, african philosophy on the other hand remains a “relative inquiry in to the marvels and problems that confront the african world in view of sustained responses to man”, iroegbu, (1994, p.116).again language is a symbol through which ideas and thoughts are communicated. indeed, through african philosophy ideas and thoughts must be communicated by mean of african languages to the african man. this is because one cannot possibly comprehend ideas or philosophical thoughts if they are not communicated through language, be it sign language or any other form of language that can be used to relate the ideas to the audience or people that are around. the rationale behind the centrality of african indigenous language in african philosophy will be based from what is said so far. that the relationship between african philosophy and language lie in the communication skill applied. this means that the person who is philosophizing can apply those communication skills to relate the ideas and thoughts such that one can easily understand the views being communicated. until every philosophical thoughts and ideas are properly related or communicated, such ideas or thoughts do not qualify to be called a peoples’ philosophy and no meaningful philosophy could be communicated without a language which may be oral, written or through signs or symbols. however, it will be salient to know that this relationship between african philosophy and language as we mentioned above is not peculiar to african philosophy alone rather it is general to every philosophy and african philosophy being part of the general philosophy has the same relationship with african language. as such every philosophy needs to be communicated before people can understand its content so as to appraise or criticize it or accept or reject it. language is the only means through which the above exercise could be attained. however, the fact that african philosophy is being done in foreign language, is a very big problem, which african philosophy is having in relation with language today. here, we should note that the linguistic expression of a people is definitions of their essential being and action. language is therefore the soul of culture, the heart of the environment and the spirit that motivates and directs a people’s life. thus, iroegbu remarked that, “the dynamism of the german language and emotivism of the italian portray, remains the being and character of the two people. african philosophical thought in a foreign language is not fully african thought. african philosophy done in a foreign language is not yet authentically african philosophy”, (1994, p.116). makinde in his final remark, stated that until philosophy is written and taught in an evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 mmoneke, samuel ifeanyi (phd) page 91 african languages african philosophy may turn out to be nothing but western philosophy in african guise, (1988, p.56).we must therefore learn to appreciate our language for that is our identity and bases of our african culture. african philosophy without indigenous languages like makinde posited, african philosophy will definitely turn to western philosophy if the african indigenous language is not acknowledged in its interpretation. it is obvious that a people’s language interprets their philosophy and to loose one’s language is as good as losing not just the philosophy but also the identity. in the definition of african worldview, a number of issues were mentioned as contained in the worldview, things like african social conduct and morality, the folklores, myths, rites and rituals, norms, rules, ideas, cognitive mappings, theologies as well as african metaphysics, epistemology. these issues can only be properly expressed and communicated in african language. to teach, express and communicate the above african issues as may be found in the african worldview in a foreign language is to make african philosophy appear as a foreign or western philosophy. it will also be difficult to comprehend. the true philosophy behind each concept will be lost. it will lose the true african meaning behind each of the concepts. africans will begin lose interest in the whole concept and as such the basic african values found therein will be lost. these will amount to a complete loss of african philosophy. indeed, we cannot afford to discuss african philosophy without the indigenous african languages. it is african identity, it is african philosophy and it is the reason why africa is called and are referred to as africa. the philosophical base of the argument philosophy being a critical inquiry into reality involves a critical thought before one is said to be philosophizing. indeed, every philosophy involves some thinking and african philosophy being part of the universal is not an exception. no matter the mode, way and style of thought used to portray the philosophy of a people, philosophical thought or thinking must be involved in the philosophizing, in the case of african philosophy and indigenous language. again among the problems of african philosophy is that the thoughts or the philosophy of pre-modern african man was not documented but were embedded in oral literatures, myths, rituals, proverbs, names, socio-cultural, religious, institutions and maxims. we must note here that most oral messages have no concrete evidence unless they are documented. it was as a result of this problem of african philosophy that most non-african and some evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 mmoneke, samuel ifeanyi (phd) page 92 african philosophers’ got involved in the debate on the existence or nonexistence of african philosophy. however, the debate on existence or non-existence of african philosophy, remains that african philosophy like all other world philosophies exists,and the ways it is being portrayed through all the above mentioned means and modes, which stipulated what really is african philosophy is not lacking. this is to show that there is no race so back ward, in advance, so primitive or illogical as not to have some conception/thought or philosophy of the universe and its wonders. african philosophy was being transmitted from one generation to another through oral representation thereby encouraging and sustaining african philosophy not lose its originality, following the modification of some vital facts as it moves from one generation to another. this is the reason behind hountondji’s assertion that, ‘a text is african philosophy only if … (it is) a written text’ and unless that is done, it does not qualify to be philosophy and what is not philosophy can never be african philosophy, (1974, p.1). the philosophical base of our argument as it concerns world-view, lay mainly on the fact that it has been described as people’s complex beliefs and attitudes concerning the origin, the nature, structure, organization, and interaction of being in the universe with particular reference to man. a world-view seeks to answer fundamental questions about the place and relationship of man with the universe. answers to these fundamental problems provide man with the blueprint for controlling his environment and for establishing his social and political institutions. conversely, knowledge of a people’s world-view is a key to the understanding of their social, political and even psychological problems. on the other hand, a people’s worldviews are not only the multiplicity of beings, concepts, beliefs, and attitudes which they share, but also the underlying thought-link (philosophy) or logic which holds them together. soan adequate view of people’s worldview can only be obtained by description of their whole life especially in its social context. as such, whatever is done by a people is based on their world-view. again, considering african philosophy and worldview, our argument is that philosophy must have its originality from the people’s worldview i.e. it must originate from the peoples’ opinion or view of the cosmos. like all other philosophies, africa philosophy originates from the african worldview, which remains the way africans perceive reality and everything around them. the interpretation african philosophy is not just by how one perceives reality but a hungry man’s philosophy is never sound as a result of his worldview. evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 mmoneke, samuel ifeanyi (phd) page 93 above all, african philosophy is based on the african worldview. we must recall that africa was at a time in history besieged by hunger, hardship, poverty and under-development; it will not be surprising to note that african worldview cum philosophy then could have emerged from a situation of relative poverty and under-development. hence, the quest for survival was what occupied the african mind rather than philosophical thoughts or worldview. it has also been observed that a worldview and philosophy that is marked by the quest for survival is in most cases an outcrop of relative poverty and it has some unique characteristics. among the characteristics is the readiness to believe untested explanations. it could be referred to as credulity since credulity is as a result of failure or inability to investigate in any modern scientific concept an idea before putting it into action. in all african philosophy according to bodunrinhas what may be called “magico-religions conception of the world”, (1991, p,158) and the philosophy that arises from such worldview has some negative practical effects that puts an end to further inquiry into things, which is the function of philosophy. many phenomena that are otherwise explicable by deeper knowledge of the operation of nature are attributed to the machination of super-natural causes. the continuous presence of water in a spring or river, crop failure, famine and other natural disasters such as cyclone, flooding, and storm, death of young people; problem in conception or childbearing, lack of males offering and failure in business, inability to find a suitable husband or wife, family quarrels, in more modern times, failure in examination, difficulty in bagging a job, dismissal from a job already bagged, etc, are all attributable to machination of one of the numerous inhabitants or the creatures, animals and plants in the form of charms. it has become clearer now that all beings known to africans are based on their worldview. the being could be visible world or the invisible world. the visible world, ‘terra firma’ (solid earth) is populated by men and all material surrounding man, such as sky, earth, rivers, forest, mountains and so on are things that are familiar to man. the invisible world on the other hand, consist of the heavenly realm and is said to be the home place of the creators and deities which is thought to be located somewhere in the sky; and the ‘spirit land’, is the home place of the ancestors, the spirits, disembodied spirits, located somewhere inside the ground. interestingly, africans see no wall of demarcation between the two worlds. the two realms shade into each other. still the thinness of the dividing line between the two world of humans and that of the spirit does not mean that there is a clear explanation of the later. the spirit world is always inscrutable, near as it may be. though, at some important stage of one’s life, the will of its inhabitants is required to be ascertained through divinations like afa, ifa, and oracles. these mediate the intentions and the designs of the world. the importance of these means of evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 mmoneke, samuel ifeanyi (phd) page 94 knowledge is dependent on certain factors, where scientific knowledge is comparatively very limited, many incomprehensible things are attributed to the subra-natural. it is upon the above that the philosophical argument on african philosophy and indigenous language based its critical nexus. evaluation and conclusion it is obvious that there is a continent called africa. it is also a fact people live in this african continent. those who live in this continent, have a way of life. as such they have a philosophy they call their own. it is in this their philosophy, the african philosophy, that they live and hold their being. no amount of debate by philosophers can deny africans their philosophy. the relations among african philosophy, language, thought and worldview has been identified as something that is not so easy to detect except for analysis of this kind. this is because all of the concepts involved intermingle with one another and carry one another along. our conceptual considerations were aimed at helping us to easily see the various differences among these concepts since it has been observed that whatever must be related must have difference between them and it is only be identifying the differences that a better relation could be easily attained in other to get a positive result. finally, it has become clearer that no meaningful analysis could be achieved in the interpretation of any peoples’ philosophical thought and worldview outside the peoples’ language. as such we must appreciate and promote african indigenous languages not just by speaking it but also by applying them where necessary in those areas of need, especially as it affect issues concerning the african culture, tradition as well as social, political and economic life of the african people. even in the areas of philosophizing or any form of intellectual exercise without letting people know in a clear language what one is philosophizing on or about either through sign, oral or written language so that there will be a clearer understanding of what is being communicated, the philosophizing is simply a waste of mental activity. that which one attempts philosophizing on or communicating is thoughts and worldviews of those individuals he is philosophizing to and what is being philosophized is the people’s philosophy. as such, it must be based on their views about the universe, which is their worldview. these relationships to the thought, language and worldview are not only peculiar to african philosophy but all other philosophies of the world experience a similar relationship. no wonder african philosophy being a part of the world’s philosophy is also considered in relation to its indigenous language, thought and world-view. we are therefore being encouraged to take evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 mmoneke, samuel ifeanyi (phd) page 95 more seriously our language, which incidentally is our identity, in our social, political and cultural activities. we must finally note that a people without a language are no people. references abrahams, w. (1985) “sources of africa identify “african and the problems of its identity.frank-forta m. peter lang. anowai, e.c. (2014), philosophy: a more historical approach, awka: fab anieh nig. ltd. bodunrin, p.o. (1991), “the question of african philosophy,” in henry odera oruka, ed., sage philosophy: indigenous thinker and modern debate on african philosophy, nairobi: acts press. eneh, j.o. (1999), an introduction to african philosophy and thought, enugu:satellite press limited ifesieh, e.i., (ed), (1990), okolo on african philosophy and african theology,(silver jubilee essays), enugu: cecta (nig) limited, iroegbu, p.o. (1994), enwuisdomization and african philosophy. orlu: international universities press. makinde, m. a. (1988), african philosophy, culture and traditional medicine, athens: ohio university press. mbaegbu, c.c. “nature and concept of god in igbo world-view”. the unizik journal of arts and humanities. nigeria a globe communication production, 2004 edition. metuh, i.e., (1998), comparative studied of african traditional religion. onitsha: imico publishers. okolo, c. b. (1993), african philosophy: a short introduction, (revised edition),enugu: cecta (nig) limited. okolo, c. b. (1983), “african philosophy a process interpretation” africana marburgensia, (xv. 2 1983). onuoha, e. (1987), four-constrassing world-view. enugu: empress publishing company limited. onyibor, m. (2003),the challenge of development in africa: task of african philosophy” in ogirisi:a new journal of african studies. vol. amawbia: lumos nigeria limited. ozumba, g.o. (2004), introduction to philosophy of language. ibadan: hope publication. oxford advanced learner’s dictionary, (international student’s edition) ,7th edition. evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 1, number 2, october 2020 ilarious 1 rape in human societies: categories, consequences and remedies james aruma ilarious nnamdi azikiwe university, awka, anambra state, nigeria email: jamesaruma17@gmail.com +234 (0) 9025418760 / +234 (0) 8147686089 abstract rape in human societies today can be described as pandemic in the sense that it has affected many countries globally. terms such as sexual assault or sexual violence are also used to describe it. although sexual violence affect men and women, our concern in this study is to deal with sexual violence directed against women and girls. apart from sexual gratification, sexual violence against women and girls comes as a result of unequal power equation between men and women and is equally influenced by cultural factors and values. sexual violence in human societies has a profound impact on physical and mental health as well as causing physical injury. this sometimes is associated with increased risk of a range of sexual and reproductive health problems and complications, with both immediate and long-term consequences. its impact on mental health can also be as serious as its physical impact, and may be equally long lasting. sexual assault can also profoundly affect the social wellbeing of victims; individuals may be stigmatized and ostracized by their families and others as a consequence. in war situations rape of women and girls is often used as a weapon of war, as form of attack on the enemy, typifying the conquest and degradation of its women or captured male fighters. while sexual violence can be directed against both men and women, the main focus of this study will be to examine rape/sexual violence against women and girls in human societies, the various categories of rape, consequences and the remedies to the problem. key words: rape, human, societies, categories, consequences, remedies introduction rape by way of definition is the act of forcing sexual intercourse on a person without the victim’s will or consent. wikipedia reiterate this same meaning stating that “rape is a type of sexual assault usually involving sexual intercourse … carried out against a person without that person’s consent. the act may be carried out by physical force, abuse of authority or against a person who is incapable of giving consent, such as one who is unconscious, incapacitated, has an intellectual disability or is below the legal age of (giving) consent”. according to petra and hedge (2003) however, “the term rape is sometimes used interchangeably with the term sexual assault”. rape is evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 1, number 2, october 2020 ilarious 2 not about sex, it is an act of power by the rapist and it is always wrong and a crime. according to kalra and bhugra (2013) rape or sexual violence is profoundly negative and traumatic life event with widespread psychological and sociological effects on the victim irrespective of their gender. it often gives rise to a wide range of negative emotions, embarrassment, existential questions such as “why me?” it increases feelings of helplessness and powerlessness in the victim affecting the person’s self-esteem and producing feelings which suggest that they may be vulnerable to further violence. it is likely that the fear of sexual assault in women will restrict their freedom and occupational opportunities and affect their long-term psychological wellbeing. there is no society or a community in the world that does not experience rape cases. in western countries rape is rampant and it has almost become the culture of the people. rape culture is an environment in which rape is prevalent and in which sexual violence against women and young girls is normalized and excused. rape culture is perpetuated through the use of misogynistic language, the objectification of women’s bodies, and glamorization of sexual violence, thereby creating a society that disregards women’s rights and safety. rape affects every woman in the western countries just as in other places of the world. the rape of one woman is a degradation, terror and limitation to all women. most women and girls limit their behaviour and live in fear because of the existence of rape. that is how rape functions as a powerful means by which the whole female population in some societies is held in a subordinate position to male population, even though many men do not rape and many women equally are never victims of rape. this cycle of fear is the legacy of rape culture in every society. rape according to muma (2019) “has become so prevalent in africa that one might view it as a culture: a long-standing ‘way of life’, so prestigious to the perpetuator, but damning to the victim.” rape is the unfortunate story of women and young girls, that it displays a very abusive aspect of the african culture. most african societies have been accused of nurturing a rape culture for centuries under the guise of culture and tradition. rape culture is viewed as a society in which rape is not only rampant, but also normalized due to societal attitudes regarding gender and sexuality. most african societies being highly patriarchal, the obvious victims of such heinous crimes are young girls and women. muma (2019) observes that: “in south africa, the ritual known as ‘ukuthwala’ in nguni community allows a young man …kidnap a girl or a young woman with the intention of forcing her family to initiate negotiations and approve the marriage.” although similar practices were eventually banned in some local communities in kenya, rwanda and ethiopia, the ban is not evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 1, number 2, october 2020 ilarious 3 taken seriously and many men continue to carry out forced sexual intercourse with women and girls. in western countries including europe, rape is seen as crime done to women and girls. however, most european countries still do not recognize in law that sex without consent is rape according to amnesty international report on elimination of violence against women, november 24, 2018. although there are movements to inspire women to speak out their experiences, the sad fact is that rape remains hugely under-reported in europe. this is because of women’s fear of not being heard or believed. according to recent survey from the european union agency for fundamental rights (fra), one in twenty women in the eu have been raped since the age of 15 – about nine million women. despite these shocking statistics, few european countries treat this crime as seriously as they should in law. out of the 31 european countries covered in the amnesty’s report, only ireland, the uk, belgium, cyprus, germany, iceland, luxembourg, and sweden define rape as sex without consent. other countries mentioned in the report are: austria, bulgaria, croatia, the czechs republic, denmark, estonia, finland, france, greece, hungary, italy, latvia, lithuania, malta, the netherlands, norway, poland, portugal, romania, slovakia, slovenia, spain, and switzerland. all these have legal definitions of rape based on force, coercion or victims’ inability to fight back. although this is true, yet some countries categorize sex without consent as a separate, lesser offence, sending a strong message to people that ‘real rape’ only occurs when physical violence is used. categories of rape: rape can be categorized in different ways. this categorization is based on the situation in which it occurs by the identity or characteristics of the victim and by the identity or characteristics of the perpetrator. these categories also form the types of rape. the types of rape described below are not mutually exclusive, for a given rape type can fit into multiple categories. for example, both prison rape and gang rape can both fit into one category just as both custodial rape and child rape can identify as one. it is important to explain each as listed below. gang rape occurs when a group of people participate in the rape of a single victim. rape involving at least two or more violators is widely reported to occur in many parts of the world. ullman (1999) observes that offenders and victims in gang rape incidents are younger with a higher possibility of being unemployed. gang rape often involves alcohol and drug use, physical attacks, less victim’s resistance and fewer use of weapons than individual rape. along this line gidycz, et al (1990) reveals that group sexual assaults are more violent and have greater resistance from the victim than that of individual sexual assault and that victims of such group sexual assault are more likely to evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 1, number 2, october 2020 ilarious 4 seek crisis and police services, contemplate suicide, and seek therapy than those involved in individual assault. the term ‘date rape’ according to humphrey (1993) is used to refer to several types of rape, such as acquaintance rape, which is a non-domestic rape committed by someone who knows the victim; and drug facilitated sexual assault (dfsa), where the rapist intentionally drugs the victim with a date rape drug so as to incapacitate her. acquaintance rape constitutes the vast majority of reported rapes, while dfsa is infrequent. acquaintance rape can occur between two people who know one another usually in social situations, people who are dating as a couple and have had consensual sex in the past, people who are starting to date, people who are just friends and between acquaintances. in other words, it involves rapes of co-workers, schoolmates, family friends, teachers and other acquaintances provided they are dating, (wikipedia, 2017). it is sometimes referred to as ‘hidden rape’ and has been identified as a growing problem in european societies. child rape according to courtois (1988) is a form of child sexual abuse. when committed by another child (usually older or stronger) or adolescent, it is called child-on-child sexual abuse. when committed by a parent or other close relatives such as grandparents, aunts and uncles, it is also incest and result in serious and long-term psychological trauma. when a child is raped by an adult who is not a family member but is a caregiver or in a position of authority over the child, such as school teachers, religious authorities, or therapists, to name a few, on whom the child is dependent, the effects can be similar to ancestral rape. struckman, et al (2006) reports that prison rape affects between 3% and 12% of prison inmates in the us. although prison rapes are more commonly same sex, beck and harrison ((2006) the attacker usually does not identify as homosexual. this phenomenon is much less common elsewhere in the world. this is partly because of the differences in the structure of the prison system in the us as compared to the prison systems in canada, australia, europe and africa. the attacker is most commonly another inmate. in the case of african prisons, rape cases may be common although it lacks advocacy. in south africa for example, many cases have been reported, for instance, vincent tells how he was raped by two gang members in an overcrowded cell in western cape facility while awaiting trial. this was his first sexual experience. he asked for help from nurses, wardens, priests, social workers and even a magistrate, who he says did nothing to help him some others were telling him to expect this treatment in prison. he only received medical attention three years later, when he was sentenced. he then learned that he was hiv– positive as a result of the rape, (mail & guardian 2015). evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 1, number 2, october 2020 ilarious 5 this is one out of many cases of this kind in african prisons which have not come to light because of less advocacy and recognition of human rights by our african governments. ‘payback rape’, also called ‘punishment’ or ‘revenge rape’, is a form of rape specific to certain cultures, particularly the pacific islands. it consists of the rape of female, usually by a group of several males, as a revenge for acts committed by members of her family, such as her father or brothers. the rape is meant to humiliate the father or brothers, as punishment for their prior behaviour towards the perpetrators (media headquarters, 2012). payback rape is sometimes connected to tribal fighting, (amnest.org.au). war rapes are rapes committed by soldiers, other combatants or civilians during armed conflict, war or military occupation. it also covers the situation where girls and women are forced into prostitution or sexual slavery by an occupying army. during war, rape is used as a means of psychological warfare in order to humiliate the enemy and undermine their morale. rapes in war are often systematic and thorough, and military leaders may actually encourage their soldiers to rape civilians. likewise, systematic rapes are often employed as a means of ethnic cleansing. askin (1979) acknowledges that: “war rapes have been considered a ‘war crime’ only since 1949. article 27 of the fourth geneva convention explicitly prohibits wartime rape and enforced prostitution. these prohibitions were reinforced by the 1977 additional protocols to the 1949 geneva conventions.” in 1998, the international criminal tribunal for rwanda established by the united nations made landmark decisions that rape is a crime of genocide under international law. in one judgment, navanethem pillay in askin (1979) says that: “from time immemorial, rape has been regarded as spoils of war. now it will be considered as war crime. we want to send out a strong message that rape is no longer a trophy of war.” custodial rape according to kumbhare (2009) is a rape perpetrated by a person employed by the state in a supervisory or custodial position, such as a police officer, public servant, jail or hospital employee. this according to thukral (2008) includes the rape of children in institutional care such as orphanages. human rights report (1999) states that custodial rape has been reported in many countries of the world including nigeria, kenya, zambia and united states. in india custodial rape has been a major focus of women’s right organization, and has been an official category of rape defined under law since 1983. indian law states that this type of rape takes advantage of the rapist’s position of authority and is therefore subject to extra penalty, (bhardwaj, 2009). evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 1, number 2, october 2020 ilarious 6 the term custodial rape according to edward (2000) is sometimes used broadly to include rape by anyone in a position of authority such as an employer, money-lender, contractor or landlord, but under indian law it refers only to government employees. victims of custodial rape are frequently minorities, people who are poor or low in social status. researchers however hold that custodial rape is part of a broader pattern of custodial abuse, which can also include torture and murder, (bergner, 2008). rape from western ethnical perspective: in swedish penal cord, rape has been defined “as forced sexual intercourse initiated against a woman (or man) by one or several people without the consent of the victim.” in recent years, several revisions to the definition have been made in the law to include not only intercourse but also comparable sexual acts against someone incapable of giving consent due to being in a vulnerable situation such as a state of fear or unconsciousness. sweden has passed a new law that criminalizes sex without consent as rape, even when there are no threats, coercion or violence involved. billner & niklas (2018) observe that the number of rape cases reported was 73 per 100,000 citizens in 2017. official numbers show that the incidence of sexual offences is on the rise, and the swedish government declared that young women are facing the greatest risks and that most of the cases go unreported. rick (2016) in the washington post reports that: “in some european countries up to 55 percent of the population agreed that in circumstances where the victim wears ‘revealing’ clothing would make sexual intercourse without consent justifiable or acceptable according to a survey conducted on behalf of the european commission. overall, about one-fourth – 27 percent of all europeans hold that opinion.” the survey also indicates that the number of rape cases is much higher in romania, hungary, bulgaria and czech republic. in romania, more than 50 percent of the people interviewed responded that nonconsensual sexual intercourse is acceptable in some cases or circumstances such as wearing revealing, provocative or sexy clothing, being drunk or using drugs, being out walking alone at night and not clearly saying no or physically making any attempt of fighting back. in belgium, for instance, 40 percent agreed that sexual intercourse without consent is justified as stated above, whereas only 15 percent said so in neighbouring netherlands. however, there are still member european states where there is considerable work to be done in addressing perceptions whether gender-based violence against women is often provoked by the victim or that women often make up or exaggerate claims of abuse or rape. b u r e a u o f j u s t i c e s t a t e s r e p o r t ” 1 2 . m g . c o . z a evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 1, number 2, october 2020 ilarious 7 rape culture in the western world: rape culture is being defined as “complex beliefs that encourage male sexual aggression and supports violence against women.” rape culture describes a society where violence is seen as sexy and sexuality as violent. the manifestation of rape culture include instances of sexual violence that range from sexual remarks to sexual touching to rape, as well as condoning such violence against women and presenting it as normal. the term may also be used in relation to certain groups or settings, like war rape or prison rape. rape culture according to olfman (2009) is sociological concept used to describe a setting in which rape is pervasive and normalized due to societal attitudes about gender and sexuality. behaviours commonly associated with rape according to herman (1994) include victim blaming, slut shaming, sexual objectification, trivializing rape, denial of widespread rape, refusing to acknowledge the harm caused by some forms of sexual violence and some combination of these. the notion of rape culture has been used to describe and explain behaviours within social groups, including prison rape, and in conflict areas where war rape is used as psychological warfare. historically according to brownmiller (1975) women have been considered second-class citizens who are not thought to deserve the same rights as their male counter-parts. rape laws existed to protect daughters from rape, often through their fathers. in these cases according to kresti (2016), the rape of a woman is seen as an attack on the estate of her father because she is his property and a woman’s virginity being taken before marriage, lessens her value; if the woman is married, the rape is an attack on the husband because it violates his property. tecla (2012) says that the rapist is either subject to payment or serve punishment. the father could rape or keep the rapist’s wife or make the rapist marry his daughter. a man could not be charged with raping his wife since she is his property. winnie tomm (2010) states that: “by contrast, rape of a single woman without strong ties to a father or husband causes no great concern…” in europe, sweden is being described as the ‘rape capital.’ ever since the collation of crime statistics was initiated by the council of europe, sweden has had the highest number of registered rape offences in europe followed by denmark. even though denmark rates highly internationally for gender equality in many areas of life, the country has “a pervasive rape culture and there is endemic impunity for rapists” according to a new report by amnesty international (march, 2019). women in denmark encounter many barriers in accessing justice for rape. the vast majority of rapes are never reported and out of those that are, very few end up with a conviction. amnesty international highlights that while there is a widespread perception in evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 1, number 2, october 2020 ilarious 8 denmark that gender equality has been achieved, the authorities should do more to live up to this positive image. it calls on denmark authorities to change the legal definition of rape to one based on sexual autonomy and consent and to improve the treatment of victims during all stages of the legal process. in united states according to maskchke (1997) before and during the american civil war when slavery was widespread, the law focused primarily on rape as it pertained to black men raping white women. the penalty for such a crime in many jurisdictions was death or castration. as early as the 19th century, hamilton (1998) reveals that american women were criticized, if they “strayed out dependent position… fought off attacker … or behaved in too self-reliant a manner … in which case the term rape no longer applied.” similar to rape myths and double standards applied to women today, description of rape in the 1800s depicted women who needed to behave or else face the inevitable consequences. rape myths according to burt ((1980) in this case are erroneous, stereotypical, prejudicial beliefs about reasons of sexual assault …which serve to justify sexual aggression on women. prior to the 1930s in the west more particularly in america, rape was considered a sex crime that was always committed by men and always done to women. from 1935 – 1965, a shift from labeling rapist as criminal to believing them to be mentally ill “sexual psychopaths” began making its way into popular opinion. men caught for committing rape were no longer sentenced to prison but admitted to mental health hospitals where they would be given medication for their illness. because “insane” men were the ones committing acts of rape, no one considered the everyday person to be capable of such violence. this tendency has therefore negated the social norms and has promoted increase in rape violence. why is rape common? according to report of different fields on rape, brownmiller (1975), an evolutionary biologist claimed that this was how men had evolved over time which perpetuated the stereotype and excuse “men will be men”. from a biological desire, neo-darwinists theorized that rape was used as a mechanism to spread genes quickly and efficiently. by having multiple partners in a short amount of time, the desire for sex was engulfed by the need to strategically reproduce but with little to no risk of parental involvement, (burt, 1980). african attitude, norms and culture on rape: rape is as old as the history of human existence on earth. it is a global matter and is not tied to the western countries alone. as far as africa is concern, rape cases abound even in the primitive era. we should know that within socio evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 1, number 2, october 2020 ilarious 9 centric and ego-centric cultures, the roles and representation of gender and attitudes towards sexual violence against women differ. cultures which are described as feminist provide equal power to both men and women. sexual violence is likely to occur more commonly in cultures that foster beliefs of perceived male superiority, social and cultural inferiority of women. although culture is important factor to understanding sexual violence in its entirety, yet in some cases, african cultures undermine the rights and the position of women in the society. in nigeria for example, there are numerous cases of rape and gang rape, yet many go unreported. the few that get reported to the authorities are either not pursued by the police or the victim is advised to keep silent in order not to disgrace her family. nigeria is still very much a patriarchal society; a society where rules and norms are dictated and governed by men. women are assigned roles, spaces and their bodies determined by men. any woman who wishes to go against the rules and norms of the society will be punished. for example, a woman was punished because of refusing sex to her husband despite her claim she was in the manner of women. in kenya the world health organization reports that “violence against women goes beyond beatings. it includes forced marriage, dowry-related violence, marital rape, sexual-harassment intimidation at work and in educational institutions, forced pregnancy, forced abortion, forced sterilization, trafficking and forced prostitution”. sexual violence has indeed become a problem in african societies. a local organization in zaria, nigeria, found that sixteen percent of patients with sexually transmitted diseases (std) were girls under the age of fifteen, a sign of sexual assault. in 1990, the genital-urinary centre in harare, zimbabwe, treated more than ninety girls under twelve for (std), such assaults as observed in who publication, puts “african women and girls at higher risk of sexually transmitted diseases than men and boys.” in south africa, sexual violence against women is on the high proportion. women’s group in south africa estimates that a woman is raped every twenty-sixth seconds and over forty percent of south african women will be raped in their life time as observed by human-rights organizations. mclguaghlin, holds that sexual violence against women has affected the economy of the state as rape cases increased that large portion of the population is dealing with cases of psychological trauma, hiv/aids and other sexually transmitted diseases. this has made victims unable to work or even provide care for their children. sexual violence has eroded the social fabric of the economy. evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 1, number 2, october 2020 ilarious 10 along this line, paula documents that “one of the biggest issues about south africa is that, because gender based violence is so pervasive, very often it doesn’t make news unless it is dramatic…” she adds that scholars are of the view that a host of factors contribute to the high instance of rape in south africa. some of these factors include poverty, lack of education and substance abuse. however, one of the most pressing is patriarchal traditions. a culture influenced by misogyny and lack of opportunity for women is one of the biggest motivators for rape according to mclaughlin. the prevailing patriarchal ideologies and the traditional practices of paying high bride-price (lebala) give men the ownership of woman’s body by claiming that they are entitled to sex from their wives because they have paid for and own them. south africa is still very much a patriarchal society where men believe they are superior to women who they believe are there to serve them. according to green, in all the african cultures, be it zulu, xhosa, sotho and so on, women are encouraged to be subservient and submissive to men with all respect. the demand of women to be treated equal with men is challenging the status quo and some would argue, is the cause of gender based violence. consequences of rape:  vaginal or anal bleeding or infection  hypoactive sexual desire disorder  vaginitis or virginal inflammation  dyspareunia – painful sexual intercourse  vaginismusa condition affecting a woman’s ability to engage in any form of vaginal penetration.  