Gestation and Parental Rights: Why is Good Enough Good Enough? Feminist Philosophy Quarterly Volume 1 | Issue 1 Article 5 2015 Gestation and Parental Rights: Why is Good Enough Good Enough? Lindsey Porter Sheffield University, l.porter@sheffield.ac.uk Recommended Citation Porter, Lindsey. 2015. "Gestation and Parental Rights: Why is Good Enough Good Enough?."Feminist Philosophy Quarterly1, (1). Article 5. doi:10.5206/fpq/2015.1.5. Gestation)and)Parental)Rights:)Why)is)Good)Enough)Good)Enough?1) Lindsey(Porter( ( ( ( Abstract) In(this(paper(I(explore(the(question(of(whether(gestation(can(ground( parental(rights.(I(consider(Anca(Gheaus’s((2012)(claim(that(the(labour(and(bonding( of(gestation(give(one(the(right(to(parent(one’s(biological(child.(I(argue(that,(while( Gheaus’s(gestational(account(of(parental(rights(is(the(most(successful(of(such( accounts(in(the(literature,(it(is(ultimately(unsuccessful,(because(the(concept( ‘maternalGfetal(bonding’(does(not(stand(up(to(scrutiny.(Gheaus(argues(that(the( labour(expended(in(gestation(generates(parental(rights.(This(is(a(standard,(Lockean( sort(of(a(move(in(parental(ethics—it(usually(relies(on(the(claim(that(I(have( proprietary(rights(over(the(products(of(my(labour.(However,(Gheaus(argues(that(a( standard(labour(account(of(parental(rights(could(not(generate(parental(rights(over( one’s(own(birth(child(via(gestation(without(ownership,(since(the(labour(would( merely(afford(one(a(right(to(enjoy(the(goods(of(parenthood.(At(best,(then,(labour( alone(would(generate(a(right(to(a(child.((But,(Gheaus(argues,(not(only(do( gestational(mothers(expend(labour(in(the(course(of(the(pregnancy;(they(also( develop(emotional(ties(to(the(fetus.(They(‘bond’(with(it.(This,(Gheaus(argues,( coupled(with(labour,(gives(the(birth(mother(parental(rights(over(her(birth(child.( Fathers,(on(her(account,(acquire(rights(over(their(birth(child(by(contributing( labour—in(the(form(of(antenatal(support—during(the(course(of(the(pregnancy.(I( argue(that(because(‘bonding’(is(not(an(appropriately(morally(salient(phenomenon,( Gheaus’s(account(does(not(work(unless(it(relies(on(a(proprietary(claim,(and(this(is( prima(facie(reason(to(reject(the(account.(Further,(the(fact(that(it(only(confers( parental(rights(on(fathers(by(proxy(also(gives(us(reason(to(reject(the(account.(I( then(offer(a(brief(sketch(of(a(more(promising,(positive(account(of(parental(rights.( ( Keywords:(gestation,(rights,(parenthood,(gender( 1(I(would(like(to(thank(Alex(Barber(and(Timothy(Fowler;(participants(in(the( 2014(joint(meeting(of(the(Canadian(Society(for(Women(in(Philosophy((CSWIP)(and( the(Association(for(Feminist(Epistemologies,(Methodologies,(Metaphysics(and( Science(Studies((FEMMSS)(in(Waterloo,(Ontario;(members(of(the(School(of(Politics,( International(Studies,(and(Philosophy(at(Queen's(University,(Belfast;(and(seminar( participants(at(the(Institut(Éthique(Histoire(Humanités(et(Centre(interfacultaire(en( bioéthique(et(sciences(humaines(en(médecine,(Centre(Médical(Universitaire(in( Geneva(for(helpful(discussion(and(feedback.( 1 Porter: Gestation and Parental Rights Published by Scholarship@Western, 2015 Introduction) In(Western(law,(it(is(common(to(take(the(gestational(mother—that(is,(the( woman(who(carries(the(pregnancy—to(be(the(rightful(mother(of(the(child(in(the( first(instance.(Why(it(is(true(historically(is(no(big(mystery:(gestation(was(easily( proved,(where(genetic(relatedness(was(not.(Why(it(is(still(true(today(stands(in( need(of(explanation.2(( In(this(paper,(I(will(explore(the(question(of(whether(it(ought(to(be:(whether( gestation(generates(a(moral(right(to(parent(that(should(be(codified(in(law.(I(will( do(this(by(examining(the(viability(of(what(I(take(to(be(the(most(successful( gestational(account(of(parental(rights(on(offer:(Anca(Gheaus’s(gestational( account((2012).( Gheaus’s(account(is(unique((to(my(knowledge)(in(that(it(purports(to( motivate(rights(via(biology(but(without(a(proprietary(claim—without(claiming( that(biological(parents(own(their(children.(This(account(has(it(that(gestation(can( motivate(a(parental(rights(claim(in(the(absence(of(a(claim(of(ownership,(because,( first,(gestation(is(rightsGconferring(labour,(and(second,(because(in(the(course(of( gestation(women(bond(with(their(fetuses.(( I(assume—and(I(will(do(a(bit(of(work(to(motivate(the(claim(that—an( account(of(parental(rights(that(relies(on(ownership(of(the(child(is(not(one(we( ought(to(accept,(all(other(things(equal.(If(Gheaus’s(account(can(both(successfully( ground(parental(rights(in(gestation,(and(do(so(without(relying(on(child(ownership,( then,(it(is(to(be(preferred(over(those(accounts(that(ground(parenthood(in( gestation(via(ownership.(So,(if(it(is(successful,(it(is(probably(the(best(gestational( account(of(parental(rights(on(offer.(( However,(I(argue(that(the(account(is(unsuccessful(without(an(ownership( claim,(because(soGcalled(‘maternalGfetal(bonding’(is(not(the(right(sort(of( phenomenon(for(Gheaus’s(purposes.(MaternalGfetal(bonding(is,(first(and( foremost,(a(popular(notion—a(set(of(folk(beliefs(about(pregnancy(based(loosely( around(sociallyGmotivated(empirical(work(in(psychology((on(‘maternalGfetal( attachment’)(stemming,(but(deviating(broadly,(from(midG20thGcentury(theoretical( work(on(‘maternalGinfant(attachment’.(It(is(an(idea(that(holds(great(sway(in(our( culture,(but(it(is(not(an(idea(that(stands(up(to(scrutiny.(It(just(is(not(a(real( phenomenon(of(the(right(sort(to(ground(a(rights(claim.(( In(Section(1(of(this(paper,(I(review(the(conceptual(landscape(of(parental( rights(as(it(stands.(In(Section(2,(I(lay(out(Gheaus’s(gestational(account,(and(show( how(it(avoids(the(pitfalls(of(a(proprietary(account.(In(Section(3,(I(present(three( initial(worries(about(Gheaus’s(account—though(I(will(argue(that(probably(only( the(third(of(these,(the(worry(over(nonGgestational(parental(rights,(is(a(real(worry.( 2(See,(for(example,(HFEA((1987).( 2 Feminist Philosophy Quarterly, Vol. 1 [2015], Iss. 1, Art. 5 http://ir.lib.uwo.ca/fpq/vol1/iss1/5 DOI: 10.5206/fpq/2015.1.5 In(Section(4,(however,(I(argue(that(‘bonding’(just(can’t(do(what(Gheaus(wants(it( to(do;(and(as(such,(her(nonGproprietary(gestational(account(is(ultimately( unsuccessful.(Given(that(Gheaus’s(account(is(probably(the(best(gestational( (indeed,(biological)(account(on(offer,(I(will(suggest(that(this(should(lead(us(to( reject(gestational(accounts(of(parental(rights.(In(the(final(section,(then,(I(will( briefly(sketch(out(a(proposal(for(an(alternate(way(of(conceptualising(parental( rights:(a(deflationary(account(of(parental(rights(that(relies(on(a(general(defeasible( right(to(fulfil(one’s(moral(obligations.(( ( Section)1:)Parental)Rights)Background))) The(two(defining(features(of(the(role(parent(are,(first,(that(the(roleGfiller(has( special(responsibilities(towards(the(child,(responsibilities(that(other(members(of( the(child’s(community(do(not(have,(even(if(we(all(have(a(general(nonGmalevolent( duty(towards(the(child;(and(second,(that(she(or(he(has(special(entitlements(with( respect(to(the(child.3(Specifically,(parents(have(the(right(to(decisionGmake(on( behalf(of(their(child,(and(they(have(the(right(to(do(so(even(in(the(absence(of( parental(perfection.(That(is,(parents(have(the(right(to(act(in(ways(that(are(not(in( the(very(best(interest(of(the(child.(( Having(the(right(to(act(in(nonGoptimal(ways(with(respect(to(one’s(child( stands(in(need(of(explanation.(Children(by(nature(are(vulnerable(and(unable(to( secure(what(is(in(their(own(best(interest,(and(thus,(need(care.(But(it(seems( indisputable(that(children(have(a(pro$tanto(right(to(that(which(is(in(their(own(best( interest:(all(other(things(equal,(children(ought(to(have(what(is(best(for(them.( Given(this,(all(other(things(equal,(it(seems(that(the(caretaker(of(a(child(has(a(duty( to(provide(the(child(with(what(is(in(their(best(interest.(And(indeed,(for(this(reason( it(seems(like(those(who(are(best(able(to(provide(the(child(with(what(is(in(its(best( interest(should(parent(the(child.(If(a(parent(is(nonGoptimal,(it(seems(then(that(we( ought(to(assign(parenthood(to(someone(else.(( But(again,(it’s(definitional(of(the(role(parent(that(the(roleGfiller(has(an( entitlement(to(decisionGmake(even(in(nonGoptimal(ways.(In(the(philosophical( literature(on(parenthood,(the(usual(way(to(describe(this(entitlement(is(to(say(that( parents(have(a(right(to(parent(their(children(so(long(as(they(are(good(enough.