



































Events and Tourism Review


  

Events and Tourism Review Vol. 2 No. 1 (Spring 2019), 30-48, DOI: 10.18060/22900 

Copyright © 2019 Gilpatrick D. Hornsby 

 This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribuion 4.0 International License. 

 

Events and Tourism Review 
 

Volume 2 

 

No. 1 

 

 

Minority Entrepreneurship 
 

Gilpatrick D. Hornsby  

James Madison University 

 
  

 

For Authors 

Interested in submitting to this journal? We recommend that you review the About the Journal 

page for the journal's section policies, as well as the Author Guidelines. Authors need to 

register with the journal prior to submitting or, if already registered, can simply log in and 

begin the five-step process. 

  

For Reviewers 

If you are interested in serving as a peer reviewer, please register with the journal. Make sure 

to select that you would like to be contacted to review submissions for this journal. Also, be 

sure to include your reviewing interests, separated by a comma. 

  

About Events and Tourism Review (ETR) 

ETR aims to advance the delivery of events, tourism and hospitality products and services by 

stimulating the submission of papers from both industry and academic practitioners and 

researchers. For more information about ETR visit the Events and Tourism Review. 

 

 

 

Recommended Citation 

Hornsby, G. D. (2019). Minority Entrepreneurship. Events and Tourism Review, 2(1), 30-48. 

 

 

https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
http://journals.iupui.edu/index.php/jet/about
http://journals.iupui.edu/index.php/jet/about/submissions#authorGuidelines
http://journals.iupui.edu/index.php/jet/user/register
http://journals.iupui.edu/index.php/index/login
https://journals.iupui.edu/index.php/ETR/user/register
http://journals.iupui.edu/index.php/ETR


Hornsby, G. (2019) / Events and Tourism Review, 2(1), 30-48.        31 

 

 
Events and Tourism Review Vol. 2 No. 1 (Spring 2019), 30-48, DOI: 10.18060/22900 

Copyright © 2019 Gilpatrick D. Hornsby 

 This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. 

 

 

Abstract 

 

The body of literature around minority entrepreneurship has been well established over the 

past few decades. Research however in the context of the hospitality industry on this topic has 

been lacking. Therefore a goal of this study was to examine the minority entrepreneur 

experience in the hospitality industry in order to fill this gap in the literature. Specifically, the 

purpose of the study was to examine black entrepreneurs. Participants discussed their personal 

definition of entrepreneurship, the challenges they faced while growing the business, and how 

they believe race impacted their success as a business owner. Responses were analyzed and 

future directions identified. 

 

Keywords: Minority Entrepreneurship; Black-owned Restaurants; Defining Entrepreneurship 

 

Introduction 

 

The Hospitality industry is a field that has been ripe with the entrepreneurial spirit from 

its beginnings (Li, 2008). From Ray Kroc’s McDonald’s to J.W. Marriott’s hotels, there are 

plenty of examples of entrepreneurship from a large firm perspective; however, the hospitality 

industry is dominated by small- and medium-sized firms (Getz & Carlsen, 2000; Wagner, 

Gorgievski, & Rijsdijk, 2010; Chang, 2011). These small- to medium-sized firms operate in 

businesses ranging from travel and tourism to accommodations and events (Peters & 

Kallmuenzer, 2018). While entrepreneurship has been a cornerstone of the industry, research on 

the topic is still in its infancy (Atelijevic & Doorne, 2000: Ergul & Johnson, 2011). There is, 

however, a growing body of literature that examines entrepreneurship in the hospitality context 

(Chang, 2011; Carmaichael & Morrison, 2011; Peters & Kallmuenzer, 2018).  

Outside of the hospitality context, the topic of entrepreneurship has been well-examined 

over the past decades and is a staple discipline in many business schools (Ergul & Johnson, 

2011). Bull and Willard (1993) examined the definition of entrepreneurship and concluded that 

after over 200 years, the study of entrepreneurship has yet to yield an agreed-upon definition. 

This can further be seen through the diverging of types of entrepreneurship to include social 

entrepreneurship (Austin, Stevenson, & Wei-Skillern, 2006; Ergul & Johnson, 2011; Dzisi & 

Otsyina, 2014) and lifestyle entrepreneurship (Dewhurst & Horobin, 1998; Getz & Carlsen, 

2000; Atelijevic & Doorne, 2000; Getz, Carlsen, & Morrison, 2004; Dawson, Fountain, & 

Cohen, 2011). While this area of academic inquiry is still full of pertinent research questions, the 

current study focuses on the topic of minority entrepreneurship—more specifically, examining 

the Black entrepreneurship experience.  

Minority entrepreneurship has been examined in detail over the past few years with some 

agreeing that the situation has improved for minority entrepreneurs (Bates, 2011), while others 

feel that the all-encompassing term of “minority” has, in fact, hurt particular groups inside the 

classification of minority, such as Black entrepreneurs (Gold, 2016; Wingfield & Taylor, 2016). 

This current work strives to add to this discussion of the Black entrepreneur by examining 

minority entrepreneurship in the context of the hospitality industry. As previously noted, while 

entrepreneurship literature in growing in hospitality, few authors have studied the minority 

https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/


Hornsby, G. (2019) / Events and Tourism Review, 2(1), 30-48.        32 

 

 
Events and Tourism Review Vol. 2 No. 1 (Spring 2019), 30-48, DOI: 10.18060/22900 

Copyright © 2019 Gilpatrick D. Hornsby 

 This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. 

 

entrepreneurship experience within the hospitality industry. The purpose of this study is to 

explore minority entrepreneurship experiences, specifically the Black entrepreneurship 

experience, in the hospitality industry to fill a gap of missing inquiry in the growing body of 

hospitality entrepreneurship research.  

 

Literature Review  

 

As mentioned above, the literature has not produced a unified definition of 

entrepreneurship (Bull & Williard, 1993). Instead, many researchers identify key characteristics 

that traditionally lead to successful entrepreneurial ventures. Bates (2011) identified key 

ingredients to success as 1) skilled entrepreneurs with appropriate human capital; 2) sufficient 

financial capital, and 3) access to markets to sell products. Austin et al. (2006) found two key 

determinants of success for traditional entrepreneurs are 1) access to adequate financial capital 

inputs and 2) the ability to identify the correct individuals to help further the organization and 

other human capital.  

Interestingly, the examination of minority entrepreneurs has mainly focused on the 

traditional characteristics of entrepreneurship as a method of social mobility (Gold, 2016). 

However, the literature has also identified non-economically motivated forms of 

entrepreneurship. The current study examines social entrepreneurship and lifestyle 

entrepreneurship, to determine how non-economically driven types of entrepreneurship might 

impact the Black entrepreneur experience. 