chronic pelvic pain  urinary tract infections  pregnancy  hiv/aids sociological impact and mistreatment of victims: after a sexual assault victims are subjected to investigations and in some cases mistreatment. victims undergo medical examinations and are interviewed by police. during the criminal trial, victims suffer loss of privacy and their credibility may be challenged. sexual assault victims may also become the target of slut-shaming and cyber bullying. during criminal proceedings, publication bans and rape shields operate to protect victims from excessive public scrutiny. evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 1, number 2, october 2020 ilarious 11 pregnancy pregnancy may result from rape. the rate varies between settings and depends particularly on the extent to which non-barrier contraceptives are being used. in 1982, fertility and sterility, the journal of the american society for reproductive medicine, reports that the risk of pregnancy from rape is the same as the risk of pregnancy from a consensual sexual encounter. a study of adolescent in ethiopia found that among those who reported being raped, 17% became pregnant after rape, a figure which is similar to the 15-18% reported by rape crisis centres in mexico. a study of factors associated with teenage pregnancy in cape town, south africa, found that forced sexual initiation is the third most strongly related factor, after frequency of intercourse and use of modern contraceptives. forced sex can also result in unintended pregnancy among adult women. any pregnancy resulting from an encounter with a stranger carries a higher risk of pre-eclampsia, the condition in which hypertension arises in pregnancy is associated with significant amounts of protein in the urine, (yuzpe et al, 1982). conversely, repeated exposure to the same parent’s semen reduces the risk, through induction of paternal tolerance. sexually transmitted diseases: violent or forced sex can increase the risk of transmitting hiv. in forced vaginal penetration, abrasions and cuts commonly occur, thus facilitating the entry of the virus through the vaginal mucosa. adolescent girls are particularly susceptible to hiv infection through forced sex, and even through casual sex, because their vaginal mucous membrane have not yet acquired cellular density sufficient to provide an effective barrier that develops in the later teenage years. being a victim of sexual violence and being susceptible to hiv share a number of risk behaviours. forced sex in adolescent for instance, increases the likelihood of engaging in unprotected sex, having multiple partners, participating in sex work and substance abuse. people who experience forced sex in intimate relationships often find it difficult to negotiate condom use either because using a condom could be interpreted as mistrust of their partners or as an admission of promiscuity, or else because they fear experiencing violence from other partners. sexual coercion among adolescent and adults is also associated with low self-esteem and depression factors that are associated with many of the risk behaviours for hiv infection and other sexually transmitted diseases. remedies of rape in human societies: preventing sexual violence against women and girls is crucial for improving the livelihood and well-being of women and girls around the world. rape and sexual assault are often reflective of a persisting imbalance in power dynamics between men and women and as well as of cultural and social norms in our evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 1, number 2, october 2020 ilarious 12 societies today. to overcome these obstacles the following remedies should be put in place. i. governments in collaboration with some ngos should establish and start rape crisis centres where victims can physically visit these centres or call for assistance. these centres should play the vital role in supporting victims cope up with the psychological and sociological trauma and to guide them obtain legal justice. ii. public enlightenment by raising consciousness in society through education and awareness programmes. traditional chiefs, politicians, police, churches, judiciary and the general public should be sensitized about violence against women and girls. iii. new insights into sex roles are needed. cultural norms and practices that put men more superior to women should at least be de-emphasized to give women a sense of belonging, recognition and freedom to exercise their roles in the society. iv. long term imprisonment of up to 20 years should be imposed by the law on rapists. this will serve as deterrent measure to others. v. education of girls to the dangers of rape is very important. parents must give their girls parental support so that they in turn can develop confidence in their parents and report accordingly any act of molestation done to them or incidents of physical proximity, inappropriate touching by relative or stranger. parents should educate their girls never to let a stranger within arm’s length, and never to accept sweets or any gift from a stranger; never to lead a stranger to isolated places he wants to visit; to beware of overfriendliness. girls from poor and unhappy families are most vulnerable targets as they are starved for affection. van drivers who ferry children between home and school may be advantaged of a friendly child. vi. women and girls should avoid putting on dresses that expose their body parts as some men are sexually aroused when seeing such half-naked dressed women and girls. vii. women should be made aware of the laws against rape and molestation. male judges should not be too easy on rapists and too hard on women victims as the case may be trials must be time bound and punishment meted out appropriately. viii. churches should include in sunday school programmes teachings about rape as a dangerous weapon of the enemy against children in the world. the parish priest should teach this by himself and not to assign it to a church teacher, catechist or sunday school teacher. ix. parents should be taught that the line of communication between them and their children should always be tension-free. many parents think that children are too young to be told about rape as it evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 1, number 2, october 2020 ilarious 13 will frighten them unduly. children must be made aware that there is a small number of wicked people in the society. conclusion rape is a global matter and it calls for global concerted efforts to control it. governments of the world should join hands in combating this pandemic because of the effects it has caused to world societies. many women and girls die in silence because of the fear and stigmatization attached to rape. the sociological and psychological trauma of being rejected by husband, family and friends is a sickness that takes longer time to cure. the side effects of rape are tremendous. a single sexual act is enough to spread contagious and deadly diseases like aids, syphilis and gonorrhea. in addition, the victims have to endure mental and emotional stress. more disheartening is that victims are considered as social outcasts to say the least. to remedy the incidence of rape, governments should come out with stringent measures against rapists. traore mori suggests that such devilish intentioned men should without hesitation be made to face death or be castrated. we must all embark on nation-wide education on rape-consciousness. a counseling department should be set up to connect rape victims to regain their selfconfidence. references askin, k.d. 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(2010). bodied mindfulness: women’s spirits, bodies and places. waterloo, ontario: wilfrid laurier university press. yuzpe, a.a. smith, r.p & rademaker, a.w. (1982). “a multicentre” clinic investigation employing ethinyl estradiol combined with dinorgestrel as a postcoital contraceptive agent.” fertility and sterility. 37(4): 508513. pmid 7040117. evaia: international journal of ethics and values, vol. 2 no. 1, december 2021 (issn: 2787-0448) ogu 45 isaiah berlin’s value pluralism: implications for ethno-religiuos tolerance in nigeria uchechukwu kizito ogu, phd dept of educational foundations college of education, zing taraba state (ucheogu14@gmail.com, +234 803 663 8947) orcid 0000-0002-8869-7804 abstract this work discusses isaiah berlin’s insight on value pluralism and its implication for ethno-religious tolerance and respect in nigeria. nigeria’s ethno-religious diversity and plural nature has posed one of the greatest challenges to her development. the history of nigeria has thus been a history of strife, crises and conflicts largely borne out of ethnic and religious differences. the crises facing nigeria as visible in jos plateau crises therefore largely predicate on indigene-settler dialectic, minority question, ethnic hegemony, religious differences, religious fundamentalism and, ethnic and religious politics. these have become signs that nigerians have failed to appreciate the multiplicity of human values, ends and incommensurable and incompatible nature people according to berlin share with one another. it is against these backdrops, that this paper attempts to employ berlin’s insight on value pluralism to promote a culture of ethno-religious tolerance. with expository method the paper espouses the meaning of relevant concepts such as tolerance, ethno-religious tolerance and multiculturalism. with the analytic method, this paper examines berlin’s value pluralism and how it can be used to boost ethno-religious tolerance in nigeria. this paper submits that the lack of a single metric with which to judge human values, and the fact that human cannot dependably evaluate the truth claims of competing moral standpoints, means that nigerians must accept everyone as he is, tolerate and respect the beliefs and choices of others both at the social and private levels. this paper therefore concludes that no religion or tribe can dependably claim to be superior to others and so enforcing a single religion would backfire as belief cannot be compelled by force. as such, nigerian institutions charged with the responsibility of promoting peace and tolerance in nigeria should be strengthened and stiffer penalties imposed on perpetrators of religious and ethnic crises in order to curb the rise of religious crises in nigeria. keywords: incommensurability; incompatibility; value pluralism; tolerance; multiculturalism. introduction the multicultural and plural nature of nigeria is a reality. this diversity could be seen in the areas of language with the country said to have over 250 indigenous languages, religion and ethnicity. nigeria has three dominant mailto:ucheogu14@gmail.com evaia: international journal of ethics and values, vol. 2 no. 1, december 2021 (issn: 2787-0448) ogu 46 religions; christianity, islam and atr with a multiplicity of ethnic groups said to be over 400 (aghemelo and osumah, 2009). other areas where this plurality manifests are in occupation, dress and food patterns etc. this has been a major source of division rather than of strength. unfortunately, the numerous efforts to mold the people into one cohesive unit has not succeeded in overcoming the challenge of diversity. as such, each passing day, gets nigerians further divided along religious and ethnic lines. shuaib (2014) rightly notes the most potent tools used by mischief makers to cause disaffection, hatred, disunity and tribal war in the country are ethnicity and religion. this affects not just social cohesion but also economic and political development. the diversity crises in nigeria is, however, manifest in the indigene-settler conflicts, minority questions, religious fundamentalism, ethnic politics, religious politics, resource control conflicts, agitation for self-determination and other conflicts especially in some parts of the middle belt states, south south, south east and south west states. these conflicts with their multidimensional consequences have posed a great obstacle to the progress, economic growth, political instability and overall socio-economic development of nigeria (edewor, aluko and folrain, 2014; salawu, 2010). today almost every ethnic nationality and religion has a body speaking for it and ostensibly protecting its interest. in the ambience of religion, there is the christian association of nigeria (can), pentecostal fellowship of nigeria (pfn), supreme council for islamic affairs (scia) and jama’tu nasril islam (jni) for christians and muslims respectively. socio-culturally, there is ohaneze ndigbo for the igbo nation, afenifere and odua peoples congress for the yoruba nation arewa consultative forum (acf) and northern elders forum (nef) for the northern part of the country. indeed, the discordant tunes being played by these groups and bodies have led to a fractured relation among the various ethnic groups and religions. the implication of this is that national unity suffers while cherished national values such as patriotism, tolerance, social justice, equity and inclusiveness which are values clearly spelt out in the national philosophy of nigeria to promote national unity and social cohesion are lost conceptual clarification toleration/tolerance andrew murphy opines that the tendency to use toleration and tolerance interchangeably has encouraged a misunderstanding of the liberal tradition and impeded efforts to improve upon it. he defines “toleration” as a set of social or political practices and “tolerance” as a set of attitudes (murphy, 1997). here, however, the two terms are employed interchangeably for the use here involves the dispositions – institutional practices and individual attitudes. murphy evaia: international journal of ethics and values, vol. 2 no. 1, december 2021 (issn: 2787-0448) ogu 47 further suggests that toleration denotes forbearance from imposing punitive sanctions for dissent from prevailing norms. this is what harrison (1987:427) calls “the practice of deliberately not curtailing the freedom of others. horton and nicholson (1992:4) describe it as “a deliberate choice not to interfere with conduct that is disapproved. toleration involves at least, a disapproval of the conduct/action that is tolerated, for if we approve of an action, it is then difficult to see how we can be said to tolerate it. in other words, toleration involves a complex blend of rejection and acceptance. at the heart of toleration is self-control. when we tolerate an action, we resist our urge and the inner push to forcefully prohibit the expression of the action or activity we find unpleasant. it is the conditional acceptance of or non-interference with beliefs, actions and practices that one considers to be wrong but still ‘tolerable’. in this sense, it is strictly a ‘negative freedom’ which murphy says fits well into the classical liberalism and other traditions that define liberty as absence of constraints. in practice, toleration and tolerance – the tendency towards toleration – indicates support for practices that prohibit ethnic or religious discrimination and allows for various forms of dissent. it can be understood as a political practice aimed at neutrality, objectivity and fairness on the part of political actors. these ideas are related in that the goal of political neutrality is deliberate restraints of the power that political authorities have to negate the life activities of citizens and subjects. the understanding of toleration is usually grounded upon an assumption about the importance of the autonomy of the individual which is central to the liberal tradition. ethno-religious tolerance religious tolerance according to zagorin signifies forbearance and the permission given by the adherents of a dominant religion for other religions to exist, even though the latter are looked at with disapproval, as unfair, mistaken or harmful. in that regard. therefore, ethno-religious tolerance refers to the ability to appreciate spiritual beliefs, values and practices which are different from one’s own. this goal is a great one due to the great diversity of religious beliefs and ethnicity in the world today. both religion and ethnicity are emotional topics. it is often difficult for people to put aside personal biases and consider issues and situations objectively. value pluralism in berlin’s political and moral thought berlin’s determination to understand cultures and their characteristic thinkers on their own terms has given rise to the suspicion that he was a relativist but he was not (galston, 2009). the incommensurability theory which as a value pluralist he holds could easily give lead to the conclusion that value pluralism is a form of relativism, the school of thought that according to berlin holds that evaia: international journal of ethics and values, vol. 2 no. 1, december 2021 (issn: 2787-0448) ogu 48 there is no objective value. berlin (1995) appreciates diversity both culturally and morally, but at the same time wanted to protect certain universal values. he distinguished between pluralism which he espoused and monism which he repudiates when he writes: pluralism, with the measure of ‘negative’ liberty that it entails, seems to me a truer and more humane ideal than the goals of those who seek in the great disciplined, authoritarian structures the ideal of ‘positive’ self-mastery by classes, or peoples, or the whole of mankind. it is truer, because it does, at least recognize the fact that human goals are many, not all of them commensurable, and in perpetual rivalry with one another. to assume that values can be graded on one scale, so that it is a mere matter of inspection to determine the highest, seems to me to falsify our knowledge that men are free agents, to represent moral decision as an operation which a slide-rule could, in principle perform (1995:167). berlin describes his philosophical position as follows: “if, as i believe, the ends of men are many, and not all of them are in principle compatible with each other, then the possibility of conflict— and of tragedy—can never wholly be eliminated from human life, either personal or social. the necessity of choosing between absolute claims is then an inescapable characteristic of the human condition” (1995: 168). this is an acknowledgment of diversity and plurality in values and ends in both personal and social life. berlin denied that there is a single highest value, that there is a single metric by which all values can be ranked, and that the many goods and principles we regard as worthy form a harmonious whole. his fundamental notion is that in our (moral) universe, not only is there a diversity of values and ends but that which we consider to be good and worthwhile is itself filled with tension and conflict. these conflicts and tension occur not only between societies, but also within societies, within groups with their different subcultures and even within the various roles individuals play in life. berlin (1999) writes: in life as normally lived the ideals of one society and culture clash with evaia: international journal of ethics and values, vol. 2 no. 1, december 2021 (issn: 2787-0448) ogu 49 those of another, and at times come into conflict within the same society, and often enough, within the moral experience of a single individual; that such conflicts cannot always, even in principle, be wholly resolved (171). an example of a value conflicts which berlin cited is the conflict between liberty and equality, justice and mercy, tolerance and order, liberty and social justice, resistance and prudence which is intrinsic to human life. berlin (1999) argues that: it follows that when the pursuit of equality comes into conflict with other human aims, be they what they may such as the desire for happiness or pleasure, or for justice or virtue, or colour and variety in a society for their own sake, or for liberty of choice as an end in itself, or for the fuller development of all human faculties it is only the most fanatical egalitarian that will demand that such conflicts invariably be decided in favour of equality alone, with relative disregard of the other 'values' concerned. we are confronted not only with the problems of the incompatibility of values and ends but also with that of commensurability. there is no commonly shared yardstick available by which these value conflicts can be resolved. thus, berlin not only showed that there is moral diversity, but also that there are conflicts within the good, including different value system and different concepts of justice for resolving these conflicts. thus, human lives should not be molded into universal and monist systems of values and norms. berlin is so subjectivist in moral matters by teaching that fundamental values spoke to objective features of the human species and the circumstances in which we are placed. but the things we rightly value are multiple, incommensurable and in conflict with one another. in practice (and often in theory), to realize one’s value is to subordinate another. and not just in individual lives, cultures and moral codes constitute clashing assemblies of goods and principles. there is much to be said for magnanimous pride, and also for reverent humility; for an ethics that gives pride of place to citizenship and for one that focuses on the well-being of the soul. but they cannot be made to cohere with one another; we must choose between them, “the world that we encounter in ordinary evaia: international journal of ethics and values, vol. 2 no. 1, december 2021 (issn: 2787-0448) ogu 50 experience is one in which we are faced with choices between ends equally ultimate and claims equally absolute, the realization of some of which must inevitably involve the sacrifice of others” (171). incompatibility and incommensurability in the value pluralism of berlin value conflicts (dilemmas) are characterized by a necessary combination of incompatibility and incommensurability, which in turn leads to a situation in which something needs to be sacrificed. incompatibility means that in life not all values (or different priorities in values) can be successfully combined with one another at the same time. thus, it follows that not all the values can be accepted at the same time. incompatibility arises because of the limitations of time, space, resources and means which make it difficult for one to choose to do everything at the same time. thus, one cannot have or do everything and so must have to choose. scarcity and finiteness of man and human existence lead to conflicts. these according to humanists, are important roots of evil (aarsbergen-ligtvoet, 2006). incompatibility needs not lead to conflict if it is very clear which of the values at stake is better or more important. however, it becomes a true dilemma if both values in conflict are equally important. for instance, a policeman is chasing a criminal and at a road junction, encounters an accident victim writhing in pains and begging to be taken to the hospital: there are many objective ends, ultimate values, some incompatible with others, pursued by different societies at various times, or by different groups in the same society, by entire classes or churches or races, or by particular individuals within them, any one of which may find itself subject to conflicting claims of uncombinable, yet equally ultimate and objective ends (berlin, 1990:172). the term ‘incommensurability’ is thus used by berlin to describe the phenomena that within a specific (personal or common) value system, values are considered equally compelling and there is no common and pre-given higher value to which one can refer to in order to resolve the value conflict. thus, value conflict becomes a true dilemma when there is not only incompatibility but also incommensurability. incompatibility is therefore a necessary but not a sufficient characteristic for a value conflict. for berlin “objective ends” are ends that are recognizable as a human end by other people. he believes in a common horizon of values. the number of values and ends cannot be finite and therefore, we can recognize them, although we may not share the same importance other people attach to them. evaia: international journal of ethics and values, vol. 2 no. 1, december 2021 (issn: 2787-0448) ogu 51 the power of choice berlin states that choice is essential to man and it is important that the human power of choice be respected and not be destroyed. humans should be allowed certain areas in which they can act without obstruction (negative liberty). berlin also characterized humans as beings who shape their lives as well as other people’s lives “…active beings, pursuing ends, shaping their own and others' lives, feeling, reflecting, imagining, creating in constant interaction and intercommunication with other human bangs” (berlin, 1999: 181). again, he calls men “unpredictably self-transforming human beings” (berlin, 1995: 181). these characterizations presuppose that man has no fixed or essential nature and is not destined to follow some pre-fixed goals, that is, a goal or end which he does not contribute to. when berlin defines human beings as self-transforming beings, he agrees with the existentialists’ principle that “existence precedes essence.” this means that human beings have no predetermined essence. when they are born, they exist and then create their own essence afterwards by their own actions. there is no human nature fixed in advance of human existence. the manifestations and causes of ethno-religious crises in nigeria according to symth and robinson (2001), nigeria is a state where major political issues are variously and violently contested and examined along the lines of religious, ethnic and even regional divisions in the country. this is why osaghae and suberu (2005) have rightly described nigeria as one of the most deeply divided states in africa. the issues that generate the fiercest contestation they said include those that are considered fundamental to the existence and legitimacy of the state, over which competing groups tend to adopt exclusionary, winner-takes-all strategies. these include the control of state power, resource allocation, and citizenship (osaghae and suberu, 2005). the history of nigeria since independence has been one of ethnic and religious crises, the high point being the civil war fought between the igbo of then east central nigeria and the rest of nigeria between 1967 and 1970. since then, it has been one case of bizarre experiences in the domain of religious violence after another. some of the worst cases include the kasuwan magani in 1980, zango kataf and gure kahuga in 1987, kafanchan and lere in 1987, ilorin and jerein of 1989, tafawa balewa in 1991 as well as the 1992 crisis in zango kataf. there is also the highly violent and devastating crisis of kaduna in february and may of 2000, as a result of the introduction of sharia law in some northern states which claimed thousands of lives and destruction of property worth billions of naira. evaia: international journal of ethics and values, vol. 2 no. 1, december 2021 (issn: 2787-0448) ogu 52 aside these crises that have seeming religious undertone, there are also ethnic inspired crises such as the ife and modakeke crisis in osun state, the ongoing and protracted tiv and jukun crisis in some parts of southern taraba state, itsekiri and ijaw crisis in warri, delta states, the ilaje and ijaw crisis in the riverine area of ondo state. in the view of sulaiman (2016), most religious crises have occurred mostly in the northern part of the country between the hausa/fulani muslims and christian ethnic minorities. the two dominant religions have had their fair share of violence based on religious affiliations and policies. the situation is not helped by the multi-ethnic nature of nigeria. the over 180 million people of nigeria are divided among about 250 ethnic groups. on this, dan isaac (2004) of the bbc wrote: the broad categorization of a muslim hausaspeaking north and a christian south made up of two dominant tribes – the yoruba in the southwest and the ibo in the south-east – is a vast oversimplification. in some states across central nigeria, for example, it is possible to drive down a road, stopping at each tiny settlement, encountering a different language spoken in every single one. and to further complicate this ethnic mix, over the decades and even centuries, people have moved around what is now modern nigeria. given the presence of these religions that supposedly preach peace, one would expect that the relations between the different ethnic nationalities would be peaceful and harmonious, but they have tended to impart negatively on the nation creating mistrust, tension and unrest. religion as dukor (1988) rightly said is not intrinsically bad but its disintegrating force can be attributed to the organizers and organization of religion, the preachers and their preaching, the propagators and the propagation of religion. in congruence with this, sulaiman (2016) has identified several factors which have caused and continue to cause religious crisis in nigeria. they include: 1. religious intolerance, which is a blind and fixated mental and psychological negative attitude towards religious beliefs and practices that are contrary to one’s cherished beliefs and practices. 2. religious fanaticism, which is a violent and unreasoning religious enthusiasm and an excessive irrational zeal to defend one’s religion. 3. negative reportage by the media. some religious crises are known to have been instigated by misinformation by the press through junk journalism and sensational headlines. 4. aggressive or militant preaching/evangelism. this means an offensive and coercive approach to conversion and propagation of one’s religious evaia: international journal of ethics and values, vol. 2 no. 1, december 2021 (issn: 2787-0448) ogu 53 faith. this happens when any religious group or individual preacher within that group sets out to use force to convert those they consider infidels or unbelievers to their own religious system. 5. indoctrination. when people are wrongly taught, what follows is obsession which invariably leads to violence. 6. external influence. there is mutual suspicion and distrust among nigerians. while some people think that christianity is a tool for western imperialism and expansionism, others think that muslims have ties with saudi arabia (sunni) and iran (shia). 7. ethnic crisis in nigeria have largely been caused by disagreement over ownership and access to land. cost of ethno-religious violence in nigeria the devastating consequences of ethno-religious conflicts can be felt in the destabilization of the stability order. these conflicts and crises have inflicted untold hardship on both individuals in terms of loss of lives and property and the government in terms of provision of relief materials to victims of the crises. for instance, the february 2000 religious crisis in kaduna alone claimed not less than 3000 lives (sulaiman, 2016). secondly, it has also dented the image of nigeria abroad as many countries are forced to issue travel warnings to their citizens not to visit nigeria as a result of ethnic and religious tensions that may arise without warning. according to information obtained from the us embassy and consulate in nigeria, the us department of state in a travel advisory dated 5th april, 2017 warned u.s. citizens of the risks of travelling to nigeria and recommended that u.s. citizens avoid all non-essential travels to adamawa, bauchi, borno, gombe, kano, and yobe states because of the precarious security situation in northeast nigeria. similarly, the government of canada in february, 2021 advised canadian citizens to avoid non-essential travels to nigeria due to the unpredictable security situation throughout the country and the significant risk of terrorism, crime, inter-communal clashes, armed attacks and kidnappings (icir, 2021) there is no doubting the fact that these security warning do not augur well for the economic development of nigeria. implications of berlin’s value pluralism for ethno-religious tolerance in nigeria in no country today is isaiah berlin’s pluralism and liberalism more relevant than in nigeria. this is given the challenges she faces particularly but not limited to national integration. nigeria is a multicultural and of course a culturally diverse country. this diversity could be seen in the areas of language, religion, occupation, food and dress patterns etc. while in other countries such as the united states, canada, ghana and so on, diversity has been a source of strength. however, in nigeria, it has been a divisive factor. evaia: international journal of ethics and values, vol. 2 no. 1, december 2021 (issn: 2787-0448) ogu 54 the 1999 constitution of the federal republic of nigeria (as amended) in chapter 4 section 38(1) states that “every person shall be entitled to freedom of thought, conscience and religion, including freedom to change his religion or belief, and freedom … to manifest and propagate his religion or belief in worship, teaching, practice and observance” (frn, 1999). the afore mentioned provision of the constitution recognizes and appreciates not only the plural nature of nigeria but also individual complexity and differences which berlin’s value pluralism seeks to protect. while successive governments in nigeria have enacted policies to promote national integration, the tolerance level of nigerians of different religious and ethnic groups, however, remain ridiculously low, aided in most parts by state sanctioned policies which seem to promote the interests of one ethnic group and religion above the interests of others. this is only going to lead to more conflicts in the society. for as berlin opines, no culture and by implication, no religion or ethnic group is superior to the other. this is because the human society contains a panorama of a variety of cultures, each pursuing different and sometimes incompatible ways of life and possessing different ideals and standards of values. his acknowledgement of the lack of a single metric by which all values can be judged shows that there is no way to determine which of the religion or ethnic group in nigeria possesses the highest truth value and so superior to others. this compels every nigerian to accept people’s right to hold any religious belief and opinion even if it does not agree with his. when government’s policies and programmes reflect this berlin’s proposal, the frequency and incidence of religiously motivated crises and conflicts in nigeria would reduce. it would also ensure that there is no forceful and violent conversion of the adherents of one religion to another. it would also create an open playing field for everyone to operate without fear of being victimized and killed. while christianity and islam have opposing worldviews and thus incommensurable and incompatible with each other to some degree, there are, however, common values which their adherents can refer to build a culture of tolerance. such values include peacefulness, truth, justice, forgiveness, love and empathy, courage and patience, respect for the sanctity of human lives and so on. however, the presence of these common values in both religions does not make both the same. the different values of both religions are compelling, competing with each other and there is no common or pre-given value to which one can refer in order to resolve conflict arising from their interaction. thus given this situation, berlin advocates a compromise. this compromise involves accepting every religion for what it values and this demands tolerance on the part of individual citizens of nigeria as painful and difficult it may be. evaia: international journal of ethics and values, vol. 2 no. 1, december 2021 (issn: 2787-0448) ogu 55 tolerance is a choice which every nigerian is condemned to make so as to maintain a free social life. the government of nigeria at all levels must create a level playing field for all religious groups to flourish and ensure that no nigerian is discriminated upon on the basis of religion or ethnicity. the government must enact policies that promote inclusiveness and which gives every nigerian a sense of belonging rather than of religious and ethnic particularism. no religion or ethnic group should by a deliberate (or otherwise) policy of the state be given the impression that it is superior to others. this demands that government’s programmes designed to promote inclusiveness such as the federal character principle should be strengthened. the principle as stated in the constitution aims to ensure that all public service institutions fairly reflect the diversity (linguistic, ethnic and geographic) of the country. it is meant to ensure that there is no predominance of persons from a few states or a few ethnic groups or other sectional groups in that government or in any of its agencies. keeping to the provisions of the principle ensures that every nigerian is giving a sense of belonging notwithstanding the diversities of ethnic origin, culture, language and religion. thus the government must ensure that there is equitable distribution of