( That(is,(so(long(as(the(care(they(provide(to(their(children(meets(a(minimum( threshold(of(respect(to(the(child’s(interests,4(the(decisions(parents(make(do(not( affect(their(parental(rights(even(in(case(of(nonGoptimality.(( 3(I(am(conceptualising(parenthood(as(a(moral(role(here.(See,(for(example,( Hardimon((1994)(or(Porter((2012).( 4(What(we(ought(to(take(to(count(as(good(enough(is(a(relatively(underexplored( question,(but(there(is(general(agreement(that(there(is(some(good(enough,(such(that( 3 Porter: Gestation and Parental Rights Published by Scholarship@Western, 2015 Given(it(is(clear(that(children(have(a(pro(tanto(right(to(have(their(best( interests(catered(to,(then,(we(need(some(explanation(for(why(good(enough(is( good(enough:(we(need(to(know(what(explains(parents’(right(to(be(nonGoptimal,( even(in(the(face(of(children’s(best(interest(rights,(since(otherwise(we(would(have( to(say(that(those(best(able(to(cater(to(children’s(best(interests(ought(to(be( allowed(to(decisionGmake(on(their(behalf.(We(need(an(account(of(parental(rights( in(order(for(the(moral(role(of(parent(to(float—in(order(to(justify(parenthood.(So,( there(is(important(theoretical(reason(to(give(an(account(of(parental(rights.(( On(the(practical(side(of(things,(what(we(say(about(parental(rights(matters(a( great(deal(in(a(relatively(small(minority(of(cases.(Clearly,(the(rise(in(frequency(of( (often(regulatorilyGmessy)(assisted(reproduction(throws(up(new(challenges(to( understanding(who(is(entitled(to(rear(a(given(child(and(why.(There(is(a(startling( lack(of(clarity,(for(example,(surrounding(parentage(and(citizenship(in(cases(of( international(surrogacy.5(Furthermore,(in(cases(of(nonGassisted(reproduction,( custody(disputes(are(often(settled(via(deciding(a(custody(arrangement(that( simply(maximises(the(bestGinterest(of(the(child,(and(without(much(regard(for(the( rights(of(the(individual(parents.(And(while(the(child’s(best(interests(are(probably( paramount,(still(it(seems(clear(enough(that(this(simple(way(of(settling(things(is( driven(more(by(practical(necessity(than(justice:(we(simply(don’t(have(a(clear(way( if(a(parent(is(at(or(above(this(standard,(she(has(the(right(to(parent(her(child.(It(has( been(suggested(to(me(that(one(might(need(to(specify(what(counts(as(‘good(enough’( in(order(to(discuss(parental(rights,(since(we(might(think(that(one(reason(apparently( nonGoptimal(parents(have(a(right(to(continue(to(parent(their(children(is(that(it’s(in( practice—or(even(in(principle—impossible(to(rank(parenting:(that(it’s(not(possible(to( say(who(is(a(better(parent(than(whom.(But(if(this(is(right,(then(the(parental(rights( question(is,(in(some(sense,(moot,(since(we(would(not,(on(this(state(of(affairs,(be(able( to(say(that(there(are(any(nonGoptimal(parents:(just(that(there(are(apparently(nonG optimal(parents.(What(one(wants(out(of(a(theory(of(parental(rights(is(an(account(of( why(parents(have(a(right(to(continue(to(parent(their(children(even(if(they(are(indeed( nonGoptimal.(So,(the(discussion(of(the(right(can(proceed(on(the(assumption(that( there(is(some(metric(for(parenting(goodness,(even(if(we(also(have(reason(to(feel(a( certain(epistemological(or(even(conceptual(skepticism(about(this(claim.(If(it(turns( out(that(judging(some(parents(a(bit(better(than(others(doesn’t(even(make(sense,(we( can(still(talk(about(why(parents(have(a(right(that(would(hold(even(if(it(did(make( sense.(If(one(disagrees(that(parents(have(such(rights(in(principle,(then(one(would,( indeed,(need(to(say(more(about(what(counts(as(‘good(enough’.(But(in(this(paper,(I( will(proceed(on(the(assumption(that(parents(have(such(rights(in(principle.(( 5(See,(for(example,(the(HCCH((2014)(report:(‘The(Desirability(and(Feasibility(of( Further(Work(on(the(Parentage(/(Surrogacy(Project’.( 4 Feminist Philosophy Quarterly, Vol. 1 [2015], Iss. 1, Art. 5 http://ir.lib.uwo.ca/fpq/vol1/iss1/5 DOI: 10.5206/fpq/2015.1.5 of(making(parental(rights(decisions(in(the(absence(of(gross(parental( incompetence.(An(account(of(how(and(why(a(given(adult(has(a(right(to(rear(a( given(child(in(the(first(instance,(then,(can(help(to(give(a(richer(and(more(accurate( picture(of(what(judges(and(arbiters(ought(to(do(in(these(situations.(Even(in(simple( situations(of(parental(separation,(there(is(need(for(the(same(clarity,(if(we(are( concerned(with(respecting(the(rights(of(individuals(and(families.(So,(there(is(good( practical(reason(to(want(a(sound(account(of(parental(rights.(( (Standard(accounts(of(parental(rights(tend(to(suppose(some(sort(of( biological(account(of(parenthood.(That(is,(they(tend(to(take(biological(parents(to( be(the(persons(whose(rights(stand(in(need(of(explanation.(The(reason(for(this(is( straightGforward:(in(the(case(of(adoptive(parents,(there(is(an(apparentlyGclear( contractual(mechanism(for(explaining(both(duties(and(entitlements,(since((in(the( West(in(contemporary(times)(adoptive(parents(go(through(a(vetting(process,(at( the(end(of(which(a(legal(contract(is(drawn(and(signed(by(parents(and(state.( Adoptive(parents(have(the(duties(and(more(importantly(the(entitlements(of( parenthood,(then,(because(those(duties(and(entitlements(have(been(accepted(by( them(by(contract,(and(have(exactly(been(granted(them(by(appropriate(authority.(( Biological(parents,(on(the(other(hand,(have(simply(made(a(baby.(In(general,( biological(parents(have(not(been(vetted;(they(have(not(signed(a(contract;(there(is( no(presumption,(as(in(adoption,(that(these(people(in(particular(are(the(child’s( best(chance(of(having(her(best(interests(catered(to.(And(yet,(we(tend(to(think( that(they(have(parental(entitlement(in(the(same(way(that(adoptive(parents(do.( This(seems(to(need(an(explanation(where(adoptiveGparental(rights(do(not.6(So,( the(literature(on(grounding(parental(rights(tends(to(focus(on(biological(parents,( and(the(usual(approach,(then,(is(to(give(a(biological(account(of(parental(rights:(to( ground(the(rights(in(the(biological(relatedness.(( The(trouble(with(grounding(the(rights(in(the(biological(relatedness(is(that( biological(accounts(tend(to(collapse(into(proprietary(accounts(of(one(variety(or( other:(they(tend(to(collapse(into(the(claim(that(parents(have(the(right(to(parent( their(children(because(they(own(their(children.(This(collapse(can(be(immediate,( or(mediated.(An(immediate(collapse(occurs(in(the(case(of(straight(genetic( 6(Despite(this(explanation,(the(simple(truth(of(it(is(probably(that(the(real( reason(we(focus(on(biological(parents’(rights(is(that(we(tend(to(think(that(biological( parents(are(the(real(parents,(and(as(such,(are(the(ones(with(the(rights.(I(disagree( with(this((see(my((2014),(and(section(5(of(this(paper),(but(I(agree(that(parents(having( rights(in(virtue(of(being(the(biological(progenitors(stands(in(need(of(explanation:(it’s( not(obvious(why(biological(relatedness(should(be(rightsGgenerating,(if(it(is;(and(it’s( nonGobvious(why(giving(birth(to(a(baby(ought(to(entitle(you(to(keep(it(and(raise(it.( 5 Porter: Gestation and Parental Rights Published by Scholarship@Western, 2015 accounts(of(parental(obligations.(A(mediated(account(occurs(when(labour(is( appealed(to(in(order(to(drive(the(rights(claim.( A(straight(genetic(account(says(that((genetic)(parents(have(rights(to(and( over(their(child(because(the(child(is(the(product(of(their(genetic(material((e.g.,( Hall(1999).(But(the(story(can’t(end(here,(since(‘genetic(materials’(are(in(the(end( just(chemical(sequences.(Chemical(sequences(are(not(the(sorts(of(things,(on(their( own,(that(can(be(morally(weighty(enough(to(drive(a(rights(claim.7(So,(in(order(to( ground(parental(rights(in(genes,(one(must(argue(not(just(that(parent(and(child( share(genetic(material,(but(that(the(genetic(material(belongs(to(the(parent,(and( thus,(so(do(the(products(of(it((i.e.(the(offspring(produced(with(it).(( This(is(an(easy(strategy(to(reach(for,(since(it(seems(quite(plausible(that(for( each(of(us,(our(bodies(belong(to(ourselves.(If(our(bodies(belong(to(us,(then(surely( our(genes(belong(to(us,(since(they(are(just(what(make(up(our(bodies.(Just(as(we( have(rights(over(our(bodies((over(ourselves),(so(we(have(rights(over(other(stuffs( produced(by(and(from(our(bodies.(So,(on(this(sort(of(account,(we(can(get(easily( from(our(rights(over(ourselves(to(our(parental(rights.(But(this(belongingness(will( need(to(be(of(a(sort(that(can(generate(rights(over(the(object(of(the(belonging.(It(is( difficult(to(see(what(sort(of(belonging(could(do(so,(other(than(ownership.8(( Indeed,(when(I(claim(rights(over(my(own(body,(I(do(so(via(the(claim(that(I(own(it:(I( own(my(body,(and(that(is(why(I(have(rights(over(it.