 

Social Entrepreneurship 

  

Social entrepreneurship can be defined as, “innovative, social value creating an activity 

that can occur within or across the nonprofit, business or government sectors” (Austin et al., 

2006, p. 2). Ergul and Johnson (2011) identify the major difference between the social 

entrepreneur and the traditional entrepreneur as the value proposition. Social entrepreneurs give 

preference for promoting social value rather than capturing economic development (Dzisi & 

Otsyina, 2014). The social entrepreneur desires “mission-related impact” while traditional 

entrepreneurs value anticipating and serving markets to create financial profit.  

Social entrepreneurs often focus on identifying long-standing needs and developing 

innovative ways to approach them. They are less concerned with market size and more 

concerned with social need (Austin et al., 2006). Although previous studies have indicated 

differences between traditional and social entrepreneurs, the literature also indicates that social 

and traditional entrepreneurship must be seen on a continuum. “The distinction between social 

and {traditional} entrepreneurship is not dichotomous, but rather more accurately conceptualized 

as a continuum ranging from purely social to purely economic. Even at extremes, however, there 

are still elements of both” (Austin et al., 2006; p. 3). 

 

Lifestyle Entrepreneurs  

 

Dewhurst and Horobin (1998) define the lifestyle entrepreneur as one, “who [is] not 

motivated by a desire to maximize economic gain, who operates businesses often with very low 

https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/


Hornsby, G. (2019) / Events and Tourism Review, 2(1), 30-48.        33 

 

 
Events and Tourism Review Vol. 2 No. 1 (Spring 2019), 30-48, DOI: 10.18060/22900 

Copyright © 2019 Gilpatrick D. Hornsby 

 This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. 

 

levels of employment, and in which managerial decisions are often based on highly personalized 

criteria” (p. 25). Getz et al. (2004) explore the concept of lifestyle entrepreneurship as an 

entrepreneurial process driven not only by economic benefit but also by a desire to satisfy 

personal and social goals. The concept of the lifestyle business is one where the owner balances 

economic goals with non-economic goals. It may also mean that the primary motivation for 

owning the business is to have a set of lifestyle experiences (Dawson et al., 2011). 

Differentiating lifestyle entrepreneurship from traditional entrepreneurship can further 

help explain why certain business decisions are made and others are not when examining 

organization growth (Thomas, 2000). Lifestyle entrepreneurs may be more concerned with 

business survival rather than business growth. Their goals of acquiring a level of income to 

maintain the lifestyle outweigh the desire of many traditional entrepreneurs to maximize profits. 

(Dawson et al., 2011). Getz and Carlson (2000) explained the difference between lifestyle and 

traditional entrepreneurs as “family-first” and “business first,” respectively. They found that 66% 

of the entrepreneurs surveyed could be classified as family-first and were motivated by factors 

associated with optimizing leisure time with their families (Getz & Carlson, 2000). 

There is, however, support indicating that lifestyle and traditional entrepreneurs can also 

exist on a continuum. Dewhurst and Horobin (1998) created an owner-manager model that 

allowed for a continuum between traditional and lifestyle goals and strategies. Further, Atelijevic 

and Doorne, (2000) identify that the lack of desire to grow may not lead to developmental 

stagnation, but instead provide specialization and an opportunity to engage with niche markets.  

The current review of the literature has identified the characteristics of a traditional 

entrepreneur as well as two non-economically motivated forms of entrepreneurship. What is 

unknown is how minority entrepreneurs conceptualize the term “entrepreneurship” through their 

lens and how they might classify themselves once presented with the three types of 

entrepreneurship reviewed. This has led to the following research questions: 

1. RQ: How do Black entrepreneurs define entrepreneurship? 

2. RQ: What type of entrepreneurship do Black entrepreneurs identify with? 

 

Minorities in Entrepreneurship 

 

Entrepreneurship is often argued as an effective pathway for minorities to gain economic 

advancement in American society; however multiple studies have found that minorities are 

involved in entrepreneurial activities at a far lesser rate than their nonminority counterparts 

(Gold, 2016). Previous literature examining White and Black entrepreneurs found that while 

11% of White Americans were involved in entrepreneurial activities, only 5.1% of Black 

Americans were engaged in similar activities. (Gold, 2016). Additionally, Black-owned firms 

tend to be small with fewer employees, generate fewer profits than their White counterparts 

(Fairle and Robb, 2008) and are mainly found in highly visible sectors of retailing and catering 

(Carter, Mwaura, Ram, Trehan, & Jones, 2015). 

Bates (2011) however explains that knowing there is a discriminatory process that stops 

or discourages minorities from opening new ventures is not enough if one does not also examine 

what structural barriers might be in place that discourages Black entrepreneurship. As previously 

stated in this work, two of the most prevalent success factors in entrepreneurship are access to 

financial capital (Carter et al., 2015) and access to human capital (Bates, 2011). Other structural 

https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/


Hornsby, G. (2019) / Events and Tourism Review, 2(1), 30-48.        34 

 

 
Events and Tourism Review Vol. 2 No. 1 (Spring 2019), 30-48, DOI: 10.18060/22900 

Copyright © 2019 Gilpatrick D. Hornsby 

 This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. 

 

barriers include business training and customer support (Koellinger & Minniti, 2006). Carter et 

al. (2015) found that Black entrepreneurs are four times more likely to be denied for a loan than 

White entrepreneurs. Human capital can be conceptualized through the level of education the 

minority entrepreneur versus their nonminority counterpart (Koellinger & Minniti, 2006) or 

access to role models (Wingfield & Taylor, 2016). While there have been strides made to 

provide greater access to the financial and human capital needed in order to make a firm 

successful, the prevailing consensus in current literature is that this access for minorities still lags 

far behind nonminority entrepreneurs (Bates, 2011).  

The barrier of customer support examines the market in which the minority entrepreneur 

operates. Carter et al. (2015) identified that many minority firms, especially in hospitality, may 

provide a service that is deemed exotic and therefore cannot always rely on attracting a larger 

number of customers outside of that culture. The barrier of business training examines both 

experience and management level opportunities. Koellinger and Minniti (2006) found that 

minority entrepreneurs may lack experiences at a managerial level based on institutional racism. 

Therefore, when minority entrepreneurs open their own firms, they may not have the knowledge 

base or past experiences to fall back on. 

