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Feldenkrais Research Journal • volume 3 (2007)

Article

Future Directions for Research on the Feldenkrais Method

Jim Stephens
PhD, PT, CFP, Temple University

Abstract
As we go into the future, we will be competing with other health care professions who are increasingly
evidence based and increasingly effective in what they do. We must continue to do research on
Feldenkrais Method so that people understand its effectiveness and so that we ourselves better
understand the tools that we are working with and continuing to develop. Research can become/ is
becoming part of the conversation about how we use and develop the Feldenkrais Method (FM).

Future research should be based in and developed out of past research and established theory. In this
paper, my purpose is to take a broad view of possible research questions and not limit the discussion to
one or another particular area. I will reprint paper titles in bibliography form and where possible abstracts
of published research to give a vibrant sense of the research that has been done. The research will be
grouped into several different areas for convenience of discussion. Each area will be approached as
suggested above by first addressing functional outcomes, then mechanisms and finally theory. The
references (abstracts) following each section are in rough alphabetical order within that section.

Keywords
Feldenkrais Method, research methods, functional outcomes, research theory, qualitative, quantitative,
motor control, research questions

Copyright ©: The copyright for this paper remains with the author(s).

Please cite: (First published in the) Feldenkrais Research Journal, volume 3; 2007.

Service marks: The terms Feldenkrais®, Feldenkrais Method®, Awareness Through Movement®, ATM®,
Functional Integration®, and FI® are service marked terms of the International Feldenkrais® Federation
(IFF) and Feldenkrais professional guilds and associations in many countries. In keeping with academic
conventions, they will not be service marked in the entire text as may be required in nonacademic use,
but only for the first and most prominent use of the terms. In recognition that these phrases are formal
terms referring to specific practices within the Method, and to the Method as a whole, capitalization of all
the words in each term has been retained.

Published by the International Feldenkrais® Federation (IFF) https://feldenkrais-method.org
Available online at https://feldenkraisresearchjournal.org

https://feldenkrais-method.org/
https://feldenkraisresearchjournal.org


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Future Directions for Research on the Feldenkrais Method  
Jim Stephens PhD, PT, CFP 
Assistant Professor, Physical Therapy Department 
College of Health Professions, Temple University   
Introduction. 
As we go into the future, we will be competing with other health care professions who are 
increasingly evidence based and increasingly effective in what they do.  We must continue to 
do research on Feldenkrais Method so that people understand its effectiveness and so that we 
ourselves better understand the tools that we are working with and continuing to develop.  
Research can become/ is becoming part of the conversation about how we use and develop the 
Feldenkrais Method (FM). 
 
Research operates on several levels.  Because we are interested in the manner and extent to 
which FM can impact people to improve their function, research should be directed toward 
the assessment of functional outcomes associated with participation in Awareness Through 
Movement (ATM) and Functional Integration (FI).  This has been a primary area of interest 
and research up to this point both for practitioners, researchers and people looking at FM from 
the outside. 
 
After a functional outcome has been demonstrated in some area (Established Outcomes), we 
can begin to ask research questions about how this happens.  This process is the investigation 
of mechanisms (Mechanisms) and is a much harder question as it involves multiple 
possibilities all of which may not be known or understood and a more abstract level of 
function.  Only a small amount of research has been done in this area.  
A third level of research directly addresses theories (Theory), which are developed out of the 
relationships /between what we do and the physical, physiological, psychological and social 
laws that govern the behavior of entities in the world.  Although the outcomes of FM work 
depend on these relationships, very little of our research has ventured in this direction.  
Future research should be based in and developed out of past research and established theory.  
In this paper, my purpose is to take a broad view of possible research questions and not limit 
the discussion to one or another particular area.  I will reprint paper titles in bibliography form 
and where possible abstracts of published research to give a vibrant sense of the research that 
has been done.  The research will be grouped into several different areas for convenience of 
discussion.  Each area will be approached as suggested above by first addressing functional 
outcomes, then mechanisms and finally theory.  The references (abstracts) following each 
section are in rough alphabetical order within that section.   

IFF Academy 
Feldenkrais Research Journal 3 (2007) 

® 2007 by the author 
ISSN 1817-4000 



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I. Low Back Pain and Chronic Pain 
 Outcomes: This is the area where most research has been done on FM.  There are 
many case reports and small studies all suggesting that FM can be effective in dealing with 
pain.   In spite of this, Maher (7) wrote in 2004 that FM is of unknown value or ineffective 
and should not be considered for interventions in chronic pain.  As practitioners, we know that 
this is not the case.  More research needs to be done to make this clear to other health care 
professionals.  There are several problems with the research that has been done to this point.  
Studies have been done without control groups (1, 11), or with a small number of subjects or 
single cases being reported (2, 9, 13).  Smith (12) reported no reduction of pain but used only 
a single 30- minute lesson as an intervention.  It is unrealistic to expect that this short an 
intervention would significantly impact chronic pain.  Yet this literature remains unanswered. 
 Lundblad (6) and Malmgren-Olsson (8) are models for how studies might be more 
effectively done.  They have realistic control groups, large numbers of subjects and are 
carried out over extended periods of time.  They each also assess multiple functional and 
quality of life outcomes as well as outcomes about pain itself. 
 Another aspect to consider is that all pain is not the same.  Mechanically induced LBP 
may be more responsive to FM than more physiologically induced pain from cancer.  Some 
types of pain are not understood well at all.  Fibromyalgia is in this category.  Some 
pioneering work has been done using FM with people with fibromyalgia (3, 5) with equivocal 
results suggesting that there may be effectiveness in this area but perhaps exactly how FM is 
used in this condition needs to be thought through more clearly.  Mark Reese developed 
lessons and worked in his practice with people with fibromyalgia but none of the outcomes of 
that work were published.  The lesson here is that we need to be more active in writing and 
sharing the results of our work. 
 Another important area for establishing outcomes is the prevention of injury.  This has 
been suggested by Stephens (43) but no work has been done directly in this area.  Discussion 
of clinical work with people in pain – learning how to rest has been presented by O’Connor 
(10), but again no objective research has been published in this area.  
 Mechanisms:  What are the underlying processes through which FM might be working 
to reduce pain?  1) Perhaps there is reduced inappropriate effort or muscle tone (parasitic 
activity) that could lead to reduction in pain.  This has been suggested by Kegerris et al (39, 
40) in work with people without chronic pain.  This idea could be studied directly with people 
who do present with chronic pain using emg assessment of muscle activity or some similar 
technology.  2) Perhaps there is reorganization of movement patterns that reduce stresses.  
This might show up as changes in biomechanical organization of movements using motion 
analysis before and after a series of lessons and might also be reflected in changes in emg 
activity.  3) Perhaps there are physiological changes such as increase in endorphins or a 
change in the balance or autonomic nervous system (ANS) activity away from greater 
sympathetic toward greater para-sympathetic activity affecting the perception of pain.  
Changes like this have been suggested by Kolt et al (11, 37).  ANS function and endorphin 
levels could be measured directly and correlated with ATM or FI lessons in properly 
controlled studies. 
 Theory:  The theory underlying these types of ideas is that a person performs 
optimally when intention and action are fully integrated and aligned.  The experience of pain 
is linked to perception as well as physical trauma.  We could learn something about how we 
might study this area by looking at the work of people who work with both sides of this issue.  
Lewis (47) and Giummarra (48) provide some recent examples of this.  