(Same(will(go,(then,(for(my( genetic(children.(A(straight(genetic(account(of(parental(rights,(then,(collapses( immediately(into(a(proprietary(account.(( 7(The(problem(is(worse(than(this,(since,(for(example,(we(share(the(vast( majority(of(our(genetic(code(with(all(mammals.(The(unique(sameness(between(a( parent(and(her(child(will(be(so(vanishingly(tiny(a(thin(thread(of(code,(it’s(perfectly( implausible(that(this(should,(on(its(own,(matter(morally(in(such(a(significant(way— not(to(mention(the(fact(that(siblings,(for(example,(will(share(more(in(common,( geneticallyGspeaking,(than(parentGchild(pairs.(Big(brother(might(have(a(greater(claim( to(parenthood(than(dad(does.( 8(It(is(not(too(difficult(to(think(of(senses(of(‘belongs(to’(that(do(not(imply( ownership.(For(example,(I(might(say(that(I(belong(to(a(gym((if(I(did).(And(clearly(I’m( not(claiming(that(the(gym(owns(me.(But(just(as(clearly,(this(sort(of(belonging(isn’t( rightsGgenerating(for(the(belongee.(The(gym(does(not(have(any(rights(over(me((save( the(rights(it(always(had,(like(the(right(against(my(stealing(towels,(etc.)(in(virtue(of(my( ‘belonging(to’(it.(On(the(other(hand,(we(can(think(of(lots(of(instances(of(‘belonging( to’(that(do(generate(rights:(this(pencil(belongs(to(me;(this(idea(belongs(to(me;(this( puppy(belongs(to(me.(In(all(of(these(examples,(‘belongs(to’(seems(to(mean(is(owned( by(me.( 6 Feminist Philosophy Quarterly, Vol. 1 [2015], Iss. 1, Art. 5 http://ir.lib.uwo.ca/fpq/vol1/iss1/5 DOI: 10.5206/fpq/2015.1.5 The(key(strategy(that(is(often(employed(to(avoid(the(proprietary(collapse(is( to(appeal(to(labour:(in(the(style(of(Locke,(I(have(rights(over(the(products(of(my( labour.9(On(this(sort(of(account,(parental(rights(aren’t(generated(via(bodilyG(or( selfGownership,(but(rather,(via(the(bodily((and(other)(labour(involved(in( producing(progeny.10(This(sort(of(account(both(solves(the(worry(over(how(genetic( material(can(be(rightsGgenerating,(and(avoids(the(immediate(collapse(in(to( proprietarianism.(But(of(course,(while(it(does(not(collapse(immediately(into(a( proprietary(account,(it(certainly(does(collapse.(One(does(not,(on(this(sort(of( account,(have(to(appeal(to(ownership(of(one’s(body,(and(thereby(ownership(of( offspring;(but(one(does(have(to(appeal,(just(as(the(nod(to(Locke(implies,(to( ownership(of(the(fruits(of(one’s(labour.(So,(even(though(this(sort(of(account(is( less(directly(a(proprietary(account,(it(is(a(proprietary(account(all(the(same.(Its( punchline(is(that(parents(own(their(children,(and(that(parental(rights(follow(from( this.(( I(will(claim—and(I(assume(it(is(fairly(uncontentious—that(a(proprietary( account(of(parenthood(shout(be(avoided.(That(is,(we(don’t(want(to(give(an( account(of(parenthood(that(tells(us(that(parents((or(anyone,(for(that(matter)(own( their(children.(Proprietary(accounts(have(a(long(history(in(western(thinking(about( parenthood.(For(example,(Aristotle(writes(that(( ( [T]here(is(no(injustice(in(an(unqualified(sense(in(relation(to(what(is(one’s( own,(and(a(chattel,(or(a(child(until(it(is(of(a(certain(age(and(becomes( independent,(is(like(a(part(of(oneself,(and(oneself(–(no(one(decides(to(harm( that.(.(.((as(cited(in(Austin(2007,(13)11( ( In(the(contemporary(literature,(authors(like(Edgar(Page(and(others(have( offered(more(nuanced(proprietary(arguments((e.g.,(Page(1984).(And(it(is(easy(to( see(why(proprietary(accounts(would(be(common:(in(the(first(instance,(it(is(just( quite(common(to(think(of(children(as(possessions,(even(if(these(days(fewer( people(are(willing(to(talk(or(think(about(them(in(this(way.(And(further,( theoreticallyGspeaking,(ownership(is(a(very(good(way(to(ground(rights(over(a( thing.(But(there(are(many(reasons(why(we(ought(not(accept(such(a(view.(( Michael(Austin((2007),(for(example,(argues(that(because(babies(are(human( beings,(and(human(beings(cannot(be(owned,(proprietary(accounts(of(parenthood( are(incoherent((12).(Such(an(objection(is(problematic(for(all(the(reasons(that( 9(Though(note(that(Locke(does(not(give(a(labourGbased(account(of(parental( rights.(See(Brennan(and(Noggle((1997,(11).( 10(See(e.g.(Narveson((1988).( 11(Taken(from(Nicomachean$Ethics(book(V,(1134b.( 7 Porter: Gestation and Parental Rights Published by Scholarship@Western, 2015 speciesist(accounts(of(moral(status(are(problematic—since(babies(aren’t(moral(or( rational(agents,(etc.—but(the(objection(does(point(us(towards(clear(problems( with(baby(ownership(accounts.12(In(particular,(it’s(not(clear(how/why(it(could(be( the(case(that(I(both(own(my(child,(and(that(I(undoubtedly(own(myself.(Both( biological(and(labourGbased(proprietary(accounts(need,(for(their(validity,(the( claim(that(I(own(myself;(that(every(person(is(such(that(she(or(he(owns(herself(and( her(body.(Biological(accounts(need(it,(since(this(is(how(we(get(to(the(claim(that(I( own(my(gametes;(and(labour(accounts(need(it,(since(this(is(how(we(ground(the( claim(that(I(own(my(labour.(But,(if(it’s(foundational(that(I(own(myself,(how(can(it( be(that(someone(else((namely,(me)(owns(my(child?(Doesn’t(she(own(herself?(We( might(tell(some(story(or(other(about(ownership(being(transferred(from(parent(s)( to(child(at(some(age(or(level(of(maturity,(but(we(would(need(to(tell(a(story,( indeed:(we(would(need(to(explain(how,(why(and(when(ownership(is(so( transferred.(13(Does(it(happen(automatically,(or(must(parents(surrender( ownership?(Can(parents(refuse(such(surrender?(If(so,(then(how(is(it(undoubted( that(even(every(adult(owns(herself?(Mightn’t(some(adults(still(be(owned(by(their( parents?(If(parents(cannot(refuse(surrender,(then(how(does(this(sort(of( ownership—a(sort(that(must(be(relinquished,(willingly(or(unwillingly,(after(a( certain(period—relate(to(other(sorts(of(ownership?(And(why(should(we(think(it( rightsGgenerating(in(the(way(that(other(sorts(of(ownership(are?(And(so(on.(( It(might(be(the(case(that(we(could(devise(a(crafty(and(nuanced(account(of( how(it(can(be(that(every(adult(owns(herself,(while(children(are(owned(by( someone(else,(but(it’s(not(clear(why(we(would(want(to(try.(It(would(not(be(a( simple(way(to(explain(parental(rights,(and,(once(we(sort(out(all(the(details,( neither(would(it(be(intuitive.(Most(importantly,(there(is(simply(something( unsavoury(about(the(claim(that(parents(own(their(children.(As(Samantha(Brennan( and(Robert(Noggle((1997)(put(it,(‘[C]ounting(a(person(as(the(property(of(another( is(clearly(inconsistent(with(granting(her(equal(moral(consideration’(11).(What(it( seems(that(we(want(is(an(account(of(parental(rights(that(can(explain(why(good( enough(is(good(enough—that(is,(why(parents(have(the(right(to(rear(and(to( decisionGmake(on(behalf(of(their(children(even(if(someone(else(would(do(it( better—without(appealing(to(ownership.(( In(the(next(section,(I(will(present(Anca(Gheaus’s(nonGproprietary(gestational( account(of(parental(rights.(Gheaus(takes(her(account(to(ground(parental(rights(in( the(labour(of(gestation,(and(to(do(so(successfully(without(appealing(to( ownership.(If(it(works,(then,(it(is(just(what(we(want:(an(account(of(parental(rights( 12(See(Singer((2006).( 13(And(indeed,(I(think(this(sort(of(story(will(be(very(acceptable(to(some(more( conservative(types.(( 8 Feminist Philosophy Quarterly, Vol. 1 [2015], Iss. 1, Art. 5 http://ir.lib.uwo.ca/fpq/vol1/iss1/5 DOI: 10.5206/fpq/2015.1.5 that(explains(why(good(enough(is(good(enough,(using(a(clear(explanatory( mechanism(and(grounding,(that(gets(us(validly(from(the(facts(about(biological( parenthood(to(parental(rights.(( In(Section(3,(I(will(canvass(three(initial(objections(one(might(raise(to( Gheaus’s(account,(and(argue(that(two(of(them,(anyway,(can(be(done(away(with.( But(in(Section(4,(I(will(argue(that(all(the(same(the(account(does(not(work.(Because( the(account(hinges(crucially(on(an(empirical(claim—the(claim(that(pregnant( women(‘bond’(with(their(fetuses,(and(that(this(bonding(is(an(interpersonal( relationship—that(turns(out(to(be(problematic(at(best,(we(cannot(get(from(the( labour(of(gestation(to(parental(rights(in(the(way(Gheaus(proposes;(it(just(doesn’t( work.(( ( Section)2:)Gheaus’s)NonDProprietary)Gestational)Account) Gheaus(argues(that(gestation(generates(parental(rights.(She(writes:(( ( Given(that(babies(come(into(the(world(through(a(gradual,(sometimes( complicated,(approximately(nineGmonth(long(gestation(in(their(mothers’( bodies,(by(the(time(of(the(birth(the(birth(parents(will(have(already( shouldered(various(burdens(necessary(to(bring(the(child(into(existence.