Gold (2016) argues that to understand Black entrepreneurship, the academy must 

examine the Black experience outside of the confines of minority status and ethnicity. When 

authors examine ethnic minority entrepreneurs, it often includes Latino, Asian, and Asian 

Americans. While these different groups are often plagued by stereotypes and other barriers to 

entrepreneurship, Light (1984) states, “to a substantive extent, Korean, Vietnamese, Taiwanese, 

Hong Kong, and Iranian immigrants now in the United States derived from property-owning 

upper classes in their countries of origin” (p. 203). While this may not be the case for all 

minority groups in the United States, Gold (2016) warns against the anti-racist perspective that if 

one minority group is succeeding in entrepreneurial endeavors that all groups should be able to 

reproduce the same success. Therefore, to understand the Black experience in entrepreneurship, 

the following research question was developed: 

3. RQ: What are the challenges faced by Black entrepreneurs in hospitality? 

 

Method 

 

The primary purpose of this study is to understand the Black entrepreneurship experience 

in the hospitality context. To this goal, this research is based on qualitative, semi-structured, in-

depth interviews with Black entrepreneurs operating within the food and beverage industry 

(Atelijevic & Doorne, 2000). The study is exploratory in nature and will examine each Black 

entrepreneur as an individual case of minority entrepreneurship. The case study approach was 

selected for this study in order to understand the individual lived experience of each 

entrepreneur. Providing generalizable results and overall implications for the hospitality industry 

were outside of the scope of this work. However, future studies may be able to identify areas of 

inquiry based on this research. 

To identify cities that would have the greatest likelihood of having minority-owned 

restaurants, census data for the state of Virginia was evaluated. The two criteria for city inclusion 

in the study were: 

1. Population greater than 50,000 people and 

https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/


Hornsby, G. (2019) / Events and Tourism Review, 2(1), 30-48.        35 

 

 
Events and Tourism Review Vol. 2 No. 1 (Spring 2019), 30-48, DOI: 10.18060/22900 

Copyright © 2019 Gilpatrick D. Hornsby 

 This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. 

 

2. Greater than 18% African American population. 

Based on these criteria, 13 cities were identified and clustered based on locality. 

1. Eastern Virginia: Portsmouth, Hampton, Norfolk, Suffolk, Newport News, Chesapeake, 

and Virginia Beach 

2. Southern Virginia: Lynchburg and Danville 

3. Northern Virginia: Woodbridge and Alexandria 

4. Central Virginia: Petersburg and Richmond 

 

Due to the exploratory nature of this research, the Northern Virginia region was selected for this 

initial study. 

 

Sampling 

 

A purposive sample was deemed appropriate based on the population of interest (Etikan, 

Musa, & Alkassim, 2016).  Participants were first identified by contacting Small Business 

Development Centers (SBDCs) in the Northern Virginia area. In addition, the author contacted 

individuals that were familiar with the Northern Virginia area and received additional businesses 

to include in the study. In total, ten businesses were included in the study. After speaking with 

the businesses, it was determined that four were no longer in business, and two elected not to 

participate. Four interviews were scheduled and one was canceled due to a schedule conflict. 

Attempts to reschedule the interview were unsuccessful, and three businesses were interviewed. 

While the sample size for this study is small, similar studies conducted using case study methods 

found that between 2 and 4 cases were sufficient (Dawson et al., 2011; Ergul & Johnson, 2011; 

Kline, Shah, Tsao & Cook, 2014). 

 

Instrument 

 

Based on the three research questions several questions were developed. These questions 

were then evaluated by hospitality educators and multicultural professionals. Questions that were 

selected for the study can be found in Table 1. Two questions were associated with RQ1, two 

questions were associated with RQ2, four questions were associated with RQ3, and the 

remaining questions were used to collect demographic information. 

Two of the three interviews were conducted face-to-face, on-site at the entrepreneur’s 

place of business and the third took place via telephone as the entrepreneur was out of the 

country during the scheduled interview. Informed consent was provided to the entrepreneurs 

before the interviews began and the researcher requested to audio-record the interviews. Two of 

the three entrepreneurs consented to interviews being audio-recorded. All entrepreneurs 

consented to include their names and the names of their organizations in the study. Interviews 

lasted approximately one hour. Interviews were transcribed, and themes were identified and 

analyzed through content analysis. All three entrepreneurs were male with an average age of 44. 

All entrepreneurs received at least a college education, with one receiving an advanced degree in 

law and another serving four years in the Navy.  Each entrepreneur indicated that they either 

worked with family members, employed family members, or co-founded the business with 

https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/


Hornsby, G. (2019) / Events and Tourism Review, 2(1), 30-48.        36 

 

 
Events and Tourism Review Vol. 2 No. 1 (Spring 2019), 30-48, DOI: 10.18060/22900 

Copyright © 2019 Gilpatrick D. Hornsby 

 This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. 

 

family members. While there is a large body of research on family-owned businesses, it was 

determined that this was outside of the scope of this study. 

Table 1. Interview Questions with Research Questions 

 

 

 

 

 

Interview Questions 

RQ1: How do 

Black 

entrepreneurs 

define 

entrepreneurship? 

RQ2: What type of 

entrepreneurship 

do Black 

entrepreneurs 

identify with? 

RQ3: What are 

the challenges 

faced by Black 

entrepreneurs in 

hospitality? 

Demographic 

Information 

Tell me a little about yourself and how 

you came to own your restaurant? 
      x 

What resources do you have or use that 

help you with owning your business? 
    x   

How do you define entrepreneurship? Do 

you consider yourself an entrepreneur?  
x       

Tell me about some of the struggles you 

faced when opening this location or 

when you took the restaurant over? 

    x   

Do you think your experience as a 

minority small business owner has been 

different from a majority small business 

owner? In what way? 

    x   

[traditional, social, and lifestyle 

entrepreneurship definitions provided] 

What type of entrepreneur do you feel 

more closely aligned to? 

  x     

Would you say your goal is to grow to 

other locations or to have an impact in 

this community?  

  x     

What characteristics do you think have 

made you a successful small business 

owner? 

x       

What advice would you like to leave 

with the next generation minority 

hospitality students and maybe 

hospitality entrepreneurs? 

    x   

Demographic data: Age, Education, 

Approximate monthly sales, Number of 

employees, Do you employ any family 

members?, Ownership structure, Length 

of time owning the business, How long 

has the business been in existence, What 

did you do before this (other 

employment or businesses)? 

      x 

https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/


Hornsby, G. (2019) / Events and Tourism Review, 2(1), 30-48.        37 

 

 
Events and Tourism Review Vol. 2 No. 1 (Spring 2019), 30-48, DOI: 10.18060/22900 

Copyright © 2019 Gilpatrick D. Hornsby 

 This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. 