1. Alexander A. Perceived pain and disability decreases after Feldenkrais’ Awareness Through 
Movement.  Masters Thesis.  Cal State, Northridge, June 2006. 



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Movement method for motor learning was effective in decreasing pain perception and disability of 
adults who self-reported experiencing chronic low back pain. Subjects, staff members of California 
State University Northridge, were voluntarily recruited for this study using email and word of mouth. 
Final sample (N=12) was comprised of males and females, aged 35 to 67 years (average age was 
51.833). The intervention consisted of a total of eleven 45-minute Awareness Through Movement 
classes offered over a 5-week period. Participants were free to come to all 11 classes, and average 
class participation was 10.25. Pain was assessed using the Visual Analogue Scale and disability was 
measured using the Oswestry Disability Index questionnaire, both administered pre and post 
intervention. Multivariate Analyses of Variance showed significant differences (p < .05) pre and post 
testing and the investigation concluded that the Feldenkrais method was effective in reducing pain 
perception and in decreasing disability in a population experiencing chronic low back pain. This 
research paper supports the use of the Feldenkrais method for decreasing pain and increasing 
function in daily activities for adults experiencing chronic low back pain. 

 
2. Bearman D, Shafarman S.  Feldenkrais Method in the Treatment of Chronic Pain:  A Study of 

Efficacy and Cost Effectiveness.  Am. J. Pain Management. 9 (1): 22-27, 1999. 
A preliminary study was undertaken to determine both the efficacy and cost effectiveness of the 
Feldenkrais Method for treatment of Medicaid recipients with chronic pain at the Santa Barbara 
Regional Health Authority (SBRHA). SBRHA staff wished to offer treatment for chronic pain 
patients beyond what is provided for in the Medicaid scope of benefits. Conventional intensive 
chronic pain treatment programs costs range from $7,000 to $30,000 and are not covered by regular 
Medicaid benefits. Patients with chronic headaches and/or musculoskeletal problems were enrolled 
in the study. Seven patients began the program; all completed it. Patient satisfaction, function, and 
perception of pain were evaluated by using the National Pain Data Batik (NPDB) protocol of the 
American Academy of Pain Management. Participants reported more mobility and decreased 
perception of pain, both immediately after the program and in a one-year follow-up questionnaire. 
Results compared quite favorable with NPDB comparison groups. Cost effectiveness calculations 
were based on Medicaid costs for one-year periods pre- and post-intervention. Patient costs dropped 
from an average of $141 per month to $82 per month. This represents a 40% savings. 

 
3. Dean JR, Yuen SA, and Barrows SA.  Effects of A Feldenkrais Awareness Through Movement 

Sequence on Fibromyalgia Patients.  A study reported to the CA-PTA in 1997 also presented at 
the NA Feldenkrais Guild Conference in August, 1997. 
The purpose of this study was to describe the effects of a Feldenkrais Awareness Through 
Movement®  (ATM) sequences of fibromyalgia patients.  Subjects met twice a week for a one hour 
group ATM lesson, and were instructed to follow through daily with practice tapes.  After two 
months, subjects were placed on a one month home program.  Pre-test and post-test data, which 
included a modified Fibromyalgia Impact Assessment (FIA) questionnaire, a pain scale, 
photographical postural analysis, and observational video analysis of walking, were collected and 
analyzed on five fibromyalgia patients.  A paired T-Test on the modified FIA and other descriptive 
analyses showed moderate improvement in the subjects.  It was concluded that the Feldenkrais 
Method had potential value as a possible adjunct to the physical therapy treatment of selected 
fibromyalgia patients. 

 
4. Kendall SA. Ekselius L. Gerdle B. Soren B. Bengtsson A. Feldenkrais intervention in 

fibromyalgia patients: a pilot study. J Musculoskeletal Pain. 9(4):25-35, 2001. 
Objectives: To evaluate the effect of the Feldenkrais intervention, in fibromyalgia patients., 
Methods: Twenty fibromyalgia patients started Feldenkrais intervention done as one individual and 
two group sessions weekly for 15 weeks. Nineteen started a group-based pain education program 
followed by a pool program. Test and self-report questionnaires were administered at the start, at six 
month follow up, and at the end of intervention., Results: After the Feldenkrais intervention 
improvement in balance and trends to better lower extremity muscle function were shown, but the 
improvements were not maintained., Conclusions: No sustained benefit of the Feldenkrais 
intervention compared to a pool program was seen. Methodological problems are discussed. 

 
5. Lundblad I.  Elert J.  Gerdle B. Randomized controlled trial of physiotherapy and Feldenkrais 

interventions in female workers with neck-shoulder complaints. [Journal Article, Clinical Trial] 
Journal of Occupational Rehabilitation.  1999 Sep; 9(3): 179-94. (46 ref) 
The present study aimed to investigate whether physiotherapy or Feldenkrais interventions resulted 
in a reduction of complaints from the neck and shoulders (prevalence, pain intensity, sick leave, and 
disability in leisure and work roles) in 97 female industrial workers (not on long-term sick leave). 
Range of motion of neck and shoulders, VO2, endurance score (i.e., summation of pain intensity 



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ratings during a static shoulder flexion), cortical control according to the Feldenkrais methodology, 
and physiological capacity according to a dynamic endurance test of the shoulder flexors with 
simultaneous surface EMG were also recorded. The workers were randomized to: (1) physiotherapy 
group (PT-group; treatment according to the ergonomic program of the PTs of the occupational 
health care service), (2) Feldenkrais group (F-group; education according to the Feldenkrais 
methodology), or (3) control group (C-group; no intervention). Pre- and post-tests were made at one-
year intervals. The two interventions lasted 16 weeks during paid working time. The F-group showed 
significant decreases in complaints from neck and shoulders and in disability during leisure time. 
The two other groups showed no change (PT-group) or worsening of complaints (C-group). The 
present study showed significant positive changes in complaints after the Feldenkrais intervention 
but not after the physiotherapy intervention. Possible mechanisms behind the effects in the F-group 
are discussed. 

 
6. Maher CG. Effective physical treatment for chronic low back pain. [Review] [52 refs] [Journal 

Article.  Review.  Review, Tutorial] Orthopedic Clinics of North America.  35(1):57-64, 2004 Jan.  
It is now feasible to adopt an evidence-based approach when providing physical treatment for 
patients with chronic LBP. A summary of the efficacy of a range of physical treatments is provided 
in Table 1. The evidence-based primary care options are exercise, laser, massage, and spinal 
manipulation; however, the latter three have small or transient effects that limit their value as 
therapies for chronic LBP. In contrast, exercise produces large reductions in pain and disability, a 
feature that suggests that exercise should play a major role in the management of chronic LBP. 
Physical treatments, such as acupuncture, backschool, hydrotherapy, lumbar supports, magnets, 
TENS, traction, ultrasound, Pilates therapy, Feldenkrais therapy, Alexander technique, and 
craniosacral therapy are either of unknown value or ineffective and so should not be considered. 
Outside of primary care, multidisciplinary treatment or functional restoration is effective; however, 
the high cost probably means that these programs should be reserved for patients who do not respond 
to cheaper treatment options for chronic LBP. Although there are now effective treatment options for 
chronic LBP, it needs to be acknowledged that the problem of chronic LBP is far from solved. 
Though treatments can provide marked improvements in the patient's condition, the available 
evidence suggests that the typical chronic LBP patient is left with some residual pain and disability. 
Developing new, more powerful treatments and refining the current group of known effective 
treatments is the challenge for the future. 