( (2012,(436)( ( She(points(out(that(the(physical(burdens(of(pregnancy(carry(high(cost(for( the(expectant(mother,(and(have(a(significant(effect(on(many(women’s(ability(to( ‘carry(on(with(life(as(usual’((447).(Pregnant(women(often(endure(fatigue,(aches( and(pains,(nausea(and(so(on(and(for(some,(much(worse(than(this.(These(aches,( pains(and(other(troubles(interfere(with(their(ability(to(perform(tasks,(carry(on( with(paid(employment(as(usual,(and(maintain(interpersonal(relationships.(She( writes(that( (( some(of(the(most(important(burdens(of(pregnancy(result(from(the(extent( and(pace(of(change,(undergone(by(all(pregnant(women,(which(often( contributes(to(a(distinctive(sense(of(losing(control(over(one’s(life(and( diminished(ability(to(pursue(other(projects(and(interests(during(pregnancy( as(well(as(during(recovery(from(childbirth.((447)(( ( Furthermore,(many(women(also(pay(behavioural(costs(during(pregnancy—such( as(limits(to(what(they(can(eat(and(drink—and(social(ones(like(patronising( behaviour(from(strangers.(( All(of(these(effects(of(pregnancy,(Gheaus(argues,(should(be(understood(as( costs(borne(in(anticipation,(and(borne(precisely(because(of(anticipation,(that(the( 9 Porter: Gestation and Parental Rights Published by Scholarship@Western, 2015 outcome(will(be(a(child(to(parent.(Because(of(this,(she(argues(that(gestational( mothers(have(a(right(to(parent.(So(in(other(words,(because(pregnant(women( expend(labour(and(endure(hardship(towards(the(cause(of(bringing(a(child(into( existence(and(towards(the(aim(of(parenting(a(child,(they(thereby(have(a(right(to( do(so.(Gheaus(does(not(argue(that(this(right(is(inalienable.(Where(serious( concerns(over(the(child’s(wellbeing(would(be(warranted(were(the(child(left(with( the(birth(parent,(the(child’s(interests(can(swamp(that(of(the(birth(mother.( However,(where(the(birth(mother(is(a(good(enough(parent(to(meet(a(baseline(of( good(care,(she(has(a(right(to(do(so(in(virtue(of(gestation.(( But(this(account,(as(Gheaus(rightly(acknowledges,(does(not(give(birth( mothers(a(right(to(parent(any(particular(baby.(Rather,(it(seems(only(able(to(give( the(birth(mother(the(right(to(parent(a(baby.(This(right(then(would(be(consistent( with((for(example)(a(babyGswapping(scheme,(whereby(all(gestators(who(have(a( right(to(parent(have(an(equal(chance(at(raising((say)(a(healthy(child;(or(a(clever( child;(or(etc.(( On(a(classical(sort(of(a(gestational(account,(this(gap(between(having(a(right( to(parent,(and(having(a(right(to(parent(one’s(own(biological(child(would(be(filled( by(ownership:(mum(owns(her(own(baby;(she(has(a(right(not(just(to(parent(a(child,( but(to(parent(her(child.(But(of(course,(as(was(said,(there(is(something(unsavoury( about(the(claim(that(babies(can(be(owned;(that(they(can(be(property.(( Gheaus(agrees(that(this(is(the(wrong(account—she(assumes(that(the(idea(of( child(ownership(is(‘outGdated’—and(relies(instead(on(bonding(between(woman( and(fetus(in(the(course(of(gestation.(She(writes(that(‘during(pregnancy(many— perhaps(most—expectant(parents(form(a(poignantly(embodied,(but(also( emotional,(intimate(relationship(with(their(fetus’((Gheaus(2012,(446).(Because( women(bond(with(their(fetuses(in(the(course(of(gestating(them,(Gheaus(argues,( they(have(a(right(to(parent(the(baby(with(which(they(have(bonded.(During(the( course(of(pregnancy,(she(argues,(women(form(a(‘highly(emotional’(relationship— ‘a(bond(that(is(both(physical(and(imaginative’—with(their(babies(that(is(‘already( quite(developed(at(birth’((449).(It(is(this(relationship,(then,(that(generates(a(right( on(the(part(of(the(gestational(mother(to(rear(her(birth(child.(She(writes(that(( ( Bonding(during(pregnancy(provides(a(very(solid(reason(for(thinking(that( redistributing(babies(would(likely(destroy(already(existing(intimate( relationships(between(newborns(and(their(bearing(parents.(The(fact(that( the(relationship(with(one’s(future(child(starts(during(pregnancy(provides( the(missing(step(in(the(justification(of(a(fundamental(parental(right(to(keep( and(raise(one’s(birth(baby(and(the(answer(to(the(question(of(how(to( determine(fundamental(moral(rights(to(parent(particular(babies.((450)( ( 10 Feminist Philosophy Quarterly, Vol. 1 [2015], Iss. 1, Art. 5 http://ir.lib.uwo.ca/fpq/vol1/iss1/5 DOI: 10.5206/fpq/2015.1.5 So(in(other(words,(because(a(‘bond’(forms(between(the(gestating(woman( and(the(fetus(prior(to(birth,(taking(newborns(away(from(their(birth(parents(at( birth(is(no(different(from(taking(children(away(from(their(social(parents:(it(is(a( disruption(of(a(meaningful(relationship,(against(which(the(birth(parents(have(a( right((on(the(assumption(that(their(parenting(is(good(enough).(Furthermore,( gestational(‘bonding’(generates(‘additional,(childGcentred(justification’(for(the( recognition(of(such(a(right,(since(not(only(does(the(gestating(woman(bond(with( the(fetus,(but(the(fetus(also(bonds(with(the(woman:(can(recognise(her(voice(and( heartbeat,(for(example.(So,(taking(birth(mother(away(would(harm(baby(just(as(it( would(harm(mother.(((( Gheaus’s(account,(then,(seems(to(motivate(biological(parental(rights( without(collapsing(into(a(proprietary(account.(Since(the(right(to(parent(one’s( biological(baby,(on(this(account,(is(motivated(by(a(relationship(with(the(fetus,( coupled(with(a(right(to(enjoy(the(good(of(parenting(in(virtue(of(having(laboured( for(it,(it(seems(to(use(biology(and(labour(to(ground(the(rights(directly.(In(the(next( section,(I(will(canvass(three(initial(worries(about(this(account,(and(argue(that( Gheaus(can(answer(at(least(two(if(not(all(three(of(these(worries.(However,(in( Section(4,(I(will(argue(that(the(account(is(ultimately(unsuccessful,(because( ‘bonding’(simply(can’t(do(what(Gheaus(needs(it(to(do.(In(Section(5,(I(will(offer(a( brief(sketch(of(what(I(think(is(a(more(promising(avenue(for(grounding(parental( rights.( ( Section)3:)Apparent)Problems)with)the)Account) In(this(section,(I’ll(discuss(three(possible(worries(about(Gheaus’s(account(of( parental(rights:(nonGgenetic(gestation,(nonGparental(gestation,(and(nonG gestational(parents.(I(will(argue(that(the(first(worry(is,(in(part,(a(semantic( confusion.(The(second(two(worries,(I(argue,(can(be(resolved(by(rejecting( intuitions(we(have(about(them,(but(that((especially(in(the(case(of(nonGgestational( parents)(it(is(unclear(whether(we(ought(to(do(so.( ( NonDGenetic)Gestation) One(might(have(the(following(worry:(Gheaus’s(account(does(not(work( because,(in(cases(where(a(woman(gestates(a(fetus(that(was(not(conceived(using( her(own(gamete,(she(thereby(has(parental(rights(where(the(biological(mother( does(not.14(Imagine(a(case(in(which(two(women(undergo(IVF(at(the(same(clinic( and(their(eggs(are(accidentally(switched,(such(that(woman(A(gestates(a(fetus( created(using(woman(B’s(ovum,(and(viceGversa.(In(this(case,(according(to( 14(The(basic(shape(of(this(worry(is(taken(from(comments(by(S.(Matthew(Liao( (2014).(( 11 Porter: Gestation and Parental Rights Published by Scholarship@Western, 2015 Gheaus’s(account,(woman(A(would(have(parental(rights(over(B’s(genetic( offspring,(and(woman(B(would(have(parental(rights(over(A’s(genetic(offspring.( This(seems(to(show(that(Gheaus’s(account(cannot(properly(motivate(a(right(to( parent(one’s(biological(child,(since(it’s(clear(in(this(case(that(A(would(not(have(a( right(to(parent(her(biological(child((and(nor(B).(( But(of(course,(there(is(biology(and(there(is(biology.(Gestation,(after(all,(is(a( biological(process(that(helps(to(bring(about(a(child(where(once(there(was(a( bundle(of(cells.(So,(it’s(not(clear(why(we(ought(not(take(the(nonGgenetic(gestator( to(be(a(biological(mother((on(the(assumption(that(she(is,(at(least,(a(mother).( Indeed,(it(seems(clear(to(me(that(we(should.(She(bears(a(unique(biological( relationship(to(the(child,(and(one(that(we(typically(take(to(be(definitional(of( biological(motherhood,(setting(genes(aside.(The(birth(mother(is(a(biological( mother.(She(is(not,(however,(a(genetic(mother.(And,(according(to(this(worry,( genetics(are(what(matters.(Genetic(parenthood(is(rightful(parenthood;(biological( parenthood(is(just(genetic(parenthood,(according(to(this(line(of(thinking.(As(such,( Gheaus’s(account(simply(does(not(explain(the(biological(parent’s(right(to(parent( her(child.(( I(suspect(that(Gheaus’s(reply(to(this(worry(would(be(something(like(‘So( what?’(Attributing(parental(rights(to(the(genetic(parent(fits(with(our(intuitions( about(biological(parenthood—but(so(does(attributing(them(to(gestational( parents.