appointments, natural and economic resources for the benefits of all. in addition, berlin’s position that communication between cultures is only possible “because what makes men human is common to them, and acts as a bridge between them” (1990:11) demands the promotion of interfaith dialogue. interfaith dialogue is aimed at creating greater understanding and cooperation between christians, muslims and adherents of other faiths in nigeria. interfaith dialogue gerard forde says refers to cooperative and positive interaction between people of different religious traditions at both the individual and institutional level. it does not take away a party’s right to their own beliefs but it respects the right of the others to practice their own faith freely. interfaith dialogue is a necessity that counters terrorism and promotes the justice and peace that befits our common faith in our god that creates all. it maintains and promotes understanding, cooperation and mutual respect that will ensure that nigerians live a peaceful and harmonious social life. this paper calls for an interfaith commission to be established by the government and charged with the responsibility of promoting dialogue at both the federal, state and local council levels. the commission chairmanship should be on a rotational basis and should have equal numbers of christians and muslims as members. finally, the government as berlin suggests, should maintain a precarious equilibrium that will prevent the occurrence of desperate situations of intolerable choices. this will greatly minimize political and social conflicts and evaia: international journal of ethics and values, vol. 2 no. 1, december 2021 (issn: 2787-0448) ogu 56 ensure that the country’s diverse nature is maintained. furthermore, berlin’s (1990) liberal proposal that the government should aim to give “each human group sufficient room to realize its own idiosyncratic, unique, particular ends without too much interference with the ends of others is very much applicable to nigeria today. so long as groups do not harm or damage others, the government should interfere or intervene as little as possible in their affairs. in other words, the government should not try to impose a specific vision of the common good that contains an ideal for society like the government of nigeria is doing currently with the proposed enforcement of ‘decent’ dressing. conclusion indubitably, ethno-religious tolerance is one of the outstanding banes of development in nigeria. this is based on the crises, tension and conflicts it breeds in the country. these conditions are exacerbated by the mutual distrust, suspicion, rivalry and intolerance among nigerians of different ethnic nationalities and their ethno-religious affiliations. in all these, the nigerian state has been detrimentally polarized in such a way that people generally work against others. this has been the basis of present nigeria’s instability and chaos. against these backdrops, there is great need for nigerians to cultivate the culture of ethno-religious tolerance, appreciate cultural and religious diversities and respect the different human beliefs, feelings, practices and opinions which are what berlin’s value pluralism calls for. works cited aarsbergen-ligtvoet, c. (2006). isaiah berlin: a value pluralist and humanist view of human nature and the meaning of life. amsterdam-new york: rodopi. aghemelo, t. a. & osumah, o. (2009) nigerian government and politics: an introductory perspective. benin city: mara mon bros & ventures limited. berlin, i. (1990). the crooked timber of humanity. edited by henry hardy, princeton: princeton university press. berlin, i. (1995). liberty: incorporating four essays on liberty, edited by henry hardy oxford: oxford university press. berlin, i. (1999). concepts and categories, edited by henry hardy, london: pimlico publishers. berry, j.w., kalin, r. & taylor, d. (1997). multiculturalism and ethnic attitudes in canada. ottawa, canada: ministry of supply and services. colombo, e. “multiculturalisms”, sociopedia.isa, 1-17. edewor, p.a., aluko, y.a. & folarin, s.f., 2014, ‘managing ethnic and cultural diversity for national integration in nigeria’, developing country studies 4(6), 70–76. evaia: international journal of ethics and values, vol. 2 no. 1, december 2021 (issn: 2787-0448) ogu 57 federal republic of nigeria (1999). the constitution of the federal republic of nigeria. lagos: government printers. galston, w.a. (2009) moral pluralism and liberal democracy: isaiah berlin heterodox liberalism. review of politics, 71(1). cambridge: cambridge university press, 85-99. harrison, j. (1987) utilitarianism and toleration”, philosophy, 62, 421-434. heywood, a. (2007). political ideologies: an introduction (4th ed.). new york: palgrave macmillan. horton, j. and nicholson, p. (1992). toleration: philosophy and practice, brookfield vt: avebury. isaac, d. (2004) “analysis; behind nigeria’s violence”, accessed from http://news.bbc.co.uk/ on october 27th, 2021. lukes, s. (1998) “isaiah berlin in conversation with steven lukes” samagundi, no 120, new york: skidmore college, 52-134. dukor, m. “religion and the nigerian nationhood”, nigerian studies in religious tolerance, edited by momoh c. s. vol. 3, 1988, 61. mishra, s. and kumar, c.b. (2014). “understanding diversity: a multicultural perspective”, iosr journal of humanities and social science, 19(9), 62-66. murphy, a.r. (1997). “tolerance, toleration and the liberal tradition”, polity, 29(4), new york: palgrave macmillan journals, 593-623. osaghae, e. and suberu, r.t. (2005). “a history of identities, violence, and stability in nigeria”, crise working paper no. 6, (oxford: centre for research on inequality, human security and ethnicity (crise). salawu, b. (2010). “ethno-religious conflicts in nigeria: causal analysis and proposals for new management strategies” european journal of social sciences, 13(3), 343-353. sam, d.l. and berry, j.w. (eds.), (2016). the cambridge handbook on acculturation psychology, (cambridge: cambridge university press. shuaib, a.i. “towards achieving ethno-religious peaceful coexistence in nigeria” paper presented at the first annual international conference on ethnic and religious conflict resolution and peacebuilding in new york october 1st, 2014. smyth, m. and robinson, r. (eds.). (2001). researching violently divided societies: ethical and methodological issues. tokyo: united nations university press. sulaiman, k.o. “religious violence in contemporary nigeria: implications and options for peace and stability order” journal for the study of religion, 29(1), 2016, 86. http://news.bbc.co.uk/ evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, number 1, may, 2020 evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 matthew ike obijekwu, adeline n. okeke, augustina u. okafor page 67 responsible parenthood: a paradigm shift for sustainable peaceful co-existence, social security and political stability in nigeria matthew ike obijekwu, phd1;dr. adeline n. okeke2; and rev. sr. augustina u. okafor3 1chukwuemekaodumegwuojukwu university, igbariam, anambra state email: mi.obijekwu@coou.edu.ng 2school of general studies, anambra state polytechnic, mgbakwu, anambra state; 3department of guidance and counselling, nnamdi azikiwe university, anambra state abstract in this paper, we shall consider responsible parenthood as a paradigm shift to sustainable peaceful co-existence, social security and political stability in nigeria. the issue, as we argue in this paper, is that most of the anti-social behaviour found among some members of the society is due to the negligence and irresponsible parenting observable in most families. herein, we argue that families have enough to contribute to the sustainable peace, social security and political stability in the globe, and nigeria in particular. the truth remains that every human person comes from a family either of a single parent or of both parents. suffice to say that every terrorist, kidnapper, armed robber, militant, prostitute, etc comes from a family. the aforementioned persons could be said to be brought up by irresponsible parenthood. contrary to this is what the titled of this paper considers as responsible parenthood. using analytic method, therefore, we examine the concept of responsible parenthood. we also consider the import of responsible parenthood with regard to peaceful co-existence, social security and political stability in nigeria. we find out that families have serious role to play in achieving and/or promoting mutual cooperation, mutual understanding of the tribes, ethnic groups, and cultural relations in nigeria. we further maintain that if families, parents as the architects and pilots of each family, should take up, and be committed to their primary responsibilities, definitely, there will be relative peace, social security and political stability in the world and in nigeria in particular. key words: responsible parenthood, peaceful co-existence, social security, political stability, nigeria evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 matthew ike obijekwu, adeline n. okeke, augustina u. okafor page 68 introduction one may ask; what is responsible parenthood? how can responsible parenthood be a paradigm to sustainable peaceful co-existence, social security and political stability in the globe and nigeria in particular? answering these questions will help us to discover the relevance of family in human and social reconstruction. family, as it stands, is a universal phenomenon. early philosophers, especially political philosophers did not pay much attention to family as the nucleus of social and political change. according to austin (2020), kant and aristotle did so in fairly way or in fairly terse manner. getting at the end of twenty century, the discourse on family changed. today, family issues have been explored by philosophy due to the place of family in contemporary society. currently, due to occurrences of child abuse and other challenges facing the entire society, attention has been drawn to the child’s rights and parents’ obligation to their children. austin (2020) notes that the claim that parents has obligations, as parents, are less controversial; the basis of this claim has been the problem. austin (2020) asserts that the concern of philosophers is not just on the theoretical questions related to parental rights and obligations; their attentions have been also focused on the practical questions in the realm of human life. some issues on discussion are basically with respect to medical decision making, the autonomy of children, child discipline, the licensing of parents, and the property of different forms of moral, political, and religious upbringing have continued to receive increased attention (austin, 2020). having seen the dimensions of philosophical discourse relating to family in contemporary society, this paper chooses to consider the impact of responsible parenthood in achieving peaceful living, social security and political stability. the fact remains that the role of families in every community, state and nation can never be overestimated. families are the nuclei of every society. aristotle, in his politics, observes the generative structure of the family (nwoko, 1988). for him, conglomeration of families or households brings about communities; conglomeration of communities form states; and conglomeration of states forms a nation and by extension the world. ordinarily, every state or nation desires for responsible citizens, and there can never be a responsible nationstate without responsible families. of course, there can never be responsible families without responsible parenthood. our world, at this point in time, seems to be a confusion world; a world of war, conflict, terrorism, violence, marginalization, discrimination, and exclusion of some sections of the world. across the six geopolitical zones in nigeria, from the south-east, south-west, south-south, north-west, northeast to north-central, there has been one security problem or the other. among these problems include herdsmen and farmer’s problem, boko haram evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 matthew ike obijekwu, adeline n. okeke, augustina u. okafor page 69 challenges, fulani militants, niger delta militants to mention a few. other related issues here involve armed robbery, kidnapping, cultism, prostitution, extra-judicial killings, etc. the perpetrators of these anti-social actions are not from the moon or the sky; instead, they are from their different individual families and communities. hence, the burden of this paper is to consider responsible parenthood as paradigm shift for sustainable peaceful coexistence, social security and political instability in nigeria. parent(s), parenthood and responsible parenthood: what are they? the three concepts, “parent”, “parenthood and “responsible parenthood” are vital concepts in this paper. so explaining these concepts will help in the better understanding of the paper. the concepts parent(s) and parenthood have been so difficult to define. the reason is that there are different understandings or attachments to their meaning. of course, various approaches have been used; such as biological approach, legal approach, and social approach to define the concepts. among those approaches include biological parenthood, social parenthood and legal parenthood. most of these approaches are due to modern technological development, adoption policies, and other recent evolution in human society regarding definition of rights as posited by philosophers, legal jurisprudence, constitutions of various nationstates, etc. though, a different approach has been taken because of the scope of this work. there are interesting topic here one can still research on as regards the societal influences on child’s and parental engagements, which are also very important for social change. a parent can simply be defined as someone with weighty rights and responsibilities regarding a given child (elizabeth & millum, 2016). explaining further, they state that parents always have decision-making rights over most areas of their child’s life and rights to exclude others from making such decisions. as far as parents are able to fulfill the obligation to educate, feed and offer healthcare services to their children, they can take other decision on behalf of their children. they determine when they play, eat, and associate with friends (austin, 2020). this position is with regard to determining the rights of children, the parents’ rights and obligation over their children however, parenthood, as defined by merriam-webster dictionary, is “the state of being a mother or a father. the term, ‘responsible parenthood’ is of two words, responsible and parenthood. here, the word, responsible is serving as an adjective qualifying parenthood. it informs us more on the type of parenthood we are talking about in this paper. of course, there are different kinds of parenthood as mentioned earlier like social parenthood, legal parenthood and biological parenthood. such are not what this paper is considering. contrary to responsible parenthood is irresponsible parenthood. evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 matthew ike obijekwu, adeline n. okeke, augustina u. okafor page 70 the term responsible parenthood is therefore defined “as the will and ability of parents to respect and to do the needs and aspirations of the family and children. it is also seen as the ability of a parent to detect the need, happiness and desire of the children and helping them to become responsible and reasonable children. it is a shared responsibility of the husband and the wife to determine and achieve the desire number, spacing, and timing of the children according to their own family life and aspirations, taking into account psychological preparedness, health status, socio-cultural and economic concerns. there are social, religious and cultural dimensions of responsible parenthood. one can rightly say that the concept “responsible parenthood” has a christian origin. majda cernic istenic (2007), in his book, understandings of responsible parenthood among university educated: ‘listening to our conscience is a very demanding vocation’, points out that the doctrines on marriage and family by the protestant and catholic churches seemed to have led to the emergence of the idea of responsible parenthood. emergence of the notion of responsible parenthood istenic (2007) traces the emergence of the responsible parenthood to the period of early christians. in his view, before the notion of responsible parenthood, christianity was primarily pre-occupied with the idea of community attitude; brotherhood and sisterhood. with this attitude, family is seen as an obstacle to the enforcement of the community;, brotherhood and sisterhood idea of the early christians (istenic, 2007). at this time, religion influences people’s thoughts about children, with regard to their meaning, their desirability and their rights (istenic, 2007). the concern of the church, that is, the early christians was on the virginity which was considered the supreme value. as a result, marriage and family were seen as an expression of human weakness and limitation. the real christians were those who mastered and controlled their emotions and instinct (istenic, 132). mount cited in istenic (2007) assertes that the limitation of expression of love did not pertain only to husband and wife, but also to emotions between parents and children, not love. “the church”, as he says, maintains that "too much love between parents and children was a humiliation to god." so understanding of family, at the renaissance period, was seen as the place of individuality, and in opposition or a threat, to broader community. contrary to the position of the church however was the position of the emerging nation-states. the church was accused of greed by the state for activities like collection of indulgences for “sinful” sensual pleasures. for this reason, according to goody cited in istenic (2007), the church lost its position of supreme political force, and a result, turned its attention to the sphere of privacy. evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 matthew ike obijekwu, adeline n. okeke, augustina u. okafor page 71 the subtle inconsistencies between the protestant and catholic doctrines on the matter of procreation gave credence to the development of the term responsible parenthood. for the catholic, procreation is the exclusive purpose for sexual act, while for the protestant, sexual pleasure was the purpose of sexual act, and as a result, procreation is not the prime purpose for marriage, but one of its purposes (chrisman, 1983). flandrin cited in istenic (2007) notes that for protestant, married couples were allowed to limit their procreation with abstinence for the benefits (survival) of their already born children. this is in connection to population control of the number of children for each family. for the catholic, husband and wife required sexual act so as to fulfill their conjugal obligations always and without any interference in order to avoid adultery (istenic, 2007). elaborating further, chrisman (1983:192-3) points out that: despite the fact that procreation is not the primary purpose for marriage as maintained by protestant, the protestant priest taught that the upbringing of children was the primary responsibility or function of family. the family was the place where every child expresses the conversion of assignment among those reborn. the ideal upbringing of children was somewhere between repression and permissiveness, a combination of strong discipline linked with the ideology of original sin (children are by their nature sinful beings and for that reason they have to be socialized by frightening them with death and eternal damnation, and parental love). from the excerpt, responsible parenthood involves discipline of children just to correct their claimed original nature of sinfulness. it is proper to note that theory of sinfulness of a child is among the theories of children at birth. other theories include innatism championed by the rationalist philosophers, namely; rene descartes, spinoza and leibnitz who propose that at birth a child has innate ideas that develop in the course of his growth and development of the intellectual categories. this occurs in the formation of ideas as the child reflects on the perceived objects around his or her environment (omoregbe, 2005). on the other hand is the theory of tabula raza propounded by the empiricists philosophers, namely; john locke, bishop berkeley and david hume who assert that at birth human brain (a child brain) is blank like a white sheet (omoregbe, 2005). evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 matthew ike obijekwu, adeline n. okeke, augustina u. okafor page 72 ozment quoted in istenic (2007) states that contrary to the ten commandments that prescribed obedience and submission of children to parents, but did not say anything on the parent’s responsibilities to their children, that protestant catechisms from the 16th century taught: “do not live according to the principles of your parents neither obey their orders…christ asked us to respect our fathers and mothers, but not to trust them or believe them”. one can simply say that the concept of responsible parenthood is developed from the christian doctrines that emphasized the recognition of children’s rights and person’s individuality, which were later developed in subsequent years. responsible parenthood was a call for parents to exercise their parental responsibilities by the church. though, there have been several modifications of the definition to cover other areas of child’s life. it was the protestant view towards marriage and parenthood that led to outright definition of responsible parenthood, which took place between 1948 and 1965 in the frame of the world council of churches. from the review of the development of concept responsible parenthood made above, it can be deducted that: a) procreation determined the development of the concept; b) responsible parenthood emerged to address the problem of abortion as a measure to preventing conception; c) to regulate the number of children families desired to produce; d) to protect the rights and person’s of children; and e) to help parents to care for their children’s moral development, education, etc. present understanding of responsible parenthood the present understanding of responsible parenthood is no longer restricted to procreation as seen from its inception or development. it has got other approaches. nowadays, parents are either applauded or criticized on how they trained their children. those families that offer their children the basic necessity of life like sound education, moral training, good health, and other basic necessities of life are said to be responsible parents. as defined above, responsible parenthood is the will and ability of parents to respect and to do the needs and aspirations of the family and children. it is also seen as the ability of a parent to detect the need, happiness and desire of the children and helping them to become responsible and reasonable children. it is a shared responsibility of the husband and the wife to determine and achieve the desire number, spacing, and timing of the children according to their own family life and aspirations, evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 matthew ike obijekwu, adeline n. okeke, augustina u. okafor page 73 taking into account psychological preparedness, health status, socio-cultural and economic concerns (passnownow.com, accessed, 9/04/2020). the present understanding of the responsible parenthood is also visible in the united nations definition in one hand; and the state's or nation's constitutions on the other hand. certainly, responsible parenthood has posed a global debate. the united nations organization has been paying much attention to this with regard to the progressive increase in the global population, the mortality of children across the world due to abortion and use of contraception. other areas involved the promotion of child rights for adequate education, health, child's development, etc. these ideals of responsible parenthood are drawn from the previous understandings which were later modified in the 20th century. at present, responsible parenthood covers various aspects of child’s life. in the universal declaration of human rights, the united nations notes that childhood is entitled to special care and assistance (convention on the rights of the child, 1989). it asserts that family, as the fundamental group of society and the natural environment for the growth and well-being of all its members and particularly children should be afforded the necessary protection and assistance so that it can fully assume its responsibilities within the community. the convention on the rights of the child (1989) states that: the child, for the full and harmonious development of his or her personality, should grow up in a family environment, in an atmosphere of happiness, love and understanding…should be fully prepared to live an individual life in society, and brought up in the spirit of the ideals proclaimed in the charter of the united nations, and in particular in the spirit of peace, dignity, tolerance, freedom, equality and solidarity. the convention asserts further that "the child, by reason of his physical and mental immaturity, needs special safeguards and care, including appropriate legal protection, before as well as after birth". due to the global concern of good parenting, and deadly implications of irresponsible parenthood, various conventions and conferences have been organized by the united nations to improve and sustain the basic rights of children all over the world. among these conventions include: the geneva declaration of the rights of the child of 1924, the declaration of the rights of the child adopted by the general assembly on 20 november 1959; the universal declaration of human rights; the international covenant on civil and political rights (in particular in articles 23 and 24); the international covenant on economic, social and evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 matthew ike obijekwu, adeline n. okeke, augustina u. okafor page 74 cultural rights (in particular in article 10); others are seen in the statutes and relevant instruments of specialized agencies and international organizations concerned with the welfare of children, the provisions of the declaration on social and legal principles relating to the protection and welfare of children, with special reference to foster placement and adoption nationally and internationally; the united nations standard minimum rules for the administration of juvenile justice (the beijing rules) ; and the declaration on the protection of women and children in emergency and armed conflict. the united nation recognizes that, in all countries in the world, there are children living in exceptionally difficult conditions, and that such children need special consideration. it takes cognizance of the traditions and cultural values of each people for the protection and harmonious development of the child. it as well recognizes the necessity of international cooperation for improving the living conditions of children in every country, especially in the developing countries. responsible parenthood and peaceful co-existence family, as it is, is the primary agent of socialization. school, church, and peer-group influences are the secondary agents in the life of every child. so the fundamental social values like justice, equality of every human person, love, solidarity, unity, rule of law and others should be taught to the children in the individual family. family is by extension the global world. that is why some scholars like martin luther king, jr., martin buber and julius nyerere gave the inter-connective view of the world in their philosophical thoughts. julius nyerere of tanzania did describe the world as a family. family, in the understanding of julius nyerere of tanzania, as elaborated in the tanu booklet, ujamaa: the basis of african socialism and the arusha declaration of 1967 is a nucleus of the world. ‘ujamaa’, as observed in nyerere’s work, is a swahili word, which stands for “familyhood” or “brotherhood” (nyerere, 1967: 11).nyerere applied this word to interpret his own understanding of african traditional society which he believed was socialist society. the word, socialist society, as used here, involves, participation, caring and sharing society unlike karl marx view that portrays individualism and conflict orientated. for him, the root of africa socialism is founded in the concept of “familyhood.” he emphasizes that the foundation of african socialism is extended family (nyerere, 1967). despite that fact that nyerere laid much emphasizes on african society as he tried to explain the relations of africa with the world, he drew his philosophy from the general universe; it is beyond the usual idea africans have about family unit or family ties in the traditional african society. the traditional understanding of the interconnectivity that exists within the framework of community was extended to incorporate the whole humanity. nyerere, in his ujamaa: the basis of african socialism, writes: evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 matthew ike obijekwu, adeline n. okeke, augustina u. okafor page 75 familyhood in africa is extended beyond the basic family unit; that familyhood goes beyond the basic family nucleus, beyond the tribe, the community, beyond the nation. it must include the entire humanity. it forms the traditional life of the african people, where the sense of brotherhood is strong; where society is so organized that it cares about the individual; where the society looks after every one including widows and orphans; where no one is allowed to starve because of lack of wealth (nyerere, 11). this is one of the inherent values of the family. we may draw a brief universal meaning of responsible parenthood in the context of global familyhood or brotherhood, or rather global responsible parenthood. this is in relation to those individuals who have seen the world as a global family of equality, justice, respect for fundamental human rights, as against injustice, inequality, discrimination, marginalization and exclusion of some sections of the world due to racism, colonialism, and slavery/slave trade. one can as well extend to other factors like economic exploitation of the developing countries through some of the financial institutions of the world. this may be seen as a diversion from that context or content of this paper, but is among the basic responsibilities of the responsible parenthood to expose its dangers for the sake of universal peace and mutual cooperation. martin luther king, jr quoted in jones (2014: 137) once states: “injustice anywhere is a threat to justice everywhere” other principle of universal familyhood, brotherhood and/or sisterhood responsible parenthood is expected to pass to their children is such martin luther king, jr championed when he writes: all life is interrelated. all men are caught in an inescapable network of mutuality, tied in a single garment of destiny. whatever affects one directly affects all indirectly. i can never be what i ought to be until you are what you ought to be, and you can never be what you ought to be until i am what i ought to be. this is the interrelated structure of reality (obijekwu, 2020) gandhi asserts that “the good of the individual is contained in the good of all”. martin buber, in his book, i and thou, related the idea of cooperative existence. for him, “man is free, creative and fully human only to the extent evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 matthew ike obijekwu, adeline n. okeke, augustina u. okafor page 76 that he possesses, in action and suffering, in his own life, a relationship which binds him completely with others…i become through my relation to thou; as i become i, i say thou. all real living is meeting (obijekwu, 2020). responsible parenthood and social security as said earlier that family is the nucleus of every nation-state. whenever parents fail to carry out their basic responsibilities of training their children in basic norms, values and traditions of the society, automatically, the entire community, states and nation is bound to collapse, even the entire world. wherever there is a peaceful and harmonious family, there is a peaceful and harmonious world. it is a well known statement that "no one gives what he has not". the truth is that any child that is well educated or trained on the principles of peace be it family peace, community peace and nation's peace by his or her family would live to appreciate the uniqueness of humanity. these can happen under some applied conditions. first, if a child is well taken care of; this is when a child is well fed, clothed and housed (provided with shelter). second is if a child is given proper education and provided with good health facilities. finally, if a child is backed up, or equipped with sound moral training or principles to understand that all human beings are tired together irrespective of one's place of birth, race, gender, religious affiliation, ethnicity and tribe. there are some basic social security tips every child is expected to learn from his or her family even if those things were not formally taught but should be learned from imitating their parents. such things like sense of unity among the family members, dialogue, and peaceful settlement in matters of usual dispute between the parents. a fighting family is catastrophe to the society, and children from this type of family are also threats to a peaceful society. if care is not taken, they may become tools for insecurity, especially in the hands of dreadful politicians and power mongers. in nigeria, insecurity manifests in different forms like politically motivated insecurity, ethno-religious caused insecurity, economic-generated insecurity or violence as well as grouporganized insecurity. contrary to responsible parenthood is irresponsible parenthood. this has caused the world and nigeria a lot. about seventy percent of the world population are poor, and mostly from the developing countries of the world. many families are poor and hungry; as a result, cannot take care of their children’s aspiration or provide other basic necessities for family health and development. today, especially in nigeria, many children are roaming the streets without anybody caring for them. even the government could not provide assistance to some of them. for example, in the northern nigeria, the so-called evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 matthew ike obijekwu, adeline n. okeke, augustina u. okafor page 77 almajiris are said to be the abandoned children or those children that lack parental care. since they have no one to care for them, even the government does not accept them by providing their basic needs like education, food, shelter and clothing which the united nations organization (uno) considers the basic needs of every human being; they took to the street and become violent just to provide for themselves. this is the reason the boko haram initiated insecurity is considered the greatest challenge facing nigeria today. though, security, not only in nigeria, but across the globe, has become a challenge. children (be it males or females, boys or girls) are everywhere considered the most vulnerable members of the society. they can be easily manipulated through indoctrination and other incentives. they can be easily lured to commit one crime or the other. this is the mechanism of the so-called boko haram. this method was used by mohammed yusuf when he gathered some youths and little children and taught them to reject western education. he argues that western education or "boko" had brought them nothing but poverty and suffering to the region and was therefore for forbidden, or "haram" in islam (2012). boko haram simply means western education forbidden". a person in his or her right sense, or who is well brought up by a responsible parent hardly accept such a doctrine haven seen or experienced some better side of western education in africa, and nigeria in particular. this is how some of the kidnapped chibok girls and the ….girls are indoctrinated and often used by their abductors, boko haram members to perpetrate crimes, and be working as suicide bombers. so this paper contends that children should be taught the basic values by the parents so that even when they found themselves in the hands of the men and women of underworld, they can still project the basic values learnt from their families, or from their responsible parents. responsible parenthood and political stability another factor to consider here is the responsible parenthood and political stability. one may wonder the nexus between responsible parenthood and political stability. every human person is a political animal said aristotle. these basic political values parents are expected to teach their children. suffice to say that political education is very important in the present day society, especially in the present day nigeria. almost all the political thugs, if not all, employed by the politicians to commit their nefarious activities, are the product of families. they are people’s children. political stability, as used here, means absence of political conflict and violence in political society. then, there is a peaceful election, good governance, respect of human dignity and rights, etc. all these factors are obtainable in a society where there is political stability. evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 matthew ike obijekwu, adeline n. okeke, augustina u. okafor page 78 we therefore argue that children should be abreast with the basic information about workings of the society. they have right to information which among them is political information. they should be informed of the basic laws, rules and regulation of the society. they should also be educated on the fundamental human rights which are known as the universal declaration of human rights of 1948 by the united nations (un). these basic rights are also enshrined in the chapter five, section 33-45 of the 1999 constitution of the federal republic of nigeria (as amended). united nations cited in obijekwu (2020) has the following rights as the basic rights for every human person irrespective of one’s religion, race, gender, age, tribal affiliation, etc. the rights included: the right of life, right to dignity of human person, right to freedom, right to personal liberty, right to fair hearing, right to private life and family life, right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion, right to expression, press and opinion, right to peaceful assembly and association, right to freedom of movement, right to acquire and own immovable property, right to education, right to vote and be voted for in any election. these rights are attached to every human being due to his inherent nature and ontological origin, and as well inalienable rights (obijekwu, 2020), conclusion in this paper, we set out to discuss the necessity of the responsible parenthood in the world peace, social security and political stability. in fact, responsible parenthood is considered in the world as a paradigm shift in maintaining social security, political stability and peaceful co-existence in the world and nigeria in particular. in doing this, the concept of responsible parenthood is discussed. the development or emergence of the notion of responsible parenthood is as well traced which was discovered to have a christian background as it originated from the catholic and protestant doctrines of procreation and population control. above all, we conclude that the importance of responsible parenthood can never be overestimated in promotion of peace, social security and political stability if parents should be committed in their primary responsibilities; and if parents/families should provide the necessary care, education, and make the basic needs available to their children; and at the same time make them understand that humanity is one irrespective of one’s origin, race, religion, gender, classes, tribe and other factors that have continued to divide the world, be it economic factors, political factors, cultural and social factors. evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 matthew ike obijekwu, adeline n. okeke, augustina u. okafor page 79 references chrisman, miriam. 