 
7. Malmgren-Olsson E.  Armelius B.  Armelius K. A comparative outcome study of body awareness 

therapy, Feldenkrais , and conventional physiotherapy for patients with nonspecific 
musculoskeletal disorders: changes in psychological symptoms, pain, and self-image. [Journal 
Article, Research, Tables/Charts] Physiotherapy Theory and Practice.  2001 Jun; 17(2): 77-95. (55 
ref)  
Patients with nonspecific musculoskeletal disorders are often remitted for physiotherapy treatment 
in primary care. The rehabilitation effects for this patient group are generally poor and many of the 
treatment methods used have not been scientifically evaluated. The purpose of this study is to 
compare treatment effects of Body Awareness Therapy, Feldenkrais , and conventional individual 
treatment with respect to changes in psychological distress, pain, and self-image in patients with 
nonspecific musculoskeletal disorders. A total of 78 patients, 64 females and 14 males, with 
nonspecific musculoskeletal disorders were recruited consecutively to the different treatment groups 
in a quasiexperimental design. The patients were measured three times during the study period: 
before the interventions, after six months, and after one year. The results showed significant positive 
changes over time in all three treatment groups with regard to reduced psychological distress, pain, 
and improved negative self-image. There were few significant differences among the groups but 
effect-size analysis indicated that the group treatments using Body Awareness Therapy and 
Feldenkrais might be more effective than conventional treatment. 

 
8. Narula M, Jackson O, Kulig K. The Effects of Six Week Feldenkrais Method on Selected 

Functional Parameters in a Subject with Rheumatoid Arthritis. Physical Therapy 72: (suppl.) 
S86,1992 

 
9. O'Connor M.  Webb R. Learning to rest when in pain. [Journal Article, Pictorial, Research] 

European Journal of Palliative Care.  2002 Mar-Apr; 9(2): 68-71. (18 ref)  
     Margaret O'Connor and Robert Webb report on the usage of a lesser-known approach -- the    

Feldenkrais Method -- in teaching people to cope with pain on movement . 
 



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10. Phipps A, Lopez R, Powell R (advisor), Lundy-Ekman L (advisor), Maebori D (CFP). A Functional 
Outcome Study on the Use of Movement Re-Education in Chronic Pain Management.  
Master’s Thesis at Pacific University, School of Physical Therapy, Forest Grove, Oregon, May 
1997. 

11. Smith AL.  Kolt GS.  McConville JC. The effect of the Feldenkrais method on pain and anxiety 
in people experiencing chronic low back pain. [Journal Article, Research, Tables/Charts] New 
Zealand Journal of Physiotherapy.  2001 Mar; 29(1): 6-14. (54 ref)  

     The aim of this pilot investigation was to evaluate the Feldenkrais Method's effect on pain and state  
anxiety in people experiencing chronic low back pain. Participants (N = 26) were aged between 25 
and 78 years, and were recruited from a community health centre, a rehabilitation hospital, and from 
the general community. The sample was divided into two groups: Feldenkrais and control. The 
Feldenkrais group experienced a 30-minute Awareness Through Movement session whilst the 
control group listened to a narrative of the same duration. Pain was assessed pre and post 
intervention using the Short-Form McGill Pain Questionnaire. State anxiety was also measured pre 
and post intervention using the State Scale of the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory. Multivariate 
Analyses of Variance showed that the Feldenkrais intervention was effective in reducing the 
affective dimension of pain (p < .05), but not the sensory or evaluative dimensions, nor state 
anxiety. These findings are discussed in relation to previous research and some of the theoretical 
concepts assumed to underlie the Feldenkrais Method. The clinical implication of the findings 
involves the potential for the Feldenkrais Method to complement existing modes of pain 
management for people experiencing chronic low back problems. 

 
12. Stephens J. Feldenkrais method: background, research, and orthopaedic case studies. [Journal 

Article, Case Study, Tables/Charts] Orthopaedic Physical Therapy Clinics of North America.  2000 
Sep; 9(3): 375-94. (46 ref)  
Functional Integration and Awareness Through Movement are aspects of the Feldenkrais method 
that have been used successfully in the rehabilitation of people with orthopaedic problems. These 
methods include approaches to motor learning that can be used to facilitate change and integration in 
postural and general musculoskeletal control. This article describes the background and development 
of the Feldenkrais method, including its philosophic and scientific basis. An outcome survey of the 
use of the Feldenkrais method is presented along with four case studies that demonstrate the 
integration of this method into physical therapy practice. The Feldenkrais method is an excellent 
approach to use in the rehabilitation of people with orthopedic physical problems.   

II.  Outcomes for people with neurological pathologies: CVA (stroke), 
traumatic brain injury, multiple sclerosis, Parkinson’s, spinal cord injury, and 
other. 
Outcomes:  Initial work in this area was more qualitative and descriptive suggesting 
improvements in function and quality of life using either small, uncontrolled studies or case 
studies. (16, 15, 17, 18 19, 23, 24, 25, 49)  The next step has begun to be taken by identifying 
specific outcome variables and assessing how they are affected within group over time or 
compared to a control group.  These studies have used well accepted and validated outcome 
measures to document improvements in balance and mobility (13, 21, 22) and quality of life 
(21).  More work remains to be done with all the different populations and pathologies to 
understand if there are groups or individuals who are more or less responsive to FM.   
 
Mechanisms:   Several approaches have been made to the question of how these changes may 
be affected.  Many neurologically based pathologies leave people with impaired sensory 
processes and incomplete body images.  Connors (14) has begun to address the question of 
whether FM is useful in the process of trying to recover body image and has found some 
initial encouraging results.  Similar results were also reported for one person in the group 
studied by Batson (13).  Johnson reported decreased perceived stress in her work with people 
with multiple sclerosis (20).  Many questions remain to be addressed.  Is it possible to 
establish sensory function following a neurological lesion using FM?  What is the role of 
sensory and perceptual function in recovery of function?  How is motor imagery changed by 



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neurological lesions?  Is it possible to recover the ability for motor imagery using FM?  What 
is the relationship between motor imagery ability and recovery of function?  Some of these 
questions about motor imagery have begun to be studied by Batson (not yet published) but 
much more remains to be done.  If FM can impact the ability for motor imagery, can the rate 
and extent of recovery of function be improved in this way?   If motor imagery is improved, is 
there carryover to differentiation of movements that had been lost in the stroke or brain 
injury?  Differentiation of movement can be easily assessed using a format such as the Motor 
Assessment Scale, the Wolf Motor Function test, or video motion analysis.  
 
Theory:  One of the theoretical issues being addressed by the above works has to do with 
questions about how body image (self image) is constructed and the relationships between 
body image and action/function.  In using the name Awareness Through Movement to 
describe one of his methods of working, Feldenkrais suggested that movement has primacy in 
developing awareness and hence has an important role in construction of body image.  An 
important question related to this idea is whether, in rehabilitation (or in development), 
movement would be an effective strategy for recovering sensory and perceptual functions of 
whether they can be recovered optimally through direct sensory experience only.   
 
