


































Case Studies


Feldenkrais Research Journal • volume 4 (2008)

Article

A possible typology of case studies in the Feldenkrais Method

Cliff Smyth
IFF President; Feldenkrais Center for Movement Education, San Francisco

Abstract
In this article the author argues for the unique value of case studies for the development of practitioners’
understanding of the Feldenkrais Method, and for the development of the Feldenkrais community’s
research agenda. Case studies have a wide-ranging potential to provide insight into a practice, and the
author outlines some of the varying research possibilities which may be achieved for different audiences.
Finally, the author proposes a preliminary schema for case study based research. A possible typology
and corresponding criteria and descriptors are outlined and mapped against types of research study
designs.

This article is based on a presentation at the Research Forum at the FGNA Conference in Seattle,
Washington in 2004.

Keywords
Feldenkrais Method, typology, case studies, documentation, observation

Copyright ©: The copyright for this paper remains with the author(s).

Please cite: (First published in the) Feldenkrais Research Journal, volume 4; 2008.

Service marks: The terms Feldenkrais®, Feldenkrais Method®, Awareness Through Movement®, ATM®,
Functional Integration®, and FI® are service marked terms of the International Feldenkrais® Federation
(IFF) and Feldenkrais professional guilds and associations in many countries. In keeping with academic
conventions, they will not be service marked in the entire text as may be required in nonacademic use,
but only for the first and most prominent use of the terms. In recognition that these phrases are formal
terms referring to specific practices within the Method, and to the Method as a whole, capitalization of all
the words in each term has been retained.

Published by the International Feldenkrais® Federation (IFF) https://feldenkrais-method.org
Available online at https://feldenkraisresearchjournal.org

https://feldenkrais-method.org/
https://feldenkraisresearchjournal.org


 1 

A Possible Typology of Case Studies in the Feldenkrais Method 1. 
 
Cliff Smyth 
 
A tension exists in neurology between those who believe that the most valuable lessons 
about the brain can be learned from statistical analyses involving large numbers of 
patients and those who believe that doing the right kind of experiments with the right 
kind of patients – even a single patient – can yield much more useful information. This is 
really a silly debate since its resolution is obvious: It's a good idea to begin with 
experiments on single cases and then to confirm the findings through studies of 
additional patients. (Ramachandran and Blakeslee, p. xiii) 
 
Why case studies? 
Case studies are used in a great variety of fields and reflect a wide range of 
research methods, styles of reports, purposes, etc. A case study can be described 
as a study of a single system, person, event, program, etc. They may include 
qualitative, quantitative or a mix of different kinds of data. Moshe Feldenkrais 
was familiar with and often referred to thinkers who make powerful use of case 
studies and histories (including A.R. Luria, Konrad Lorenz, Sigmund Freud, 
Charles Darwin, Jean Piaget, Milton Erikson, amongst others). He used ‘teaching 
stories’ extensively in his writing and in the training programs he conducted in 
San Francisco and Amherst. The wonderful and informative book The Case of 
Nora (Feldenkrais, 1977) was just the first of a series of case studies he had 
planned. 
 
Interestingly the early volumes of the Feldenkrais Guild of North America’s 
Journal of the Feldenkrais Method featured many case studies. A few of these 
were also included in the IFF Journal, which published two volumes completely 
composed of case studies. Perhaps it is understandable, in those early days of 
practitioners (other than Feldenkrais himself) writing about the method, that 
they chose the narrative case study as an accessible form. 
 
As a professional community it would seem that we still place value on case 
studies, and to some extent support a culture of writing case studies. This may be 
reflected in the fact that case studies are part of the requirements for 
advancement to become a teacher of Feldenkrais teachers – in the assessment 
requirements to become a Feldenkrais Assistant Trainer and Trainer Candidate. 
 