1983. “family and religion in two noble families: french catholic and english protestant”. journal of family history 8(2): 190-210. elizabeth, b. &millum, j. 2016. “parenthood and procreation”. in the stanford encyclopedia of philosophy, (usa: stanford university library of congress. https://plato.stanford.edu accessed 9/03/2020, flandrin, jean-louis. 1986. “family: kinship, family and sexuality in france from 16th to 18th century”. ljubljana: delavska enotnost. goody, jack. 1983. “the development of the family and marriage in europe”. cambridge, new york: cambridge university press. jones, r. a. 2014. “martin luther king jr.’s agape and world house”. birt, r. e (ed,), the liberatory thought of martin luther king jr: critical eassy on the philosopher king. maryland: lexington books. pp.135-156. merriam-webster.comdictionary. 2020. “parenthood”. merriam-webster, https://www.merriamwebster.com/dictionary/parenthood. access 9 march, 2020. michael w. austin. 2020. “rights and obligations of parents.” internet encyclopedia of philosophy.https://www.iep.utm.edu . accessed 9/03/2020 mount, ferdinand. 1982. the subversive family. an alternative history of love and marriage. london: counterpoint. nyerere, j. k. 1967. ujamaa: essay on socialism, a selection from writing and speeches, (dar-es-salaam, oxford university press. p.11. nyerere, j. k. 1968. freedom and socialism. dar-es-salaam: oxford university press. pp.337-66. obijekwu, i. 2020. “school: an industry of values a philosophical reflection on nigeria value system”. germany: lambert academic publishing. https://www.lap-publishing.com ozment, steven. 1983. “the family in reformation germany: the bearing and rearing of children”. journal of family history 8(2): 159-176. passnownow.com. 2020.“responsible parenthood”.https://passnownow.con/civi.eeducation. retrieved 16/03/2020 https://www.iep.utm.edu/ https://www.lap-publishing.com/ https://passnownow.con/civi.eeducation.%20%09retrieved%2016/03/2020 https://passnownow.con/civi.eeducation.%20%09retrieved%2016/03/2020 evaia: international journal of ethics and values, vol. 2 no. 1, december 2021 (issn: 2787-0448) okafor 75 regaining the religious sense of memory: a religiophilosophical proposal gabriel tochukwu okafor faculty of philosophy pontificia università antonianum, rome. uniant5780@antonianum.eu, okaforgabriel@gmail.com abstract memory keeps people abreast of the events around them. such happenings could be in the past or present. these events somewhat influence their daily choices in the hope of a better future. generally speaking, this is what memory entails. in the specific sense employed in this work, memory covers a body of the beliefs of adherents (of different religions) sustained through the years by their forebears. religious experiences form the building blocks of memory. here the experiences of their ancestors so recalled serve as the basis for present and future practices of the same religion(s). it is what collective memory guarantees. as such, the traditions they left are available in either written or oral forms. their interpretations and contextualization are evident in the onward religious experiences of their adherents. with hermeneutical method, this paper explores the religious sense of memory. it proposes a faithful retrace to the foundations of different religions to better equip those who live them in keeping the faith alive. on common grounds other works, it affirms the three things familiar within this area of study: memory has a personal dimension, a collective dimension and is relevant for present-day events which pave the way for the future. having clarified what memory could mean, it views religion as some form of memory. the loss of this could result in the loss of the authenticity of religion itself. for without recourse to memory, a great deal of what religion proffers would be lost and questions on religious authority would rise. keywords: ancestors, experience, history, memory, religion introduction experience is the best teacher, we always say. history is a recount of its lessons. memory is the record of this same history. by it, we recall past events and their corresponding effects on the present; which in itself is memory-making. a disjoint in any of these easily alters our mode of comportment in ways deep for words. what was in the past, replays in some form in the present. the ability to recall is a human faculty. at this individual level, it is an essential part of our being that we share with minded creatures. it also has a social dimension that serves the common good of a people. this aspect is reserved for humans. recognition of a person affirms their place of origin. everyone is described by this affiliation: where one is from. collective memory is the heritage of a people. its social dimension is versed and touches on diverse aspects of our mailto:uniant5780@antonianum.eu evaia: international journal of ethics and values, vol. 2 no. 1, december 2021 (issn: 2787-0448) okafor 76 social life. religion is an aspect of this social dimension that defines people’s uniqueness. however, urbaniak rightly notes this in his memories as religion: what can the broken continuity of tradition bring about?: “postmodern societies are less and less capable of maintaining the continuity of memory which used to lie at the very core of their religious identity; that is why they have become less and less religious” (1). this means that there is a religious dimension of memory. individual and collective phenomena have a tie in memory: recalling or reliving the past in the present with a specific future-directed goal. memory and religion are on this precise plane, synonymous. to lose touch with memory is to lose touch with reality. this we can also say of religious beliefs. they bring us to the same fore: reality. what we have now comes as a building block of the experiences of past generations. all forms of detachments of the past are deliberate destructions of memory and the richness within it that has contributed to our immediate situation. in his religion and the study of social memory, sakaranaho argues that memory “is intersubjectively constituted, and it is, therefore, important to take into account the social dimension of human memory” (139): be they religious or not. should they be religious, their strength of orthodoxy lies in the proper use of memory. therefore, the immediate concern of the first part of this work shall be to understand what memory entails. it will show that there is a link between memory and specific locations. every place has a history behind it. place and history give a spatio-temporal review of memory. given that this spatiotemporal review is not possible without a people, the second part of the work admits of memory as lived experiences of people whose life reads back to the eternal law of god. this bridges the gap between the past and present, plunging the people into the future. in this symphony of relations capturing the different epochs of life consist the religious sense memory holds for a people. what memory means the term memory has multiple meanings and applications based on contextual comparative usage. when considered as our abilities as humans, aquinas sees it as one of the five internal senses: of common sense, phantasy, imagination, estimative sense and memory (1a.78.4). explaining this, davies holds that by them, we are able “to coordinate, evaluate, and remember” the impacts the external senses have on us (135). in this same light, kant sees it as a faculty belonging to sensibility “of deliberately visualizing the past...” such that to “grasp something quickly in memory, to recall it to mind easily, and to retain it for a long time are the formal perfections of memory” (1.182). these seem to look at memory as part of the components of human nature. probably because kant was on a move from reason to the practical sphere, foucault notes this of him: “the study of memory as a simple fact of nature is not only futile, it is evaia: international journal of ethics and values, vol. 2 no. 1, december 2021 (issn: 2787-0448) okafor 77 impossible: ‘all theoretical speculation about this is a pure waste of time’” (64). should it be so, then much is demanded to understand it as something nonnegligible if this passage to the practical sphere must come to fruition. however, one cannot but affirm with sutton: “memory is both a natural and a humankind” (3). based on this, cassirer argues, “if we understand memory as a general function of all organic matter we mean merely that the organism preserves some traces of its former experience and that these traces have a definite influence upon its later reactions” (50). at this natural state, it could be seen as one of the many things we have in common with minded animals. moreover, its ability to affect later reactions noted above gives a marked significance of memory. it readily avers us the common dictionary understanding of it “as the power or process of reproducing or recalling what has been learned and retained particularly through associative mechanism” (merriam webster). concerning this, nkemnkia avers: memory is a faculty of all living beings possessing a mind. that is why it is more precise to define memory as, that faculty of the mind which remembers things known in the past; thus, in a way, it is also a recognisance of that which is known, a reiterated knowledge. memory becomes in this way the centre of sensation, stimulus of the mind and as such it is indispensable for the formation of concepts (179). this immediately plunges us into other aspects of memory that are not strictly reductive in the senses early considered. the immediate definition opens other possibilities to the understanding of memory. in these, we go beyond the mere perception of memory as something we share with other beings to its active influences in all aspects of our experiences as humans. for nkemnkia, it “is a faculty without which there is no experience” (178). the experience here is used in the most common usage as a collection of all that has happened, all that happens now and all that will happen. all these are memory. according to cassirer, the mere presence, the sum total of these remnants, cannot account for the phenomenon of memory. memory implies a process of recognition and identification, an ideational process of a very complex sort. the former impressions must not only be repeated; they must also be ordered and located, and referred to different points in time. such a location is not possible without conceiving time as a general scheme—as a serial order which comprises all the individual events. the awareness of this time necessarily implies the concept of such a serial order corresponding to that other schema which we call space (50-51). by etymology, the word “memory” is rooted in the latin memor, memoria and the french memorie: all meaning ‘mindful’, ‘remembering’, ‘recall’. from this, evaia: international journal of ethics and values, vol. 2 no. 1, december 2021 (issn: 2787-0448) okafor 78 memory would mean ‘to bear someone or something in mind’, ‘to remember someone or something’ or ‘to recall someone or something’. it is obvious why words like commemoration, recollection, reliving, reminiscence, flash from the past, anamnesis, recognition, store, etc. are common synonyms of memory at different degrees. all of them are of or about someone or something. this suggests that it is a state of the mind that is content full. it is always on or about something. there is nothing like empty memory. it has content: it is necessarily about someone or something in all cases. this is possibly why it is easily linked to consciousness; which is always about someone or something. (strawson 1856). it serves different uses in the sciences, philosophy and religion. what matters the most is the foundation of all it holds with regards to the past, present and the open unending future before. its religious relevance suffices for our needs here. the confessions of st augustine is one of the most evident understanding of memory in the religious sense, a sort of a narrative of the past in the present as though the past is being relived with the hope of a lighted future intermittently committed to god in prayers for understanding. having described memory as “the present of past things” (xi.20), he gives a summary of his usage of psalm recitation to explain the link between the past, present and future in these words: what is true of the whole psalm is also true of all its parts and of each syllable. it is true of any longer action in which i may be engaged and of which the recitation of the psalm may only be a small part. it is true of a man’s whole life, of which all his actions are parts. it is true of the whole history of mankind, of which each man’s life is a part (xi.28). this is the treasured sense in which memory is to be understood in this work. in his religion as memory: how has the continuity of tradition produced collective meanings?, urbaniak traces this sort of understanding to ricouer saying: “memory is to be understood in the broad and dynamic augustinian sense in which it appears in ricoeur’s reflection when he speaks of ‘the tie [or process] by virtue of which the past persists in the present’” (2). this persistence of the past in the present is the building block of memory-making. it is always geared towards an immediate future that soon becomes a memory and on it goes. place and memory there is a link between place and memory. every memory begins at some specific place. every place is named by people, whether they still live there or not. a place with a name without an imprint of people is unimaginable. if there were no people at some point, it would not be spoken of at any point in time. to think of a place, even by imagination, comes with corresponding thoughts of the characters that make it. just like one would not think of a play without its evaia: international journal of ethics and values, vol. 2 no. 1, december 2021 (issn: 2787-0448) okafor 79 characters, so it is unimaginable to think of a place without people. memory serves to give an account of something: in more specific terms, place and people. “this work of remembering”, ricouer suggests, “makes memory a creative activity in a way akin to narrative” (262). it is a retelling of the relationship of people in a specific place and time. there is no empty memory. to be void is to be without content. it is about people, places and things at a particular time. there are individual and collective memories. they all have the same contents. individual memory constitutes the tales of individual persons based on their personal experiences of life. personal narratives are individual stories; such, “narratives do not constitute a religion, but narratives told and enacted by a group” as noted by sakaranaho (144). in the same light, he observes: “religious communities are examples of what they call ‘genuine communities of memory’” (144). in this, what the group keeps as its treasure lives on. it is communal even when the narrative is about individuals. as such, he asserts: genuine or not, communities of memory are constituted by their past and are involved in retelling their story, which is their constitutive narrative (...). stories of a collective history and of exemplary individuals are an important part of the tradition that is central to a community of memory. from the community’s point of view, the stories of exemplary individuals – whether of the founders or others – encapsulate conceptions of character: of what a good person is like, and of virtues that define such character (heroes and heroines) [144]. memory is always in the making. it is not a closed out phenomenon. “it is our nature to strive to explore everything, alive and dead, present and future” as dyson observes (290). as people and places evolve so does memory since they are its very subject. it is not of nothing; it has to be of something: whether we have them in mind at that particular time or not. while we might not have it as a whole, its partial imprints are all we need. those are not void; they are something. in the words of jonas in his the phenomenon of life: “the content is never simultaneously present as a whole, but always in the making, always partial and complete” (136). this is all that serves for every moment. memory is history history is the narration of the past events of a person or people. it is the story of a man to man. by it, a connection is sustained in human relationships. it is the prerogative of a people. according to coreth, it “exclusively belongs to man: we are not blindly subject to the need for a succession of natural facts” (164). this makes it an essential aspect of human life; permeating all dimensions of social relation. like history, religion also is exclusive to man. being so, history can be said to extend to man’s religious experiences: the nexus being their exclusivity to man. by this, one can view religion as a recount of evaia: international journal of ethics and values, vol. 2 no. 1, december 2021 (issn: 2787-0448) okafor 80 the history of man’s relationship with a supreme being. such recount is passed on from generation to generation. this is the aspect that oral tradition perfectly captures: a relay of the religious experiences of a people to their prodigies through successive generations. the continuous flow of such a relation keeps it alive. this ‘keeping it alive’ is a memory. drawing particular attention to the necessity of this continuity within the christian context, urbaniak posits: what deserves particular attention is a necessary continuity between the past and the present which results in the dynamic and trans-historical understanding of both memory and tradition within christian context. this fundamental continuity of memory transcends history and manifests itself in the essentially religious act of recalling a past which gives meaning to the present and contains the future (2). without this continuity, there will be a hiatus. should there be a break; a generation without this treasure would ensue. there would be a gulf between man and god; man and his peers. memory bridges this gap and sets standards for future projections. this is because every history springs from the past; looked at from a certain position, the present. memory is also seen in that light as nkemnkia tries to show: “we can also say that memory, as such, is the recognition of the past and the foundation of the present” (180). it does not stop there: the present is future-directed. this is the hope that religion plunges humanity into, the transcendence beyond the present and the past. its prowess is without limits; even the natural happiness man seeks is found within this (aristotle x.vii.1, spinoza 4.36). to attain it, however, one has to comport himself in some acceptable ways. this sets the moral dimension of religion. man, in his relationship with god, has the onus on him to live in a morally acceptable way to attain his goals in god. memory helps us keep this alive. it centralizes it and keeps us abreast with the implications of not living by it. each time israel kept the laws of the lord, they prospered. such laws were written in their hearts for their observance (jeremiah 31:31-34, ezekiel 36:26, hebrews 8:10). this is a common belief in judaism. in successive progression, christianity grows on this, the life and teachings of jesus christ and the teachings of his immediate followers: all about christ. the judeo-christian god is one that goes in search of his own. in him, there is recourse to the past, his deeds of old, which unchangingly model the present for a future life in him. jesus’ institution of the eucharist, for instance, is the high point of memory as history that never dies. there was no misuse of words; they were unambiguous. his injunction is of memory: “do this in memory of me” (mark, 14:22-25; luke 22:18-20; 1 corinthians 11:23-25). it lays credence to the eternal relevance of the eucharistic banquet. each time it is done in memory of him, the mystery he celebrated is re-enacted and re-lived at that moment with a future dimension of reliving the same banquet in eternity. such is the wealth of memory as history. evaia: international journal of ethics and values, vol. 2 no. 1, december 2021 (issn: 2787-0448) okafor 81 this is not limited to the judeo-christian religious experience. in different ways, there are common grounds for memory as history in other religions. to sustain the essence of islam, for example, every muslim has the quran first, then the sunnah and the hadīth (deeds and sayings attributed to prophet muhammad). they set the path for every decision in islam (esack 111-115). religions with founding fathers toe this format: they fall back to the wealth of memory exemplified by the lives of their respective founders. this does not mean that such is not common among religions without known founders. the lives of their adherents are simply modelled on those of their predecessors. links to the past are maintained as sources of strength for believers. they serve to resurrect the hopes the religion holds. of this, miftari and visoka shade more light: this kind of search for the resurrection of epic ash in the letters could not carry the different ethnic and cultural feelings of the people, unless they were linked to the sign of their origin, i.e. by searching for the predecessors of a group who believes in some common values and cultivates them from generation to generation. these ancestors may be different: family members, a religious community, an ethnic community, or members of a religious community that unites the right and memories, or a cultural community that unite some common symbols (151). generally speaking, therefore, it is obvious that tales form part of man’s nature. his story is his history. taking a lift from roquentin’s la nausée (nausea), strawson quotes in his things that bother me: “a man is always a teller of stories, he lives surrounded by his own stories and those of other people, he sees everything that happens to him in terms of these stories and he tries to live his life as if he were recounting it” (54). this is at the heart of his essence. by memory, we pass on to others our story, our life. what we remember, we share with others. this shows our collective journey. urbaniak takes this to heart when he writes: “one never remembers alone; to remember, we always need others. we are not original owners of our memories, which does not necessarily mean that we are not an authentic subject of the attribution of memories” (3). that is the nature of our memory, the nature of our history. memory as a lived experience human daily activities are documentation of memory. what we do is registered at something done at some point, in someplace. this certain locus shows that every moment is a moment lived and an experience that adds to all we had garnered before then. memory as a lived experience expresses this reality. we make memory as we live. it is our way of life and it captures all that we do; should we recall them or not. in this sense, memory is both a conscious and an unconscious event that takes note of our very existence as a people. what we evaia: international journal of ethics and values, vol. 2 no. 1, december 2021 (issn: 2787-0448) okafor 82 had in the past is contemplated upon and relived in the present with foreseen future of a repeat, modification or avoidance of the same experience. nkemnkia states: experience “is nothing else except the product of memory” (180). from the foregone, memory could be seen as an event or a collection of events. be it significant or not, it contributes to the entire lifestyle of a people. events are recorded either as memorable or not. in the first case, they hold the worth of remembrance. they serve for a specific purpose: be they good or bad. in the latter case, though they are remembered, they do not hold specific significance to those who remember them. both cases depict memory. underscoring the relevance of events within the coordination of cause and effect, coreth affirms: apparently insignificant events in themselves sometimes have a disproportionate effect and model life’s historical environment of entire generations. on the contrary, events that seem important in themselves and are capable of giving an orientation can be deprived of their corresponding effects; they have been forgotten, they have gone lost. it follows that the historical importance of an event is not in the fact that it exercises a determinate universal and proportionate causality as a natural process: its importance is of a completely different kind (168). as events, memory is a recount of the lived experiences of the past and present. the effects they hold on the people depend largely on the consequence of their interpretations at the moment it is done. some events spring hopeful sentiments. they renew and reposition the life of those who bear them in mind for a future that is full of life and confidence. such are the effects of their causal relations hold on those who bear them. they can rebuild the think tank of those involved to the attainment of their immediate set goals. this also implies that some events come with cold sentiments of depression and hopelessness. they tend to weaken or strengthen the will of those who bear them in mind. should they simply be re-lived, they could dampen the spirit of the people. if on the other hand they are interpreted with some sense of optimism, they become stepping stones for those whose experiences they are. in the religious cycle, memory in this sense is a lived religious experience of a people. it is a collection of their religious phenomena in all their aspects. every such encounter adds to the body of memory they have for references. these encounters are religious events that could hold both hopeful and depressing sentiments. such is the power of memory. of this sakaranaho opines: “the main events of a religious tradition are not only told or inscribed but also enacted in different rites and rituals. rites and rituals in turn involve various kinds of bodily practices, which by means of repetition keep up... ‘habit-memory’” (144). when they are recalled with high sense of hope, the expression of gratitude ensues as the people are moved to re-enact it. if on the contrary, they are repositioned to learn from it to avert its corresponding recurrence and evaia: international journal of ethics and values, vol. 2 no. 1, december 2021 (issn: 2787-0448) okafor 83 influence. either way, however, there are great chances of turning both into useful ends. they hold great lessons drawn for onward experiences. that too is the strength of memory as a lived experience. this evident relive of experiences marks a synchronic contextualization of both the past and the present with a precise future goal(s). it is what lived religion does. for moon and others, “lived religion concentrates on the lived experience of believers in daily interactions with others and critically examines the interwoven relationship among god, community, and self” (3). it is at the heart of religious experiences and pushes its adherents on with the sole aim of the realization of its projection: the future life. this in itself is a living experience since the immediate present runs into it. while commenting on the prayer of jesus for his apostles, for instance, mork writes: the apostles and on their example all christians must be the continuation of the incarnation in the world: the present and active christ. their mode of life is that of the one trinity in the son, and in him with the father, by the work of the spirit (...). the place of christians in the world is that of the continuers of christ (175). memory by this is the continuation of the works and life of the religious experiences of the founders of particular religions. they also include the religious experiences of their progressive successors, those of a people’s forebears or ancestors, in the restricted sense; or in the open sense, of the people’s co-shared brethren “of the faith” professed or lived. sakaranaho rightly understands this as “every religion evolves out of religious traditions preceding them; thus there is no absolute beginning in any religious tradition” (140). it implies that “the absolutely new is inconceivable; all beginnings contain an element of recollection” (140). this makes it a real phenomenon. the real is true. memory by itself is real. jonas believes that in memory, only “reality counts and reality knows of no representation” (167). how this is interpreted and relived is what makes the difference the most. it is the evident factor at the base of the relationship between memory and religion. as sakaranaho puts it, at the base “of our inquiry into religion and social memory lie questions as to ‘how religions remember’, in other words how religious communities are constructed through remembrance, and how they act in the process of remembering” (150). the religious sense of memory... eternal law religion is a mode of life. it is not just a concept but a style of living. for feuerbach, “religion rests on the essential distinction of man from beast; beasts have no religion” (23). this makes it an integral aspect of man. being so invokes the ethical sphere which rests on man’s social nature. every religion has a particular mode of comportment for its adherents. generally speaking, the good is appraised and the bad denounced. the rightness or wrongness of human evaia: international journal of ethics and values, vol. 2 no. 1, december 2021 (issn: 2787-0448) okafor 84 actions is guided by the codes of conduct of the religion they practice. these preserved codes, oral or written, as we had seen earlier, are fruits of memory shared by different generations. without them, the ethical imports of religious practices, which give it a place in society in relation with others, within or outside of the group, fail to meet their desired goals. the very essence of religious practices harbours this aspect of interpersonal relationships. little wonder the holman illustrated bible dictionary, amidst many definitions, saw it as a “relationship of devotion or fear of god or gods.” while the term is a complex one to define, one might know it in praxis. this is partly because it has undergone transmogrification through time. a random internet search traces it to the ancient french religion/relegion meaning ‘piety’, ‘devotion’, ‘religious community’; or the latin religionem from the nominative religio used regarding to what is considered sacred: hence, ‘respect or reverence for the gods’, ‘fear for the gods’, sense of ‘moral obligation or right’, ‘faith’, ‘a mode of worship or cult’, ‘sanctity’ or ‘holiness, etc. its root is also traced to the latin religare, which is a combination of two words: re (a prefix for something done earlier with particular attention drawn to it once more such as ‘again’, ‘repeat’, ‘about’, ‘concerning’, ‘reference to’) and ligare (meaning to ‘bind’, ‘tie’, ‘join’, etc together). based on this etymological ground, urbaniak makes a metaphorical connection between religion and memory. for him, “religare (‘to bind’, ‘to tie together’) and re-memorari (‘to recall to mind’) used to serve the common purpose of producing collective meanings” (1). they both have common recourse to the past as one that holds a lot for the present. this is close to another etymological development made famous by cicero. the root for him is relegere which adds the verb legere meaning ‘to read’ to our already known re. relegere by this combination would mean ‘to re-read’, ‘read again’, etc. explaining further, he shows how the term came to be institutionalized as distinct from superstition, thought to be the opposite: persons who spent whole days in prayer and sacrifice to ensure that their children should out-live them were termed ‘superstitious’ (from superstes, a survivor), and the word later acquired a wider application. those on the other hand who carefully re-viewed and so to speak retraced all the lore of ritual were called ‘religious’ from relegere (to retrace or re-read), like ‘elegant’ from eligere (to select), ‘diligent’ from diligere (to care for), ‘intelligent ‘from intellegere (to understand); for all these words contain the same sense of ‘picking out’ (legere) that is present in ‘religious’. hence ‘superstitious’ and ‘religious’ came to be terms of censure and approval respectively (193). commenting on this, horvilleur quickly states: “authentic religion is contrary to superstition and not to rationalism; it is an ability to reread that requires us to revisit our texts, that is, to offer new interpretations and refuse to fix their meaning once and for all” (139). his intention here suggests that rationalism is evaia: international journal of ethics and values, vol. 2 no. 1, december 2021 (issn: 2787-0448) okafor 85 not the opposite of religion but superstition in line with cicero. however, if perchance rationalism, in all its aspects, puts away ideas of the sacred (that which religion reveres) just to show how human reason can thrive without any recourse whatsoever to any divine being, then it excludes that which is re-read. this too could make it an opposite of religion in some unambiguous sense. this idea of re-reading in this immediate discourse is what memory entails. by this, what is re-read is what is relived. in this, there is a nexus between the past and the present that continuously reads back while advancing into the future. this gives it an eschatological dimension. the memories we make each day culminates in a future guaranteed to those who are faithful to this re-living of the goals of their brethren in faith. it is also a re-enactment of the ideals of the faith. tapping from this established relationship between memory and religion; one could carefully seek to understand what this recollection holds. it involves one’s entire being, nothing is left out. on this, cassirer insists: in man we cannot describe recollection as a simple return of an event, as a faint image or copy of former impressions. it is not simply a repetition but rather a rebirth of the past; it implies a creative and constructive process. it is not enough to pick up isolated data of our past experience; we must really re-collect them, we must organize and synthesize them, and assemble them into a focus of thought. it is this kind of recollection which gives us the characteristic human shape of memory, and distinguishes it from all other phenomena in animal or organic life (51). this is not different from sakaranaho’s insight on what this re-reading deals with. it is hallmark of all that tradition proposes. according to him, tradition is not simply a repetition of the past in the present. rather, the distinctive mark of tradition is that it actualizes the past in the present, thereby restoring to human lives its essential core. thus tradition cannot be reduced to established fundamental references, such as sacred texts or immovable rituals, set for all time. tradition evolves in a hermeneutic process, one in which a religious community re-reads its ritual and statutory practices, its own historical narrative and institutions (146). in this already established connection with religion, the “rebirth of the past” of memory in itself is a build-up for onward passage to other generations. this shows an unending nature of memory as a continuous event. in the religious climes, a contemplation of a supernatural being is evident. this sense of the sacred that religion evokes is that “of the idea of the presence of god, and the same experience of man” as goetz opines. he continuous: this god is a presence that makes us lift our eyes and raise our minds, to look beyond the things, places or people who provide the occasion for this meeting, like a witness who judges us, like a guardian who evaia: international journal of ethics and values, vol. 2 no. 1, december 2021 (issn: 2787-0448) okafor 86 watches over us and over things, like a friend with whom we find ourselves at home, but who, on occasion, knows how to call us to reason. he is an aspect of reality, grasped in its ordered totality, which does not show itself to the eyes but to the conscience. god is then the form of the world and at the same time the one who gives form to the world (83-4). such a presence readily invokes a relationship; man’s self-realization. in the words of feuerbach, “religion, at least the christian religion, is the ensemble of man's relations with himself, or rather with his own being, but regarded as another being” (36). the notion of one being before ‘another’ distinct from himself demands mode comportment that is relational. sakaranaho identifies three elements constituting the definition of religion: “the expression of believing”, the memory of continuity” and “the legitimizing reference to an authorized version of such memory” (145-6). in the first, we are drawn to god; in the second, we stay connected to the experience therein; in the third, we hold to what past is our source of authority for living in the present. kanu conveys these three elements in a slightly different way: belief, cult/worship and morals. for him, religion expresses a belief in “a being who is supreme; in cult/worship, the dependence of subjects on the supreme being is expressed, in morals, the rules and regulations to guide the new relationship between the worshipper and the worshipped are drawn up” (3). his insight is close to ekwunife’s who states that religion is “man’s awareness and recognition of his dependent relationship on a transcendent being, the wholly other, namable or un-namable, personalized or impersonalized, expressible in human society through beliefs, worship and ethical or moral behaviour” (1). both descriptions affirm the relational aspect of religion sustained through memory. for this to last, rules of engagement are drawn: “ad intra as a source of identification and consensus, and ad extra as a source of dissociation” (146). do good, avoid evil; is a central code in religion. it is difficult to imagine religion without it. while the definition of what this good or evil consists of might be relative, it also has an objective dimension nonetheless. this makes it a human thing. the natural law is an example of such behavioural laws within human society, be they religious or not. understanding this within christian theology, for instance, this law participates in the eternal laws of god written in our hearts (davies 215-6). to live them, they must be internalized first. this internalization is memory with a predetermined plan of practice. memory is a way of life. this is truer of religious memory. it is the way of life, the experiences lived and relived, of the generations before realized in the present. being so, it makes for the nexus between the past and the present in the hope of a future. the collective memory of a group is an extension of its life through time. this seems lost the more successful generations leave out essential aspects of the whole. the modifications that follow due to such evaia: international journal of ethics and values, vol. 2 no. 1, december 2021 (issn: 2787-0448) okafor 87 interpretations of the available memory would be stored for later generations. this would mean that virtually every generation lives its memory in context, in a way somewhat different from earlier ones. they only fall back to the past to refine their perceptions and re-confirm their authority. the closer they are to the precepts of the past, the more authentic they are said to be to the traditions they live. while relying on danièle hervieu-léger, urbaniak avers: religion is to be seen as a chain of memory, that is, a form of collective memory and imagination based on the sanctity of tradition. what is specific to religious activity is that it is wholly directed to the production, management and distribution of the particular form of believing which draws its legitimacy from reference to a tradition (2). for religions built around the lives of specific founders, the words and deeds of such figures constitute the tenets they hold dear to. this too is memory: be they oral or written. the buddhists, for example, would always look at the life and works of buddha before making their decisions. this could be said of any other religion with a known founder. for none specific