Another issue of interest raised by Stephens (21) and possibly peculiar to FM is that in a 
complex intervention like ATM that can be addressed to many people at the same time, that 
individuals may have very different responses and improve in different ways through the 
same lesson.  Thus to look for everyone to respond in the same way is to miss much of what is 
going on.  It would be interesting to see this point confirmed by other research and it is 
important to keep this in mind when designing research and analyzing data.  

13. Batson G and Deutsch JE.  Effects of Feldenkrais Awareness Through Movement on Balance in 
Adults With Chronic Neurological Deficits Following Stroke: A Preliminary Study. 
Complementary Health Practice Review, Vol. 10 No. 3, October 2005 203-210 
The Feldenkrais Method is a complementary approach to motor learning that purports to induce 
change in chronic motor behaviors. This preliminary study describes the effects of a Feldenkrais 
program on balance and quality of life in individuals with chronic neurological deficits following 
stroke. Two male (48 and 53 years old) and 2 female participants (61 and 62 years old), 1 to 2.5 
years post-stroke, participated as a group in a 6-week Feldenkrais program. Pretest and posttest 
evaluations of the Berg Balance Scale (BBS), the Dynamic Gait Index (DGI), and the Stroke Impact 
Scale (SIS) were administered. Data were analyzed using a Wilcoxon signed-rank test. DGI and 
BBS scores improved an average of 55.2% (p = .033) and 11% (p = .034), respectively. SIS 
percentage recovery improved 35%. Findings suggest that gains in functional mobility are possible 
for individuals with chronic stroke using Feldenkrais movement therapy in a group setting.   
Keywords: Feldenkrais; balance; stroke; complementary medicine 

 
14. Connors K and Grenough P.  Redevelopment of the Sense of Self following Stroke, using the 

Feldenkrais Method. Poster presented at the Feldenkrais Annual Research Forum, Seattle WA, 
August, 2004. 

 
15. Gilman M, Yaruss JS.  Stuttering and relaxation: applications for somatic education in 

stuttering treatment.  J Fluency Disorders. 25(1): 59-76, 2000 
 
16. Ginsburg C.  The Shake-a-Leg Body Awareness Training Program:  Dealing with Spinal 

Injury and Recovery in a New Setting. Somatics.  Spring/Summer, 1986  pp31-42. 
 
17. Goldman Schuyler, Kathryn. A Systems Approach to Learning and Change: Cindy’s Story.  

Somatics  14(3): 14-23, Fall/Winter 2003-2004 
This is a conversationally written report of the process and impact on Feldenkrais work with a 45 
year old woman with Autism/Cerebral Palsy(?).  It tracks the development of the strategy of the 
work, the dynamics of the process of change and concludes with some theoretical considerations 
and practical implications. 
 



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18. Ofir R.  A heuristic investigation of the process of motor learning using Feldenkrais method in 
physical rehabilitation of two young women with traumatic brain injury.  Unpublished 
Doctoral Dissertation, Union Institute, NY, 1993.  Brief abstract only.  Documents improvements 
with Feldenkrais intervention.  Videotape supports text  

19. Bost H, Burges S, Russell R, Ruttinger H, Schlafke U.  Feldstudie zur Wirksamkeit der 
Feldenkrais-Methode bei MS - betroffenen.  Deutsche Multiple Sklerose Gesellschaft.  
Saarbrucken, Germany.  1994.  (Summary available in English translated by Hans Hartmann, Sc.D.) 

 
20. Johnson SK, Frederick J, Kaufman M, Mountjoy B.  A controlled investigation of bodywork in 

multiple sclerosis.  The Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine 5(3): 237-43, 1999.  
Results show lower perceived stress after Feldenkrais sessions compared to a sham intervention 
control group. 

 
21. Stephens J.  Call S.  Evans K.  Glass M.  Gould C.  Lowe J. Responses to ten Feldenkrais 

Awareness Through Movement lessons by four women with multiple sclerosis: improved 
quality of life. [Journal Article, Research, Tables/Charts] Physical Therapy Case Reports.  1999 
Mar; 2(2): 58-69. (43 ref)  
Four women with multiple sclerosis who were ambulatory and worked full-time participated in 10 
Awareness Through Movement classes over 10 weeks. Assessment before and after the series of 
classes included the Incapacity Status and the Environmental Status Scales of the Minimal Record 
of Disability, the Fatigue Severity Scale, and the Index of Well-Being. Before each class and at the 
final data collection, each person was asked several questions about her medical and functional 
status. Analyses of walking and supine-to-stand were done using the PEAK Motus video motion 
analysis system. A follow-up interview was done with two women one year after the classes ended. 
Three of the four participants experienced an increase in symptoms at some time during the 10 
weeks; nonetheless, all made improvements. Outcomes show that two broad areas of improvement 
were ease and steadiness of daily movement s, and sense of well-being. These Outcomes suggest 
that Awareness Through Movement is beneficial for some people with multiple sclerosis, although  
in different ways for each person. 
 

22. Stephens J.  DuShuttle D.  Hatcher C.  Shmunes J.  Slaninka C. Use of awareness through 
movement improves balance and balance confidence in people with multiple sclerosis: a 
randomized controlled study. [Journal Article, Clinical Trial, Research, Tables/Charts] Neurology 
Report.  2001 Jun; 25(2): 39-49. (33 ref)  
This study examined the effectiveness of a structured, group motor learning process, Awareness 
Through Movement (ATM), on balance, balance confidence, and self-efficacy. Twelve people 
with multiple sclerosis were randomly assigned to either ATM or control groups. The ATM group 
participated in 8 classes, 2 to 4 hours each while the control group participated in educational 
sessions, over 10 weeks. Six outcome measures were used: the Basic Balance Master modified 
Clinical Test of Sensory Interaction in Balance (mCTSIB) and Limits of Stability tests; the 
Activities-specific Balance Confidence Scale; prospective falls; Equiscale; and the Multiple 
Sclerosis Self-Efficacy Scale. The ATM group exhibited significantly improved mCTSIB scores 
indicating an average center of pressure position closer to theoretical center, had significantly fewer 
abnormal mCTSIB tests, and demonstrated improved balance confidence compared to controls. 
There was a trend toward improvement in all other measures in the ATM group compared to 
controls. These results suggest that this type of motor learning intervention can be effective in 
improving a variety of physical and psychological parameters related to balance and postural 
control. 

 
23. Shenkman M, Donovan J, Tsubota J, Kluss M, Stebbins P, Butler R. Management of Individuals 

with Parkinsons Disease:  Rationale and Case Studies.  Physical Therapy  69: 944-955, 1989  
Mentions Feldenkrais Method as treatment option 

 
24. Shelhav-Silberbush, Chava.  The Feldenkrais Method for Children with Cerebral Palsy.  pp116. 

MS Thesis. Boston University School of Education, Feldenkrais Resources, Berkeley  CA,1988 
 
25. Wendell LL.  Some effects of the Feldenkrais Method on Parkinson’s symptoms and function.   

Unpublished case study by LL Wendell client and Marilyn Johnson, Feldenkrais Practitioner. June 
2000.  This is a brief, interesting, single case study documenting observations on changes in 
function before and after a year of Feldenkrais lessons. 