(Indeed,(most(of(us(probably(do(not(have(intuitions(fineGgrained(enough( to(sort(these(two(out,(since(the(vast(majority(of(‘biological(mothers’(we(will(come( across(in(life(are(both(genetic(and(gestational(mothers.(There’s(no(clear(reason,( in(the(first(instance,(to(go(with(genes(instead(of(gestation.(( On(reflection,(however,(the(gestational(account(just(works(better.(As(was( said(in(Section(1,(it(is(unclear(how(genes,(on(their(own,(could(be(rightsG generating.(Genes(are(just(chemical(sequences;(physical(stuff.(Having(physical( stuff(in(common(seems(an(unlikely(way(to(acquire(rights(over(someone.( Gestation,(on(the(other(hand,(is(doing(something.(There(are(lots(of(examples(in( life(of(acquiring(rights(by(doing(something.(If(I(pay(money(to(the(shopkeeper(for(a( bag(of(carrots,(I(have(a(right(that(she(give(me(the(carrots(for(which(I(paid(the( money;(if(I(write(a(masterpiece,(I(have(a(right(to(a(share(of(the(profits(when(it’s( sold;(and(so(on.(So,(it(doesn’t(seem(at(all(clear(that(there(is(any(reason(to( suppose(that(genetics(are(the(primary(element(of(biological(parenthood,(and(it( seems(there(is(reason(to(suppose(gestation(might(be.(The(worry(over(nonGgenetic( parenthood,(then,(seems(little(obstacle(to(Gheaus’s(account.(( ( NonDParental)Gestation) A(related(worry(is(the(worry(over(nonGparental(gestators:(that(is,(gestators( who(we(intuitively(do(not(think(of(as(parents.(In(the(previous(worry,(we( 12 Feminist Philosophy Quarterly, Vol. 1 [2015], Iss. 1, Art. 5 http://ir.lib.uwo.ca/fpq/vol1/iss1/5 DOI: 10.5206/fpq/2015.1.5 considered(a(woman(who(gestates(a(fetus((that(is(not(genetically(related(to(her( with(the(intention(of(parenting(it.(I(argued(that(there(is(no(prima(facie(reason( why(we(ought(to(suppose(that(the(genetic(progenitor(is(the(rightful(parent(in(this( case.(And(it(is(indeed(relatively(easy(to(feel(at(least(unsure(what(to(say(about(a( parent(in(such(a(situation.(But(in(the(case(of(surrogacy,(many(of(us,(anyway,(will( have(strong(intuitive(reason(to(think(in(a(way(that(seems(to(fly(in(the(face(of( Gheaus’s(proposal.(In(surrogacy,(a(woman(gestates(a(child(for(another(parent— for(the(sake(of(someone(else(parenting(the(child.(And(given(the(pregnancy(only( comes(about(because(the(‘someone(else’(wants(to(parent(a(child,(and((in(many( surrogacy(arrangements)(because(the(‘someone(else’(is(actually(paying(the( gestator(for(her(services,(it(seems(like(we(want(to(say(that(the(gestator(does(not( have(a(right(to(parent(the(child;(or(anyway,(that(it(is(nothing(like(a(throwGaway( claim(to(say(that(she(does.(( That(said,(it(seems(to(me(that(Gheaus’s(account(can(accommodate(the( intuition(that(surrogates(do(not(have(parental(rights((or(anyway,(that(they( mightn’t).(Her(account,(again,(relies(on(labour(and(bonding.(Labour(gives(one(a( right(to(parent(a(child,(while(bonding(gives(one(a(right(to(parent(this(child.(In(the( case(of(the(surrogate,(the(labour(is(often(compensated:(surrogates(are(often( paid.(In(the(UK(this(payment(is,(in(theory((and(in(law),(restricted(to(compensation( for(‘costs’.(In(the(US,(surrogates(are(outright(paid,(as(if(in(employment.(When( surrogacy(is(simply(restricted(to(compensation(for(‘costs’,(it(may(be(the(case(that( the(‘cost’(is(rather(a(lot,(if(Gheaus(is(right(that(gestation(comes(with(high(physical( and(emotional(costs.(In(this(case,(it(may(be(that(surrogates(ought(to(be( compensated(for(a(lot,(and(that(if(they(are(not,(residual(entitlement(might( remain.(But(it(might(also(be(the(case(that(many(of(the(costs(borne(by(typical( gestators((i.e.(parental(gestators)(are(not(borne(by(surrogates.(Surrogates,(for( example,(probably(do(not(take(on(the(emotional(weight(of(adjusting(to(life( changes,(since(for(them(the(change(is(only,(presumably,(temporary.15(Either(way,( in(the(absence(of(ownership,(and(in(the(absence(of(the(aim(of(parenting(the(child,( it(seems(that(the(labour(of(surrogate(gestation(can(be(compensated(in(such(a( way(that(it(will(not(generate(parental(rights.(( As(regards(the(bonding,(Gheaus(might(plausibly(argue(that(surrogates( simply(do(not(bond(with(the(fetus(in(the(same(way(that(intending(mothers(do.16( In(this(case,(even(if(the(labour(cannot(be(compensated(such(that(no(right(to( 15(I(say(‘presumably’(because(it(may(be(the(case(that(pregnancy(changes(a( person(even(if(it(is(a(surrogacy.(But(in(that(case,(we(might(need(to(rethink(the( intuition(that(parental(rights(ought(not(be(attributed(to(surrogates.(( 16(Again,(I(will(say(more(about(maternalGfetal(bonding(in(the(next(section.(( 13 Porter: Gestation and Parental Rights Published by Scholarship@Western, 2015 parent(arises,(still(no(right(to(parent(this(baby(would(arise.17(So,(it(seems(that( Gheaus’s(account(can(accommodate(the(intuition(that(gestational(surrogates(do( not(have(parental(rights(over(the(fetuses/infants(they(gestate,(since(the(cost(of( the(pregnancy(to(them(is(presumably(less(than(that(for(the(parental(gestator;(the( costs(can(be(compensated;(and(the(surrogate(does(not((or(may(not)(bond(with( the(infant(in(the(way(that(the(intending(mother(would(do.18( ( NonDGestational)Parents)(Parental)Parity)) The(third(initial(worry(one(might(have(about(Gheaus’s(account(is(that(it(is,( quite(obviously,(betterGsuited(to(grounding(the(rights(of(mothers(than(those(of( fathers.((And(indeed,(it(is(less(wellGsuited(to(grounding(the(rights(of(nonG gestational(parents,(full(stop.19)(If(the(labour(and(bonding(that(take(place(in(the( 17(One(might(recall(that(Gheaus(thinks(that(both(the(gestator’s(attachment(to( the(fetus(and(the(fetus’s(attachment(to(the(gestator(are(salient.(If(this(is(right,(we( might(still(worry(about(surrogacy.(However,(I(take(it(that(the(fetus’s(attachment(is,( in(some(sense,(incidental(to(the(parental(right.(That(is,(it(is(the(parent’s(attachment( that(matters(to(parental(rights.(The(fetus’s(attachment(is,(with(respect(to(parental( rights,(merely(a(happy(bonus.(( 18(Gheaus(briefly(discusses(surrogacy,(writing(that(‘If(having(borne(a(baby(is(a( ground(for(a(right(to(keep(that(baby,(the(important(question(for(surrogacy(is( whether(this(right(is(alienable(and(under(what(conditions.(Is(it(possible(to(wave( one’s(right(to(keep(one’s(birth(baby(before(one(knows(exactly(what(burdens(the( pregnancy(will(entail,(and(what(kind(of(relationship(one(will(establish(with(the(new( born?(In(other(words,(can(a(surrogacy(contract(preGempt(the(rights(of(the(gestating( mother(or(couple?(I(remain,(in(this(article,(agnostic(about(this’((454).(But(this,(of( course,(is(the(same(sort(of(question(that(arises(with(preGarranged(adoptions((though( of(course,(most(Western(nations(now(have(laws(that(preclude(the(enforcement(of( adoption(contracts(where(the(birth(mother(has(changed(her(mind);(in(thinking(about( surrogacy(this(way,(Gheaus(is(just(imagining(surrogacy(as(a(sort(of(adoption.(But(I(do( not(think(there(is(anything(about(Gheaus’s(basic(account(that(commits(us(to( accepting(an(adoption(account(of(surrogacy.(( 19(I(am(hesitant(about(how(I(ought(to(handle(the(heteronormativity(of(this( objection(as(it(usually(occurs(in(the(literature.(On(the(one(hand,(heteronormativity( seems(a(bad(sort(of(normativity(to(perpetuate.(On(the(other(hand,(it(is(only(within( the(context(of(a(biological(account(of(parental(rights(that(the(worry(over(parity( arises(in(a(truly(pernicious(form:(it(is(only(when(our(goal(is(to(secure(the(rights(of( biological(parents(that(the(Parity(Principle(becomes(a(sticking(point.(An(alternate( strategy(for(giving(an(account(that(attributes(rights(to(nonGgestational(parents(is(to( simply(claim(that,(for(want(of(a(better(way(to(put(it,(biology(isn’t(where(it’s(at.(My( 14 Feminist Philosophy Quarterly, Vol. 1 [2015], Iss. 1, Art. 5 http://ir.lib.uwo.ca/fpq/vol1/iss1/5 DOI: 10.5206/fpq/2015.1.5 course(of(pregnancy(are(what(ground(parental(rights,(then(it(seems,(at(first( glance,(that(fathers(mustn’t(be(parents;(or(anyway,(that(they(mustn’t(have( parental(rights.(If(this(is(right,(then(it(seems(as(though(Gheaus’s(account(is(only( half(of(an(account(of(parental(rights.(Again,(what(we(want(out(of(an(account(is(an( account(that(tells(us(why(good(enough(is(good(enough,(in(the(case(of(biological( parents.(If(we(can’t(explain(why(this(is(so(for(both(mothers(and(fathers,(then(it( seems(we(are(left(saying(that(mothers(have(a(right(to(parent(their(biological( children(so(long(as(they(are(good(enough,(but(that(subGoptimal(fathers(may( rightfully(have(their(children(snatched(away.