founder religions, nonproselytised religions like african religions, the lives of their ancestors play great roles in charting their way of life (okafor 69-73). such is the point of reference they hold dear. without these nodes, there are no memories. as such, no religious experience since this is built around the memories of past generations graciously handed on to later ones. the loss of memory, the loss of the sense of religion religious experiences capture what religion proffers. they are living experiences of a people at a particular place and time. this spatiotemporal encapsulation of such experiences validates the claims of religion as something real and not dead; even though it might be an event in the past. the re-living of these brings to life their essences. it is in these acts that memories are made and passed on to later generations. though they might not be wholly captured in these later generations, their being read backwards brings them alive again. when they are spoken of, the goals for which they existed in the first place are relayed. should they be written, they serve the same purposes: communication. this is very important though it does not neglect the fact that “remembering always goes hand in hand with forgetting” (151). for finlay, communication, in the broadest sense, is what enables relationships to be created and to grow. when communication is lost or denied people become isolated, cut off from their community. god is a god who communicates with us and who desires his children to communicate with him. while the most obvious form of this communication is found in the bible it is by no means the only way (284). before the advent of writing, oral traditions played fundamental roles in the preservation of the life of people. earlier generations pass on to their forebears evaia: international journal of ethics and values, vol. 2 no. 1, december 2021 (issn: 2787-0448) okafor 88 the tales of their ancestors. these are memories. the culture of writing simply codified them. in the religious sense in view, written and oral codes are meant to be remembered with closely the same sentiments. beyond those too, every injunction is meant to be remembered. this is memory synthesized. the abrahamic religions are famous for this approach. in them, we find both injunctions meant to guide the lives of their adherents in a particular way, time and place. this also goes for the codification of the ways of life of founders of such religions. in the broadest sense, every religion has a code of conduct and this is transmitted in either oral or written form. the purpose is the same: preservation of memory. a memory so preserved is a point of reference for the people. it is the source of authority for divergent interpretations of the memory lived (past) and the making of new ones (present and future). the older these written codes are, the greater their strength and orthodoxy; consequently, efficacy in times of doubts on the most acceptable way to act. people generally fall back to them to chart new courses. those who wish to replicate earlier events find in them the ingredients they need. for those who desire to make modifications based on the changing times, these too make it possible as comparative grounds of departure. one clear fact is: it is impossible to have a whole memory at a glance. partially available sources are all that serve for every moment. though partial, they provide aspects of the whole, without which they would not be available in the first place. kant’s subject-object, universal-particular, substance-accidents, etc. distinctions readily come to mind (a414/b441, strawson 170). parts are necessary of the whole; the converse is also true. written codes/traditions serve as better aids against forgetfulness. this is feasible in every memory. to forget, in this sense, is to lose some chunk of the whole. complete loss means the entire forgetfulness of the whole. where this is the case, nothing is left. religion would have nothing to ‘fall back to’; nothing to ‘re-read’. this ‘fall back to’, this ‘re-reading’ is the memory that serves as its life wire. without it, there is a betrayal of an aspect of its meaning. the collective treasure it holds would no longer have present and future glimpses. there would be no communication, in the strictest sense. “even the simple presence of another”, finlay asserts, “has the potential to communicate i.e. you are not forgotten, i am here with you” (284). that in itself is memory. this suggests “the memory of creation is immediately a promise for the future” and every “new birth recapitulates the first birth; every beginning is a re-beginning” (ricoeur 167). it recounts presence in all its ramifications. invariably, to lose it is to lose the sense of the sacred. it is to lay off all that carries the very essence of belief. without this, the secularization of all that is sacred ensues uncontrollably. on this, urbaniak contends: evaia: international journal of ethics and values, vol. 2 no. 1, december 2021 (issn: 2787-0448) okafor 89 perhaps what constitutes the greatest threat to religion, understood as a chain of memory is the third of the modern agents... that is, institutional differentiation which in many cases is tantamount to factual deinstitutionalisation, so characteristic of secularising tendencies in today’s societies. secularisation is seen by many as another name for the crisis of collective memory (3). it widens with memory loss. as such, all forms of memory losses are a loss of connection with the past: be they private or communal. conclusion we had seen that memory forms an integral part of human existence. though not only relevant within the religious ambience, its roles are essential for our daily life events. it is our history because it is of our concrete existence. with each passing day, memory is made. to speak of a place is to say something about its people. people make the place the place and all that they do and say make memory: it keeps something of them through time. this makes memory a lived experience, rich with the aroma of the past that serve to establish us in the present and build well position the now for a better future. as such, every day we make and re-make the memories for generations yet unborn. more true, we can make similar affirmations of religions. both as synonymous in this basic sense call our attention to our connection with god, the supreme being, whose eternal law guide and sustain the course of events in the universe. care must be taken, therefore, not to throw all these treasures to the wind. a common adage states: “everyone who knows where the rain began could as well know when it stops.” anyone who knows what makes for the foundation of his very existence is not oblivious of his final destination. though this might not be very clear now, so was the present a bleak at some point to our forebears. there is every need to keep the memories that keep us in fame and view. to lose the sense of these events is to fall short of what religion 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openjornals, doi: 10.4102/hts.v71i3.2933. ––––. “religion as memory: how has the continuity of tradition produced collective meanings? part one.” hts teologiese studies, vol. 71, no. 3, june 2015, pp. 1-8, aosis openjornals, doi: 10.4102/hts.v71i3.2815. holman illustrated bible dictionary, holman publishers, 2003. evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, number 1, may, 2020 evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 onyemauwa and akuchie page 139 thematic issues in selected nollywood movies: a paradigm shift for the promotion of christian virtues and morality dr. (mrs.) veronica uduak onyemauwa1 and rev. fr. raphael c. akuchie2 department of religious studies faculty of humanities imo state university, owerri1 email: onyemauwav@yahoo.com; ralphaelakuchie1984@gmail.com abstract nigerian home video industry (nollywood) without doubt has become a phenomenon in nigeria, courtesy of television viewing. nigerians, both at home or in diaspora, consume film avidly; scenes gleaned from films impact on their lives, reflect in their actions as well as everyday speech. the stories shared regardless of religious differences are increasingly not religious narratives, but rather movie plots. the lively discussion it inspires has become a more vital site of academic exploration. it also raises moral concerns, especially at the speed in which the moral and ethical life standards of nigerians are plummeting on daily basis. however, the negative projection and reinforcement of obscene films by nollywood is said to be the ‘prime suspect.’ hence, premised on gerbner’s cultivation theory, this paper examines thematic issues in three selected nollywood movies with the aid of phenomenological research model. findings indicate that: these movies among several films projected by nollywood are to some extent bereft of sound moral rectitude, as there is clear display and celebration of violence, ritualism, prostitution and witchcraft. hence, this study advocates for a paradigm shift as such movies distort and subvert human values. therefore, film makers and film censor’s board should work to decrease the rate of vividness of negative exposition of vices in film plots. christian films should be used to counter some of the negative tares currently making waves in nollywood movies. projection of movies that teaches and encourages permissible good behaviour within the society should be promoted. to do otherwise is unethical. keywords: thematic; issues; nollywood movies; paradigm shift; promotion; christian virtues/morality introduction the moral importance of entertainment is something that is universally recognized. for, it enters intimately into the lives of men and women and evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 onyemauwa and akuchie page 140 affects them closely. it occupies human mind and heart during leisure hours; and ultimately touches the whole of their lives. a man may be judged by his standard of entertainment as easily as by the standard of his work. so, correct entertainment raises the whole standard of a nation. wrong entertainment lowers the whole living conditions and moral ideals of a race (the motion picture production code of 1930). this statement is succinctly captured in proverbs 14:34, “righteousness exalteth a nation: but sin is a reproach to any people.” the advancements in modern technology has however made electronic medium one of the vital channels of dramatic and entertainment expression. thus, technological development, especially in communication, has reached such advanced stage that the world today is said to be a global village. in fact, the efficacy of all human action is now based on sound communication powered by modern technology. since humans mostly believe what they see and hear the communication or dissemination of knowledge in the modern world is now based principally on the auditory and visual stimuli. hence, most promotions, educational and social communication are done via media channels. the most active of such media channels is the film because of its added entertaining features. as such, film has become a major vehicle for imparting ideas, ideals, norms and beliefs. today, film (media) is said to be modern man’s leading religion. in this context, the nigerian film industry (nollywood) readily comes to mind. for, barely more than a decade, nollywood commands a household name. it also commands a very large and active audience within and outside nigeria; and it covers every aspect of the nigerian society. most people indeed spend their leisure times watching nollywood films. however, motion pictures (film) impacts on human psyche and emotions. referring to this, mgbejume (2015:36) explains; motion stories are creatively written to work on the emotions of viewers. emotions, when worked, could lead to rage of anger, bitterness, revenge, various anti-social behaviours, and all kinds of excitements, encouragement, determination to live on despite the odds of life and the will to succeed in life. all these can come through watching actors and actresses on the screen. adding to this, communication theories for years have attempted to draw conclusions between a person’s attitudes and behaviours and the media products they consume. social learning theory also holds the idea that people will imitate the actions and attitudes of those seen on television or in film. on this note, baran and davis (2006:195) comment that, humans learn from observation. there have been some questions, however, about how much and evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 onyemauwa and akuchie page 141 what kinds of behaviours people learn from the media; especially as morality today is increasingly on the decay and christian ethics which propagate ideal virtuous life and human relationship is speedily waning. consequently, there is concern in several quarters about the rate immorality, breakdown of law and order are making waves in the society. this is of course not unconnected with behaviors people imbibe from nollywood movies. indeed, most observers believe that the rise in crime wave and immorality is as a result of the influence of movie contents powered by advancements in communication and technology. along this line, nollywood films, like living in bondage (parts 1&2), glamour girls (1 & 2), issakaba, and so on, have been rated for propagating crime, violence and other immoral acts. this is as immoral acts; robbery, kidnapping and violence glorified on their scenes are replicated by viewers in real life. truly, the increase of profanity, sexual immorality, and violence in nollywood movies provokes the right thinking public. filmmakers in defense argue that it is merely a representation of the society. this argument indeed remains unacceptable to the majority of the right thinking public. hence, many campaigns in the society today are geared towards curbing immorality and vices staged in nollywood movies. despite this, the situation created by nollywood movies still calls for serious concern. this concern necessitates this study which aims at proffering solutions that would encourage nigerian movie producers to project films that are loaded with moral values and godly virtues for the common good of all. conceptual frame work there are some major concepts to be clarified in this study. such clarification is essential as it enables the readers to understand how these variables connect with each other. christian virtues as a concept christian virtues are reflection of god in the lives of christians. virtue can be said to mean moral excellence, goodness or righteousness. christian virtues can be described as a godly excellence, a godly goodness and a godly righteousness that is reflected in the lives of believers. 2nd peter 2:9 advises us that we are chosen to be virtuous: “but you are a chosen race, a royal priesthood, a holy nation, a people for his own possession, that you may proclaim the excellences of him who called you out of darkness into his marvelous light.” so, by meditating on christian virtues, christians will start practicing them. philippians 4:8 gives us advice to always think on virtuous things (“christian virtues.” 2019). the concept of morality the word “moral” comes from the latin word ‘mores’, ‘moralis,’ which means “proper behaviour of a person in the society” (de fato, ii.i). evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 onyemauwa and akuchie page 142 according to echekwube (2005:32) morality is the principles concerning right and wrong or good and bad in behaviours. by implication, it is a subsystem of deliberation about what we ought to do. morality bases its judgment on the rational nature of man and his final destiny which makes his actions morally right or wrong. nollywood the term ‘nollywood’ was coined by the new york times journalist, norimitsu onishi in 2002 when he observed film-making activity in lagos, nigeria. the term mirrors two of the most famous areas of film production: hollywood in the usa, and bollywood in india's bombay. it is the generic name for the nigerian film industry. nollywood specifically refers to the nigerian video-film industry. it originated in nigeria at the end of the 20th century as a national media form that emerged free from the control of the state and has subsequently become the most visible cultural machine on the african continent. for some, nollywood encapsulates the array of actors and actresses emerging from the film-making activity in nigeria. for others, it refers to the collection of the thousands of movies that have been made in nigeria. statement of the problem the boom in home video production and the corresponding audience interest have attracted a lot of attention to the sector. a lot has been said and written on these thematic issues, with special emphasis on sex, violence, fetishism and other negative tendencies. in spite of these criticisms, new filmsare daily released into the market thus necessitating this study, especially as fear looms heavily in the mind of many about the possible results of the incursion of the seductive, obsessive, violent, compulsive and enticing visual images nollywood emits into the minds/hearts of the audience. this reality however raises pertinent moral questions such as; why do nollywood produce obscene videos even when most of the crew members; actors and actresses are christians? what sort of influence do audiences who are morally conscious get from negative scenes? how do nollywood movies promote theological virtues of faith, hope, and charity (love) that relate directly to god, as well as the four cardinal virtues of prudence, justice, fortitude, and temperance? these are the problematic issues which this paper as well wishes to address. thematic issues in nollywood movies and the question of morality video is one of the most potent art forms for entertainment and pedagogy. being an audio-visual medium of socialization, it is capable of shaping the shared views, beliefs and values of a particular human society. thus, the arbitrary consolidation of disparate cultures into one whole – the global evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 onyemauwa and akuchie page 143 culture – portends danger to the moral codes of any society. through ethical lenses, this section assessed the moral compass of nollywood films, using living in bondage (parts 1&2), glamour girls (parts 1&2), and issakaba (parts 1 &2), as cases in point. the focus is on film-makers’ recent obsession with quasi-themes, marked by obscenities and debauchery, with blatant disregard to moral laws. (1) living in bondage (parts 1 & 2) living in bondage is a classic nollywood movie that tells the story of money ritual. it’s a 1992 drama thriller directed by chris obi rapu, written by kenneth nnebue and okechukwu ogunjiofor, produced by okechukwu ogunjiofor and sponsored by jafac wine. the film starred kenneth okonkwo and nnenna nwabueze in their breakout roles. living in bondage provided imagery to a widely believed urban legend: human sacrifice for riches. andy (kenneth okonkwo) and merit okeke (nnenna nwabueze) are a young couple facing several obstacles; redundancy, infidelity, loss savings in a bogus investment and merit's indecent proposals from lecherous men including her boss ichie million (francis agu). andy constantly compares his lack of fortune to the success of his peers, especially his best friend paul (okechukwu ogunjiofor). despite merit's support and patience, andy is driven to neardesperation, determined to obtain wealth by any means possible, and the slicktalking paul reveals his secret – a satanic cult where members swear their loyalty to lucifer and kill their loved ones in ritualized sacrifices that amount toenormous wealth. after much hesitation, andy reluctantly agrees to sacrifice the person he loves the most – merit. she dies in hospital days after the ritual, but not before she curses her husband for his betrayal. andy's sudden affluence raises suspicion from merit's family who accuse him of murdering her for money. he also faces a new set of problems – the paparazzi, his mistress ego (ngozi nwosu) fleeing with his money after he collapses at their wedding, and merit's ghost haunting and terrorizing him when he least expects. andy later married chinyere (jennifer okere); another gold-digger introduced to him by merit's former friend caro (ngozi nwaneto). this new wife meets her untimely death after caro poisons her in an attempt to escape abroad alone with the cash she (chinyere) had stolen from her husband (andy). caro is also killed by a hit-and-run driver on her way to the airport, and paul is murdered by hitmen andy hired after the two friends fell out with each other. a now frustrated andy asks the satanic cult for help, but when the chief priest (daniel oluigbo) insists he can only pacify his late wife's spirit by blinding and castrating himself. he refused but becomes mentally deranged, living as a vagrant under a lagos flyover until tina (rita nzelu);a former prostitute andy had previously presented to the cult as a decoy before his evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 onyemauwa and akuchie page 144 deceit was exposed takes him to her church where he finally confesses to merit’s murder. in the final scene, andy was cured of his insanity but he became a member of the evangelical christians who assure him god has forgiven him. moral issues in living in bondage (parts 1 &2) the film: living in bondage promotes excessive passion for wealth regardless of how it is gained. this has become a very common tainting feature of contemporary nigerian society. however, the delay in effecting justice displayed in the film is akin to justice denied. this influence is today seen in nigerian society where justice and moral compensation is delayed and by the time it is rarely executed its meaning and weight is lost. indeed, the viewer, having been exposed to such glorification of wealth gets the impression that it is better to be a king in hell than a servant in heaven. furthermore, it is worth mentioning that, the length of time spent in the movie on displaying ‘the good life’ that comes with ill-gotten wealth, is enough invitation for viewers to pursue illegitimate wealth. the eventual divine forgiveness andy was assured of after his confession is also an indication that one’s sins can easily be forgiven through confession. (2) glamour girls (parts 1 & 2) released in 1994, glamour girls featured liz benson, gloria anozie, jennifer okere, barbara odoh, ngozi ezeonu, eucharia anunobi, tina amuziam, zack orji, pat attah and sola fosudo. it was written by kenneth nneube, and directed by chika onukwufor., glamour girls centered on female protagonists and the ‘fast lives’ they lived. glamour girls is the story about a village girl, played by late jennifer ossai, who was convinced by her friend (played by gloria anozie) to come to lagos and get a job in order to live a better life. throughout the movie, we are introduced to different subplots which drive the theme of the movie despite being unrelated to the main characters in the movie. the theme of the movie was mainly greed, women’s greed for material things. this is evidenced in liz benson’s character; who was although married but was ready to give her marriage up for the promise of becoming the first lady of nigeria. she was later duped by her lover who was a dream peddler with a phony accent. the movie glamour girls is a promotion of modern women also referred to as ‘senior girls’. according to jonathan haynes (2009:83), these were independent women who have chosen careers over marriage, and overtly pursue their own sexual interests. they are sophisticated, independent, free and supposedly ‘outside the control of patriarchy.’ as such, the movie is replete with sexual immoralities, obscenities, betrayal, greed and theft. evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 onyemauwa and akuchie page 145 indeed, glamour girls was a deviation from the stereotypical themes of rituals and family squabbles. rather the focus was to display the profit of illegitimate sex, power and fame. this is quite obvious in a number of memorable moments the characters; zach orji and eucharia anunobi shared in the bathroom scenes. both characters posed topless in the bathtub frolicking with each other while anunobi who was dubbed nigeria’s sharon stone, delivered an impressive performance devoid of any inhibition or self-restraint. (3) issakaba (parts 1 & 2) issakaba is a four-part film produced by chukwuka emewonwu and moses nnam. it was directed by lancelot oduwa imasuen and starred sam dede, amaechi muonagor, mike ogundu, pete ene, chinwetalu agu, remy ohajianya, among others. the part one of the film centres on a typical nigeria village (uwenu) where crime is at its highest peak, with innocent villagers being oppressed, robbed and killed for ritual purposes. then a vigilance group, led by ebube (sam dede) is invited by the village king (amaechi muonagor) to help restore peace and sanity in uwenu community. the issakaba points a finger of guilt at some children of the elders, including the king’s son. the part one of the film ends with the arrest of a notorious armed robber, “terror of the night” and his gang and the death of a very powerful native doctor, ikuku. in part two, the issakaba continue their exploits in another village, oshata on the invitation of the king (remy ohjianya). the vigilance group was able to reduce crime to its barest minimum through the assistance of their overall leader (ikenga). later, a disagreement erupts between ebube and the secondin-command woke (mike ogundu) over an allegation of bribe that is collected by woke. woke is expelled from the group, but decides to form a fake issakaba to continue his crooked “deals” and tarnish the reputation of the real issakaba. he succeeds at floating the splinter group because of the financial assistance from some corrupt elders who see the real issakaba as a threat to their nefarious activities. however, woke and his fake group commit a lot atrocity in the village and the people mistake them for the real issakaba. the story comes to a climax when a prominent man, chief odiachi dies in the hands of the fake group, prompting the villagers to send the real issakaba away from the village. in the end, ebube, through some mystical means, is able to kill woke and members of his fake vigilance group. moral issues in issakaba (parts 1 & 2) apart from portraying robbery as business, the video employs the use of excessive blood-letting and violence, and could serve as training instruction for criminal minded people.the video also elevates the use of fetish herbalist who provides some form of protective vest for the criminal. nothing in the evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 onyemauwa and akuchie page 146 film points to condemn the practice of robbery or presents crime as a condemnable vice. exploration of violence and sexual immorality in the appraised movies having synopsized and analyzed moral issues in the above selected nollywood videos, we would proceed to explore the dimensions of violence and sexual immorality in these movies. issakaba, and living in bondage are characterized by levels of violence that are verbal, physical, herbal and visual. i. verbal violence this involves the use of spoken words or language as opposed to pictorial representation or physical action in the communication of violence. most of the incantations/guttural statements, vituperative and abusive expressions in the selected movies constitute the verbal dimension of violence. bawdy words/expressions such as “fuck you”, “mother fucker”, “shit”, voodooist incantations such as “odechi”, among many others, are also part of verbal violence. moreover, because people especially the young ones easily grasp things orally they tend to take to the foul language they see woke and others freely use in issakaba. ii. physical violence/tactile violence this form of violence in the selected movies involves physical/bodily contacts and often leads to physical harm. for instance, there are a lot of scenes where cars were driven at neck breaking speed with tires screeching to high heavens as if life has a duplicate. this scenario depicts physical violence. the innumerable physical clashes involving the use of machetes, guns and cudgels among the issakaba groups (the real and the splinter groups) and the various armed robbery gangs in uwenu and oshata villages are evidences of the barrage of physical/tactile violence in the selected videos. iii. herbal violence there is a preponderance of herbal violence in issakaba like many other nollywood movies of their ilk. herbal violence in the context of the films under examination, involves the use of plant-based substances (leaves, barks, roots, charms, potions, etc.) to cause harm, inflict pain or control people to do the bidding of others. in issakaba, we see instances where ebube pluck certain leaves, chew them and spew their solvents in the air to retard the movement of criminals and rivals. in part one of the same film, ikuku, who was complicit in the series of terror that were visited on the people of uwenu, severally used plant based concoctions, charms and strange incantations that smacks of witchcraft to fortify the armed gangs before they embark on any robbery operations. these plant-based fortifications originally had their function in pristine traditional african society. ogie-odia and omoera (2010:56-57) affirm that “the benins (an african race) believe that certain plants have very strong spiritual aura which make them play important role in traditional society.” evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 onyemauwa and akuchie page 147 iv. visual violence this has to do with what appeals to the sense of sight. the outfit of nollywood actresses in the selected movies like glamour girls is overtly sensuous. they wore skimpy clothes, exposing sensitive parts of their bodies in order to lure randy men and eventually use them to feather the nests of their devious activities. these indecent dressings, nudities, pornography and sexual allurements constitute visual violence, sexual immorality and harassment to the audience, and raises moral questions against nollywood industry. it again subverts christian virtues and morality, offends the sensibilities of the decent public and endangers their part to righteousness. this is why chinedu ogbozor (2000:78) in his work; contemporary films: a clearer vision of the modern bathshebas avers that; these films are dangerous weapons which will dethrone god from human hearts. it is a trojan gift which will eventually not only give birth to sin but also legalize crime and fuel the fire of lust. it is a hydra-headed evil. it is not that the home video is intrinsically evil but the current trend smacks of something leading to the valley of destruction. supportive of this position, clor (1996:33) observes that: the new liberalism has become a prodigious source of challenges not only to legal proscriptions of ‘vice’ but also established norms attitudes and policies in many areas of our social life. public morality is very much on the defensive. despite the visual violence constituted by these movies, actors and actresses have their defenses. for instance, eucharia anunobi argues; i don’t care about what they write …they say eucharia loves to act naked, to wear skimpy dresses … acting is just a profession …they see me playing a role … acting. that’s what it is … nothing more” (reel stars, 1999:16). ethical consideration towards promotion of christian virtues and morality in nigeria through nollywood movies there is something akin to a situation of ethical chaos as far as making moral statement about the nigerian home-video. one school of thought is of the opinion that the activities of the theatre are not moral issues and should not be subjected to the conventional moral scrutiny. another school holds the view that the issues are both ethical and of public concern. thus, this section attempts to address the various ramifications of the problem, with the aim of proffering solutions. moral imperatives what emerges from the people’s verdict is a broad spectrum of feelings, of fears and hopes, beneath which lies a desire for whatever will bring progress morally and otherwise to the nigerian populace. there seems to be a common evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 onyemauwa and akuchie page 148 acceptance of a momentous change in progress and an effort to find a place in the change. kelly (1992:26) aptly articulates the mood in his assertion that: the important question, therefore, is not ‘why is change necessary?’ but how we can affect and manage change so that it will be beneficial to us as human persons and to our planet as a whole. not all changes are transformations. some changes can be deforming rather than transforming. the home-video industry as an emerging phenomenon cannot be left to the wind of chance. so much has taken place but it is still an unfinished story involving human persons. as responsible agents of moral construction, the social process of helping to give a proper direction to the home movie industry cannot be taken lightly. it is not a task for the secular society alone; the church completely associates herself with such moral and existential matters, which touch upon human life. one of the arguably most quoted statements of the church’s social teachings is her declaration that: the joy and hope, the grief and anguish of the men of our time, especially those who are poor or afflicted in any way, are the joy and hope, the grief and anguish of the followers of christ as well. nothing that is genuinely human fails to find an echo in their hearts. (vatican council ii gaudium et spes, no 1). it is against this background that this segment appeals to all who are affected by the nigerian home movies to embrace the task of directing the industry towards ends that are proper to the dignity of the human person. the responses to the challenges of the movie industry must be seen as moral imperatives which should receive prompt attention. the principal addressees are the government, the church, the school and the family not only because of their traditional role in the preservation of morality but also because within the nigerian context, they play vital roles with regards to the movie industries. the role of the family in the ever rising wave of conflicting immoral forces at play in the home video industry, the family as the smallest cohesive unit of human social organization, has a vital role to play in the lives of the young ones. parents, like teachers, must try to lead their children by means of a complete education, to proper mental, affective and moral maturity (persona humana no. 13) towards attaining these, pat pulling in thomas (1989:98) advices parents to continue encouraging their children in the family’s religious faith, to keep close watch on their activities, the friends they choose, the music they listen to, the movies they watch and the games they play. paling’s advice presupposes that the family has a religious anchor to which the children can be trained by their parents. supervision is absolutely necessary and care must be taken in imparting instructions especially on matters of sex and violence since, in the words of canon mahoney, “evil practices are the effect not so evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 onyemauwa and akuchie page 149 much of ignorance of intellect as of weakness of a will exposed to dangerous occasions and unsupported by the means of grace” (smith, 1941:11). the training of children must begin from their early days so that as they grow up and begin to think and will, they have with them a good parental will, constant and strong, free from violence and anger, not subject to weakness or inconsistency. with time they will learn to see therein the interpreter of another and higher will, the will of god and so will bring to fruition the seed of those early training that they have received. they will thus be able to fashion and sustain a character trained in self-control in moments of crisis, and stamped with a deep sense of christian duty. although it is through the media that young people are introduced to many immoralities, it is very true that what the child sees or does not see in his/her parents go a long way to determine the choices he/she makes when the parents are not present. when the children see the adult members of the family modeling themselves after the images of the media, they will follow suit because the life style of the older members of the family is the final confirmation of the validity of the media images. the role of the church the universal church, aware of the crucial role of the media in human society, acknowledges the great power that those who use the media exercise over people. it recognizes that the media contribute a great deal to human unity but that without goodwill their use may produce an opposite effect and even contradict or corrupt the fundamental values of human life. the second vatican council in recognition of these promulgated inter mirifica, (decree on the means of social communication in 1963). the council charged those responsible for the media to get familiar with the principles of the moral order and to apply them faithfully in this domain (communio et progression, 1971:9). the council gave orders for the preparation of a more extensive instruction on the media. this came out in 1971 as communio et progressio. following in the same tradition, pope john paul ii, in his message for the 27th world communication day, may 23, 1993, reiterated that: the professionals who rate at their true value the impact and influence of the media productions they create will take particular care to make them of such high moral quality that their effect upon the formation of culture will invariably be a positive one. they will resist the present lure of easy profit and will firmly refuse to take part in any production which exploits human weakness, offend conscience or affronts human dignity. the church in nigeria must appropriate these words of the pontiff and continue to re-echo them from the pulpits and religions should themselves be discriminatory consumers of the products of the video industry. a merely censorious attitude on the part of the church towards the industry is neither sufficient nor appropriate. instead, the church must be engaged in a continuous conversation with the censors board and the whole evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 onyemauwa and akuchie page 150 gamut of mechanism in the home video industry to encourage or to criticize as the need arises. this indeed is at the very message which pulsates in kinoti’s (1999:87) reassertion of the church’s obligation of moral restoration in africa: the church in africa cannot shy away from the responsibility to call people to repentance, to set an example in moral integrity and to teach people the message of god who understands human frailty and is willing to heal wholly. the role of the government it took the nigerian government quite some time before it picked up interest in the activity of the movie industry. when in1994, the nigerian film and video censors board was inaugurated, the principal target was monitoring, regulating and controlling the industry as a means of revenue for the federal government. subsequently, certain films were banned from circulation and the board underwent a re-organisation (ademola, 1996:59). the censors board as the government’s presence in the industry must not only publicly declare guidelines on the operations of the industry but must also ensure that producers, movie houses and television stations abide by such guidelines. these cannot be compromised if some degree of order must reign in the industry. the role of the school more than 75% of the total numbers of the consumers of the movie are children and youths who are still in school. the schools can therefore serve as a dependable instrument in directing the consumption of nollywood movies. to this end, educational instructors at all levels must always keep before their eyes the noble ends of education as we find enumerated by okolo (2000:124). one of the crucial roles of education is a critique and reconstruction of people’s values. for if education, in its simple and non-sophisticated meaning, is a transmission of what is worthwhile to a people to equip them for life; and if values are things worthwhile; then its role of criticism and as a tool for reconstructing values becomes paramount. the schools provide a context where the highly impressionable minds of the young can be fed with the right values for life. it is not an overstatement to say that the school is the gymnasium where the society can equip the youth to avert the moral crisis to which yoweri museveni; president of uganda drew attention to at the 10th plenary conference, when he called for radical action. , he said: there is today a moral crisis which calls for a moral revolution. the young are especially susceptible to evil influence particularly when they lack leadership. this is what has happened to our youth… i think we have tended to neglect the spiritual development of our young people with the consequence that a vacuum has been created in the minds and souls of our youths – a crying need for a sense of direction (yoweri 2000:31). it is in the school and the family that the child can be properly equipped to face the moral crises of today’s evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 onyemauwa and akuchie page 151 world. the role of the teacher can therefore not be over-emphasized. the teacher is the molder of the child’s character but he needs the support of the entire society because the task is enormous and multifaceted. in this regard, the researcher agrees with obidike (2013:136): it will be expecting too much from the classroom teacher to inculcate the desired and respectable values in the children when the generality of the people is engaged in negative and subversive values. in order for the teacher to discharge that kind of work expected of him or her, there should be a programme of value re-orientation for all nigerians. in the interplay of forces, which shape the child’s mind, the schoolteacher occupies a key position. this should be duly recognized and exercised in guiding the youth about the media, in this case, the home video movies. recommendations and conclusion this study has examined thematic issues embedded in nollywood movies and canvasses for a paradigm shift for the promotion of christian virtues and morality. the major point of criticism has been in the area that the films are pointedly a celebration of violence, ritualism, prostitution and covert hooliganism. this does not however, mean that, moral compensation does not indeed exist in nollywood. it exists, but by the time it will occur, its impact would have been grossly weakened. on the issue of censorship, it is shown that both the artist and the society need one another, and that both are concerned with the well-being of the society though with different objectives. the function of art in society is to leave it better than it was, and artists have the moral obligation to make a positive statement about society, not to glamourize the wrongs as they are. hence, in summation, we suggest that in order to have a rich harvest of movies that provide aesthetic pleasure and moral satisfaction in tandem with christian virtues: (i) each film should function as a complete event and that any form of immorality and crime committed in a film should be morally compensated and paid for immediately before the end of the film and if it fails to do so, let the gains from the crime be seen as problematic from the outset, (ii) crime/vice should not be glamourized, (iii) the time frame allocated for the exposure of negative scenes should not supersede that of positive scene (iv) christian virtues and morality must not be subjected to ridicule, (v) sex should not be misused, and (v) censors should know the techniques of cinematography and be grounded in the principles of ethics and human values (vi) finally, christian organizations and educators in institutions of learning have an imperative beyond merely fostering media literacy. the long-standing, hallowed tradition between church, schools and art invites us to harness the sensual powers of films’ images, music, and narrative to help our students and the entire consumers of movie productions glimpse aspects of god that can be revealed most powerfully through art. this approach has the potential to transform most subsequent profaned films production and viewings into opportunities evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 onyemauwa and akuchie page 152 for unleashing grace in strange and wonderful ways; thereby promoting christian ethics and morality. references “christian virtues” retrieved from accessjesus.com on november 22, 2019. “declaration on certain questions concerning sexual ethics” persona humana. https://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/congregations/cfaith/documents/r c_con_cfaith_doc_19751229_persona-humana_en.html, retrieved on 12/11/2019. “motion picture production code,” from wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/motion_picture_production_code ademola, j. (1996). the aims, objectives, functions and aspirations of the new national film and video censors board (nfvcb): the challenges of film and video censorship in nigeria. lagos: national film and video censors board. baran, s. j. & davis, d. k. (2006).mass communication theory: foundations, ferment and future. australia: thomson/wadsworth. clor, h. m. (1996). public morality and liberal society: essays on decency, law, and pornography. notre dame: university of notre dame press. communio et progression (1971). issued by the pontifical council for social communications, prepared in accordance with the second vatican council’s 1963 decree inter mirifica. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/communio_et_progressio de fato (h. rackham translation) https://www.informationphilosopher.com/solutions/philosophers/cicer o/de_fato_english.html, retrieved on 21/11/2019. decree on the means of social communication (1963). echekwube, a. (2005). “what is ethics?” in kpim of morality: ethics general, special and professional. ibadan: heinemann educational books plc. gaudium et spes (1965). pastoral constitution on the church in the modern world promulgated by his holiness, pope paul vi. gaudium et spes, no.1. holy bible kelly, k. c. (1992). new directions in moral theology –the challenge of being human. new york: geoffrey company. kinoti, g. (1990). the media in africa. london: scm ltd. mgbejume, o. (1989). film in nigeria: african media monograph series. nairobi, kenya: african council on communication education. obidike, n. d. (2013). the role of teachers of young children in ensuring developmentally appropriate practice in early childhood education curriculum implementation.journal of emerging trends in educational research and policy studies jeteraps 4 (5): 821-826. https://www.informationphilosopher.com/solutions/philosophers/cicero/de_fato_english.html https://www.informationphilosopher.com/solutions/philosophers/cicero/de_fato_english.html evaia: international journal of ethics and values volume 1, no. 1, july, 2020 onyemauwa and akuchie page 153 ogbozor, v. c. (2000). contemporary films a clear vision of the modern bathsheba. the sage, vol. 13 june 2001 –june 2001 pp. 32-34. ogie-odia, e. and omoera, o.s. (2010).a survey of some ritual and cultural plants of the benins.enwisdomization: an international journal for learning and teaching wisdom, 4(2), 127-139. sharples, r. w. (1991). cicero: on fate (de fato) &boethius: the consolation of philosophy iv.5-7, v (philosophiae consolationis). aris & phillips ltd, vatican council ii (1966)."gaudium et spes," 51 aas 58, p. 1072. evaia: international journal of ethics and values, vol. 2 no. 1, december 2021 (issn: 2787-0448) anyanwu 58 ethical evaluation of e-waste crisis in africa ibe anthony anyanwu department of philosophy, university of lagos, akoka, lagos email: ibeanthonyanyanwu@gmail.com abstract this study contends that the proliferation in the generation, transmission and disposal of electronic-waste (e-waste) in africa is a matter of serious concern. this circumstance raises interdisciplinary challenges of environmental sustainability. yet, the dumping of used electronic and electrical products into africa from the global north has raised fundamental ethical question of justice. however, the study confirms that the basis of all environmental justice variations is the consideration of fairness, equity and justice in the environmental processes that resolve environmental problems. consequently, this study investigates how to mitigate the importation of e-waste through government interventions and effective information mechanism and enforcement of the laws regulating trade on e-waste to ensure a healthy biotic community. by using the analytic method, this research provides a robust analysis of the dominant ideologies underlying international trade in e-waste. this study examines conventions that are designed to regulate the global and regional transactions in e-waste and argues that treaties such as the basel and bamako conventions are fundamental to the quest for environmental justice in africa. the theoretical framework underpinning this research is “justice as fairness” which gives primacy to equity and the need to protect the least advantaged in the society. this research confirms that ecological considerations must trump economic motives behind e-waste transfers to developing countries of africa and the global community. giving consideration to the ecological harm occasioned by the dumping of e-waste is a sine qua non for achieving environmental justice in africa. rawls’ theory of justice is a potent and serviceable philosophical instrument that can be used for ethical evaluation of e-waste crisis in africa. the research contributes to knowledge by a rigorous application of rawlsian thought on justice to the problem of e-waste management in ways that advance the realisation of environmental justice without jeopardising the value of sharing technological products, especially used electronic gadgets from the global north. keywords: basel and bamako conventions, environment, e-waste, justice. introduction the increasing generation of electronic waste (e-waste) is one of the growing environmental problems in the 21st century. a good way to dispose e-waste in order to guarantee ecologically justifiably best practices is of a fundamental ethical relevance. e-waste represents a huge share of the country import and its evaia: international journal of ethics and values, vol. 2 no. 1, december 2021 (issn: 2787-0448) anyanwu 59 destination site is mainly concentrated in lagos nigeria, meaning that the hazardous effect of pollution affects both human and the biotic environment if not managed properly. study shows that in order to bridge the digital divide given the voluminous increase in the ict (information and communication technology) devices adding to alarming growth of e-waste worldwide and for africa and other developing nations to have a sustainable environment, there is a need for ewaste management as e-waste components may cause severe health risks and environmental damage, when crude, unscientific methods are applied for recovery of useful components. there is a need to encourage recycling of all useful and valuable material from e-wastes to preserve the natural resources. in this research, we confirm that most of the developing countries are suffering with the rapidly growing problems of e-waste and have to have sound e-waste management systems for end of life ict products to avoid the threat on environment and mankind. electrical and electronic equipment (eee) contain valuable as well as hazardous materials and if at end of life of eee, the hazardous materials are not disposed of scientifically it may cause serious damage to the environment and public health. the presence of heavy metals (like arsenic, cadmium, barium, lead, lithium, mercury, nickel, zinc sulphide) and other toxic substances like pcb (polychlorinated biphenyls) etc. may cause extreme harm, if not disposed of in an environment friendly manner ( waste electrical and electronic equipment, the eu and india: sharing best practices, toxics link). in nigeria, agitation for environmental justice in both the extractive and conservative sectors of the economy has a long history. the national environmental standard and regulation enforcement agency (nesrea), an agency of the federal ministry of environment is responsible for the enforcement of all the environmental laws in nigeria. the broader vision of the institution is to ensure cleaner and healthier environment for all nigerians. nesrea is set up to inspire personal and collective responsibility in building an environmentally conscious society for the achievement of sustainable development in nigeria. nesrea is empowered among other provisional processes, to stop the use of equipment or technology that undermines environmental quality. its mandates also include development of new, and review of existing national environmental laws and regulations. others involve the enforcement of all multilateral environmental agreements, protocols, treaties and conventions to which nigeria is a signatory. unfortunately, this agency has not effectively carried out its responsibilities to the effect that information disseminations both written and oral through media houses, policies and other information mechanisms are inadequate or strictly not in place. the laws regulating trans-border movement in nigeria is so ineffective that importers and smugglers have no difficulty bringing in this obsolete evaia: international journal of ethics and values, vol. 2 no. 1, december 2021 (issn: 2787-0448) anyanwu 60 electronic product despite the fact that they are aware of the harmful effect of these products. study confirms that loopholes in the implementation of the law have, however, ensured that from countries like germany, the uk and other european nations, some of these waste are still exported, a lot of them to african countries like nigeria. however, study shows that the illegal business is not masterminded or controlled by cabals but by various individuals who try to make money for themselves that one of the sectors where loopholes exist in europe is transportation (freja c, erikson (2016). e-wastes are usually recovered from homes and offices and are supposed to be moved straight to treatment plants. but some individuals have now seen huge business opportunities in intercepting eee as they move various stages of the transport chain. so a huge chunk of the waste, instead of arriving treatment plants, is illegal shipped abroad to countries such as nigeria. although there are increasingly more stringent laws on inspection and testing of e-products before they are allowed to be shipped from germany, however, a nigerian businessman, ugochukwu okafor (an importer) revealed that there are ways to work around the regulations. "when you buy them (the non-tested largely ewaste products), we (brokers) can help you properly pack them in your car (to be shipped too)," he said. "the ones that are very exposed will be tested to convince the shipping authorities they all work fine.” despite being illegal and hazardous, there is a craving for both e-waste and used eee among several nigerians. the major reason for this, experts and several nigerian sellers and buyers claimed, is economic. it is a fact that most nigerians cannot afford new products. over half of nigeria's n200 million live in poverty to be able to afford basic electrical and electronic equipment like fridges, tvs, and microwave ovens, most of them buy used ones. apart from cost, some nigerians also feel the used products are of better quality than new ones imported from china. study confirms that the transnational trade on 'tokunbo' electronics is however not entirely negative, say experts. apart from thousands of exporters and importers of used electronics and electrical equipment, the industry has also created a lot of jobs in nigeria's informal sector. about 80,000 people are estimated to work as scavengers, people who pick the electronic waste from homes, dumpsites and other places. another 52,000 are estimated to work as refurbishers, repairing the 'non-tested', non-functional electronics. the fact that thousands of jobs are created in the industry and that some of the imported waste can be repaired and the life cycle extended has led to calls for review of the international ban on e-wastes. study shows that the life cycle of the used electronics is extended in nigeria; it still ends up as waste. about 1.1 million tons of eee become obsolete each year in the west african country with almost half of that ending up as e-waste. part of the problem is lack of organized ewaste recycling or dismantling facility in the country. the one located on lagos island is not functioning efficiently. due to this lack of formal recycling, informal scavengers have instead stepped in to make the last money from the evaia: international journal of ethics and values, vol. 2 no. 1, december 2021 (issn: 2787-0448) anyanwu 61 precious metals of e-waste in nigeria by dismantling them and separate what they consider useful, like, aluminum, copper, lead etc. and sell to the chinese, lebanese and indians who buy the pieces from the scavengers, take it to europe and make the dollars. that is what is happening right now in nigeria and other african countries. currently, nigeria's informal system is thus leaking hazardous toxins into the ground and valuable materials into foreign pockets. on the contrary, the diagnostic assessment displayed in this article clearly show that e-waste is a significant global environment and health issue, with implications far broader than occupational exposure and involving vulnerable groups and generations to come. in this study, we shall discuss the work in four sections; section one is dedicated to the definition of e-waste from the philosophical point of view. section two discusses the rationale for e-waste importation in africa and how it affects the environment and health of the citizens especially nigeria. section three deals with the previous attempts at addressing the problems of e-waste and elaborates how e-waste dumping in africa can be mitigated if the government and agencies responsible for the control of trans-boundry movement of e-waste from the developed nations to africa can effectively enforce the laws regulating harmful movement of products such as e-waste. the role of basel and bamako convention and other regulatory bodies is fundamental to the quest for e-waste management in africa. section four deals with the application of the modified ethical theory of john rawls as a paradigm for the exposition and explication of the leading theories that explain e-waste practices as it affects both human and the environment in the developing nations such as africa. while section five which is the conclusion is an attempt to transcend theory into practice by prescribing ideas and policies that can be applied to mitigate the influx of e-waste into africa by a rigorous application of rawlsian thought on justice to the problem of e-waste management in africa. electronic waste (e-waste) wastes are complex mixtures of different substances, only some of which are intrinsically hazardous to health (oxford, paragraph 2). hazardous wastes include a wide variety of waste materials that can be a threat to human health and to the environment at large. they are produced by many industries including chemicals, ferrous, metal and electronic industries (linda, 1988:424). the hazardousness of a substance depends on the chemical concentration level of the substance; hence, it is dependent on a relative toxicity scale (pedro, 2009:296). electronic wastes are examples of hazardous wastes; the former is entailed in the latter. “electronic wastes could be seen as discarded computers, office electronic equipment, entertainment devices, salvage, recycling or disposal” (smith and puckett, 2002:5). it is regarded as the waste from electrical and electronic equipment (weee). e-waste, as it is usually called, is categorised into three main classeslarge household appliances; it and telecom; and equipment. refrigerator and washing machine are large evaia: international journal of ethics and values, vol. 2 no. 1, december 2021 (issn: 2787-0448) anyanwu 62 household appliance; pc monitor, phones and laptop represents it and telecom; while tv represents consumer equipment, (violet, 2008: 33). it should be noted that today's latest version of television and computers will eventually wear and no longer serve its owner's needs, it then results into a kind of waste-electronic waste (environmental update, 2004: paragraph 1). the estimates of these obsolete goods, as recorded varied from place to place but nonetheless, there are records of tens of million tons of obsolete electronic materials. television and computer wastes are (not) managed like any other solid wastes produced by households. e-waste is generated when an electronic or electrical items has reached the end of its useful life and needs to be disposed of. it can be valuable as a source for secondary raw materials (recycling); and toxic or hazardous if treated and discarded improperly as we do largely in this part of the world (pedro, 2009: 300). although, study has it that china and india have been the dumping ground for obsolete electronic products,. since 2005, it has been realised that handling of e-wastes from the developed nations has shifted attention to african countries, especially nigeria, ghana and south-africa. study confirmed that the transnational trade on 'tokunbo' electronics is however not entirely negative, say experts. apart from thousands of exporters and importers of used electrical and electronic equipment, the industry has also created a lot of jobs in nigeria's informal sector. about 80,000 people are estimated to work as scavengers, people who pick the electronic waste from homes, dumpsites and other places. another 52,000 are estimated to work as refurbishers, repairing the 'non-tested', non-functional electronics. the fact that thousands of jobs are created in the industry and that some of the imported waste can be repaired and the life cycle extended has led to calls for review of the international ban on e-wastes. study shows that the life cycle of the used electronics is extended in nigeria; it still ends up as waste. about 1.1 million tons of eee become obsolete each year in the west african country with almost half of that ending up as e-waste. part of the problem is lack of organized e-waste recycling or dismantling facility in the country. the one located on lagos island is not functioning efficiently. due to this lack of formal recycling, informal scavengers have instead stepped in to make the last money from the precious metals of e-waste in nigeria by dismantling them and separate what they consider useful, like, aluminum, copper, lead etc. and sell to the chinese, lebanese and indians who buy the pieces from the scavengers, take it to europe and make the dollars. that is what is happening right now in nigeria and other african countries. currently, nigeria's informal system is thus leaking hazardous toxins into the ground and valuable materials into foreign pockets. on the contrary, the diagnostic assessment displayed in this article clearly show that e-waste is a significant global environment and health issue, with implications far broader evaia: international journal of ethics and values, vol. 2 no. 1, december 2021 (issn: 2787-0448) anyanwu 63 than occupational exposure and involving vulnerable groups and generations to come. economic rationale for e-waste importation into africa in the face of serious health and environmental hazards, many people in developing countries earn a living by dismantling; refurbishing, repairing and reselling used electronic devices. guiyu in china is often considered the e-waste capital of the world with 75 percent of households involved in the recycling business. but africa is now taken the lead. in addition, criminals search e-waste for credit card numbers and other financial information. for example, “government contracts and lucrative agreements with the u.s. defense intelligence agency, the transportation security administration and homeland security have been found on hard drives in agbogbloshie, an e-waste center in ghana” (index mundi, 2011: 3). studies show that economic, financial vulnerability and ignorance of the potential danger compel africans to receive hazardous electronic waste imported from developed nations for a small financial compensation in the 1980s. for instance, in 1988, an italian merchant dumped toxic material in koko in niger-delta for a pantry compensation of $100 paid to the local owner of the land (jennifer, 2001: 11). as a result, the movement against toxic dumping in poor neighborhoods and communities both in the united states and africa, emerged during the 1980s, just as the movement against the global waste trade was taking shape. consequently, the basel convention was signed in 1989, during the height of environmental justice movements mainly in the united states. it is also probably not coincidental that greenpeace, which has been involved in struggles against environmental inequality across the united states, has been the principal advocate for a ban on the transnational trade in hazardous waste (ibid). shipment of e-waste to ghana and other developing countries in africa is an example of a global spatial inequality that is having significant environmental and health impacts. for instance, after the waste arrives at its destination, it is dismantled by workers or scavengers, many of whom are children and teenagers. the workers wear no protective gear and use rudimentary tools such as stones to open up the product in order to salvage scrap metals; the remaining waste materials, including the plastics and cables are either burned or dumped into unprotected sites (agyeman, 2010: 2). samples of soil, ash, and sediments from these waste sites reveal the presence of a wide variety of hazardous substances such as lead, cadmium, phthalates and chlorinated dioxins. these substances are known to have neurological impacts as well as to cause cancer (ibid). it is important to note that nigeria lacks an indigenous industry which implies that the it sector is basically import oriented. besides the e-waste which is locally generated by consumers in nigeria, a large quota of the e-waste is evaia: international journal of ethics and values, vol. 2 no. 1, december 2021 (issn: 2787-0448) anyanwu 64 either unintentionally or intentionally imported as used electrical and electronics equipment (eee) (schmidt, 2006). the mounting threat posed by the existing methods of informal recycling and disposal methods has attracted the media (puckett, westervelt, & gutierrez, 2005). suffice it to say that this attraction has not gained adequate recognition among policy makers and manufacturers of electronics alike. studies under the direction of the e-waste africa project (wasswa & schluep, 2008; magashi & schluep, 2011; finlay & liechti, 2008) revealed that there is a steady increase of eee in africa, specifically in nigeria. this invariably, increases the amount of e-waste generated in the future (schluep, et al., 2009: 4). nigeria houses one of the largest it market in west africaikeja computer village. ikeja computer village was once a residential area until the early year 2000 when internet technology became a household name in corporate nigeria. eager to cash in on the birth of a major industry, savvy businessmen acquired properties in the most lucrative part of ikeja (a street known as otigba) to commence trade in it equipment and electronic devices. by 2003, two years after global system for mobile communications (gsm) services was launched in nigeria, ikeja computer village became a household name among telecommunication users, within and outside the shores of nigeria. african countries have a huge appetite for technology, but due to limited financial resources, infrastructure and indigenous it industry, much of this growth is facilitated by import of ‘second hand’ or ‘hand me down’ equipment from rich developed countries whose consumers are all too happy to find buyers for them. as a result, this sector has become a thriving terrain for middle men and brokers who channel this used equipment from the industrialized north to the under developed south. unlike guiyu in china, dandora in kenya and karachi in pakistan, refurbishing of used electronic devices and unlocking mobile devices is a more lucrative practice in ikeja. where such devices are beyond repair, they are taken apart and used as spare parts for other serviceable devices. scraps and non-reusable parts are either discarded in the main waste dumpster, burnt in major trash cans or just left to lie around in the environment. the above problem poses serious concerns to a philosophical puzzling mind. yet, a curious observation reveals a dearth of scholarly works, especially from a philosophical perspective, on the impact of e-waste in africa. ultimately, while some international manufacturers now run their own take-back schemes and have pledged to produce "greener pcs" with fewer harmful ingredients, the un has now called for an end to western countries using africa as a landfill for useless electronic (liz, 2006: 2). legal and international frameworks for managing e-waste in africa different regulatory mechanisms have been recommended for waste generation, segregation, disposal, and monitoring some of such evaia: international journal of ethics and values, vol. 2 no. 1, december 2021 (issn: 2787-0448) anyanwu 65 recommendations have been vetted and enacted by the government of different nations. however, before implementing these laws, we need to ask the question, is electronic waste hazardous? clearly the answer is in the affirmative. toxicologists affirm that electronic wastes consist of toxic elements which are dangerous to the ecosystem when exposed or handled carelessly. legally, however, it depends on the government of a state on how serious it chooses to deal with electronic wastes. governments of various nations have setup allembracing electronic waste policy framework for their countries. such policy includes recognising the roles and responsibilities of all those who are involved in the production of electronic wastes. it should be noted that everyone is involved in electronic waste generation in so far as we have one electronic material or the other in our various homes (pedro, 2009: 302). besides the bamako convention, which is a treaty of african nations prohibiting the importation of any hazardous waste (including radioactive waste), there is an international convention that formulates the principles guiding electronic wastes, with the responsibility to regulate the shipment of obsolete electronic materials from one country to another, known as basel convention. the basel convention the basel convention on the control of trans-boundary movements of hazardous wastes and their disposal (hereinafter referred to as “the basel convention”) came into being in 1989 as a result of toxic deposits in africa and other parts of the developing countries. this action, occasioned by the increased awareness on the long term effects of improper disposal of hazardous waste by the industrialized countries resulted in strident regulations on disposal of hazardous waste thus, leading to a corresponding increase in disposal costs. seeking alternative avenues for the increasing e-waste accumulation, industries and operators alike sought cheap disposal options in eastern europe and the developing nations where environmental awareness was low and strident regulations and its enforcement was lacking (basel convention, 2011). this quest to avoid strict laws in the home countries, lead to a seemingly free trade of e-waste across international borders; especially to the developing nations. against this back drop, the basel convention came into full action in 1992 (ibid). the basel convention aims to ensure environmental responsibility of waste by the country of origin as well as encourage reduced volume of waste generation and toxicity by countries who are signatories to the treaty. it also ensures that management of hazardous waste or its trans-boundary movement is consistent with the protection of human health and the environment where it is disposed of. the convention further promotes sound environmental waste management amongst developing nations (basel convention, 2011: 2). essentially, countries who are signatories to the banan convention are obliged to ensure that e-waste generation and other hazardous waste is reduced to the barest minimum. the convention also ensures that signatory countries possess evaia: international journal of ethics and values, vol. 2 no. 1, december 2021 (issn: 2787-0448) anyanwu 66 sufficient disposal facilities to ensure proper management of e-waste and other hazardous waste generated. it lays specific emphasis on ensuring that waste management is extended to the point or place of disposal. it would seem likely that a country such as the united states would be able and willing to fulfill and implement this call for national self-sufficiency in waste management. to date, the united states is the only developed country that has not ratified the basel convention. u.s. officials, according to puckett (2002), have actively worked to defeat, and then weaken, the basel waste export ban. the bamako convention the bamako convention on the ban and the control of trans-boundary movement and management of hazardous wastes within africa is a treaty of african nations prohibiting the importation of any hazardous waste (including radioactive waste). the convention was negotiated at the organization of african unity at bamako, mali in january, 1991 by twelve african nations. it came into force in 1998 (organization of african unity (oau), 1991). the bamako convention came into being from the realisation that the affluent nations were exporting toxic wastes to africa and from the failure of the basel convention to effectively prohibit the trade of hazardous waste to less developed countries. the bamako convention shares some similarities in format and use of language as the basel convention but it is more resolute in prohibiting all imports containing hazardous waste with no exceptions (such as radioactive materials) excused by the basel convention. nigeria ratified the basel convention in may 24, 2004; prohibiting the movement of hazardous waste into its shores but has not ratified the bamako convention (ibid). in nigeria, agitation for environmental justice in both the extractive and conservative sectors of the economy has a long history. the national environmental standard and regulation enforcement agency (nesrea), an agency of the federal ministry of environment is responsible for the enforcement of all the environmental laws in nigeria. the broader vision of the institution is to ensure cleaner and healthier environment for all nigerians. nesrea is set up to inspire personal and collective responsibility in building an environmentally conscious society for the achievement of sustainable development in nigeria. nesrea is empowered among other provisional processes, to stop the use of equipment or technology that undermines environmental quality. its mandates also include development of new, and review of existing national environmental laws and regulations. others involve the enforcement of all multilateral environmental agreements, protocols, treaties and conventions to which nigeria is a signatory. unfortunately, this agency has not effectively carried out its responsibilities to the effect that information disseminations both written and oral through media houses, policies and other information mechanisms are inadequate or strictly not in place. the laws regulating trans-border movement in nigeria is so ineffective evaia: international journal of ethics and values, vol. 2 no. 1, december 2021 (issn: 2787-0448) anyanwu 67 that importers and smugglers have no difficulty bringing in this obsolete electronic product despite the fact that they are aware of the harmful effect of these products. study confirms that loopholes in the implementation of the law have, however, ensured that from countries like germany, the uk and other european nations, some of these waste are still exported, a lot of them to african countries like nigeria. towards a rawlsian approach to an ethically conscious management of e-waste a philosophical interrogation of the problem of e-waste dumping in africa requires a focus on the ethical implications of the practice. also involved is the question of environmental justice. this is because in our view, e-waste dumping, which is a deliberate act whose consequences are known to the perpetrators, carries very grave consequences for the affected african states. furthermore, the study shows how rawls’s theory of justice can be used to interrogate the issue of e-waste management as it affects africa. rawls did not mention the issue of e-waste either as an environmental concern or as a health hazard in his work. however, this is not unconnected with the fact that the debate on environmental pollution and e-waste management emerged after the seminal work of rawls which is “justice as fairness”. his aim is to present a conception of justice which generalizes and carries to a higher level of abstraction the familiar theory of the social contract as found, say, in locke, rousseau, and kant. in order to do this we are not to think of the original contract as one to enter a particular society or to set up a particular form of government. (rawls, 2005: 3) rawls conceives the world as a hypothetical society in which everyone is equal and must submit himself to the rules as earlier agreed. rawls has this to say; thus if men take a certain pleasure in discriminating against one another, in subjecting others to a lesser liberty as a means of enhancing their selfrespect, then the satisfaction of these desires must be weighed in our deliberations according to their intensity, or whatever, along with other desires. (ibid: 30). it is no doubt that any informed person would be aware of the fact that our globe is harrying on ecological disintegrating precipice. the dumping of e-waste on african soil is without regard to the health hazards it causes is a moral problem which runs against the principle of justice as fairness as proposed by rawls. he further argues that reasonable regulations to maintain public order and security, or efficient measures for public health and safety, promote the common interest in this sense (ibid: 97). due to income disparity, the west now decided to shift evaia: international journal of ethics and values, vol. 2 no. 1, december 2021 (issn: 2787-0448) anyanwu 68 their environmental burdens to african countries contrary to difference principle as adduced by rawls. this he says; it seems likely that this will be true even when the social injustices which now exist are removed. what, then, can possibly justify this kind of initial inequality in life prospects? according to the difference principle, it is justifiable only if the difference in expectation is to the advantage of the representative man who is worse off (rawls, 1971:78). rawls conceived the society as a form of cooperation whereby those who are well-off like the developed nations should use their resources to better the life of the worse-off which africa represents, rather than continue impoverishing these african countries by exporting e-waste to africa countries. according to him, taken together these features of a well-ordered regime diminish the number of occasions when the less favored are likely to experience their situation as impoverished and humiliating (rawls, 2005: 537). giving the precepts of justice as fairness to liberty, every society has right to decide what is good for them. now the question of domination by the developed nations over africa because, the poor africans are in need of technology should not warrant the dumping of e-waste in african due to the health risk associated with it. the denial of equal liberty can be accepted only if it is necessary to enhance the quality of civilization so that in due course the equal freedoms can be enjoyed by all, (rawls, 2005: 542). in what seems to be the failure of the government to regulate the movement of e-waste into africa, rawls has this to say in his work the “law