 8 

    
III.  Well Elderly: mobility, balance, other. 
Outcomes:  The first research on FM was done by Gutman in 1977, investigating the effects 
of ATM lessons on a group of well elderly people.  This work was well conceived with the 
use of 2 control groups but may have been poorly executed as changes in a no activity control 
group were significant and masked changes seen in other groups.  This work did find that FM 
led to improvements in perception of quality of life.  Considering the research with well 
elderly has been so popular over the last 2 decades and that so many elderly people participate 
in ongoing ATM classes, it is surprising that much more research has not been done in this 
area.  An initial report (26) demonstrated improved mobility and several subsequent reports 
showed significant changes in balance (28) and mobility and quality of life (29).  These last 3 
studies were well done including large groups, random assignment to control and intervention 
groups and well-validated and reliable outcome measures.  More work in this area is 
important.  Many questions remain.  Can differentiation of movement and coordination be 
improved?  Can quickness, speed and efficiency of movement be improved?  Is ATM or FI or 
some combination a better way to improve function in elderly people?  Is there an optimal 
way of producing changes: Weekly or more frequent lessons vs. short (half day) to 
moderately long (3-5 days) workshops.  Does improvement of function in this way affect 
longevity?  Does exposure to FM (over what period of time) affect an individual’s functional 
intelligence, problem solving ability, social activity or other psychological functions? Also the 
organization of an activity like walking can be investigated using non-linear dynamic methods 
to describe step-to-step variability. (see Stergiou et. al. 50-53)  
Mechanisms:  Some of the same questions come up again as with neurological pathology.  
Sensory capacity is known to decline with age.  Is it possible to alter this trend and is 
improved motor and sensory function then capable of altering the aging process?    
Theory:  A theoretical issue in this area has to do with learning.  Feldenkrais subtitled his 
book The Potent Self, learning to learn.  Is it possible to rekindle the learning mechanism of 
the young in the elderly?  Another issue based in Dynamic Systems Theory relates to the 
dynamics and stability of attractors.  Is it possible to develop new attractors?  Can these 
processes be qualitatively and quantitatively described and mapped across time?   

26. Bennett JL, Brown BJ, Finney SA, and Sarantakis CP.  Effects of a Feldenkrais Based Mobility 
Program on Function of a Healthy Elderly Sample.  Abstract Issues on Aging 21(1):27, 1998, 
publication of Geriatric section of APTA.  Poster presented at CSM in Boston in February 1998. 
 

27. Gutman G, Herbert C, Brown S.  Feldenkrais vs Conventional Exercise for the Elderly. J 
Gerontology  32(5): 562-572, 1977 Design problem control group which did nothing improved as 
much  as the Feldenkrais group. Does suggest improved preception of quality of life in Feldenkrais 
group 
 

28. Hall SE, Criddle A, Ring A, Bladen C, Tapper J, Yin R, Cosgrove A, Hu Yu-Li.  Study of the 
effects of various forms of exercise on balance in older women.  Unpublished Manuscript 
Healthway Starter Grant, File #7672, Dept of Rehabilitation, Sir Charles Gardner Hospital, 
Nedlands, Western Australia,  1999.  Shows improvements in balance and function from Tai Chi 
and ATM compared to a control group. Good study! 

 
29. Stephens JL, Pendergast C, Roller BA, Weiskittel RS.  Learning to Improve Mobility and 

Quality of Life in a Well Elderly Population: The Benefits of Awareness Through Movement. 



 9 

International Feldenkrais Federation  (IFF), IFF Online Research Journal, 
http://www.iffresearchjournal.org/index2005.htm, November 2005. 
Objectives:  This study tested the hypothesis that an alternative movement learning method, 
Awareness Through Movement, would produce improvements in coordination, mobility, economy 
of movement and quality of life in older adults.  Methods:  A group of 31 older adults was studied 
using a prospective, repeated measures control group design.  The SF-36 was used to assess health 
status - quality of life.  Video motion analysis was used to collect data on walking and on a floor to 
stand transfer movement. Results:   Coordination of the transfer movement improved significantly in 
the experimental group.  Vitality and mental health scores also improved significantly in this group.  
Interesting differences between young-old and old-old changes were observed.  Conclusions:  
Awareness Through Movement may be an additional effective method for pursuing the objectives of 
Healthy People 2010. Cardiac Rehab, Pediatrics    

IV.  Cardiopulmonary Function. 
Outcomes:  An area that is often ignored in rehabilitation is cardiopulmonary function.  
Saraswati (32) did ground breaking work in this area showing some improvements in 
breathing mechanics and air movement in 1989.  This was followed up much later with 
qualitative work by Brand (30) who suggested improvements in the process of cardiac 
rehabilitation following myocardial infarct using FM techniques.  A follow-up, controlled 
study by Lowe (31), while finding no significant quantitative differences in body perception 
or well being variables, did identify significantly more well being related comments by 
participants in the FM compared to other groups and found that those participating in FM but 
not progressive relaxation wanted to continue the intervention beyond the study.  As in many 
cases the intervention by Lowe was short (several days/FI lessons) and may have been much 
more effective if carried out for a longer time period.  Again experimenting with the length of 
the FM intervention is important. Long-term studies could look at questions about post MI 
activity levels, mortality and longevity.  Some long-term assessment of post MI quality of life 
using SF-36 or some similar instrument would be interesting. 
 
Mechanisms:  We know almost nothing in this area.  The key may be related to stress and 
methods of breathing.  Brand focused on these areas.  However, physiological responses also 
need to be documented.  What happens to blood pressure, heart rate, breathing rate, O2 
saturation, healing rates?   
 
Theory:  The idea of Functional Integration suggests that optimal function is achieved when 
all systems contributing in an integrated way being optimally responsive to the control 
processes on a moment to moment basis.  Is cardiopulmonary function more (or optimally) 
responsive, or is the responsiveness of the system changed by FM work?  This could be 
investigated using methods of non-linear dynamics to assess levels of variability in relation to 
normal daily activities and events that are stressful both physiologically and psychologically. 
(see Stergiou et al. 50-53)   

30. Brand, CS.  Stress Management in Cardiac Rehabilitation: Observations on Attention and 
Emotion.  Paper presented at The Annual Conference of the Feldenkrais Guild of North America, 
Los Angeles, CA September, 1998. 

 
31. Lowe, Bernd;  Breining, Katja;  Wilke, Stefanie;  Wellmann, Renate;  Zipfel, Stephan;  Eich, 

Wolfgang. Quantitative and qualitative effects of Feldenkrais , progressive muscle relaxation, 
and standard medical treatment in patients after acute myocardial infarction. [Peer Reviewed 
Journal] Psychotherapy Research. Vol 12(2) Sum 2002, 179-191. 
Examined the effectiveness of the Feldenkrais method of functional integration and of progressive 
muscle relaxation (PMR) compared with the standard medical treatment during the acute phase after 



 10 

myocardial infarction. Three patient groups (20 in each) received 1 of 3 treatment options: 2 
sessions of Feldenkrais therapy, 2 sessions of PMR, or no intervention. Evaluations using 
quantitative and qualitative methods were performed an average of 3.7 and 7.8 days after Ss' 
myocardial infarction, respectively. Significant improvements, independent of the intervention, were 
found over the evaluation period in the Perception of Body Dynamics body image scale and in the 
Physical Well-Being and Emotional Well-Being quality-of-life scales. A statistically significant, 
differential effect of any one intervention with respect to the control group did not arise in any of the 
quantitative questionnaire variables examined. However, subjective improvements of varying 
description were noted by 17 of 20 patients after the 1st Feldenkrais therapy and by 13 of 20 
patients after the 1st PMR treatment. The qualitative patient statements support using the 
Feldenkrais method or PMR for particular cases in an acute medical setting and continuing 
treatment during rehabilitation or on an outpatient basis. 