 

 

 

Instrument 

 
As with most qualitative research, it is nearly impossible to separate the researcher from 

those being researched. Through the process of content analysis, the researcher’s bias is ever-

present. The current study attempts to lessen this bias by conducting member checking (Morse, 

2015). After the paper was written, it was sent to each participant. They were asked if the paper 

adequately captured their lived experience. Only minimal comments were offered, and 

corrections were made. Even so, the social constructivist stance identifies that the researcher can 

impact the data collection (Finlay, 2002). For instance, in the current study, participants were 

asked about their experience as a minority entrepreneur. The researcher conducting the interview 

is an African American male. It is possible that if the researcher had been of a different ethnicity 

or a different gender identity, that they would not have received the same responses from the 

participants. 
 

Results 

 

The data were analyzed; themes were identified and clustered based on the three 

research questions. These themes can be found in Tables 2, 3, and 4. The three businesses 

included in the study were: Ben’s Chili Bowl in Washington DC, Takoma Station Tavern in 

Washington DC, and Mango Bahia with its United States office located in Richmond, VA. A 

description of each organization can be found below: 

Ben’s Chili Bowl. Originally founded in 1958 by Ben and Virginia Ali, Ben’s Chili Bowl 

has grown to be a staple in Washington DC. The restaurant has expanded to include three 

locations with one franchised location. The business has also expanded to include an upscale bar 

and restaurant called Ben’s Next Door. While Ben Ali has passed away, his wife is still the 

owner of the original Ben’s Chili. The other locations and Ben’s Next Door are owned and 

managed by Ben’s son, Nizam Ali. The interview for this study was conducted with Mr. Nizam 

Ali. It is important to note that while Ben was an immigrant from Trinidad and Mr. Ali is proud 

of that heritage, he explicitly identified with the Black experience.  

Takoma Station Tavern. Located right on the DC-Maryland border, the Takoma Station 

has always had its roots in the entertainment business. Mr. David Boyd (owner and interviewee 

for this study) explained it as a music venue that is complemented by the restaurant. Mr. Boyd 

indicated that it is a family business, originally owned by his father. He became a part of the 

ownership after his older brother died and “everyone in the family had to move up.” While in 

college, Mr. Boyd had a friend that was interested in the restaurant business but was a year 

behind him. After his friend graduated, he drove from St. Louis to Washington DC to work in the 

business. Now they are partners. Takoma Station has only one location and has been in business 

since 1978. 

Mango Bahia. Mango Bahia is the brainchild of Mr. Islam McNeal. During a trip to the 

Republic of Columbia in South America, Mr. McNeal saw the mango and decided that he 

wanted to create a vegetarian/vegan-based restaurant that promoted healthy living. Mr. McNeal 

co-founded the business with his mother and is currently in the start-up phase. As stated on his 

https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/


Hornsby, G. (2019) / Events and Tourism Review, 2(1), 30-48.        38 

 

 
Events and Tourism Review Vol. 2 No. 1 (Spring 2019), 30-48, DOI: 10.18060/22900 

Copyright © 2019 Gilpatrick D. Hornsby 

 This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. 

 

website, “Mango Bahia aims to be the world’s very first vegetarian/vegan fast food 

technology driven chain. We provide a delicious, healthy alternative to the typical fast food 

selection, with fresh ingredients and our own special recipes. We offer an assortment of burgers, 

vegan fries, even our very own mango iced tea. Everything we make is comprised of all natural, 

organic ingredients, coming together to create great tastes we know you’ll love. We are a startup 

operation just beginning our journey to bringing our special brand of delicious food to the world. 

And once all our hard work pays off, that food will find its way to you!” Mr. McNeal was 

interviewed as a part of this study. 

After participants shared about their organizations, they were asked to discuss what 

resources they had when opening the business. Mr. Ali first discussed the greatest resource was 

ownership of the building. He shared that after renting the building for 25 years, they were able 

to purchase the building. According to Mr. Ali, “if not for ownership, we would not be here. 

Would probably be condos where we are right now” Mr. Ali was referring to the rapid 

gentrification of the Washington DC area. When asked if there were other resources they had 

access to when opening/growing the business, he stated “really it was a $5,000 investment that 

mom and dad had saved up to be able to open the restaurant in the first place. Everything else has 

been through bank loans. There [are] no private investors, it’s still 100% family owned, but it’s 

just applying for loans at the bank.” 

Mr. McNeal echoed this sentiment by saying that the banks need to trust you and they 

don’t trust you. He also stated you need assets and when you are young, you don’t have those 

assets. When specifically asked about the lack of resource in the form of financial capital, Mr. 

McNeal remarked that young entrepreneurs have to use their own funds. He remarked that 

Kickstarter (or other crowdfunding applications) are also good sources for funds as long as you 

do not give up equity in the company. He also indicated that raising capital is an art and one that 

is not currently being taught in our schools. 

 

Mr. Boyd answered the question in a different way. He stated: 

 

“Community, I mean Takoma station is a community-based business. It is a place where 

people can come and let their hair down. It doesn’t matter who comes in. I don’t care 

what star comes in, he is treated the same way as everybody else.”  

 

After a discussion of financial resources, participants were asked about different types of 

human capital. Mr. McNeal indicated that the most important people in the company are the 

COO, the CFO, and the Attorney. You have to build a strong team and surround yourself with 

people who believe in you. From an external stance, he mentioned the need for strong advisors 

and strong mentors. You have to have someone that can review your business plan and provide 

constructive feedback. Carter et al. (2015) echoed this sentiment stating that access to 

educational and business related experiences can be a barrier for minority entrepreneurs. 

Mr. Ali addressed the question mainly focusing on his family. He said: 

“Dad was the business guy, mom was the heart and soul. Dad was a hardcore 

businessman. I don’t want to say the immigrant mentality, but just his dad was a builder 

https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/


Hornsby, G. (2019) / Events and Tourism Review, 2(1), 30-48.        39 

 

 
Events and Tourism Review Vol. 2 No. 1 (Spring 2019), 30-48, DOI: 10.18060/22900 

Copyright © 2019 Gilpatrick D. Hornsby 

 This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. 

 

and his mom was a businesswoman and together they did business and I think that where 

he learned it. When he came over he was very tenacious, very go-getting. I mean he 

listened to motivational tapes, he taught success motivation to people. He was a self-

learner. He grew up under the British education system in Trinidad. He was quoting 

Shakespeare and Wordsworth and everything so just phenomenal education.” 

Next, each entrepreneur was asked to define entrepreneurship. Mr. Boyd defined 

entrepreneurship as being able to help other people. He went on to say: 

“I think it’s something that you do but you do it to give and it has so much more meaning. 

Life has so much more meaning. It’s not about getting money and then pretending like 

you are somebody. I don’t need to have a whole bunch of gold chains around my neck or 

for me to have a whole lot of swag or women around me to prove I’m somebody. I’m fine 

with bussing the tables, washing the floor, and cleaning the toilet.”  