of peoples,” that an important role of government, however arbitrary a society's boundaries may appear from a historical point of view, is to be the effective agent of a people as they take responsibility for their territory and the size of their population, as well as for maintaining the land's environmental integrity. unless a definite agent is given responsibility for maintaining an asset and bears the responsibility and loss for not doing so, that asset tends to deteriorate (rawls, 1999: 15). evaia: international journal of ethics and values, vol. 2 no. 1, december 2021 (issn: 2787-0448) anyanwu 69 for rawls, citizens of a society are by right of justice supposed to decide the choice of goods they need and not for another nation for any reason to determine the kind of goods and services they are to enjoy. rawls has this to say: “political view is a view about political justice and the common good, and about what institutions and policies best promote them. citizens must somehow acquire and understand these ideas if they are to be capable of making judgments about basic rights and liberties (rawls, 2008: 5).” in working out the conception of justice as fairness, it could be said that rawls was faced with the task of determining which principles of justice would be chosen in the original agreement in a situation of equality. the question then arises whether the principle of utility would be acknowledged? for it would be hard for people to view themselves as equal, and entitle to press their claims upon each other to agree to a principle which may require lesser life prospects for some advantages enjoyed by others. in view of this, rawls admits that one can try to deal with this question by viewing political society in a certain way, namely, as a fair system of cooperation over time from one generation to the next, where those engaged in cooperation are viewed as free and equal citizens and normal cooperating members of society over a complete life. we then try to formulate principles of political justice such that if the basic structure of society—the main political and social institutions and the way they fit together as one scheme of cooperation—satisfies those principles, then we can say without pretense and fakery that citizens are indeed free and equal (rawls, 2001: 4). why must the developed nations, prefer to worsen their continued existence by endangering their health through the importation of e-waste into africa? in the view of rawls, justice as fairness is an egalitarian view, but there are many kinds of equality and many reasons for being concerned with it. so let us review several of the reasons for regulating economic and social inequalities. according to rawls, in the absence of special circumstances, it seems wrong that some or much of society should be amply provided for, while many, or even a few, suffer hardship, not to mention hunger and treatable illness. urgent needs and wants go unfulfilled, while the less urgent ones of others are satisfied. but here it may not be inequality of income and wealth as such that bothers us; instead we may think that, unless there is real scarcity, all should have at least enough to meet their basic needs. another reason for controlling economic and social inequalities is to prevent one part of society from dominating the rest (rawls, 2001: 130). the quest for technology compels poor african societies to patronize harmful products like e-waste thereby degrading our environment and putting human life at risk of the toxic effect of the materials. for this reason call on the government of africans become imperative in order to institute regulations that will mitigate this anomaly. rawls has this to say: and, of course, there are the striking cases of public harms, as when industries sully and erode the natural evaia: international journal of ethics and values, vol. 2 no. 1, december 2021 (issn: 2787-0448) anyanwu 70 environment. these costs are not normally reckoned with by the market, so that the commodities produced are sold at much less than their marginal social costs. there is a divergence between private and social accounting that the market fails to register. one essential task of law and government is to institute the necessary corrections (rawls, 2005: 268). the effort of human beings to sustain the environment remains a serious ontological concern. their success at it concurrently enriches the quality of life and its duration on earth. if the present altitude of people to the environment and its sanctity is one of abuse, then a cause for action and urgent remedial is needed. joel kassiola is of the view that humanity will not be able to save the world from environmental catastrophe unless and until the normative nature of the environmental problem is recognized. many environmental ethicists hold that radical social changes must occur if environmental disaster is to be averted and our world saved, but how are the citizens to be environmentally informed so that they will properly prioritize and adopt environmental values? (fadahunsi, 2007: 157). although, the concept of theory of justice attracted much criticism, stanislav mysicka….in his work environmental justice and rawlsian social contract theory, argues that rawls anthropological position is unacceptable hence there are other natural environmental concerns that need urgent attention. that human being which is the central concern of rawls’s justice as fairness cannot survive within the natural environment if other natural properties are put into extinction. mysicka further argues, there would be only a few of those who would consider human beings radically separate from their natural environment, except for adherents of some version of strict mind-body dualism, like descartes. natural environment and more generally the world ecosystem is indispensable for one simple reason: we cannot live without it. he continues we need natural resources; we need air, water and food. moreover, nature plays an important role in human psychology because of its aesthetic and other functions. natural environment is essentially important. conclusion it is confirmed that there is no unique or ideal model for e-waste management in developing countries, each of which is characterized by its own specific environmental, social, technological, economic and cultural conditions. with a view to bridge the digital divide, there is exponential growth in the use of electrical and electronic equipment (eee) and so there is alarming effect on environment and human health when the ict wastes are not disposed of scientifically. there is an emergent need to implement the existing policies and guidelines in line with the international standards and practices for a healthy ewaste management system. government policies should encourage the reuse of eee aiming to minimize and recycle waste electrical and electronic equipment (weee). the extended producer responsibility (epr) does need to have clear regulations to mandate the ‘take back’ activity of companies evaia: international journal of ethics and values, vol. 2 no. 1, december 2021 (issn: 2787-0448) anyanwu 71 strictly. in nigeria, especially, lagos, abuja, onitsha and kano, the government should establish recycling plants where e-waste can be recycled instead of allow the public and scavengers to dispose it improperly and unscientifically in order to have a positive impact in reducing the rate of weee generation, facilitating the management of ewaste and recovery of materials, achieving cost reduction. references agyeman, j. 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(2008). e-waste hazard: the impending challenge. indian journal of occupational and environmental medicine, 12(2), 65. puckett, j., byster, l., westervelt, s., gutierrez, r., davis, s., hussain, a., (2002). exporting harm: the high-tech trashing of asia. seattle: the basel action network (ban) silicon valley toxics coalition (svtc). puckett, j., (2002). exporting harm: the high-tech trashing of asia. seattle: the basel action network (ban) silicon valley toxics coalition (svtc). puckett, j., westervelt, s., & gutierrez, r. (2005). the digital dump: exporting re-use and abuse to africa. seattle: the basel action network. rawls, j. (1971). a theory of justice, second edition, cambridge ma: the belknap press of harvard university press, 78. rawls, j. (1999). a theory of justice: revised edition, cambridge ma: the belknap press of harvard university press, 15. rawls, j. (1999). the law of peoples, “with the idea of public reason revised, cambridge ma: the belknap press of harvard university press, 246. rawls, j. (2001). justice as fairness, cambridge ma: the belknap press of harvard university press, 4. rawls, j. (2001). justice as fairness, cambridge ma: the belknap press of harvard university press, 130. rawls, j. (2004). justice as reciprocity, cambridge ma: the belknap press of harvard university press, 87. rawls, j. (2005). a theory of justice, second edition, cambridge ma: the belknap press of harvard university press, 3. evaia: international journal of ethics and values, vol. 2 no. 1, december 2021 (issn: 2787-0448) anyanwu 74 ibid: 4. ibid: 84. ibid: 268. ibid: 542. rawls, j. (2008). “lectures on the history and political philosophy”, cambridge, 8. schluep, m., hagelueken, c., kuehr, r., magalini, f., maurer, c., meskers, c., et al. (2009). recycling from e-waste to resources, paris, france: empa, umicore, unu.: sustainable innovation and technology transfer industrial sector studies schmidt, c. w. (2006). “unfair trade e-waste in africa”, environmental health perspectives, 114: a232-a235. smith, t.and puckett, j. (2002). exporting harm: the high-tech trashing of asia. seattle: the basel action network (ban) silicon valley toxics coalition (svtc). undp, (2011). human department report: sustainability and equity, a better fortune for all, palgrave macmillan: new york. evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 3, december, 2022 1 discourse on corruption and collapse of reason in human affairs: a philosophical solution matthew ike obijekwu, phd a lecturer at chukwuemeka odumegwu ojukwu university, igbariam, anambra state; president, ethics and values ambassadors international association; and director, dr ike obijekwu centre for research and values mentorship, ihiala mobile: 08063795889; email: mathewobijekwu@gmail.com abstract applying analytic method, the paper contended that corruption in all its ramifications appeared to be the main cause of local and global confusion, war, conflict, terrorism, discrimination, subjugation, and many other social problems. corruption, which is conceived or defined here as an extreme attachment to self, or i (ego), or an extreme group or nation’s attachment to herself (extreme nationalism or ultranationalism), appeared to be the cause of social injustices, man’s inhumanity to man, exploitation, etc. this paper discussed the collapse of reason in human affairs considerably in the 20th and 21st centuries. it argued that corruption has led to the collapse of reason in human affairs (or relations) across the globe. herein, definition of corruption, types and categories of corruption, which include individual, national and international categories of corruption were examined. the concept of “reason”, and further discussion on the movement of reason in history of thought was examined. further discussion on the categories, instances of corruption and collapse of reason within 20th and 21st centuries were made. furtherance, a philosophical solution on the collapsed of reason was offered. the paper, therefore, concluded that if humans across the globe should do well to understand the natural bond that hold humanity together and as well understand the uniqueness of humans, there would be a relative peace and harmony across the globe. and extreme biases and prejudices caused by corruption of reason should be jettison from human relations across the world. hence, wars, human exploitations and dehumanization orchestrated by selfishness and extreme desire to dominate would be reduced, if not completely eradicated. evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 3, december, 2022 2 introduction the question remains, “how can philosophy intervene in restoring the seemingly global collapse of reason precipitated by corruption? can reason be morally redeemed in human affairs? reason has been seen as the refiner or the molder of society right from the ancient time, through medieval period and down to modern period of philosophical thought. in contemporary period which often be described as 21st century, reason seems to have lost its compass in human affairs or relation. the war presently going on between russia and ukraine is a typical example of collapse of reason in contemporary time. perhaps, there has been series of wars in the history of humanity, which scholars may not have taken time to investigate the impact of corruption amongst the causes of these wars. reason, in the ancient time, seemed to have refined the non-philosophical period in history. reason, as seen, refined the egyptian greek mythological periods as the literature of homer and hesiod explored relationships or interactions between humans; between gods and humans; and between humans and the universe. evidently, the egyptian and greek mythologists were not enable to subject some of these actions or anthropomorphical status of gods to the altar of criticality, rationality and coherency. it was until the emergence of pure philosophic thought, that is, the pure application of reason through the ancient egyptians priest-philosophers under the egyptian mystery system schools that reason started to take its constructive and reconstructive approach. as seen in imhotep, an egyptian philosopher who lived about 2980 b.c during the third dynasty;1 hermes akheton who also lived around 1350 b. c nearly one thousand years before aristotle was born;2 ptah-hotep, the vizier of king izezi of the fifth dynasty2000-1780 b.c3 to mention a few. an ancient greek historian and geographer, herodotus, who lived in the 5th century bc (about 484 to 425 bc), and who gave a detailed account of grecopersian wars, also showed the primacy of reason in the development of thought4. later philosophers like thales and other pre-socratic philosophers continued in the west (greece and roman empire) what the egyptian mystery system scholars started in south (africa). socrates, plato and aristotle made reason the benchmark for reflection, criticality, rationality and coherency. georg wilhelm friedrich hegel and the subsequent philosophers conceived reason as the refiner of human thought and actions. even the scholastics, who were more theologians than philosophers (theologian-philosophers), described reason as a divine wisdom and handmaid of theology. with the 20th and 21st centuries events, one may really doubt or question the primacy of reason due to the extreme manifestation of corruption across the globe. in this situation, egoistic emotion orchestrated by personal or collective evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 3, december, 2022 3 attachment to material things, or extreme materialism may be, seen dominantly suppressing reason. hence, the blame on irrationality in human relations has been ascribed to, or rather anchored on the influence of, egoistic emotion or racial sentiments. be it as it may, reason was highly elevated or prized during the enlightenment period in the history of philosophy. hegel taught of “universal reason”2 arguing that reason has been on motion since the history of the world. for hegel, the state was the aftermath of the dialectical movement of thought or reason. considering the failing human relationship and some events that have been occurring across the globe shaping the world and its history, it appears human reason is collapsing. this has become visible in the act of dehumanization and exploitation of humans by their fellow humans. the collapse of reason can also be virtually seen in the taxonomized of the world into first world, second world and third world, as well as developed and underdeveloped (or developing) nations. the accusations and counter-accusations regarding the origin of covid-19; the fear and anxiety caused by emergence of 5g network and troubling issues as they may affect humans across the globe are also pointers to the collapse of reason. along this line are the first world war, the second world war and the waves of the third world war (as the russianukraine war is ongoing) standing as indicators of collapsed and subsequent collapse of reason understanding the concept and nature of corruption it is proper to define the concept of corruption here before further discussion. one may ask, what is corruption? what is the nature of corruption? is corruption a natural phenomenon? or better put, “is corruption nature of humans?” is it in the nature of humans to be corrupt? under what condition can we consider an action or a conduct a corrupt one? in tackling the above questions, let me first and foremost begin with the correction of the decades held wrong understanding of human nature as posited by some scholars. i may completely disagree with thomas hobbes, who said that humans are wolves in the state of nature. this is an indirect way of saying that humans are naturally corrupt in the state of nature. i greatly appreciate john locke’s and rousseau’s views on the natural state of humankind. they asserted that humans were “equal and free” in the state of nature, and reason later suggested for peace and protection of lives and properties, which was consented to by the members and realized through social contract, or communal agreement. the later manifestation of individual evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 3, december, 2022 4 greed could be said to lead to attitudinal or habitual corruption in the state of nature – not a manifestation from birth. hence, discussion on corruption in contemporary society may expose other views on corrupt exhibitions different from the type existed or experienced in the state of nature as theorized by the social contract theorists. even thomas hobbes’ sense of corrupt nature of humans led to the formation of political society, whereas at present, the modern systemic corruption has apparently led to the destruction of lives and properties. corruption may take different forms or dimensions. i argue that corruption is beyond taking bribe, and embezzlement of public funds. it is beyond that; therefore, limiting corruption or corrupt practices to mere taking bribe or embezzlement of public fund is limiting the effects of corruption across the globe. colonialism is a form, and advanced form, of corruption; slavery, domination, subjugation, marginalization, exclusion, or racism are forms of corrupt practices intended to alienate some of section humans from their human nature for selfish reasons. these are trans-personal modes(tpm) of corruption. as it were, corruption is any crime against humanity; any crime that is intentionally done to distort common good and retard progress and development; it could be done by an individual, or a group. generally speaking, corruption is considered an evil. based on this, i may argue that corruption is not in the nature of humans. humans are not specifically made to be corrupt. evil, as said by st. augustine, is a privation in man, and occurs when humans decide to choose the opposite of good, which is evil or act in contradiction to good conduct. the opposite of evil is good. heraclitus would want us to believe that good and evil are in conflict – the theory of conflict of opposites: evil and good, hot and cold, life and death, love and hate, etc. are often seen as natural phenomena. these are how nature unfold itself in the world and inthe-things around us. but we may still wonder if corruption is a natural phenomenon like life and death, evil and good, etc. is corruption in the nature of humans or in-things-in-themselves? i argue that corruption is not a natural phenomenon, and it is not in the nature of things (or in human to be corrupt); that human beings or persons, out of their individual volition, often choose to be corrupt. humans can never choose to live or die; no one chooses to come into the world at birth, but man can choose to kill himself or herself by committing suicide when the reason is corrupt. something is certain here – freedom to choose or not to choose in the face of options or alternatives lies in, or within, humans. life is a natural phenomenon likewise death. whether one exists or does not exist, life and death are there as the flows of nature. either or factor is always before humans. one may decide to either choose good or evil, either be corrupt or not. i am not considering corruption as a evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 3, december, 2022 5 decay of the human body after death or in a metaphorical sense. i am considering corruption as an act or a human conduct or as an attitude. corruption can be seen in various affairs or activities of humans, and in various levels. many definitions have been offered from these perspectives. generally, corruption is defined by world bank as a form of dishonesty or a criminal offense which is undertaken by a person or an organization which is entrusted with a position of authority, in order to acquire illicit benefits or abuse power for one’s private gain. in this definition, one in power or entrusted with authority may choose to be or not be corrupt. it is a choice. this definition clearly shows that corruption is not in-the-nature of the individual involved but out of one’s decision or choice. for instance, red is in the colour of red; green is in-the-colour of green, likewise blue, yellow and other colours. it is in the nature of humans to be good, not to be corrupt. further, the nature of corruption can be extended to other dimensions. corruption, as we know, may take different forms, namely; bribery, which refers to the offering, giving, soliciting, or receiving of any items of values as a means of influencing the actions of an individual holding a public or legal duty,4 while embezzlement refers to a form of white-collar crime in which a person or entity misappropriate the assets entrusted to them.5the world report on corruption include other practices seemed legal in other countries but in actual sense are corrupt activities.6corruption, as said earlier, manifests in various human activities such as politics, economics, etc. political corruption, for example, happens when one who is entrusted with a political office or other governmental employee acts in official way for personal gain. in this line of thought, stephen d. morris defines political corruption as the illegitimate use of public power to benefit a private interest.7 an economist, ian senior defines corruption as an action to a thirty party so that he or she can influence certain actions which benefit the corrupt, a thirty party, or both in which the corrupt agent has authority.8 daniel kaufmann, a renowned world bank economist, extended the definition of corruption to legal corruption where power is abused within the confines of the law – as those with power often have the ability to make the laws for their protection. the transparency international defines corruption as the abuse of entrusted power for private gain. corruption erodes trust, weakens democracy, hampers economic development and further exacerbates inequality, poverty, social division and environmental crisis9. human nature is naturally endowed, universally accepted and legally recognized across the globe; but corruption, as a pervades nature of human person, as it flows from his act, is globally a crime against humanity. evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 3, december, 2022 6 types of corruption discussing the types of corruption herein brings us to some other understandings of the subject matter. some previous discussions on corruption seemed to have so much limited corruption to intra-personal modes(ipms) as against the trans-personal modes (tpms). even the definition of corruption can be approached from various dimensions due to the variables that constitute corrupt practices; one can easily feel and experience the effects of corruption politically, economically, socially, and mostly be felt in leadership. corruption is an ethical issue in society, which has been affecting humanity in different ways. it is a human conduct or action. in talking of corruption, human person(s) is/are involved. elliot kimberly ann, in his work corruption overview and recommendations, gave three types of corruption, namely; petty corruption, grand corruption and systemic corruption.10. suffice to say that as there are variant definitions of corruption, there are also types of corruption. there are manifestations of corrupt activities in both low and high levels in human activities. petty corruption is said to occur in a smaller scale, especially in our daily activities where in public services, we meet people or public. such places include fuel stations, police station, registration offices, school offices, etc. grand corruption occurs at the high levels of government in such a way that there is grave diversion of the political, legal and economic system. the third type of corruption is the system (or endemic corruption). lorena aleazer and raul andrade assert that this type of corruption is primarily due to the weaknesses of an organization or process. it can be contrasted with individual officials or agents who act corruptly within the system. according to him, the factors that encourages the systemic corruption include conflicting incentives, discretionary powers; monopolistic powers; lack of transparency; low pay; and a culture of impunity.11 dimensions/stages of corruption we may approach the discussion on corruption in two forms; broad and narrow forms of corruptions. corruption may be simply conceived as a conflict of interests between the individual interest and collective interests. the narrow form of corruption is when corruption takes a particularistic nature, that is, when an individual is involved for selfish reasons or self-interest as often observed within a state or a nation. the narrow sense of corruption can be known as intra-nation corruption (intra-nc), while the broad sense of corruption can be termed an inter-nation corruption (inter-nc). herein, our discussion of corruption will be more of inter-nc as it has led to the global collapse of reason. evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 3, december, 2022 7 let me briefly propose some stages of corruption, such as individual stage, national stage and international stage of corruption. let me bring to our awareness that the individual stage and the national stages of corruption falls within the intra-nc. there is another stage/dimension of corruption which i may not discuss in details here. this is known as epistemic corruption, which involves the conscription of human knowledge and denial of the epistemic contributions by other sections of the world. the main effect of this kind of corruption is that it retards knowledge; it consumes inclusiveness and integration in knowledge. epistemic corruption is seen in the writing of the history of philosophy by the western philosophers, where africa’s epistemic contributions in the development of western thought were excluded. c. onyenwenyi, in his work, africa origin of western philosophy12, extensively discussed this kind of exclusion of knowledge which i describe as an epistemic corruption. the first stage of corruption is the individual stage of corruption, which is the lower stage of corruption. often, the evil of corruption is nurtured and precipitated by individuals but in the limited or narrow sense. the individual stage is the fragment of the whole in the further stages of corruption. in this stage, self or ego beclouds the individual reasoning, and misdirects the will. at this level also, no sense of commonness can be seen rather self-interest. so the individual is the sole administrator in this type of corruption; individuals, at this stage, are the carriers of the modes of corruption in the atomic forms. this stage is a limited stage because the individual can be checkmated by the state through her legal structures, functional or working institutions. when the entire state or nation is corrupt, the second stage of corruption emerges which is always coordinated and systematically done by the state actors. the second stage of corruption is the national stage. this is the conglomeration of the individual interests or group interests; a clique of decision-makers or leaders. illustratively, a situation where an individual is interested in appropriating resources of a country, where he or she is a citizen or a member, and fortunately discovered that there are other persons who have the same interest in the resources, instead of being alone in the game to avoid being decimated or overridden by other competitors, decides to connive with them to milk the nation’s resources. politicians are good at this type of corruption. as it was said that there is no enemy is politics, rather partners in crime. the national level of corruption is the type of corruption a nation undertakes within the framework of the country’s activities. this type of corruption is often seen in an authoritarian society, oligarchical society, or where tyrant leaders determine the future of their citizens. nigeria is a typical example of this type of corrupt nation. this is where the executive, judicial and legislative arms of evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 3, december, 2022 8 government are all involved in corrupt practices. one hardly obtains justice in such a society. in a situation or in a country where the judicial, executive and legislative arms of government are all corrupt, the country and the whole system in that particular society or country would be in jungle or survival of the fittest. it would be in a state of war or anarchy where life is” short, brutish, nasty and poor” according to thomas hobbes. the third stage of corruption occurs in the international relations or engagements with other countries. this stage of corruption is considered under the intra-nc. this occurs when a group, an organization or a nation decides to exploit, marginalize, subjugate, colonize, or dominate other groups, organizations, or nations in the quest to acquire more. this is done by extending beyond their boundaries, especially to those countries that have what they desired (natural resources) but are economically and politically incapacitated to protect themselves or determine their future progress due to self-imposed challenges or external challenges. africa and other developing nations have been involved or so much affected by this type of corruption. for some decades now, the future of most african nations are determined and still be determined by the developed countries (or world powers like america, chine, france, britain, russia, and others) through the international monetary fund(imf), the world bank and other international financial institutions. this type of corruption is likened to a systemic type of corruption. the individual, national and international stages of corruption can be likened to the petty corruption, grand corruption and systemic corruption by elliot kimberly ann. corruption inducement experience has shown that corruption may be induced by different human traits or factors such as psychological (or emotional), social, political and economic factors. the main factor amongst these factors is often associated with the psychological inducement factors: (a) extreme attachment to self or ego (egocentrism) on the individual stage, and (b) extreme nationalism or ultranationalism in the national and international stages. the extreme attachment to self or ego (egocentrism)may say to be the primary cause of corruption. this is a situation where an individual placed himself or herself over others, and to their detriment, while the extreme nationalism orultranationalism is referred to a situation where individual or nations promote the interest of one state or people above all others. the term, ultranationalism is said to be the key foundation of fascism.13the international corruption is often caused by extreme nationalism or ultranationalism; that is a situation where nations prized themselves over and above others, or consider themselves superior over other nations. evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 3, december, 2022 9 we may consider other induced factors of corruption as secondary factors. psychological induced corruption is often caused by lack of self-control or self-esteem. often, one engages in corruption or corrupt activities out of low self-esteem, self-insufficiency, anxiety, fear of poverty, wretchedness or greed. we may think of other views on the causes of corruption as offered by some scholars. dominik enste and christiana heldman’s book titled, causes and consequences of corruption: an overview of empirical results enumerates the main causes of corruption, which include; a, the sizes of government; b) the democracy and political system; c) the quality of institutions; d) economic freedom/openness of economy; e) salaries of civil service; f) press freedom and judiciary; g) cultural determination; h) percentage of woman in the labour force and in parliament; i) colonial heritage and; j) the endowment of natural resources. the authors further enumerate some areas where the impact of corruption can be felt, namely; i) investment in general; ii) foreign direct investment and capital inflows; iii) foreign trade and aid; iv) official growth; v) inequality; vi) government expenditure and services; and vii) shadow economy and crime.14 many other studies on corruption have laid much emphasis on likely issues listed above. but little or no attention has been paid on self or ego. some scholars made mention of greed. greed, as we can see, is a negative attribute of self. it is a negation of selfless service or self-sacrifice. whenever one is immersed in greed, reason is beclouded and rationality failed, and the resultant effect is the collapse of reason – irrationality, which reduces one to a brute. corruption often happens due to the failure or collapse of reason, that is, the failure of reason to be involved in rationality; in criticality; in coherency of thought; and in discovering the truth-value of things. part understanding the concept and nature of reason what is reason? from the ancient to the contemporary era, the nature of reason has been so much contest or debated. the modern usage of the word, reason metamorphosed from a greek word, logos, which is also the root of the term, “logic” (speech, or explanation or an account.15its direct translation into english is gotten from french raison.16 its further usages like ratio, raison, logos and reason were said to be interchangeably used by philosophers like francis bacon, thomas hobbes, and john locke as most of their works were written in latin and french. reason, in a philosophical sense is equated with rationality, or rational as an adjective. the term, reason has been understood in different ways: a) as a cause, explanation, or justification for an action or event, b; as the power of the mind to think, understand, and form judgements logically. proundfoot defines reason as the capacity of consciously applying logic by drawing conclusions from new or existing information, with the aim of seeking the truth.17 evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 3, december, 2022 10 he further asserts that reason is closely associated with such characteristically human activities as philosophy, science, language, mathematics, and art, and is normally considered to be a distinguishing ability possessed by humans.18 in this definition, reason seeks or searches for the truth. in moment of bias and prejudice, reason seeks for the truth. reason is possessed by humans, and it is sometimes referred to as rationality.19 reason involves acts of cognition and thinking as well as one’s use of intellect. according to hintikka, reasoning is used in the field of logic to produce logically valid arguments.20 reason, as we can see, is subdivided into: deductive reasoning, inductive reasoning, abductive reasoning, and intuitive reasoning. there are other understandings or conceptions of reason which we may not go into now due to the scope of this work. we may not forget to note, as foucault says, that reason is the means by which rational individuals understand sensory information from their environment, or conceptualize abstract dichotomies such as cause and effect, truth and falsehood, or ideas regarding notions of good and evil. michel foucault further asserts that reasoning, as a part of executive decision making, is also closely identified with the ability to self-consciously change, in terms of goals, beliefs, attitudes, traditions, and institutions, and therefore with the capacity for freedom and self-determination.21 according to merriam-webster.com, a reason is a consideration given which either explains or justifies events, phenomena, or behavior.22 reasons justify decisions, reasons support explanations of natural phenomena; reasons can be given to explain the actions (conduct) of individuals. james rachels’ the elements of moral philosophy expresses that using reason, or reasoning, can also be described more plainly as providing good, or the best, reasons. for example, when evaluating a moral decision, "morality is, at the very least, the effort to guide one's conduct by reason—that is, doing what there are the best reasons for doing—while giving equal [and impartial] weight to the interests of all those affected by what one does."23 francisco de goya maintains that the “sleep of reason produces monsters” (el sueño de la razón produce monstruos). the term sleep as used by francisco de goya may be interpreted to mean “collapse” of reason which he said produces monster. philosophically, the argument on reason has been an old-aged argument starting with the greek philosophers to contemporary philosophers. in philosophy, reason has been argued to be a thing that gives humanity its special position in nature. and this was said to be a defining characteristic of western philosophy and later western modern science, starting with classical greece. evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 3, december, 2022 11 in classical period, many classical philosophers conceived nature as being teleological, which means that every type of thing had a definitive purpose that fit within a natural order that was itself understood to have aims. with pythagoras or heraclitus, the cosmos or universe is even understood to have reason.24 therefore, considering reason as teleological, it is not just one characteristic that humans happen to have, and that influences happiness amongst other characteristics. reason was considered of higher stature than other characteristics of human nature, such as sociability, because it is something humans share with nature itself, linking an apparently immortal part of the human mind with the divine order of the cosmos itself. within the human mind or soul (psyche), reason was described by plato as being the natural monarch which should rule over the other parts, such as spiritedness (thumos) and the passions. aristotle, plato's student, defined human beings as rational animals, emphasizing reason as a characteristic of human nature. he defines the highest human happiness or well-being (eudaimonia) as a life which is lived consistently, excellently, and completely in accordance with reason.25 davidson asserts that plato’s and aristotle’s discourse on reason are amongst the most debated in the history of philosophy.26 the teleological accounts such as aristotle's were highly influential for those who attempt to explain reason in a way that is consistent with monotheism and the immortality and divinity of the human soul.27 the understanding of reason in the perspectives of plato and aristotle raised other views on reason. citing plotinus, a neoplatonist, moore states that the cosmos has one soul, which is the seat of all reason, and the souls of all individual humans are part of this soul. reason is for plotinus both the provider of form to material things, and the light which brings individuals souls back into line with their source.28 the classical