 
32. Saraswati, S.  Investigation of Human Postural Muscles and Respiratory Movements.  M.Sc. 

University of New South Wales. 1989 
   

V.  Psychological functions – Imagery. 
Outcomes:  Again, initial work in this area has been qualitative. (33, 34, 37)  It has been 
suggested that FM improves some dimensions of body awareness.  The different dimensions 
of body awareness (37) that are responsive remain to be elucidated.  In a very well done 
study, Laumer (36) demonstrated a positive change in a number of important variables in a 
group of girls with anorexia nervosa compared to a matched control group.  The outcome 
measures used in this study had mostly to do with body perception and satisfaction.  Other 
variables need to be investigated.  What impact is there on psychological variables such as 
anxiety and self-efficacy in this population?  Are patterns of social interaction changed?  Are 
problem solving skills improved in relation to management of body image issues? 
 
Mechanisms:  In a 10 week study, Kerr (35) demonstrated that state anxiety was reduced in 
the FM group.  This could help to explain the finding by Laumer noted above.  Stephens (38) 
found positive changes in recent memory and positive social support that were highly 
correlated with decreased fatigue in a group of people with multiple sclerosis compared to a 
control group.  The long-term effects of these interventions are important to study.  Are 
positive effects still seen a month or a year later?  Also it is important to evaluate the length of 
intervention needed to produce positive effects.  If 10 ATM lessons produce a good positive 
effect, are 25 lessons or 50 lessons necessarily better?  Are 5 lessons sufficient?  
Theory:  Feldenkrais was interested in providing a method for people to become more 
adaptable to the real changes of life that occur.  A question at this level is whether significant 
adaptive changes occur when working with FM.  This is a difficult thing to document and 
seems necessarily qualitative in nature.  An example of this type of change may be seen in 
Goldman-Schuyler’s Cindy’s Story.(17)  It would be very interesting to approach this idea in 
a much more systematic way across a larger number of people exposed to some significant 
amount of FM.  

33. Deig, Denise.  Self Image in Relationship to Feldenkrais Awareness Through Movement 
Classes.  Independent Study Project. University of Indianapolis, Krannert Graduate School of 
Physical Therapy, Indianapolis, Indiana. 1994 

 
34. Hutchinson, Marcia G.  TRANSFORMING BODY IMAGE.  Learning to Love the Body You 

Have.  The Crossing Press. Freedom CA  95019, 1985  Developed from doctoral dissertation: "The 
effect of a treatment based on the use of guided visuo-kinesthetic imagery on the alteration of 
negative body cathexis in women" . Boston University, 1981. 

 



 11 

35. Kerr GA.  Kotynia F.  Kolt GS. FELDENKRAIS awareness through movement and state 
anxiety. [Journal Article, Research, Tables/Charts] Journal of Bodywork and Movement Therapies.  
2002 Apr; 6(2): 102-7. (30 ref)  
The ability of the FELDENKRAIS Method to reduce state anxiety was investigated. Specifically, 
both a single FELDENKRAIS Awareness Through Movement lesson and a 10-week 
FELDENKRAIS Awareness Through Movement programme were studied. Participants volunteered 
to take part in one 1-hour class each week for 10 weeks. Individuals who declined to participate in 
the 10-week programme were given the opportunity to participate in a single 1-hour lesson during 
week 5. Participants were divided into two groups: new and returning students, based on previous 
experience with Awareness Through Movement lessons. Participants were administered the state 
scale of the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (Spielberger et al. 1983) prior to the beginning of the first 
lesson (week 1--T1), immediately before and after the fifth lesson (week 5--T2 and T3), and after 
the final lesson (week 10--T4). Findings indicated that state anxiety scores decreased significantly 
over a single lesson (T2 T3) for both new (n=13) and returning (n=42) students. In addition, state 
anxiety scores were significantly lower after the 10-week programme (T4) when compared with 
baseline scores (T1) for new (n=3) and returning (n=42) students, with new students experiencing a 
significantly greater reduction than returning students. These findings can be interpreted as further 
support for the efficacy of the FELDENKRAIS Method in reducing state anxiety. 

 
36. Laumer U, Bauer M, Fichter M, Milz H.  Therapeutic Effects of Feldenkrais Method 

“Awareness Through Movement” in Patients with Eating Disorders. Psychother Psychosom 
Med Psychol 47(5): 170-180, 1997;   (Published in German) Full English translation available at: 
http://www.iffresearchjournal.org/laumereng.htm 
Based on the movement-pedagogical concept of Feldenkrais and the findings-of disturbed body 
perception by eating disordered patients this research aimed at studying the therapeutical effects of 
the Feldenkrais Method "Awareness through Movement" with eating disorder patients, 15 eating 
disordered patients treated at the Roseneck hospital for behavioural medicine rated-by means of a 
questionnaire consisting of scales of the Body Cathexis Scale (BCS), the Body Parts Satisfaction 
Scale (BPSS), the questionnaire for body perception (Fragebogen zum Korpererleben; FKE), the 
Emotion inventory (Emotionalitatsinventar; EMI-B), the Anorexia-Nervosa-Inventory for Self-
rating (ANIS) and the Eating Disorder Inventory-2 (EDI)-various aspects of their eating disorder 
before and after participating in a nine hour course of the Feldenkrais Method. The data of these 
patients were compared to those of the members of a control group, also consisting of 15 eating 
disordered patients who did not participate in a Feldenkrais course. The participants of the 
Feldenkrais-course showed increasing contentment with regard to problematic zones of their body 
and their own health as well as concerning acceptance and familiarity with their own body. Other 
results were a more spontaneous, open and self-confident behaviour, the decrease of feelings of 
helplessness and decrease of the wish to return to the security of the early childhood, which 
indicates the development of felt sense of self, self-confidence and a general process of maturation 
of the whole personality. The outcome points to the therapeutical effectiveness of the Feldenkrais 
Method with eating-disorder patients within a multimodal treatment program. 

 
37. Ryding C.  Rudebeck CE.  Mattsson B. Body awareness in movement and language: 

concordance and disparity. [Journal Article, Research] Advances in Physiotherapy.  2004; 6(4): 
158-65. (18 ref)  
Background and purpose: Body Awareness Scale-Health (BAS-H) is a physiotherapy scoring 
instrument that assesses the quality and harmony in posture and simple movement s. In the present 
work, we have studied the concordance between body awareness scores and described body 
experience to further refine the concept of body awareness . Method: Sixteen general practitioners 
were assessed according to BAS-H and interviewed using a semi-structured method concerning 
their own body experience in relation to three themes. The interviews for the five participants who 
were found to have the most well-developed body awareness were compared, with the five that had 
the least developed body awareness . Results: The participants in the group with well-developed 
body awareness described a more positive attitude towards the body, and they gave clearer 
descriptions about their experiences of emotions and conditions such as hunger and tiredness. 
However, there were important exceptions. Body awareness has two dimensions-an 
outward/expressive dimension that is expressed in posture and movement  and an 
inward/introspective dimension. Summary hypotheses: The study was summarized in several 
hypotheses concerning the relationship between expressive and introspective body awareness. 