(( This(is(not(a(view(many(of(us(would(want(to(endorse.(I(take(it(that(the( prevailing(assumption,(these(days(anyway,(is(that(mothers(and(fathers(are( equally(parents;(and(that(our(theory(of(parenthood(ought(to(reflect(this(equality.( Kolers(and(Bayne(take(this(assumption(as(a(key(principle(in(parental(ethics,(and( call(it(the(Parity(Principle.(According(to(the(Parity(Principle,(‘being(a(mother( doesn’t(make(a(person(more(of(a(parent(than(being(a(father,(or(vice(versa((Kolers( and(Bayne(2001,(280).((What(we(want,(all(other(things(equal,(is(an(account(that( explains(why(both(mothers(and(fathers(are(parents.(So,(with(respect(to(the(Parity( Principle,(an(account(like(Gheaus’s(does(not(look(like(one(that(we(ought(to( accept.((( That(said,(we(needn’t(give(a(unified(account(of(parenthood(in(order(to(give( an(account(of(parental(rights(that(adheres(to(the(Parity(Principle.(That(is,(it’s(at( least(conceptually(possible(that(what(accounts(for(mothers’(rights(is(not(what( accounts(for(fathers’(rights,(though(both(mothers(and(fathers(have(rights,(and( have(them(equally.(This(sort(of(separateGbutGequal(approach(is(just(the(approach( Gheaus(takes(to(saving(her(account(from(the(parity(worry.(She(writes(that( ( While(they(cannot(share(all([the](costs([of(pregnancy],(involved(partners( typically(can(and(do(share(many(of(them.(They(often(are(the(main(source(of( emotional,(practical(and(financial(support(of(their(pregnant(partner:(they( can(accompany(her(on(medical(visits(and(support(her(during(childbirth,( share(and(try(to(soothe(her(worries,(relieve(her(of(some(of(her(regular( work(and(serve(as(an(oftenGneeded(interface(between(her(and(the( insufficiently(accommodating(outer(world.((2012,(448)( ( own(view(is(that(it(isn’t,(but(defending(that(view(is(out(of(the(scope(of(this(paper.( (See(my((2014).)(All(that(said,(we(ought(still(to(think(in(terms(of(gestational(and(nonG gestational(parents—rather(than(mothers(and(fathers—since(in(principle(a(female( parent(might(easily(be(nonGgestational(and(biological((the(genetic(progenitor)(and( someone(who(we(preGtheoretically(think(ought(to(count(as(a(rightful(parent.(( 15 Porter: Gestation and Parental Rights Published by Scholarship@Western, 2015 And(later,(that( ( pregnant(women’s(supporting(partners(are(capable(of(being(direct( participants(in(the(process(of(creating(a(relationship(with(the(baby(during( pregnancy.(With(the(help(of(medical(technology(they(can(see(the(fetus(and( hear(its(heartbeat(as(early(as(the(bearing(mother;(during(the(last(stages(of( pregnancy(they(can(feel(the(baby,(talk(to(it(and(be(heard(by(it.(Just(like(the( mother,(they(can(experience(the(fears,(hopes(and(fantasies(triggered(by( the(growing(fetus.((450)( ( So,(the(idea(is(that,(because(the(nonGgestational(parent(contributes(to(the( labour(of(gestation,(and(bonds(with(the(fetus((though(in(ways(different(to(the( gestator),(he((or(she)(too(can(thereby(acquire(parental(rights,(even(though(he( (she)(does(not(actually(gestate(the(baby.(The(account,(then,(appears(to(get( around(the(parity(worry.(( But(on(closer(inspection,(it(does(so(only(at(the(expense(of(intuitive( plausibility,(since(coGparent(and(pregnancy(partner(need(not(and(often(do(not( coincide.(In(an(idealized((modern,(Western)(procreative(situation(it(might(be(the( case(that(the(nonGgestational(parent(is(the(primary(coGlabourer(and(coGbonder( during(pregnancy;(but(surely(in(reality(this(is(not(always(so,(and(probably(it(is(not( often(so,(taking(all(pregnancies(in(all(cultures,(classes(and(circumstances(into( account.(Indeed,(it(might(very(well(be(the(case(that,(even(amongst(modern,( Western(middleGclass(heterosexual(procreators,(people(other(than(the(biological( father(routinely(play(a(bigger(role(in(supporting(the(pregnant(woman(than(does( the(father:(the(pregnant(woman’s(mother(or(sister(or(friends(will(very(often(be( the(primary(source(of(emotional(and(practical(support(to(her(during(her( pregnancy.(It(would(seem,(then,(that(if(labouring(and(bonding(by(proxy(are( sufficient(to(generate(parental(rights,(then(granny(and(auntie(and(so(on(have( parental(rights,(too.(( One(way(to(respond(to(this(worry(would(be(to,(first,(bite(the(bullet(on( Granny(and(Auntie—accept(the(consequence(that(they(too(may(have(parental( rights(if(their(labour(contributes(significantly(to(the(production(of(the(child—and( second,(to(claim(that(only(fathers(who(do(contribute(significantly(to(the(labour( thereby(acquire(parental(rights.(But(this(response(both(fails(to(cohere(with( intuition((supportive(aunties(are(aunties,(not(parents)(and(fails(to(dissolve(the( parity(worry,(since(if(this(is(right,(then(good(enough(is(after(all(not(good(enough( for(dads:(we(will(be(left(with(an(account(on(which(gestators(have(parental(rights( in(virtue(of(gestating,(no(matter(how(they(do(it,(whereas(nonGgestational(parents( only(have(parental(rights(if(they(are(good(nonGgestational(parents.(( 16 Feminist Philosophy Quarterly, Vol. 1 [2015], Iss. 1, Art. 5 http://ir.lib.uwo.ca/fpq/vol1/iss1/5 DOI: 10.5206/fpq/2015.1.5 If(what(we(want(out(of(a(theory(of(parental(rights(is(a(grounding(for(the( rights(of(biological(parents(to(parent(their(children,(then(it(seems(Gheaus’s( account(will(not(do(the(trick,(since(it(fails(to(ground(such(rights(for(the(nonG gestational(biological(parent.(It(is,(of(course,(open(to(Gheaus(to(bite(the(bullet(on( parental(parity:(to(reject(the(claim(that(mothers(and(fathers((or(gestational(and( nonGgestational(parents)(are(equally(parents;(and(I(have(not(given(a(robust( argument(to(the(contrary.(For(this(reason,(the(nonGgestational(parent(objection(is( by(no(means(a(knockGdown(objection(to(Gheaus’s(account.(However,(first,( Gheaus’s(account(isn’t(really(an(account(of(the(rights(of(biological(parents,(tout( court,(in(this(case.(And(further,(it(seems(to(me(that(the(parity(principle(is,(even( without(argument,(obviously(a(good(starting(point(in(crafting(an(account(of( parenthood:(it’s(the(sort(of(claim(that,(unless(there(is(compelling(theoretical( soundness(to(be(had(by(rejecting(it—or(compelling(argument(that,(despite(the( intuitions(we(have,(the(principle(is(a(bad(one—we(ought(to(accept.(( My(argument(is(that(there(is(no(such(theoretical(soundness(to(be(had(from( Gheaus’s(account,(since,(even(if(we(bite(the(bullet(on(parental(parity,(the(account( still(does(not(work(as(an(account(of(the(rights(of(gestational(parents.(In(the(next( section,(I(will(argue(that(the(real(problem(for(Gheaus’s(account(is(with(bonding.( The(claim(that(pregnant(women(bond(with(their(fetuses(in(a(morallyGsalient,( rightsGgenerating(way(simply(does(not(stand(up(to(scrutiny.(Given(this,(the( account(does(not(work(for(mothers(any(better(than(it(does(for(fathers.((((( ( Section)4:)MaternalDFetal)Bonding) Gheaus’s(argument(relies(on(two(features(of(gestation:(labour(and(bonding.( Labour,(according(to(the(account,(generates(a(right(to(the(goods(of(parenthood,( since(the(labour(is(sufficiently(significant(to(justify(compensation;(and(since(the( labour(is(undertaken(towards(the(aim(of(enjoying(the(goods(of(parenthood.(But( the(entitlements(that(can(be(derived(from(labour(cannot(generate(a(right(to( parent(one’s(biological(child(in(particular—cannot(generate(a(right(against(baby( redistribution—and(thus(cannot(explain(why(good(enough(parenting(is(good( enough.(For(this,(Gheaus’s(account(relies(on(bonding(in(pregnancy.(( Because,(Gheaus(writes,(the(bonding(that(happens(between(woman(and( fetus(during(pregnancy(constitutes(a(‘highly(emotional’(relationship,(and(‘a(bond( that(is(both(physical(and(imaginative’,(that(is(‘already(quite(developed(at(birth’,( gestational(parents(have(the(right(to(retain(the(meaningful(relationship(with(their( baby(that(is(already(underway(at(birth((2012,(449).(Thus,(they(have(a(right(to( parent(their(biological(child,(and(as(such,(baby(redistribution(would(violate(their( rights,(and(so(good(enough(is(good(enough.(( The(problem(with(this(step(is(that(maternalGfetal(‘bonding’(simply(doesn’t( hold(water(as(a(concept.(Though(it(holds(strong(sway(in(the(popular(imagination,( 17 Porter: Gestation and Parental Rights Published by Scholarship@Western, 2015 the(claim(that(pregnant(women(bond(with(their(fetuses(is(simply(a(popGclaim.(It( has(no(good(basis(in(science,(and(appears,(indeed,(to(be(primarily(normative(in( nature:(it(is(a(concept(that(serves(primarily(to(police(women’s(feelings(about( maternity,(rather(than(to(describe(healthy(fetal(development(or(indeed(to( describe(a(real(and(medically(or(socially(salient(relationship.