Mr. Boyd’s definition was in line with much of the literature on social entrepreneurship. 

He remarks that the restaurant and ownership of the restaurant do not define him. Instead, his 

desire to give back is a better representation of where he currently is in life. Mr. Ali's response 

was much more in line with a traditional view of entrepreneurship 

“Entrepreneurship is starting a business or enterprise yourself or with others where you 

control it and you manage it and you create it and it’s something that you develop and its 

success is really related to what you put into it and what you bring to it and how much 

energy and attention and resources that you put in.” 

 

The tone of Mr. McNeal's discussion was mainly focused on the social aspects of 

entrepreneurship. He even remarked that he considered himself to be a social entrepreneur even 

before the interview moved toward a discussion on types of entrepreneurship. He stated that his 

goal was to provide a product that allowed more people to be healthy. 

At this point in the interviews, each participant was asked if they considered themselves 

to be an entrepreneur. Mr. McNeal had already indicated that he considered himself to be an 

entrepreneur, but Mr. Ali and Mr. Boyd did not associate with the term they had just defined. 

Instead, each attempted to distance themselves from entrepreneurship. Neither wanted to be 

defined by their occupation.  

Next, participants were provided with definitions for traditional entrepreneurs, lifestyle 

entrepreneurs, and social entrepreneurs from previous literature. Then they were asked what 

definition they most closely aligned with. Mr. Boyd chose social but operationalized it as a 

community. Mr. Ali asked to read the definitions and then chose to identify with lifestyle first 

and then the traditional second. He stated: 

 

“Lifestyle, I mean still growth but the growth is not, hey I need an extra million dollars. I 

wish I had the first million dollars. And that the whole misconception of 

entrepreneurship. Success. Outside looking in, you are a billionaire. Inside you are like 

I’m in debt, I’m struggling like hell. That’s just the way it is and people need to realize it 

https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/


Hornsby, G. (2019) / Events and Tourism Review, 2(1), 30-48.        40 

 

 
Events and Tourism Review Vol. 2 No. 1 (Spring 2019), 30-48, DOI: 10.18060/22900 

Copyright © 2019 Gilpatrick D. Hornsby 

 This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. 

 

that, but growth means employing more people, means giving back more to the 

community, means touching more people, means being an anchor in the community. So 

that more important. It's not like ‘what’s the end game?’, when can I sell out and go 

move to my big island.”  

 

Mr. McNeal asked why he had to choose. He saw value and himself in each of the 

definitions. This complements research that defines these classifications of entrepreneurship on a 

continuum (Dewhurst & Horobin, 1998; Austin et al., 2006). 

The next question participants were asked to answer was about what struggles they had 

faced in business ownership. Mr. Ali indicated there were several struggles that came from not 

starting the business from scratch: 

 

“Lot of struggles, we grew up into a business that was already here. So, it was managing 

something that was already created. I mean again, trying to tweak it, trying to make it 

better, but it's not from the ground up. So, everything’s a learning experience. From 

working with contractors to working with banks.”  

Mr. Boyd, on the other hand, remarked about the difficulties of working with the community. 

“The biggest challenges were that people who wanted to come into Takoma Station 

didn’t feel comfortable coming into Takoma Station that lived in the community. Now, 

this was before gentrification. When you are middle-aged and you see a bar that is 

thriving in your community and you are driving by and you see the line, and a bunch of 

people don’t look like you and not your age, all of a sudden you have an idea and a 

notion and you get around a whole lot of people that have the same thinking, then you 

just make up stuff.”  

 

Mr. McNeal identified struggles that were mainly internal. He remarked that starting a 

business is like being in a fight with Leonard Lewis. He stated that there is so much coming at 

you, that you really have to believe in what you are doing. You have to be the terminator and 

keep going.  

As a follow-up, participants were asked if they felt their challenges were greater based on 

the color of their skin. All agreed that they were but in different ways. Mr. Boyd stated: 

 

“No we do not own the building and they are not selling. If this wasn’t the 1% of the 

Black business. I mean I don’t know what the percentage of Black business in America, 

but it has to be small. And I’m not just saying that as a Black man, I saying that if this is 

something that was usual, you would not be sitting here talking to me. So with that being 

said, I think that Black folks need to understand that we need to start working together 

and try to pool our resources together and to help one another. And learn how to work 

together in difficult situations. Where are our supermarkets? Where are our food 

distributors? The minute you see the Asian community or the Latin community getting 

ready to build a community you look and all the businesses in there are that nationality. 

We don’t have that.” 

https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/


Hornsby, G. (2019) / Events and Tourism Review, 2(1), 30-48.        41 

 

 
Events and Tourism Review Vol. 2 No. 1 (Spring 2019), 30-48, DOI: 10.18060/22900 

Copyright © 2019 Gilpatrick D. Hornsby 

 This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. 

 

 

 

Mr. Ali shared: 

“Oh absolutely, I think it's very different, personally when you go to banks and when you 

have resources. It's so funny, there are so many assumptions. People say I’m sure you’ve 

gotten 20 offers to sell. I haven’t gotten one. I’m sure you’ve gotten 20 offers to go here 

or go there or go there. Not necessarily. Why is that? I don’t know. It’s a great concept. 

Everyone knows the concept. You jump in a cab in San Francisco and they ask where 

you're from, I’m from DC, oh you had Ben’s Chili Bowl. I mean that happens all the time. 

You meet people around the world and you say DC and they say have you gone to Ben’s? 

They have no idea that we own Ben’s. The brand is huge, the brand is worldwide. Does 

that show in the offers you get, in the capital you get, in the resources that are available? 

I mean I’m not White, I don’t know the other side. It is strictly ‘do it yourself.’”  

 

Mr. McNeal’s responses were focused both on the challenges that were based in racism 

and challenges of support from the black community. He remarked that it is challenging for 

minorities to get capital when starting a business, but that it is also difficult when people from 

their own group are not supporting. This notion is supported by Ogbolu, Singh, and Wilbon, 

(2015) when they report that serotypes about a minority group may be adopted by those who are 

in that group. It is possible that the lack of Black patronage that Mr. McNeal is referring to is 

based on the belief that Black products are not as good as more mainstream products. 

Participants were then asked to describe what characteristics were needed in order to be 

successful in this industry. The characteristics were very similar from all three participants. Mr. 

McNeal mentioned ambition, drive, and vision. Mr. Ali listed integrity, consistency, hard work, 

community, trust, respect, and giving back. Then almost anecdotally, Mr. Ali stated, “If we were 

community-based, we would have been burned down in the riots” –most likely referring to the 

1968 DC riots after the assassination of Dr. Martin Luther King. It is Mr. Ali’s opinion that 

Ben’s Chili Bowl’s involvement with the community prior to this event saved the restaurant from 

destruction. Finally, Mr. Boyd stated hard work, integrity, caring, giving, patience, and 

understanding that business is cyclical. 