Observation and documentation are fundamental to the development of any 
practice, including science. The natural sciences are based on hundreds – or 
thousands – of years of naturalistic observation before the development of the 
repeatable studies, sophisticated instrumentation and the formulation of the laws 
we associate with the ‘hard’ sciences. It is hardly surprising that the typical 



 2 

narrative case study, with its emphasis on observation and description, was a 
common form in the early days of our reflection on the new kinds of human 
knowledge generated by the practice of the Feldenkrais Method. 
 
Some approaches afforded by case studies 
Case study based research affords some unique possibilities not always offered 
by other approaches. In choosing to emphasize some of these possibilities, the 
author-researcher makes some key decisions as to what kind of research is done 
and what kind of case study will be written. For example: 
 
Case study research can be a practical, accessible form of research. As Alan Fogel has 
said, ‘Research is not so far away…’. 2. When writing a narrative or a reflective 
case study, it is close to what we already do in practice, such as reflecting on our 
practice, take notes, etc. Most such case studies will not need a lot of preparation, 
large team, lots of funding, etc. 
 
Case study research suits the complexity of professional practice. Professional practice 
is always unique. Case study research can capture things about the practice of 
the Feldenkrais Method that other kinds of research may not (Jarvis, 1999), such 
as our ‘reflection-in-practice’ (Schön, 1983). A case study can allow for the study 
of complex relationships between the practitioner and student, the person and 
their environment, their history, ‘variables’ in the ‘intervention’, ‘clinical’ 
decision-making, etc. Here reflection is emphasised. 
 
Sometimes a single case can be as valuable as a population study. In some areas of 
knowledge more understanding can be gained from studying unique cases than 
population studies, averages, etc. (Ramachandran, 1998; Sacks, 1995). Both the 
study of a single person and the situation, or the study of a single ‘intervention’, 
can be very illuminating. Here the singular throws strong light on the whole field 
of enquiry. 
 
In a case study, a researcher's experience can be included as part of the research process. 
Feldenkrais practice almost always involves the presence of a live teacher-
practitioner. 4 Consistent with anthropological, qualitative and 
phenomenological approaches to research, a case study can include the 
practitioner’s own experience, potentially bringing forth deep reflection on the 
process. (Meriam, 1998; Joly, 2004). Description and reflection are central to this 
approach. 
 
The subject’s (client’s or student’s) experience may also be included. Such a case study 
may include sections of a journal or interview material from a client. A project 
could also be done collaboratively with clients or students using a ‘new 



 3 

paradigm research’ model (Reason and Rowan, 1981). The aim is again reflective, 
providing multiple perspectives on the phenomena under study. 
 
It can trace the progress of the person or process. The Feldenkrais Method involves 
learning and development. Case study research can capture a variety of changes 
over time and explore their interrelationship. This could be done in a narrative 
form, or as a single case research design, for example, using an A (pre-test), B 
(intervention), A (post-test) design to administer a variety of appropriate 
measures (eg. quality of life questionnaires, range of motion tests, etc.). 
 
Intentions and audiences 
The intentions we have for our case study research, and the intended audience, 
will have a major influence on the kinds of case studies written. 
 
Two of the most common questions of our Feldenkrais students and clients are 
‘what is it like?’ and ‘how will I benefit?’. If we are thinking about informing the 
public about the Feldenkrais Method, case studies using everyday language, and 
a narrative form, can provide effective description of the process and outcomes 
of the Method.  
 
For research into our own practice, case studies by teacher-practitioners can 
afford both the writer and reader: 
– a better understanding of the Feldenkrais Method itself, and our practice; 
– a chance to improve our own and our colleagues practice; 
– a way to clarify relationships between theory and practice. 
 
For research into our own practice, a mix of description of actual practice, with 
reflection on different aspects of the theory underlying the Method, may be the 
most effective form for a case study. 
 