view of reason influenced both the christian and islamic theologians during the scholastic period. therefore, adopting the classical view of reason by christian and islamic philosophers gave the understanding of reason another dimension. the neoplatonic and stoic views were adopted by early church fathers like augustine of hippo, basil of caesarea and gregory of nyssa who were seen as neoplatonic philosophers.29they saw reason/philosophy as an indispensable instrument given to mankind so that we may understand revelation.30 other christian theologians like saint thomas aquinas applied the idea of reason in the expansion of their doctrine. for aquinas, humans have reason and because reason is a spark of the divine, all humans are equal and every human is born with an intrinsic and permanent set of basic rights. this became the basis of thomas aquinas’s natural law.31 evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 3, december, 2022 12 the spanish theologians from the school of salamanca, based on this, developed the idea of human rights. during this period, scholastic period, scholars like roger bacon and albertus magnus followed the islamic scholars like alhazen to conceive reason as an intrinsic human ability to decode the created order and the structures that underlie our experienced physical reality. this interpretation of reason was said to be the offshoot of, or instrumental to, the development of the scientific method in the early universities of the high middle ages.32 in the modern era, there are a lot of changes in the previous understanding of reason. first, the metaphysical or spiritual view of human person was changed. second, the teleological understanding of reason was also replaced as the modern european philosophers and scientists started to question the teleological understanding of the world which aristotle propounded. nature was no longer assumed to be human-like with its own aims or reason. and human nature was no longer assumed to work according to anything other than the same "laws of nature" which affect inanimate things.33 rené descartes, in 17th century, gave another definition to human being as “a thinking being” with his famous maxim cogito ergo sum – i think, therefore, i am” defines human beings as thinking rather than a rational being like aristotle. with this understanding, humans are no longer rational beings but thinking like other things in nature. for descartes, any other knowledge outside this his epistemological foundation is subject to doubt. in his methodic doubt, he threw into doubt every knowledge except that of the mind itself in the process of thinking. he said thus: “at this time i admit nothing that is not necessarily true. i am therefore precisely nothing but a thinking thing; that is a mind, or intellect, or understanding, or reason – words of whose meanings i was previously ignorant.”34 descartes approach was said to be "subject-centred" reason, because it is based on the knowing subject, who perceives the rest of the world and itself as a set of objects to be studied, and successfully mastered by applying the knowledge accumulated through such study. shifting from tradition and many thinkers after him, descartes clearly did not divide the incorporeal soul into parts, such as reason and intellect, but describing them as one indivisible incorporeal entity.35 thomas hobbes described reason as a broader version of "addition and subtraction" which is not limited to numbers.36 hobbes understanding of reason is often referred as "calculative" reason. in line with descartes, hobbes asserted that "no discourse whatsoever, can end in absolute knowledge of fact, past, or to come" but that "sense and memory" is absolute knowledge.”37 evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 3, december, 2022 13 in the late 17th century, through the 18th century, john locke and david hume developed descartes' line of thought still further. hume took it in an especially skeptical direction, proposing that there could be no possibility of deducing relationships of cause and effect, and therefore no knowledge is based on reasoning alone, even if it seems otherwise.38 david hume, in his discourse on reason in his treatise of human nature, remarked thus: "we speak not strictly and philosophically when we talk of the combat of passion and of reason. reason is, and ought only to be the slave of the passions, and can never pretend to any other office than to serve and obey them."39 hume further took his definition of reason to unorthodox extremes by arguing, unlike his predecessors, that human reason is not qualitatively different from either simply conceiving individual ideas, or from judgments associating two ideas,40 and that "reason is nothing but a wonderful and unintelligible instinct in our souls, which carries us along a certain train of ideas, and endows them with particular qualities, according to their particular situations and relations."41 in the 18th century, immanuel kant, having faulted hume, demonstrated that a "transcendental" self, or "i", was a necessary condition of all experience. “by the basis of such a self”, suggested kant, “it is in fact possible to reason both about the conditions and limits of human knowledge. and so long as these limits are respected, reason can be the vehicle of morality, justice, aesthetics, theories of knowledge (epistemology), and understanding.”42 for kant, the great achievement of reason (german: vernunft) is that it is able to exercise a kind of universal law-making. kant was able therefore to reformulate the basis of moral-practical, theoretical and aesthetic reasoning, on "universal" laws. here practical reasoning is the self-legislating or selfgoverning formulation of universal norms, and theoretical reasoning is the way humans posit universal laws of nature.43 under practical reason, the moral autonomy or freedom of human beings depends on their ability to behave according to laws that are given to them by the proper exercise of that reason. this changed the earlier view of morality, which depended on religious understanding and interpretation, or nature for their substance.44 according to kant, in a free society each individual must be able to pursue their goals however they see fit, so long as their actions conform to principles given by reason. he formulated such a principle, called the "categorical imperative", which would justify an action only if it could be universalized: act only according to that maxim whereby you can, at the same time, will that it should become a universal law.45 evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 3, december, 2022 14 in contrast to hume then, kant insists that reason itself has natural ends itself, the solution to the metaphysical problems, especially the discovery of the foundations of morality. kant claimed that this problem could be solved with his "transcendental logic" which unlike normal logic is not just an instrument, which can be used indifferently, as it was for aristotle, but a theoretical science in its own right and the basis of all the others.46 jürgen habermas asserts that the "substantive unity" of reason has dissolved in modern times, such that it can no longer answer the question "how should i live?" instead, the unity of reason has to be strictly formal, or "procedural". he thus described reason as a group of three autonomous spheres (on the model of kant's three critiques). he writes thus: cognitive–instrumental reason is the kind of reason employed by the sciences. it is used to observe events, to predict and control outcomes, and to intervene in the world on the basis of its hypotheses; moral–practical reason is what we use to deliberate and discuss issues in the moral and political realm, according to universalizable procedures (similar to kant's categorical imperative); and aesthetic reason is typically found in works of art and literature, and encompasses the novel ways of seeing the world and interpreting things that those practices embody. for habermas, these three spheres are the domain of experts, and therefore need to be mediated with the "lifeworld" by philosophers. in drawing such a picture of reason, habermas hoped to demonstrate that the substantive unity of reason, which in pre-modern societies had been able to answer questions about the good life, could be made up for by the unity of reason's formalizable procedures.47 from the above exploration, we can see that the concept of reason has been much criticized or debated upon. many philosophers like heidegger, hegel, hamann, herder, kant, roty, kierkegaard, nietzsche, foucault, etc have contributed to the debate on what reason means, or ought to mean. some, like kierkegaard, nietzsche, and rorty are skeptical about subject-centred, universal, or instrumental reason, and even skeptical toward reason as a whole. others, including hegel, believe that it has obscured the importance of intersubjectivity, or "spirit" in human life, and attempt to reconstruct a model of what reason should be. some thinkers like foucault, believe there are other forms of reason, neglected but essential to modern life, and to our understanding of what it means to live a life according to reason.48 evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 3, december, 2022 15 as a result, a number of proposals have been made to "re-orient" this critique of reason, or to recognize the "other voices" or "new departments" of reason. for example, in opposition to subject-centred reason, habermas has proposed a model of communicative reason that sees it as an essentially cooperative activity, based on the fact of linguistic intersubjectivity.49 nikolas kompridis has proposed a widely encompassing view of reason as "that ensemble of practices that contributes to the opening and preserving of openness" in human affairs, and a focus on reason's possibilities for social change.50 the philosopher charles taylor, influenced by the 20th century german philosopher martin heidegger, has proposed that reason ought to include the faculty of disclosure, which is tied to the way we make sense of things in everyday life, as a new "department" of reason.51 in the essay "what is enlightenment?", michel foucault proposed a concept of critique based on kant's distinction between "private" and "public" uses of reason. this distinction, as suggested, has two dimensions: private reason is the reason that is used when an individual is "a cog in a machine" or when one "has a role to play in society and jobs to do: to be a soldier, to have taxes to pay, to be in charge of a parish, to be a civil servant". public reason is the reason used "when one is reasoning as a reasonable being (and not as a cog in a machine), when one is reasoning as a member of reasonable humanity". in these circumstances, "the use of reason must be free and public."52 regeneration of reason in the history of thought in the history of philosophical thought, the period known as the “dark age” was the first period in the collapse of reason due to war and other human actions. during this period, there was a serious intellectual, political, social, moral and cultural decay. the ancient greek philosophers like socrates, plato, aristotle and others did produce so many classical literatures in arts, music, and politics. some of these works were destroyed as a result of war or natural disasters. as a result, a gap was created in the intellectual world until the renaissance era. the term, “renaissance” was so much emphasized in the history of intellectual development. it was used to express the period of revitalization and regeneration of social, political, intellectual, moral, cultural and economic milieu and of all that were lost during the dark age. some of these classical works of arts and music were discovered and recovered. later, there were emergences of classical scholars who ventured into politics, social, and cultural reformations. there was also intellectual and academic regeneration. reason played significant role during this period. another era that goes with the “renaissance era” was the enlightenment period. this was the age of reason. this period was a period of a paradigm shift from evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 3, december, 2022 16 the epistemologico-dogmatic paradigm. describing the enlightenment period, ramose writes thus: enlightenment is man’s release from his selfincurred tutelage. tutelage is man’s inability to make use of his understanding without direction from another. self-incurred is this tutelage when its cause lies not in the lack of reason but in lack of resolution and courage to use it without direction from another. the motto of enlightenment period is: sapere aude! “have courage to use your own reason! 53 this period is the period when the aristotle’s definition of “man as a rational animal” was celebrated. it was seen as the period of human liberation from the shackles of dogma. corruption and collapse of reason in human relations the term, ratio corruptionism may be termed the theory of corruption of human reason. the term ratio means “reason”, “rationality” or “ratiocination”. corruptionism, particularly, is the view that emerged after the physical death of man. it states that the human being ceases to exist but their souls remain eternal or persist afterlife54. thomas aquinas was the main proponent of theory of corruptionism. my concern here is not the physical death of the body or the eternality of the soul, but death of, or collapse of, reason in human affairs. just like nietzsche said that god is dead in the affairs of religion; reason is dead in the affairs of humans. therefore, studying some of the events of 20th and 21st centuries will explicitly uncover my view on the subject matter. it is proper at this point to examine some areas where reason may say to have collapsed in human relations. the collapse of reason in the humanness of humanity could be seen in various ways or places across the world. corruption in itself is an anti-humanness of humanity. it is antithetical to common good and development; it is anti-ethical for good living. in the international level, corruption may be said to have destroyed the rudiments of democratic principles which include the fundamental human rights, equality, and dignity. it often obstructs the maintenance and sustenance of human rights, dignity and human equality and other fundamental principles of human existence as declared by the united nations – the 1948 universal declaration of human rights, namely; the right of life, right to dignity of human person, right to freedom, right to personal liberty, right to fair hearing, right to private life and family life, right to freedom of thought, conscience evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 3, december, 2022 17 and religion, right to expression, press and opinion, right to peaceful assembly and association, right to freedom of movement, right to acquire and own immovable property, right to education, right to vote and be voted for in any election.56 these rights are also conceived as inalienable rights. these rights can only flourish and obtain in an environment where the leaders or authorities imbibe the principle of ethics and values -good should be done and evil avoided. corruption has destroyed reason that formulated and articulated these fundamental principles of human life and social cohesion. both individual, national and international corrupt practices are antithetical to these basic rights of humans across the globe. from europe to america, and down to africa, no part of the world is exempted or exonerated from this antihumanistic actions. in the areas of economics and politics, corrupt practices devastate economy, political and cultural systems of most states, nations, and the entire world. as discussed earlier, i did a little analysis of the concept of corruption where different types of corruption were mentioned such as petty corruption, grand corruption and systemic corruption. in the stages of corruption, there are individual, national and international stages. ….say that “we (africans) shall die like fools if we have a government which is corrupt and is only waiting to be given money by the international community.57 so reason collapsed when and where international communities prized economy over human life; reason collapsed when the international policies or international courts is bias in delivery of justice across the globe; reason when and where the international community like the united nations prefers to protect the lives of the western nations (or developed nations) and abandoned those tagged as developing nations like africa, or wish them to be destroyed;or directly or indirectly sponsoring tribal, ethnic or communal conflicts; reason collapsed when and where the international community abandoned some nations seeking for self-determination due to negligence, human right abuse, marginalization and exclusion from government which they should be part of – like the indigenous people of biafra (ipob) by nigerian government. from 1967-1970, during the nigeria-biafra war, more than three million biafrans were killed by nigerian government. at present, many biafran youths have been maimed or killed by the nigerian soldiers under the president buhari administration. the united nations, despite nigeria being a member states of the organization, has kept mute over years. so reason collapsed when and where members of the international community concentrate in their individual international affairs (like united states’ occupation of iraq, vietnam war, libya, etc.) for selfish reasons and to the evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 3, december, 2022 18 detriment of other nations. the corruption of reason in adolf hitler made him to declare germans the most superior of all races which led to the termination of six million jews in gas chamber. reason collapsed in a society where colonialism, racism, slavery trade, and any form of dehumanization of humans are encouraged and promoted. the events within the 20th and 21st centuries one may wonder the connection between corruption and collapse of human reason. corruption, no doubt, has been considered earlier as a crime and antiethical behaviour, conducts, actions or activities intentionally or calculatedly done to particularly retard development, and/or to destroy human good and progress, and in turn enrich or favour the individual or a group of people involved. corruption, both in individual, national and international levels, may be said to be the cause of the most 20th and 21th centuries’ events like wars, genocides, conflicts, and other global disharmonies. obviously, the 20th century witnessed is a period of scientific revolution. there are a lots of scientific advancement in 20th century. the century saw a major shift in the way that many people lived, with changes in politics, ideology, economics, society, culture, science, technology, and medicine. the 20th century may have seen more technological and scientific progress than all the other centuries combined since the dawn of civilization. terms like nationalism, globalism, environmentalism, ideology, world war, genocide, and nuclear war entered common usage. scientific discoveries, such as the theory of relativity and quantum physics, profoundly changed the foundational models of physical science, forcing scientists to realize that the universe was more complex than previously believed, and dashing the hopes (or fears) at the end of the 19th century that the last few details of scientific knowledge were about to be filled in. it was a century that started with horses, simple automobiles, and freighters but ended with high-speed rail, cruise ships, global commercial air travel and the space shuttle. horses and other pack animals, every society's basic form of personal transportation for thousands of years, were replaced by automobiles and buses within a few decades. these developments were made possible by the exploitation of fossil fuel resources, which offered energy in an easily portable form, but also caused concern about pollution and long-term impact on the environment. humans explored space for the first time, taking their first footsteps on the moon. one may wonder how these scientific advancements or development have served the purpose of humans, or how the events of the 20th century have improved global human relations and interactions? the glory of science, which should be the source of human transformation and well-being, has been evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 3, december, 2022 19 the main source of human sorrow in the 20th and 21st centuries. for instance, 20th century witnessed a lot of death due to war, conflicts, terrorist attacks, and exchange of nuclear weapons and biochemical weapons across the globe. from the sources available, the 20th century has witnessed so many occurrences that one may attribute to be the moments of collapse of reason in human affairs or human relations across the globe. the 20th century, as usually described, is said to begin on january 1, 1901 (mcmi), and ended on december 31, 2000(mm)58, while the 21st century began on january 1, 2001 and will end on december 31, 2100.59this was marked according to the gregorian calendar. e. o. wilson’s the future of life and r. leaky’s the sixth extinction: patterns of life and the future of humankind mention some of the events that dominated the 20th centurywhich include: spanish flu pandemic, world war i and world war ii, nuclear weapons, nuclear power and space exploration, nationalism, decolonization, technological advances, and the cold war and post-cold war conflict. the study on 20th century states that period saw a massive transformation of the world order: global total fertility rates, sea level rise, and ecological collapses increased; noting further that the resulting competition for land and dwindling resources accelerated deforestation, water depletion, and the mass extinction of many of the world’s species and decline in the population of others; consequences which are now being dealt with. man-made global warming increased the risk of extreme weather conditions. …other themes include intergovernmental organizations and cultural homogenization through developments in emerging transportation, and communications technology; poverty reduction, and world population growth, awareness of environmental degradation, ecological extinction,60 and the birth of the digital revolution, etc. these scholars argued that the repercussions of the world wars, cold war, and globalization crafted a world where people are more united than any previous time in human history, as exemplified by the establishment of international law, international aid, and the united nations. i disagree with them on these statement. at present, the world is more divided than united even with establishment of the international court, law, aid and the united nations. even globalization has become the weapon of subjugation and domination of less powerful, less political and less economic nations. going down the memory lane in the history of development and global population growth, it was recorded that it took over two hundred thousand years of modern human history and six million years of human evolution for the world’s population to reach one billion in 1804.61again that world population reached an estimated 2 billion in 1927; and by late 1999, the global evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 3, december, 2022 20 population reached six billion, with over half in east, south and southeast asia.62but this population that has taken the world many years to reach is often being destroyed in a twinkle of an eyes by conflict, war,terrorism, genocide, biochemical weapons, and other forms of man’s inhumanity.the first world war which occurred from 1914-1918, the estimated the total casualtieswas placed at forty (40) million, both the military and the civilians.63 further on the records, the number of death as recorded, was 20million and 21 million wounded. the military personnel alone were said to be 9.7 million and about 10 million civilians. this is number of deaths and casualties in one occurrence. some other sources estimated the total deaths to be 10 million, 7 million civilians were estimated to have died, 21 million wounded, and 7.7 million were estimated to be missing or imprisoned. first world war occurred when scientific advancement was still in the lowest level of development. from 1939-1945, the world experienced another war known as the second world war thattried to consume the entire human race. the second world war has been described in different ways like the deadliest war, most fatal war, costliest war, most casualty war just to express how deeply and intensely humanity was affected or destroyed. over 60 million people were estimated to have died in the war.64other sources placed the range from 50-80 million; 38-55 million civilians were said to be killed, including 13 to 20 who may have died from war-related disease and famine. in soviet union, 26.6 million were estimated to have died and 7.8 million chinese civilians were also said to have also died.65 in the regional levels, they have been series of civil wars, from africa to europe and other continents of the world; terrorist attacks occur from one end of the world to another. the september 9/11,2001 terrorist attack in the united states which was said to be carried out by the militant islamic terrorist group al-qaeda killed more than 2,996 people and injured 25, 000.66 this event is ever fresh in most peoples’ minds, especially the americans. they probably be other unrecorded wars, ethnic conflicts, genocide, or act of man’s inhumanity to man across the world that were not formally recording as among the events of 20th and 21st centuries that have seriously affected human relations or affairs. in africa, particularly, nigeria, rwanda and congo, civil wars, ethnic and tribal conflicts have continued to destroy human lives and properties. in nigeria, for instance, nigerian-biafran war (nigerian genocide) costed a lot of deaths; the death of about 3 million biafrans were seemed not to be counted or recorded as among casualties of 20th century. in rwanda, the rwanda genocide in 1994 was one of the effects of collapse of reason. the rwanda evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 3, december, 2022 21 genocide occurred between 7 april and 15 july 1994between members of tutsi minority ethnic group, hutu and twa. guichaouaplaced the estimated deaths at 500,000 to 800,000 tutsi deaths.67; reyntjens recorded the estimates for the total toll including hutu and twa victims are as high as 1,100,000.68. the democratic republic of congo has experienced two wars within a shortest period of time. the first congo war (1996-1997) was described as africa’s first world war.69 with the international military involvement or invasion, the cuts across other african nations like sudan and uganda. all in view to overthrown and replace the government of the then zairean president mobutu sese seko with the rebel leader laurent-desire kabile. one wonders why international militarianism? what is their interest in ousting the government or administration mobutu sese seko and replaced by the rebel kabile? did the replacement bring solution to the already existing problem? the answer is “no!” the civil war excavated to the second congo war known as great war of africa or the great africa war or sometimes referred to african world war. casualties and losses were estimated at 2,000 ugandans (kisangani only)70, while 4,000 rebel casualties (kinshasa only), 5.4 million excess deaths (1998-2008)71there have been so many disharmonies, civil wars, civil unrest, civil protest across africa and other places across europe and america. most of these civil wars, protests, civil unrest include, and not limited to: and during these events many lives were lost. it is proper to note that most civil wars, protests, civil unrests were caused by the global collapse of reason due to corruption of the leaders and their cohorts in the individual, national and international stages. some were caused by the selfishness of members of the international communities as a result of oil resources like oil and other natural deposit in some countries. the question remains, how do we redeem reason? how can reason be redeemed? this will lead us to another section of the work, which is titled “philosophic-ethical redemption of reason”. philosophic redemption of reason philosophy, as it were, searches for the ultimate truth about humans, their lives and existence in the world. in this section, therefore, there is an attempt to answer the questions: how can philosophy intervene in the redemption of reason? can there be a global redemption of reason at all in the affairs of humans? hitherto, one may uphold the maxim that “all humans anywhere in the universe are rational beings.” based on this, the philosophic (ethical) redemption of reason will also be discussed as a way of proffering philosophical solution. philosophy, over the decades, has been playing a vital role in the history of humanity and in human development. philosophy has intervened, and has continued to intervened in structuring and restructuring; evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 3, december, 2022 22 shaping and reshaping; constructing and reconstructing of human thinking and individual mindsets. at present, philosophy can intervene in the global collapse of reason through rational orientation or resetting of human minds filled with biases and prejudices. one may wonder how possible this may be. most of global prejudices and biases such as racism, slavery and colonization came through indoctrination and epistemic injustices across the world. so also, reason can be redeemed through global justice and unbiased analysis, discussion or conversation of humanity as one and the same across the world. this entails the philosophical discussion or understanding of different components of the world stands as the medium through which reason can be redeemed. therefore, promoting this kind of global discourse that harness universal image or principles of human person as rational beings despite races, gender, ethnicity, sex, etc. can promote values like equality, brotherhood and sisterhood of humans across the global. as seen in hegel’s universal reason, reason is a connective factor – the consummate reason. reason, which was so much prized in history of thought, can be said to have collapsed in contemporary world; reason may be said to have collapsed in the affairs of humans and in human relationships and interactions across the globe. the collapse of reason could be seen or has manifested in the history of the world; in the events and occurrences across the world. karl marx’s historical materialism expressively and explicitly discussed the collapse of reason as caused by exploitation championed. exploitation is a brain-child of corruption. according to karl marx, the exploitation of the masses by the bourgeois led to the conflict between the proletariats and bourgeois. in philosophy, the debate or controversy between the rationalists and empiricists thinkers has based on the innatism (possession of innate ideas as the basis of human knowledge and its rejection by the empiricists who believed in the sense perception as the basis of human knowledge). one can still consider this submission from the perspective of scientific theories on human knowledge and events of history cause and effect as the movement of reason is still seen from the pattern of knowledge from physical or material dimension regardless of other human psychological (emotional) and spiritual constituents, but pays more attention to physical world. one still reflects on the questions of epistemological confusion and human condition from the hegel’s philosophy of history where hegel considered the flow of ‘reason’ as the determinant of the world development. from this perspective, we can talk of the taxonomy of the world into the developed and developing world; the first, the second and the third world. evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 3, december, 2022 23 it is also based on the dialectical progression of reason that made hegel to say that reason has not reached africa because africa continent has remained underdeveloped. reason is thought, …and thought of what? reason in motion is motion of development, change or transformation of the world and human minds through knowledge and construction of ethical principles for a better and progressive humanity. the flow of thought – philosophical thought has placed philosophy at heart of social transformation as the ultimate basis of rational, critical, systematic or coherent thought or reasoning – thought on how to organize and order the society and as well improve human well-being. the ancient philosophers like socrates, plato and aristotle where known for their outstanding contributions in this sociopolitical input. even before the argument as earlier said regarding the rationalist philosophers: rene descartes, spinoza and leibniz and the empiricists: bishop berkeley, john locke and david hume raised the issue of the basis of human knowledge. the ancient greek philosophers have tried to established the impact of human knowledge in social construction and reconstruction – the origin of polis stands out here. the contention lies on the ability of human mind to plan and provide an ordered society. socrates provided the ground for self-knowledge, which is the basis for virtuous life – “knowing what is good and doing it”. socrates argued that knowing what to do and not doing it, is evil, and evil is out of ignorance. so self-knowledge becomes paramount for doing good, and for good to be done and evil avoided. edmund husserl asserts that the task of philosophy is to search for universal ideal norms for our thought and behaviour. philosophy had transformed the earlier pre-philosophical mode of human existence which was characterized as a naively directed living immersed in the world, in a world constantly there.74 life in the state was practical and even the developing mythologies and early religions supported the basically practical concern of individuals and larger group. according to husserl, in his “philosophy and crisis of an european man”, there is need to developed a new kind of outlook or attitude, namely; a universal critique of all life and its goals.” 73commenting further, he states that this was a critique of all systems of culture that had grown up in the life of humankind. the positive side of this critique was its aim of raising humankind through universal reason towards a radically new humanity, rising above the limited horizons of custom, geography, and social groups.75noting further, husserl, as cited in enoch samuel stumpf’s philosophy, history and problem, asserts that what made this possible was a new conception of truth, a truth independent of tradition, universally valid, and capable infinite evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 3, december, 2022 24 refinement. here, then, is the origin of the spiritual life, culture of europe, of western humanity. it was the greek, that this new attitude grew up, orienting individuals towards their environing world. the systematic formulation of this attitude is what the greek called “philosophy”. the etymological ground of philosophy has been understood as philo meaning love and sophia meaning wisdom. philosophy is simply defined as “love of wisdom”, and philosophers are known as “lovers of wisdom.” wisdom is thought and thought is in wisdom. not every thought is thought of wisdom, but every wisdom is buried in thought, and wisdom is often expressed or manifested in thought, actions, character, or behaviour. in history, reason as thought in wisdom could be been in plato’s origin of state as a natural phenomenon – due to insufficient of human need; philosopher’s kings, guardians and artisan or origin of state (polis) – justice; aristotle saw state as the highest association of the people; the social contract theories identified the role of reason as which suggested for unity amongst the people in the state of nature – thomas hobbes, john locke and jean jacque rousseau’s theories brought to the fore the role of reason in the formation of political society . hegel emphasized on the role of reason in the world’s history. at this point, reason became a system/a universal factor – though hegel did not recognize the individual input the world development/the movement of reason. this implies that reason ordered the world – the universe reason – leads to absolute truth. reason emphasizes in the equality and dignity of all men. in the situation of war practiced in the state of nature, reason calls for peace, harmonization, protection and preservation of human live and properties. even people in individual/selfishness, and nasty, brutish, short, suggests peace and harmony, when in human licentiousness; reason suggests respect for individual liberty, freedom, and happiness. in the natural flow of things, in the construction or formation of modern society, reason has been in the forefront of the natural or world flow. in the formation of political society and its implementation, reason also manifests itself. the universe reason considers the general humanness. the collapse of reason occurs in the situation of corruption, marginalization, discrimination, segregation, dehumanization, brutality of humans, slavery, subjugation, and exploitation of man by man; reason collapsed in a situation of colonization and racism. these factors are anti-reason or anti-rationality. the nature of man is of good, not of evil. from the history of the world, reason has continued to build. either or in man’s existence…. man makes use of logic as a tool for correct reasoning. often logic is used to justify the negative thinking which many often consider as reasoning. there is difference between evaia: international journal of ethics and values, volume 3, december, 2022 25 reasoning and thinking. every thinking is reasoning and not every reasoning is thinking; not every thinking is the coherent pattern of thought, but every reasoning is a coherent pattern of thought. there is also positive and negative thinking but there is nothing like positive and negative reasoning because reason is one and the same. positive thinking harmonizes, builds, constructs while negative thinking destroys and could lead to emotional, psychological, physical or spiritual destruction, and human world has been consumed with war, terrorism, social injustices and numerous anti-human policies. reason has collapsed in such situations. your paper has not done justice to the title and its nuances. it has been an endless sojourn into many areas that are less important to the problem you intend to solve. i guess your paper is so because it was meant for seminar and not intended for journal publication. to make it a journal paper will require that you revise it. this can be done by sifting out the important points that address each sub-title and place them where they belong. then, the unnecessary details, positions of authors, scholars as well as your unnecessary arguments and commentaries should be deleted. evaluation and conclusion in the ancient period, reason purified the world, but today, reason destroys life due to human insatiability, due to corruption and extreme quest for material things across the world. we need to go back to the drawing board. ethics becomes the prima facie in the redemption of reason. humans should be first considered in the human affairs. all international policies, national policies, even individual policies should consider humans and their basic rights first, before any other considerations. i contend that the best way to understand and organize humanity is through integrative or inclusive reasoning, and anything outside this lead to human exploitation, marginalization, dehumanization of some section of the world, segregation and subjugation of human across the world due to the feelings of superiority and inferiority; civilized and uncivilized; developed and underdeveloped (or developing) and other exclusive terminologies that divide the humanity. certainly, reason collapses in such situations. may i also suggest for the interconnectivity, interrelatedness and togetherness of 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