The final question asked what advice they would provide for the next generation of Black 

entrepreneurs. Mr. Boyd emphasized the role of friends and family. He stated, “You have to 

build long, sustained friendships. Would rather be in business with a friend or a family member 

rather than someone I don’t know. There might be more money available, but would rather go 

after small relationships.” Mr. McNeal emphasized the basic components of entrepreneurship. 

Highlights included: the only thing that stops you is you; you need to put good people in your 

company, do business internationally, work for start-ups and grow with a company, and fail fast. 

Mr. Ali’s response centered on the functional areas of business. He shared, “You have to cover 

all of your bases: personnel, finance, and marketing. If you don’t have it, hire it. You have to 

control cost, control quality, and control customer service. You don’t ‘know it all.’ If you know 

it all, you are not open to suggestion, you are not open to learning, and you are not open to 

finding a new way or a better way.” 

 

 

https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/


Hornsby, G. (2019) / Events and Tourism Review, 2(1), 30-48.        42 

 

 
Events and Tourism Review Vol. 2 No. 1 (Spring 2019), 30-48, DOI: 10.18060/22900 

Copyright © 2019 Gilpatrick D. Hornsby 

 This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. 

 

 

 

Table 2. Themes related to Defining Entrepreneurship (RQ1) 

 

Meta-theme Sub-theme 

Social Giving back to the community 

  Not a mechanism for personal gain 

  Increasing healthy habits 

Traditional Success related to energy and inputs 

Lifestyle The business is a means to an end 

Keys to Success Community interaction 

  Giving back   

 

Table 3. Themes Related to Entrepreneurship Association (RQ2) 

 

Meta-theme Sub-theme 

Distancing Not a defining term 

  Not mentally 

  Negative association 

Entrepreneurship Continuum Lifestyle-Traditional 

  Traditional-Social 

  Social-Lifestyle 

 

Table 4. Themes Related to Race-Based Challenges (RQ3) 

 

Meta-theme Sub-theme 

Community Support The misconception of success 

  Trust building 

  Lack of community patronage 

  Lack of community investment 

Resources/Finance Equity Ownership 

  Bank loans 

  Personal savings 

  Lack of trust from banks 

  Lack of collateral 

Resources/Human Capital Lack of advisors/mentors 

  Lack of management/business knowledge 

  Grit/perseverance 

  Education 

 

 

https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/


Hornsby, G. (2019) / Events and Tourism Review, 2(1), 30-48.        43 

 

 
Events and Tourism Review Vol. 2 No. 1 (Spring 2019), 30-48, DOI: 10.18060/22900 

Copyright © 2019 Gilpatrick D. Hornsby 

 This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. 

 

 

 

Discussion 

 

The first research question asked: How do Black entrepreneurs define entrepreneurship? 

While Mr. Ali’s definition of entrepreneurship may be considered closely aligned with 

traditional definitions of entrepreneurship, both Mr. Boyd and Mr. McNeal focused mainly on 

the social outcomes of entrepreneurship rather than defining the term itself. Austin et al. (2006) 

found that social entrepreneurs are driven by the desire to make a social impact. Dzisi and 

Otsyina (2014) conceptualize it like this, “Making a profit, creating wealth, or serving the desires 

of the customers may be a part of the model, but these are a means to a social end, not the end 

itself” (p. 235).  

It was interesting, however, that when participants were asked if they considered 

themselves entrepreneurs, two of the three did not. Mr. McNeal was the sole participant that did 

consider himself to be an entrepreneur. Mr. Ali and Mr. Boyd, on the other hand, were much 

more hesitant to be considered an entrepreneur. Their definitions of entrepreneur shed some light 

on their hesitancy to identify as entrepreneurs. Both seemed to consider being called an 

entrepreneur as a defining characteristic of their personhood. In addition, both seemed to believe 

that you must act like a “boss” in order to be an entrepreneur.  

Another distinction between Mr. McNeal and the other two participants is the longevity 

of the business and how each participant became a part of the business. Both Mr. Ali and Mr. 

Boyd took over the restaurants from their fathers. Both, however, have added to the businesses 

they operated (i.e., Mr. Ali with Ben’s Upstairs and Mr. Boyd’s injection of music and 

entertainment), but it is possible that they were not as impacted by some of the start-up 

challenges that nascent entrepreneurs might face (Sardy and Alon, 2007). In addition, research in 

the area of family businesses has long excluded the notion of entrepreneurship (Peters & 

Kallmuenzer, 2018). While Mr. McNeal works with his mother on this enterprise, they may see 

each other more as partners, rather than a traditional family business that is being passed from 

generation to generation (Peters & Kallmunzer, 2018). 

The second research question asked: What type of entrepreneurship do Black 

entrepreneurs identify with? Mr. McNeal initially identified with social entrepreneurship and 

after been presented with definitions, Mr. Ali identified with lifestyle entrepreneurship and Mr. 

Boyd identified with the community (i.e., social entrepreneurship). Mr. McNeal did, however, 

ask why he had to choose. This notion that an individual can display the behaviors of more than 

one classification of an entrepreneur is supported in previous literature with the idea that these 

classifications exist on a continuum (Dewhurst & Horobin, 1998; Austin et al., 2006). Using this 

continuum perspective, the following typology was created based on the entirety of the 

participant responses: 

 

Mr. Ali: a lifestyle-traditional entrepreneur. Mr. Ali indicates many of the aspects 

discussed in the lifestyle literature. Mr. Ali stated that he wants to maintain his 

involvement in advisory boards and community groups (Dawson et al., 2011), and he is 

not driven by the success of the business (Dewhurst and Horobin, 1998). However, he 

saw an opportunity to grow Ben’s Chili from solely a restaurant to include Ben’s Next 

https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/


Hornsby, G. (2019) / Events and Tourism Review, 2(1), 30-48.        44 

 

 
Events and Tourism Review Vol. 2 No. 1 (Spring 2019), 30-48, DOI: 10.18060/22900 

Copyright © 2019 Gilpatrick D. Hornsby 

 This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. 

 

Door (Shepherd, Williams, & Patzelt, 2015). He also opened new locations of Ben’s 

Chili and began franchising the brand (Austin et al., 2006). 