For research into the Method and the outcomes of its use, case studies can 
provide information and ideas toward further and better research, including 
better research questions, methodologies, tools and measures, etc. To paraphrase 
Alan Fogel, ‘if you don’t know what the intervention is you won’t be able to 
know what outcomes to measure’. 4 Researchers with whom we hope or plan to 
collaborate may get a better feel for the Method from the ‘thick description’ of a 
descriptive case study. They may also get ideas for appropriate research 
strategies from a case study using, for example, a mix of documentation of the 
intervention, outcomes surveys and qualitative data such as interviews with 
students or clients, as well as any quantitative data collected and the tools used 
to collect it. 
 
Sources of data 



 4 

The types and sources of data chosen for any case study will have a major impact 
on the type of study written. And conversely the type of case study one intends 
to write critically affects the data collection processes needed. 
 
Some possible sources of data for Feldenkrais case studies could include: 
 
1. Practitioner notes, diary, interviews and dialogues with co-researchers, or 
commentaries on documentation, eg. Joly project (Joly, 2004). ‘New paradigm 
research’ puts forward the value of the including the voices of other researchers 
(such as other practitioners) and participants (such as clients or students). For 
example, a case study written by Barbara Pieper, includes contributions both 
from her as the practitioner and the client. 5. 
 
2. Client or student diaries, evaluations, interviews, questionnaires, standardized 
measures (for example of mood, of locus of control), or quality of life measures 
(such as the SF 36 and many others) 
 
3. Objective measures of client or student movement (eg. video/digital motion 
analysis) 
 
4. Audio-visual documentation (eg. video of Functional Integration, eg. Joly 
project (Joly, 2004) 
 
5. Relevant literature, for example: Feldenkrais documents (eg. published 
Awareness Through Movement lessons that relate to described Functional 
Inetegration), Feldenkrais concepts, other case studies, empirical studies, 
research and theory from other domains (eg. neuroscience, biomechanics, 
psychology, education, linguistics, the arts, philosophy, etc). 
 
Interestingly, in the study of anthropology, field (case) notes are written into 
anthropological monographs in the context of the ongoing development of 
anthropological thought and development of anthropological theories (Geertz, 
1973). In this way, case studies are ‘the literature’ of that discipline. 
 
Another approach is to collect different kinds of data. One example of the use of 
mixed measures in Feldenkrais research can be found in the single case research 
design developed by Stephens, et al. That study involved a literature review, 
brief descriptions (case histories, biographies and demographics) of participants, 
qualitative feedback from participants (self-reports), video motion analysis of 
movement activities, documentation of Awareness Through Movement class 
themes and content (in the form of excerpts from transcripts of audio 
recordings), standardized measures of impairment, indexes of well being, and 
questionnaires with open-ended questions. It also included pre-program (base 



 5 

line) and end of program testing and data collection. That is, the methodology 
used an ‘ABA’ (pre-test, intervention, re-test) design. 
 
A possible typology of Feldenkrais Method case studies 
 
In this possible typology four kinds of existing or putative Feldenkrais case studies have 
been identified: 

x Narrative/Naturalistic; 
x Reflective 
x Mixed Measures (qualitative and quantitative) Case Stuy with Single or multiple 

cases 
x Single System Research Design (experimental model), 
 

and mapped against a set of criteria or descriptors: 
  

x Selection of subject(s) 
x Number of subjects 
x Researcher 
x Research questions 
x Data Collection 
x Practitioner experience 
x Relationship to theory and other sources 
x Reflection on language/terminology 
x Style of ‘argument’ in the case report 
x Style of published report 
x Main uses 
x Examples in the Feldenkrais literature 
 

to map out the characteristics, possible uses and benefits, of each type. 
 