 
38. Stephens JL, Cates P, Jentes E, Perich A, Silverstein J, Staab E, duShuttle D, Hatcher C, Shmunes J, 

Slaninka C.  Awareness Through Movement Improves Quality of Life in People with Multiple 



 12 

Sclerosis.  J Neurol Phys Ther. 27(4): 170, 2003. Abstract, Poster presented at APTA Combined 
Section Meetings, Nashville TN, February, 2004  
PURPOSE/HYPOTHESIS: To assess quality of life changes associated with a successful balance 
intervention in a group of people with MS. NUMBER OF SUBJECTS: 12 people with MS mean 
age 54 yrs, mean Kurtzke EDSS level 4.75 MATERIALS/METHODS: Subjects were randomly 
assigned to 2 groups: Awareness Through Movement intervention (ATM) and control group (EDU). 
The ATM group participated in 8 Awareness Through Movement sessions while the EDU group 
participated in 4 educational sessions over 2 months. Balance and mobility measures were 
performed before and after the intervention period. These results were published in Neurology 
Report 2001; 25(2): 39-49. To assess quality of life the MSQLI was administered before and after 
the intervention.  The MSQLI has 10 sub-scales including: Modified Fatigue Impact (MFIS), Pain 
Effects, Perceived Deficits (PDQ), and Modified Social Support Survey (MSSS).All scales are valid 
for people with MS with reliability scores ranging from .78 to .97. Data analysis used Kruskal - 
Walis ANOVA for group comparisons and Spearman rs for correlations. RESULTS: There were 3 
significant group differences: 1) increase in pain effects in the ATM group (p< 0.03); 2) decrease in 
perceived difficulty recalling recent events (PDQ-RM) in the ATM group (p< 0.035); and 3) 
improvement in perceived availability of others for companionship (MSSS-POS) in the ATM group 
(p< 0.035). Improvement on the PDQ-RM was highly correlated with decreased Fatigue Impact. 
Improvement in MSSS-POS was highly correlated with decrease in cognitive fatigue impact and a 
decrease in total PDQ, retrospective memory and planning and organization subscale scores. 
CONCLUSIONS: The larger picture that emerges is that an intervention that was successful in 
improving balance and mobility had other spin-off benefits that were physical, psychological and 
social improving quality of life. ATM is intended to improve people's awareness and understanding 
of their bodies and to help individuals create alternative strategies for setting and achieving goals in 
their life. This spin-off impact may be present in other kinds of interventions but it has not been 
measured or documented. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: In an environment where patients and payers 
increasingly demand significant functional outcomes and measurable improvements in quality of 
life, it is important to document not only the physical outcomes but also the outcomes that reflect 
quality of life. 

 
 
 

VI.  More on Mechanisms – what’s going on: 
Some mechanisms underlying change have been discussed already in the preceding sections.  
Some research has addressed the question of mechanisms directly.  This has been done in a 
preliminary way at two levels in the process of motor control:  muscle activity (39, 40) and 
length (43) and related changes that may be happening in the control areas in the brain itself.   
The study by Nair (42) using fMRI technology to assess brain activity changes needs to be 
done with a larger group of people and compared with other more standard rehabilitation 
techniques to discover if there is anything special about the responses to FM.  It would also be 
very enlightening to take an ATM lesson right into an fMRI unit and track the changes 
produces in brain activity during a lesson involving movements of the tongue or fingers.  How 
would these changes be different or the same in different people?  What is different in older 
vs. younger people?  How are the changes seen related to learning in a model such as that 
proposed by Doyon et. al. (54, 55)? 
 
Bruce (41) explored FM as a process of learning in a theoretical study.  In the study of 
hamstring lengthening by Stephens (43), the question of learning was raised but not answered.  
Did the lengthening of the HS muscle being studied evolve slowly over time as might have 
been expected during a process of acquisition normally seen during motor learning?  Many 
people have difficulty with the concept of learning as applied to muscle length.  
Demonstration of an acquisition curve and retention of the learned behavior of some 
reasonable period of time like a week would go a long way toward placing this phenomenon 
in the arena of motor learning.  How many repetitions are needed for this learning to occur 
and over what period of time?  Stephens subjects did 15 minutes of ATM daily over a period 
of 3 weeks.  The number of repetitions varied widely from person to person.  What is the 



 13 

minimum number, done with an effective ATM/learning approach that will produce the  same 
or possibly a better outcome?  Would 2 trials per day for a week be enough?  Is there a limit 
to the length that can be achieved?  What controls that limit?  Can this same approach be 
applied to any muscle group in the body by any person?  How does this kind of intervention 
effect performance of running and jumping?  Are there changes in emg activity with this 
process as demonstrated by Kegerris et al?  

39. Brown, E and Kegerris S.  Electromyographic Activity of Trunk Musculature During a 
Feldenkrais Awareness through Movement Lesson.  Isokinetics and Exercise Science.  1(4): 216-
221, 1991. 

 
40. Ruth S, Kegerris S.  Facilitating Cervical Flexion Using a Feldenkrais Method: Awareness 

Through Movement.  J Sports Phys Ther.16(1): 25-29, 1992 
 
41. Bruce, F.M. Making sense in movement : the dynamics of self-learning and self-change. 

[Microform  Thesis or Dissertation ] Kinesiology Publications, University of Oregon Eugene, OR, 
2004, 3 microfiche (234 fr.)  
The purpose of this study is to explore the relationship between self-generated movement and 
processes of self-learning and self-change. It is hypothesized that: 1) Moving is a primary mode of 
interacting with a world that we construct through our interactions; 2) self-moving is a way of 
knowing, which structures both the knowing self and the perception of personal reality; 3) self-
change is a process of self-learning which changes the ways in which the self perceives and interacts 
with personal reality, the nature of which reality changes in a mutually causal relationship with 
processes of self-change. This study is a philosophical inquiry in narrative form, informed by my 
experience as a dancer and a practitioner of The Feldenkrais Method of Somatic Education. 
Dynamical Systems Theory is employed as a concept-generating metaphor, by means of which 
personal experience is interwoven with theoretical approaches to cognition as embodied and 
environmentally embedded. A conceptual structure is developed in which the cognizing self, as a 
dynamical system, is defined as an environmentally dependent self-organizing, complex of 
structural change, absent any central controller. The cognitive domain encompasses all the possible 
functional interactions, where function is taken to comprise moving, sensing, feeling, and thinking. 
The integrated nature of function stipulates that: 1) Each component of function represents and 
postulates the others and functions as a whole; 2) all human actions, including processes of abstract 
thought, are accompanied by distinct patterns of muscular activity. Thus, a change in habitual 
patterns of movement is reflected in a change in habitual patterns of function, and a change in any 
other aspect of function is reflected in changes in patterns of movement . The implications for 
processes of learning and change are discussed, together with potential pedagogical applications.  
General Note Thesis (Ph.D.) Texas Woman's University, 2003; includes bibliography (leaves 210-
223). Available from Kinesiology Publications (formerly Microform Publications), IIHSP, 1243 
University of Oregon, Eugene, OR 97403-1243 