(Not(to(put(too(fine(a( point(on(it:(maternalGfetal(bonding(is(sexist(junk(science.(It’s(not(a(real(thing(that( could(generate(a(real(and(enforceable(right.(( ((((MaternalGfetal(bonding(is(a(popular(notion(that(grew(out(of(research( (primarily(in(psychology(and(nursing)(into(‘MaternalGFetal(Attachment’((MFA).( MFA(was(proposed(as(an(extension(of(the(1950’s(developmental(theory(of( MaternalGInfant(Attachment((MIAt).(20(According(to(MIAt,(infants(have(an( evolutionarily(selected(drive(to(both(cling(to(caregivers,(and(to(stimulate( caregiving(from(their(primary(carers.(Further,(MIAt(hypothesized(that(the(extent( to(which(infants(exhibited(this(clingGandGsolicit(behaviour(was(a(good(indicator(of( healthy(infant(development:(infants(who(were(properly(‘attached’(were(likely(to( grow(up(to(be(wellGadjusted(adults.(Brandon(et(al.((2009)(write(that( ( [John(Bowlby,(the(originator(of(attachment(theory](conceptualized(human( attachment(as(a(system(of(evolutionary(behaviors(beginning(at(birth(and( persisting(through(adulthood,(motivated(by(or(toward(fear,(affection,( exploration,(and(caregiving...(Regulation(of(the(dyadic(attachment( interactions(of(mother(and(infant,(Bowlby(reasoned,(was(solely(biological;( he(posited(that(the(infant’s(primary(goal(was(to(maintain(a(certain(degree( of(physical(proximity(to(the(mother(for(survival.(Bowlby(later(added(to(his( stance(that(attachment(would(include(psychological(goals(on(the(part(of( the(developing(child(and(mother.((.(.(.(Attachment,(as(Bowlby(understood( it,(was(a(reciprocal(behavioral(process(initiated(by(the(neonate(to(ensure( survival.((201)( ( Measures(of(attachment,(on(this(picture,(are(both(measures(of(proper( biological(functioning(on(the(part(of(the(infant((infant(has(the(right(innate(drive( towards(attachment)(and(measures(of(biologicallyGgood(parenting((mother(is( stimulated(appropriately(by(infant(cues,(thus(perpetuating(an(attachment( feedback(loop).(The(classic(measure(of(MIA(is(the(Strange(Situation(test,(in(which( infants(are(placed(in((nonGthreatening,(but)(strange(situations(on(their(own,(and( then(observed(when(they(are(reunited(with(their(mothers.(A(child(who(quickly( 20(See,(for(example,(Bowlby((1958).( 18 Feminist Philosophy Quarterly, Vol. 1 [2015], Iss. 1, Art. 5 http://ir.lib.uwo.ca/fpq/vol1/iss1/5 DOI: 10.5206/fpq/2015.1.5 and(unreservedly(goes(to(mother(and(clings(to(her(exhibits(what(is(taken(to(be(a( healthy(attachment.21( Contrast(this(with(MFA,(which(is(pretty(straightGforwardly(a(measure(of( ‘appropriate’(parental(attitude(alone.(MFA(is(measured(through(selfGreport.( Pregnant(women(are(given(a(questionnaire(asking(them(to(rate(the(strength(with( which(they(agree(or(disagree(with(statements(such(as((a)(I(have(the(room(all( ready(for(the(baby’s(arrival(and((b)(there(will(be(time(enough(after(the(birth(to( get(clothes(and(things(for(the(baby.(Agreeing(strongly(with(statements(like((a)(will( get(you(a(strong,(good(attachment(score;(whereas(agreeing(strongly(with( statements(like((b)(will(get(you(a(strong,(bad(attachment(score.22(So(in(other( words,(pregnant(women(who(exhibit(the(sorts(of(attitudes(to(their(fetuses(that( we(think(‘good’(get(a(good(score.(( MFA(has(been(shown(to(correlate(‘modestly’(with(later(MIA((Muller(1996);( but—and(this(seems(key—only(when(the(classic(model(of(MIA(investigation( (observation(of(motherGinfant(interaction,(importantly(via(Strange(Situation)(is( replaced(with(maternal(attitudinal(selfGreport.23((In(other(words,(MaternalGFetal( Attachment(is(quantifiably(related(to(MaternalGInfant(Attachment(only(when( maternal(attitudes,(and(not(motherGinfant(interactions(are(measured.(So,(the( right(feelings(on(the(part(of(the(pregnant(woman(are(predictive(of(the(right( feelings(on(the(part(of(the(new(mother((and(only(modestly(so);(they(are(not( significantly(related(to(the(quality(of(the(actual(relationship(between(new(mother( and(baby.(This(is(no(surprise,(since(MFA(is(a(set(of(attitudes;(not(a(relationship(in( the(way(that(MIA(is.(Brandon(et(al.((2009)(write(that(( ( 21(From(Brandon(et(al:(‘The(Strange(Situation(is(a(20Gminute(procedure( composed(of(eight(episodes(of(motherGinfant(separation(and(reunion.(Infant( behaviors(are(evaluated(to(examine(attachment(and(exploratory(behaviors(under( conditions(of(high(and(low(stress,(resulting(in(the(classification(of(one(of(three( attachment(styles:(A,(B,(or(C((Ainsworth(et(al.,(1978).(Later(studies(have(given(these( categories(labels:(A(=(avoidant,(insecureG(avoidant,(or(anxiousGavoidant;(B(=(secure;( C(=(anxious,(anxiousG(ambivalent,(insecureGambivalent,(anxiousGresistant,(or( insecureG(resistant.’( 22(I.e.,(‘positive,(preoccupied’(and(‘negative,(preoccupied’;(see(Cranley((1981).( 23(Muller((1996)(used(the(MAI((Maternal(Attachment(Inventory),(which(asks( mothers(to(agree/disagree(with(statements(like(I(feel(love(for(my(baby(and(I(look( forward(to(being(with(my(baby;(as(well(as(the(MSAS((Maternal(Separation(Anxiety( Scale):(I(don’t(enjoy(myself(when(I(am(away(from(my(child;(and(the(HIFBN((How(I( Feel(About(my(Baby(Now):(I(feel(giving(towards(my(baby.(( 19 Porter: Gestation and Parental Rights Published by Scholarship@Western, 2015 It(has(been(proposed(that(prenatal(attachment(is(more(appropriately( viewed(as(an(“emotional(bond”(that(bears(similarities(to(attachment(but(is( not(the(same(as(traditional(infant(and(adult(attachment(.(.(.(Along(this(line( of(thinking,(it(has(been(suggested(that(prenatal(attachment(inventories(are( no(more(than(attitude(measures(that(may(be(confounded(by(social( desirability(and(adjustment.((208)24( ( In(other(words,(while(MIA(describes(‘healthy’(interactions(between(mother( and(infant25—and(quantifies(a(relationship(between(them—MFA(quantifies(an( emotional(attachment(on(the(part(of(the(pregnant(woman(to(her(fetus;(and( quantifies(it(in(a(sociallyGnormative(way.(It(measures(whether(pregnant(women(feel( the(‘right’FPQ(1.1((X(way,(rather(than(measuring(the(extent(to(which(they(are(in(a( good(relationship.( The(raison(d’etre(of(the(literature(on(MFA(seems(to(be(a(perceived( predictive(advantage:(good(MFA(is(predictive(of(good(MIA((though,(again,(only( when(MIA(is(measured(by(maternal(attitudinal(selfGreport);(and(it(is(also( predictive(of(good(takeGup(of(antenatal(care((Lindgren(2001).(The(thinking,(then,( seems(to(be(that(by(measuring(MFA,(clinicians(can(spot(problems(early(on(in(a( woman’s(career(as(a(gestator/mother,(and(intervene.(But(even(as(a(mere( predictor(of(later(trouble,(it(isn’t(clear(what(purpose(MFA(actually(serves.(Good( MFA(is(positively(correlated(with(stability(of(relationship(with(the(future(father,( and(with(high(socioGeconomic(status,(among(other(things;(and(is(negatively( correlated(with(depression(and(having(previous(children.26(Since(it(is(presumably( 24(Pollock(and(Percy((1999)(actually(use(the(acronym(‘MAEA’,(rather(than( MFA—‘Maternal(Antenatal(Emotional(Attachment’—thus(removing(reference(to(the( fetus,(and(adding(explicit(reference(to(emotional(state.(( 25(Though,(of(course,(there(seems(inadequate(evidence(that(‘good’(MIA(really( means(anything(necessarily(for(the(future(wellbeing(of(the(child.(While(poor(MIA( may(be(predictive(of(future(interpersonal(shortcoming,(there(is(no(evidence(that(it(is( inevitable.(In(metaGanalysis(of(research(on(attachment(in(adopted(children,(for( example,(van(den(Dries(et(al((2009)(found(that(adopted(children’s(attachment( security(‘catches(up’(as(years(pass(in(the(adoptive(home((for(children(adopted(after( the(age(of(12(months;(for(children(adopted(before(this(age,(there(was(no(statistically( significant(difference(in(attachment(quality).(It’s(not(clear,(then,(why(we(should( suppose(that(attachment(in(infancy(is(crucial,(rather(than(simply(desirable(all(other( things(equal.(( 26(For(example,(in(their(study(Condon(and(Corkindale((1997)(tell(us(the( following:(‘The(findings(confirmed(these(hypothesized(effects.(In(particular,(the( subgroup(of(women(having(low(attachment(was(characterized(by(high(levels(of( 20 Feminist Philosophy Quarterly, Vol. 1 [2015], Iss. 1, Art. 5 http://ir.lib.uwo.ca/fpq/vol1/iss1/5 DOI: 10.5206/fpq/2015.1.5 already(known—or(anyway,(is(just(common(sense—that(an(unstable(economic,( social(or(relationship(status,(additional(children,(depression(might(go(handGinG hand(with(things(like(missed(antenatal(appointments,(it(is(not(clear(why(testing( whether(pregnant(women(have(good(attitudes(towards(their(fetuses(should(add( anything(to(what(is(already(known(about(them(as(patients.