 
 Narrative 

/Naturalistic 
Reflective Mixed Measures 

(qualitative & 
quantitative) Case 
Study (single or 
multiple cases) 

Single System 
Research Design 
(experimental 
model) 

Selection of 
subject(s) 

Subject selected 
by researcher-
practitioner 

Subject(s) selected 
by researcher-
practitioner 

Probably selected 
against criteria 

Probably selected 
against criteria 

Number of 
subjects 

Usually one One or more Single (N=1) or 
multiple 

Single (N=1) or 
multiple 

Researcher Single 
practitioner; peer 
reviewed for 
publication 

Single practitioner; 
peer reviewed for 
publication; 
Possibly include 

Multiple 
researchers 
(practitioners & 
others); Reviewed 

Multiple 
researchers 
(practitioners & 
others); 



 6 

client-student 
explicitly (eg. 
Pieper, in this 
Journal) 

by peers & people 
in other fields for 
publication 

Reviewed by 
peers & people in 
other fields for 
publication 

Research 
questions 

Likely to be no 
theory-testing 
intent 

May be explicit or 
generated by the 
study 

Research issues 
discussed & 
explored; May 
include a formal 
literature review 

Hypothesis 
explicit & stated; 
Formal literature 
review 

Data 
Collection 

Practitioner 
observation & 
note taking; Client 
reports of 
situation as 
reported by the 
practitioner; Data 
treated as non-
problematic 

Practitioner 
observation & note 
taking; Readings 
of relevant 
literature. Possibly 
documentation, eg. 
photos 

Quantitative or 
qualitative, or a 
mix; May include 
pre-test & post-test 
data, as well as 
collection 
throughout or at 
end of 
intervention, 
Documentation of 
process 

Base line data 
established 
before 
intervention, plus 
data collection 
through or at end 
of intervention, 
eg: ABABA, etc. 
May include 
multiple 
interventions, eg. 
ABACAD, etc. 

 
Practitioner 
experience 

Essential Included, may be 
explicitly reflected 
on 

May be included, 
but likely to be 
formal 
documentation of 
practitioner input 

More likely to be 
formal 
documentation of 
practitioner input 

Relationship 
to theory & 
other 
sources 

Mostly implicit, & 
sometimes 
explicit, reference 
to ideas of the 
Feldenkrais 
Method 

Explicit reference 
to theory from 
Feldenkrais 
Method & other 
domains (eg. 
neuroscience, 
medical or arts 
literature)  

Reflection on 
theory, generation 
of research 
questions from 
documentation, 
measurement & 
discussion 

Testing of theory 
or predictions 
from base line 

Reflection on 
language/ 
terminology 

Language & terms 
treated as non-
problematic 

Language & terms 
may be reflected 
upon 

Terms defined Terms defined 

Style of 
‘argument’ 
in report 

‘Arguments’ 
about process, 
outcomes, 
efficacy, variables 
mostly made 
through narrative 
structure & 
description; Use 

Switching between 
descriptive & 
reflection/ 
interpretation; 
Assumptions  
made explicit 
(‘bracketed’), may 
include researcher 

Blends reflection 
on documentation 
of the intervention, 
outcomes of 
qualitative & 
quantitative 
measures 

Presentation of 
statistical results 
(eg. over time, 
baseline, before 
& after 
interventions) & 
interpretation of 
those results 



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of literary tools. reflection on 
process; Use of 
documents (Joly, 
2004) 

Style of 
published 
report 

Richly descriptive Switches from 
description to 
reflection on 
theory/theory 
generation 

Combines 
literature review, 
presentation of 
documentation & 
results of 
measurements, 
discussion of 
results 

Combines 
literature review, 
presentation of 
results of 
measurements, 
discussion of 
results 

Main uses Basic 
documentation 
/research into 
practice, 
Promoting the 
Method 

Reflection on 
practice & 
relationship to 
theory; Suggestive 
of further research 
themes 

Documenting 
outcomes; 
Identifying further 
research themes  
& tools 

Documenting 
outcomes; 
Identifying 
further research 
themes & tools 

 
Examples in 
the 
Feldenkrais 
literature 

Many case studies 
in Feldenkrais 
journals 

Feldenkrais (The 
Case of Nora, 
1977), Rywerant 
The Feldenkrais 
Method, 1983), 
Beringer in 
‘Heather’ and 
‘Self-Imaging’ 
(1997, 2001), 
Ginsberg ‘Roots of 
Functional 
Integration’ (1987, 
1988, 1992)  

Stephens, et al, 
2002 

 

 
Some final reflections 
 
The above is only a very preliminary schema, but I hope it provides a rough 
guide to where we have been and where we might go in terms of case study 
based research. Like all travel guides it can only be of value of if it is used and 
updated with input from the users. Please send me any feedback on this 
typology and its possible uses.  
 