Mr. McNeal: a traditional-social entrepreneur. While Mr. McNeal identified as a social 

entrepreneur, his responses indicated that he may more closely align with a traditional 

entrepreneur. His method of entering the market may be through the social aspect of 

Mango Bahia, but this may be a means to an end. In other words, Mr. McNeal did not 

seem driven by the social mission. The tone of Mr. McNeal’s interview seemed to lean 

more towards a desire to grow. His responses were also based on the actions that would 

be taken by a traditional entrepreneur. His discussion was more based on raising funds, 

hiring the correct individuals, and understanding the market—all key ingredients of 

successful traditional entrepreneurs identified by Bates (2011). 

 

Mr. Boyd: A social-lifestyle entrepreneur. Mr. Boyd seemed completely uninterested in 

the growth of the business (Dawson et al., 2011). When asked if he had ever thought of a 

second location, he said no. When asked if his kids would take over the business, he said 

he was not sure, but he was not concerned. Mr. Boyd’s responses centered on what he 

could do for his community. He seemed to be happy where the business was and that he 

was able to take part in other activities that were more personally fulfilling to him.  

 

While previous literature has identified the continuums of traditional to social and 

traditional to lifestyle, no study to date examines the possible continuum between social and 

lifestyle entrepreneurs. If however Austin et al. (2006)’s assertion that even at extremes, there 

are still elements of both was extended to include the third area of lifestyle, it may mean that 

there is a tri-continuum of entrepreneurial motivations that exist and should be explored in future 

research. 

The third research question asked: What are the challenges faced by Black entrepreneurs 

in hospitality? While all three responses were very different, all three dealt with different aspects 

of legitimacy (Ogbolu et al., 2015). Mr. Ali’s manifestation was outwardly focused on the fact 

that he was responsible for a brand that was existing. Mr. Boyd’s challenges were expressed as 

legitimacy within the community. Mr. Boyd remarked that there was a lack of trust by 

community members when he first began the Takoma Station Tavern. The community that he 

sought to help did not believe that he was there to help them. Fairchild (2008) found that 

customer’s perceptions of legitimacy may be more critical for Black entrepreneurs based on a 

large number of negative stereotypes about African Americans. Ogbolu et al. (2015) went further 

to say that this is true of majority customers and minority customers as minorities tend to adopt 

the stereotypes of the majority as truth. Finally, Mr. McNeal’s challenges were based on the fact 

that he is still in the start-up phase. Ogbolu et al. (2015) identify this as the liability of newness. 

They explain that new ventures experience higher rates of failure because of weak support and 

vulnerability to environmental shocks. This issue of legitimacy should be explored in future 

research. Researchers should examine if the impact of these perceptions of legitimacy influences 

either the definition of entrepreneurship or the classification of entrepreneurship that the 

entrepreneur identifies with. 

 

 

https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/


Hornsby, G. (2019) / Events and Tourism Review, 2(1), 30-48.        45 

 

 
Events and Tourism Review Vol. 2 No. 1 (Spring 2019), 30-48, DOI: 10.18060/22900 

Copyright © 2019 Gilpatrick D. Hornsby 

 This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. 

 

 

 

Conclusion and Implications 

 

The purpose of this study was to examine the Black entrepreneurship experience in 

hospitality. To this goal, three Black entrepreneurs were interviewed and their responses 

analyzed. While there were similarities between the three entrepreneurs, there were also many 

differences in how they viewed entrepreneurship. The complexity of the Black experience in 

hospitality entrepreneurship mirrors well the complexity of the Black experience in everyday 

life. The Black experience is not monolithic and could not be completely unpacked within one 

study of Black entrepreneurship. Instead, this study succeeded in continuing the discourse of 

Black entrepreneurship in American society and examined it through the lens of the hospitality 

industry. It is important again to acknowledge that this study was exploratory with a limited 

sample. It is also important to note that the interviews were constrained by time and that there 

may be additional issues that were not uncovered during the interviews. 

With that said, several implications can still be drawn from the current study. First is that 

the negative association with the term “entrepreneurship” should be addressed. Two of the three 

participants considered the term to be a “bad word.” They feared that associating themselves 

with being an entrepreneur somehow should alter their personality and interaction with others. 

One possible way to address this is through education at the secondary and community levels. By 

providing positive examples of minority entrepreneurs, the next generation of minority 

entrepreneurs may have a more positive association with what it means to be an entrepreneur.  

The second implication of this study also based on education is the need to educate the 

minority community on the resources available. This study used both personal recommendations 

of individuals familiar with the area and SBDCs. However, the three participants in the study 

were identified through individuals familiar with the area. It is possible that participants in the 

current study chose not to work with SBDCs, but it is also possible that they were unaware that 

they existed. The participants indicated that there was a lack of human capital that would help 

make them and the next generation successful. It may be incumbent on organizations such as 

Small Business Development offices or other resources to be intentional about entering minority 

communities and sharing what services they have available. 

One final implication of this study and a direction for future research is the interaction 

between minority business owners and minority consumers. All three participants indicated 

having difficulty receiving support from the minority community in the form of patronage and 

investment. The participants also indicated a desire to give back to these minority communities. 

Future research should further examine this phenomenon and determine if it is present across all 

minority groups. If not, and this is only an issue within the Black community, how can it be 

addressed or alleviated?  

 

Limitations 

 

As with all research, the current study was not free from limitations. First, while it was 

determined that three cases were appropriate based on previous literature, the small sample size 

dramatically reduces the generalizability of the findings. Bates (2011) states, “Predictably, many 

https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/


Hornsby, G. (2019) / Events and Tourism Review, 2(1), 30-48.        46 

 

 
Events and Tourism Review Vol. 2 No. 1 (Spring 2019), 30-48, DOI: 10.18060/22900 

Copyright © 2019 Gilpatrick D. Hornsby 

 This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. 

 

scholars studying minority entrepreneurship have relied upon small, non-representative firm 

samples collected in one or two cities. These data have most often been complemented by in-

depth interviews of business owners, and the resulting studies have typically had a strong case-

study tone” (Bates, 2011, pg. 4). This also highlights a second limitation of the study which is 

inherent in case study research – bias. While there is much support for this method of inquiry, 

Bates (2011) points out that case study research on minority entrepreneurship has resulted in 

numerous subjective studies and had reduced the ability to compare across studies. 

A third limitation of this study is in how research question 3 was phrased. The question 

asked the participants to identify the challenges for Black entrepreneurs; however, the challenges 

identified could be faced by both minority and non-minority entrepreneurs. Future research 

should examine the phenomenon to determine if there are specific challenges solely based on the 

entrepreneur’s minority status.  

Another limitation of this study is that no Black female entrepreneurs were included in 

the study. While they were included in the original purposive sample, none were available to 

participate. Future research must include the Black female entrepreneur experience as previous 

literature has found that gender differences in entrepreneurship are present (Carter et al., 2015).  

The final limitation of this study can be found in the geographical locations of the interviews. 