 
42. Nair DG, Fuchs A,  Burkart S, Steinberg FL, Kelso JA. Assessing recovery in middle cerebral 

artery stroke using functional MRI.  Brain Inj. 2005 Dec;19(13):1165-76.  
PRIMARY OBJECTIVE: To understand the temporal evolution of brain reorganization during 
recovery from stroke. RESEARCH DESIGN: A patient who suffered left middle cerebral artery 
stroke 9 months earlier was studied on three occasions, approximately 1 month apart.  This patient 
received interventions based on Feldenkrais Method twice a week  for 8 weeks.  METHODS AND 
PROCEDURES: Brain activation was studied using functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging 
(fMRI). During each session, the patient performed a finger-to-thumb opposition task, which 
involved one bimanual and two unimanual conditions. Each condition consisted of overt movement 
of fingers and imagery of the same task. RESULTS: With recovery, greater recruitment was 
observed of the affected primary motor cortex (M1) and a decrease in activation of the unaffected 
M1 and supplementary motor area. In addition, the widespread activation of brain areas seen during 
the initial session changed to a more focused pattern of activation as the patient recovered. Imagery 
tasks resulted in similar brain activity as overt execution pointing to imagery as a potential tool for 
rehabilitation. 
 

43. Stephens J., Davidson J., DeRosa J., Kriz M., Saltzman, N.  Lengthening the Hamstring Muscles 
Without Stretching Using "Awareness Through Movement".  Phys Ther 2006 86: 1641-1650.  
 Background and Purpose. Passive stretching is widely used to increase muscle flexibility, but it has 



 14 

been shown that this process does not produce long-term changes in the viscoelastic properties of 
muscle as originally thought. The authors tested a method of lengthening hamstring muscles called 
“Awareness Through Movement” (ATM) that does not use passive stretching. Subjects. Thirty-three 
subjects who were randomly assigned to ATM and control groups met the screening criteria and 
completed the intervention phase of the study. Methods. The ATM group went through a process of 
learning complex active movements designed to develop increased length in the hamstring muscles. 
Hamstring length was measured before and after intervention using the Active Knee Extension Test. 
Results. The ATM group gained significantly more hamstring muscle length (+7.04º) compared 
with the control group (+1.15º). Discussion and Conclusions. The results suggest that muscle length 
can be increased through a process of active movement that does not involve stretching. Further 
research is needed to investigate this finding. 

   
VII. Theory:  
The question of theory has been addressed in each section of this paper.  Buchanan (44) has 
written a useful summary of the application of Dynamic Systems Theory to the understanding 
of how FM may be working.  Others have addressed the underlying ideas of learning and 
awareness more directly. (45, 46)  As we continue to develop the research base of FM, we 
will continue to test the theoretical and practical ideas we have and refine and broaden the 
understanding and application of the process of FM that seems so powerful.  

44. Buchanan PA.  Ulrich BD. The Feldenkrais Method: a dynamic approach to changing motor 
behavior. [Review, Tutorial] Research Quarterly for Exercise & Sport.  72(4):315-23, 2001 Dec.  
This tutorial describes the Feldenkrais Method and points to parallels with a dynamic systems 
theory (DST) approach to motor behavior. Feldenkrais is an educational system designed to use 
movement and perception to foster individualized improvement in function. Moshe Feldenkrais , 
its originator, believed his method enhanced people's ability to discover flexible and adaptable 
behavior and that behaviors are self-organized. Similarly, DST explains that a human-environment 
system is continually adapting to changing conditions and assembling behaviors accordingly. 
Despite little research, Feldenkrais is being used with people of widely ranging ages and abilities in 
varied settings. We propose that DSTprovides an integrated foundation for research on the 
Feldenkrais Method, suggest research questions, and encourage researchers to test the fundamental 
tenets of Feldenkrais . [References: 50] 

 
45. Shelhav-Silberbush, Chava. Movement and Learning: The Feldenkrais Method as a Learning 

Model.  PhD  Dissertation, Faculty of Sociology and Behavioral Science.  Heidelberg University, 
Germany.  1998.  Not yet reprinted or translated into English.  Published in German.  Controlled 
study with a group of learning disabled children in Germany 

 
46. Vollmer, Fred. How do I move my body? Journal Article] Journal of Mind & Behavior. Vol 19(4) 

Fall 1998, 369-377.  
(from the journal abstract) What is it for me to do something is the question discussed in the present 
paper. It has been suggested that my doings are elicited by tryings, intentions, and other causal 
mechanisms. These theories do not offer any convincing analysis of what it is for me to act. Insight 
is sought by looking at some case studies involving temporary loss of the ability to move one's 
body. What the case studies show, I conclude, is that when I move my body in the normal way, I do 
not first have to do something else that causes my body to move. Normal actions are events bodily 
beings can generate spontaneously (directly). An essential condition for having this kind of control 
is inside (proprioceptive) awareness of the body. When inner awareness of the body is lost, control 
can be taken over by visual awareness . But then movement loses its spontaneous character and 
depends on planning and intense concentration. One can think of the self ("I") from which my 
actions flow, as the mental life to which they belong, or as the consciousness that controls them. 

 
47. Lewis JS, Kersten P, McCabe CS, McPherson KM, Blake DR. Body perception disturbance: A 

contribution to pain in complex regional pain syndrome (CRPS).  Pain. 2007 May 15; [Epub ahead 
of print] 

 



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48. Giummarra MJ, Gibson SJ, Georgiou-Karistianis N, Bradshaw JL. Central mechanisms in phantom 
limb perception: the past, present and future.  Brain Res Rev. 2007 Apr;54(1):219-32. 

 
49. Ann J. Individuals with dementia learn new habits and are empowered through the Feldenkrais 

method. [Journal Article, Case Study] Alzheimer's Care Quarterly. 2006 Oct-Dec; 7(4): 278-86. (29 
ref) 

 
50. Stergiou N, Harbourne R, Cavanaugh J. Optimal movement variability: a new theoretical 

perspective for neurologic physical therapy.  J Neurol Phys Ther. 2006 Sep;30(3):120-9. 
 
51. Buzzi UH, Stergiou N, Kurz MJ, Hageman PA, Heidel J.  Nonlinear dynamics indicates aging 

affects variability during gait.   Clin Biomech (Bristol, Avon). 2003 Jun;18(5):435-43. 
 
52. Staessen JA, Asmar R, De Buyzere M, Imai Y, Parati G, Shimada K, Stergiou G, Redon J, 

Verdecchia P; Participants of the 2001 Consensus Conference on Ambulatory Blood Pressure 
Monitoring.   Task Force II: blood pressure measurement and cardiovascular outcome.  Blood Press 
Monit. 2001 Dec;6(6):355-70.  

 
53. Byrne JE, Stergiou N, Blanke D, Houser JJ, Kurz MJ, Hageman PA.   Comparison of gait patterns 

between young and elderly women: an examination of coordination.  Percept Mot Skills. 2002 
Feb;94(1):265-80. 

 
54. Bellec P, Perlbarg V, Jbabdi S, Pelegrini-Issac M, Anton JL, Doyon J, Benali H.   Identification of 

large-scale networks in the brain using fMRI.  Neuroimage. 2006 Feb 15;29(4):1231-43. Epub 2005 
Oct 24. 

 
55. Doyon J, Benali H.  Reorganization and plasticity in the adult brain during learning of motor skills. 

Curr Opin Neurobiol. 2005 Apr;15(2):161-7. Review. 