I am a believer in the value of writing case studies for the development of 
ourselves as practitioners. I also believe case studies have ongoing value for the 
development of our understanding of the Feldenkrais Method and the 
development of our research agenda. I would love to see the further publication 



 8 

of already written and new case studies as part of this Journal or as a separate 
project of the international Feldenkrais professional community. Perhaps there 
are some practitioners interested in working on such a project? 
 
In the mean time: reflect, take some notes on a client or a session or a class, talk 
with a colleague, rough out some ideas about a research project… 
 
     * * * 
 
Please send me your feedback and suggestions. I can be contacted through my websites 
www.feldenkraissf.com or www.learningforhealth.com. CS. 
 
Notes 
 
1. This article is based on a presentation at the Research Forum at the FGNA Conference in 
Seattle, Washington in 2004, and therefore an audience primarily of Feldenkrais practitioners. I 
was only able to review case studies in the English language. I look forward to ideas and 
responses from Feldenkrais teachers who write or teach how to write case studies in other 
languages. Thanks to Pat Buchanan and Jim Stephens for their assistance with editing the original 
presentation. Thanks to Deborah Bowes and Staffan Elgelid for editorial suggestions for this 
article. 
 
2. & 4. From my notes of Alan Fogel’s talk at the symposium on research and the Feldenkrais 
Method, ‘Movement and the Development of the Sense of Self’, Seattle, August 2004. 
 
3. Some people, for example, experience Awareness Through Movement from recordings. Some 
controlled studies of the effects of the Feldenkrais Method have chosen to use a recorded 
Awareness Through Movement lesson as a way to ‘standardize the intervention’. 
 
5. Published in this volume of the Feldenkrais Research Journal. 
 
References 
 
In preparation for this presentation and article I read all the published case studies from all 
editions of the Journal of the Feldenkrais Method and the IFF Journal up to 2004. Other references 
include: 
 
Aldridge, David, ‘Single Case Research Design for the Clinician’, Complementary Medical 
Research, 1988; 3 (1), pp.37-46. (Available at: 
www.musictherapyworld.net/modules/archive/papers/list_all.php?orderby=title). 
 
Beringer, Elizabeth, ‘Self-Imaging’, The Feldenkrais Journal, No. 13, 2001, pp. 33-38, Feldenkrais 
Guild of North America. 
 
Beringer, Elizabeth, ‘Feldenkrais: Introduction’ and ‘Heather’, pp. 81-99 in Hanlon Johenson, Don 
(ed.), Groundworks: Narratives of Embodiment, North Atlantic Books, Berkeley, 
California/California Institute of Integral Studies, San Francisco, California, 1997. 
 

http://www.feldenkraissf.com/
http://www.learningforhealth.com/
http://www.musictherapyworld.net/modules/archive/papers/list_all.php?orderby=title


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Blampied, Neville M., Barabasz, Arreed and Barabasz, Marianne, Single Case Research Design for 
the Science and Practice of Neurotherapy, Journal of Neurotherapy, (1-2) 2, 1996. (Available at: 
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en&ct=clnk&cd=1&gl=us). 
 
Emerson, Robert M., Fretz, Rachel I., and Shaw, Linda L, Writing Ethnographic Field Notes, 
University of Chicago Press, Chicago and London , 1995. 
 
Epstein, Julia, Altered Conditions: Disease, Medicine and Storytelling, Routledge, New York and 
London, 1995. 
 