Washington DC has been referred to as “Chocolate City” due to its large population of Black 

people (49.0%) and Richmond, VA is also known to have a large Black population (49.2%). 

Both of these areas could be considered Black enclaves (Ogbolu et al., 2015) providing a steady 

supply of Black patrons to these restaurants. It is hypothesized that the Black entrepreneur 

experience may differ in areas where such a large population of Black people does not exist. 

Future research must examine Black entrepreneurship in cities that are not known for having 

large Black populations. 

 

References 

  

Ateljevic, I., & Doorne, S. (2000). 'Staying within the fence': Lifestyle entrepreneurship in 

tourism. Journal of sustainable tourism, 8(5), 378-392. 

Austin, J., Stevenson, H., & Wei‐Skillern, J. (2006). Social and commercial entrepreneurship: 

same, different, or both?. Entrepreneurship theory and practice, 30(1), 1-22. 

Bates, T. (2011). Minority entrepreneurship. Foundations and Trends® in Entrepreneurship, 

7(3–4), 151-311. 

Bull, I., & Willard, G. E. (1993). Towards a theory of entrepreneurship. Journal of business 

venturing, 8(3), 183-195. 

Carmichael, B. A., & Morrison, A. (2011). Tourism entrepreneurship research. Tourism 

Planning & Development, 8(2), 115-119. 

Carter, S., Mwaura, S., Ram, M., Trehan, K., & Jones, T. (2015). Barriers to ethnic minority and 

women’s enterprise: Existing evidence, policy tensions, and unsettled questions. 

International Small Business Journal, 33(1), 49-69. 

Chang, J. (2011). Introduction: Entrepreneurship in tourism and hospitality: The role of SMEs. 

Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research, 16(5), 467-469. 

https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/


Hornsby, G. (2019) / Events and Tourism Review, 2(1), 30-48.        47 

 

 
Events and Tourism Review Vol. 2 No. 1 (Spring 2019), 30-48, DOI: 10.18060/22900 

Copyright © 2019 Gilpatrick D. Hornsby 

 This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. 

 

Dawson, D., Fountain, J., & Cohen, D. A. (2011). Seasonality and the lifestyle “conundrum”: An 

analysis of lifestyle entrepreneurship in wine tourism regions. Asia Pacific Journal of 

Tourism Research, 16(5), 551-572. 

Dewhurst, P. and Horobin, H. (1998) Small business owners. In R. Thomas (ed.) The 

Management of Small Tourism and Hospitality Firms (pp. 19–38). London: Cassell 

Dzisi, S., & Otsyina, F. A. (2014). Exploring social entrepreneurship in the hospitality industry. 

International Journal of Innovative Research and Development. 

Etikan, I., Musa, S. A., & Alkassim, R. S. (2016). Comparison of convenience sampling and 

purposive sampling. American Journal of Theoretical and Applied Statistics, 5(1), 1-4. 

 Ergul, M., & Johnson, C. (2011). Social entrepreneurship in the hospitality and tourism industry: 

an exploratory approach. Consortium Journal of Hospitality & Tourism, 16(2). 

Fairchild, G. B. (2008). The influence of residential segregation and its correlates on ethnic 

enterprise in urban areas. Journal of Business Venturing, 23(5), 513-527. 

Fairlie, R. W., & Robb, A. M. (2008). Race and entrepreneurial success: Black-, Asian-, and 

White-owned businesses in the United States. MIT Press Books, 1. 

Finlay, L. (2002). “Outing” the Researcher: The Provenance, Process, and Practice of 

Reflexivity. Qualitative Health Research, 12(4), 531–545. 

https://doi.org/10.1177/104973202129120052 

Getz, D., & Carlsen, J. (2000). Characteristics and goals of family and owner-operated 

businesses in the rural tourism and hospitality sectors. Tourism Management, 21(6), 547-

560. 

Getz, D., Carlsen, J., & Morrison, A. (2004). The family business in tourism and hospitality. 

CABI. 

Gold, S. J. (2016). A critical race theory approach to black American entrepreneurship. Ethnic 

and Racial Studies, 39(9), 1697-1718. 

Kline, C., Shah, N. M., Tsao, J., & Cook, A. (2014). Support and challenge factors for tourism 

entrepreneurs: Two cases from North Carolina, USA. Anatolia, 25(3), 479-482. 

Koellinger, P., & Minniti, M. (2006). Not for lack of trying: American entrepreneurship in black 

and white. Small Business Economics, 27(1), 59-79. 

Li, L. (2008). A review of entrepreneurship research published in the hospitality and tourism 

management journals. Tourism Management, 29(5), 1013-1022. 

Light, I. (1984). Immigrant and ethnic enterprise in North America. Ethnic and racial studies, 

7(2), 195-216.  
Morse, J. M. (2015). Critical Analysis of Strategies for Determining Rigor in Qualitative Inquiry. 

Qualitative Health Research, 25(9), 1212–1222. 

https://doi.org/10.1177/1049732315588501 

Ogbolu, M. N., Singh, R. P., & Wilbon, A. (2015). Legitimacy, attitudes and intended patronage: 

Understanding the challenges facing black entrepreneurs. Journal of Developmental 

Entrepreneurship, 20(01), 1550007. 

Peters, M., & Kallmuenzer, A. (2018). Entrepreneurial orientation in family firms: The case of 

the hospitality industry. Current Issues in Tourism, 21(1), 21-40. 

Sardy, M., & Alon, I. (2007). Exploring the differences between franchisee entrepreneurs and 

nascent entrepreneurs. International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, 3(4), 

403-418. 

https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
https://doi.org/10.1177/104973202129120052
https://doi.org/10.1177/1049732315588501


Hornsby, G. (2019) / Events and Tourism Review, 2(1), 30-48.        48 

 

 
Events and Tourism Review Vol. 2 No. 1 (Spring 2019), 30-48, DOI: 10.18060/22900 

Copyright © 2019 Gilpatrick D. Hornsby 

 This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. 

 

Shepherd, D. A., Williams, T. A., & Patzelt, H. (2015). Thinking about entrepreneurial decision 

making: Review and research agenda. Journal of management, 41(1), 11-46. 

Thomas, R. (2000). Small firms in the tourism industry: some conceptual issues. The 

International Journal of Tourism Research, 2(5), 345. 

Wagener, S., Gorgievski, M., & Rijsdijk, S. (2010). Businessman or host? Individual differences 

between entrepreneurs and small business owners in the hospitality industry. The Service 

Industries Journal, 30(9), 1513-1527. 

Wingfield, A. H., & Taylor, T. (2016). Race, gender, and class in entrepreneurship: intersectional 

counter-frames and black business owners. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 39(9), 1676-1696. 

https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