Feldenkrais, Moshe, The Case of Nora: Body-Awareness as Healing Therapy, Harper and Row, 
New York, 1977. 
 
Fogel, Alan, ‘Documenting Cases as a Participant Observer: A Manual for Somatic Awareness 
Practitioners’, Feldenkrais Research Journal, Vol. 3, 2006-2007, IFF Academy, International 
Feldenkrais Federation. 
 
Geertz, Clifford, The Interpretation of Cultures: Selected Essays, Basic Books, NY, 1973 (See: ‘Part 
1: Thick Description: Toward an Interpretive Theory of Culture’). 
 
Ginsburg, Carl, ‘The Roots of Functional Integration, Part 1’, The Feldenkrais Journal, No. 3, 1987, 
pp.13-22, ‘The Roots of Functional Integration, Part 2’, The Feldenkrais Journal, No. 4, 1988, ‘The 
Roots of Functional Integration, Part 3’, The Feldenkrais Journal, No. 7, 1992, pp. 34-47, 
Feldenkrais Guild of North America. 
 
Jarvis, Peter, The Practitioner-Researcher: Developing Theory from Practice, Jossey-Bass, San 
Francisco, 1999. 
 
Johnson, Don Hanlon (ed), ‘Body Making’, pp. 1-13, Groundworks: Narratives of Embodiment, 
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California, 1997. 
 
Johnson, Don Hanlon, ‘Body Practices and Human Inquiry: Disciplined Experiencing, Fresh 
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W., (eds), Body in Human Inquiry: Interdisciplinary Explorations of Embodiment, Hampton 
Press, 2004. (Available at: www.donhanlonjohnson.com). 
 
Joly, Yvan, ‘The Experience of Being Embodied: Qualitative Research and Somatic Education: A 
perspective based on the Feldenkrais Method’, Feldenkrais Research Journal, No.1, 2004, IFF 
Academy, International Feldenkrais Federation. 
 
Kazdin, Alan E., Single Case Research Designs: Methods for clinical and applied settings, Oxford 
University Press, New York, 1982. 
 
Merriam, Sharan B., Qualitative Research and Case Study Applications in Education (revised and 
expanded from Case Study Research in Education), Jossey-Bass, San Francisco, 1998. 
 
Barbara Pieper, ‘I Zu Dritt in Erwartung Erzählte und reflektierte Praxis als 
Entwicklungsprozess’, Feldenkrais Research Journal, No. 4, 2009, IFF Academy, International 
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Ramachandran, V.S. and Blackslee, Sandra, Phantoms in the Brain, William Morrow and Co, NY, 
1998 (See: Preface, pp. xi-xvii). 
 
Reason, Peter (ed), Human Inquiry in Action: Developments in New Paradigm Research, Sage 
Publications, London, 1998. 
 
Reason, Peter and Rowan, John (eds), Human Inquiry: A Sourcebook of New Paradigm Research, 
John Wiley and Sons, Chichester & New York, 1981. 
 
Rywerant, Yochanon, The Feldenkrais Method: Teaching by Handling, Keats Publishing, New 
Canaan, Connecticut, 1983. 
 
Sacks, Oliver, An Anthropologist on Mars, Vintage/Random House, NY, 1995 (See: Preface, pp. 
xv-xx). 
 
Schön, Donald A., The Reflective Practitioner: How Professionals Think in Action, Basic Books, 
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Stephens, James, Call, Susannah, Evans, Kristin, Glass, Melissa, Gould, Cathy and Lowe, Jennifer, 
‘Responses to Ten Feldenkrais Awareness Through Movement Lessons by Four Women with 
Multiple Sclerosis: Improved Quality of Life, ‘ Physical Therapy Case Reports, Volume 2, No. 2, 
March 1999, pp 58-69.. 
 
Yin, Robert K, Case Study Research: Design and Methods, Sage Publications, Thousand Oaks, 
California, 1994. 
 
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