(Nonetheless,(MFA( research(has(continued(apace,27(and(has(caught(the(popular(imagination(in(its( folk(variant,(‘MaternalGFetal(Bonding’.((( Bonding(has(so(saturated(our(popular(discourse(on(pregnancy(and( maternity(that(it(seems(to(be(taken(as(a(given(in(contemporary(western(culture( that(pregnant(women(bond(with(their(fetuses,(and(that(this(bonding(is(either( developmentally(or(morally(important.(A(quick(scan(of(online(pregnancy( resources(reveals(a(vast(wealth(of(folk(knowledge(about(bonding.(For(example,( one(website(counsels(that(‘it's(never(too(early(or(too(late(to(start(communicating( and(bonding(with(your(baby.(Parenting(is(a(journey(that(really(begins(the( moment(you(find(out(you(are(pregnant.’28(( Advice(on(bonding(with(your(fetus(is(often(mixed(with(findings(from(the( empirical(literature(on(MFA.(For(example,(the(My(Virtual(Medical(Centre(website( informs(the(reader(that(failure(to(bond(with(the(fetus(‘is(associated(with( indicators(of(socioGeconomic(status(like(income(and(level(of(education’(and( depression(and(anxiety,(low(levels(of(social(support((outside(the(partner( relationship)(and(high(levels(of(control,(domination(and(criticism(within(the(partner( relationship.’(Also(Pollock(and(Percy((1999)(report(similarly.( 27(Though(note(that(most(of(two(decades(ago,(Mary(Muller—a(leading(MFA( researcher—cautioned(against(excessive(focus(on(MFA.(In(her((1996)(she(writes(that( ‘until(a(conclusive(body(of(evidence(emerges(supporting(the(promotion(of(prenatal( attachment,(nurses(should(continue(to(focus(their(care(on(the(individual( circumstances(of(each(pregnant(woman.(Specific(nursing(activities(include(exploring( with(the(pregnant(woman(her(experience(of(carrying(that(particular(baby,(teaching( women(to(avoid(and/or(cope(with(stress,(promoting(a(woman’s(feelings(of(selfG esteem,(reassuring(women(that(attachment(is(a(lifeGlong(process,(and(providing( information(about(pregnancy(and(motherhood(that(will(help(to(relieve(fear(and( increase(a(woman’s(confidence(in(her(ability(to(be(a(good(mother’((165).(To(my( knowledge,(this(conclusive(body(of(evidence(has(not(emerged(in(the(interim.((( 28("How(to(Bond(with(Your(Unborn(Baby."( http://www.birth.com.au/pregnancy/pregnancyG29G40Gweeks/emotionsGduringGtheG lastGthreeGmonthsGofGpregnancy/communicatingGwithGyourGunbornGbabyGhowGtoG bondGw#.VaXC2flViko.( 21 Porter: Gestation and Parental Rights Published by Scholarship@Western, 2015 suggests(that(race(and(ethnicity(might(also(be(factors.29(Many(pregnancy(and( parenting(websites(also(offer(‘tips’(for(how(to(successfully(bond(with(your(baby:( play(music(or(sing(to(your(bump;30(write(letters(to(your(unborn(child;31(take(time( out(to(reflect(on(the(person(growing(inside(you;(32(massage(or(in(other(ways(make( physical(contact(with(the(fetus;33(do(yoga;34(and(so(on.(( MaternalGfetal(bonding(is(popGscience,(and(the(science(it(is(popularizing(is( not(particularly(coherent(to(begin(with.(Additionally,(inasmuch(as(the(Attachment( version(of(the(bonding(story(picks(out(any(real(phenomenon,(the(phenomenon(it( is(picking(out(is(attitudinal,(or(at(best(attitudinal/behavioural,(and(not(relational.( There(is(no(suggestion(in(any(of(the(literature(that(fetuses(share(in(the(good( attitude.(Indeed,(beyond(the(predictive(power(of(MFA(as(regards(takeGup(of( antenatal(care,(there(is(no(indication(that(MFA(has(any(causal(effect(on(the( developing(fetus.(More(importantly,(there(is(no(indication(that(the(fetus(has(any( affective(causal(effect(on(the(pregnant(woman.(Given(that(the(woman’s(feelings( aren’t(affecting(the(fetus,(and(the(fetus’s(feelings(aren’t(affecting(the(woman,(it(is( implausible(to(suppose(that(the(right(way(to(characterize(MFA((or(‘bonding’)(is(as( a(relationship.(It(isn’t(a(relationship;(it’s(an(attitude.(( What(all(of(this(means(is(that(grounding(a(right(to(parent(one’s(biological( child(on(bonding(doesn’t(work.(Again,(Gheaus(argues(that(parents(have(a(right( against(baby(redistribution(in(the(same(way(that(parents35(have(a(right(against( their(children(being(taken(from(them(later(on,(because(at(birth(the(parents(are( already(in(a(morallyGsignificant(relationship(with(the(baby,(having(bonded(with(it( antenatally.(She(writes:( 29("Bonding(with(Your(Baby(During(Pregnancy."( http://www.myvmc.com/pregnancy/bondingGwithGyourGbabyGduringGpregnancy/.( 30("How(to(Bond(with(Your(Unborn(Baby."( http://www.birth.com.au/pregnancy/pregnancyG29G40Gweeks/emotionsGduringGtheG lastGthreeGmonthsGofGpregnancy/communicatingGwithGyourGunbornGbabyGhowGtoG bondGw#.VaXC2flViko.(( 31("Bonding(with(BabyGtoGBe."(http://www.parents.com/pregnancy/myG life/preparingGforGbaby/bondingGwithGbabyGtoGbe/.( 32(Ibid.( 33("Bonding(with(Your(Baby(During(Pregnancy."( http://www.myvmc.com/pregnancy/bondingGwithGyourGbabyGduringGpregnancy/.( 34("How(to(Bond(with(Your(Unborn(Baby."( http://www.birth.com.au/pregnancy/pregnancyG29G40Gweeks/emotionsGduringGtheG lastGthreeGmonthsGofGpregnancy/communicatingGwithGyourGunbornGbabyGhowGtoG bondGw#.VaXC2flViko.( 35(Or(anyhow,(the(gestating(parent.( 22 Feminist Philosophy Quarterly, Vol. 1 [2015], Iss. 1, Art. 5 http://ir.lib.uwo.ca/fpq/vol1/iss1/5 DOI: 10.5206/fpq/2015.1.5 ( Other(defenders(of(fundamental(parental(rights…have(argued(that(it(is( impermissible(to(disrupt(already(established(intimate(relationships( between(birth(parents(and(children,(for(reasons(of(both(parents’(and( children’s(welfare.(But(no(reason(was(provided(for(why(such(relationships( are(permitted(to(develop(in(the(first(place(if(better(parents(are(available.(If( the(same(process(which(brings(babies(into(the(world(also(generates(their( first(intimate(relationships([with](adults,(then(relationships(between(birth( parents(and(their(babies(need(no(justification:(they(are(already(there(from( the(beginning.((451)( ( The(plausibility(of(this(claim(rests(on(the(popular(belief(that(pregnant( women(‘bond’(with(their(fetuses,(and(that(this(bonding(constitutes(an(already( existent(interpersonal(relationship.(But(the(latter(claim(does(not(stand(up(to( scrutiny.(Insofar(as(pregnant(women(form(‘attachments’(with(their(fetuses,(these( attachments(are(oneGway:(they(consist(in(the(woman(feeling(attached(to(the( fetus.36(While(being(in(a(relationship(with(a(child(might(plausibly(ground(a(right(to( continue(in(that(relationship,(simply(feeling(attached(to(a(child(cannot.(Feeling( attached(to(something(cannot(generate(a(right(to(that(something.37(Feeling( attached(to(something(that(is(one’s(own(might(plausibly(mean(having(a(right(to(it;( but(if(the(claim(is(that(a(pregnant(woman(feels(attached(to(her(fetus(and(it’s(her( own(fetus,(then(the(account(collapses(into(a(proprietary(account—just(the(sort(of( account(Gheaus(set(out(to(avoid.(Since(‘bonding’(is(additionally(a(socially( pernicious(construct—demanding(not(just(perfect(behaviour(from(future( mothers,(but(indeed(perfect(thoughts—there(is(just(no(good(reason(to(accept(the( claim(that(maternalGfetal(bonding(is(what(grounds(parental(rights.(( ( Section)5.)Should)we)Abandon)Parental)Rights?) Labour—even(gestation—cannot(ground(parental(rights(on(its(own.(As(we( saw(in(Section(1,(simple(genetic(accounts(are(even(more(troubled.(It(is(difficult(to( see(how(we(can(ground(parental(rights(claims(at(all(without(claiming(that,(in( some(sense(or(other,(parents(own(their(children;(and(it(seems(that(we(shouldn’t( make(this(claim.(A(tempting(way(to(respond(to(the(problem(is(to(reject(parental( rights(altogether:(parents(just(don’t(have(rights;(parents(have(obligations,(and( nothing(more.(If(anyone(thinks(it(unfair(that(parents(labour(towards(the(end(of( 36(To(be(clear,(pregnant(women(certainly(are(physically(attached(to(their( fetuses.(Something(more(than(this(is(being(claimed(in(saying(that(the(pregnant( woman(is(in(an(‘intimate(relationship’(with(her(fetus.(( 37(Compare(with:(I(am(fond(of(my(neighbour’s(dog(or(I(love(Switzerland.( 23 Porter: Gestation and Parental Rights Published by Scholarship@Western, 2015 enjoying(the(goods(of(parenthood,(and(then(have(no(right(to(it,(well,(no(one( forced(them(to,(so(they(can(hardly(complain.38( But(this(bulletGbiting(doesn’t(answer(the(question(of(why(‘good(enough’(is( good(enough.(Even(if(we(bite(the(bullet(on(baby(reGdistribution—even(if(we( accept(the(claim(that(parents(rights(would(not(be(violated(by(having(their( children(redistributed(to(more(worthy(parents—we(are(still(left(with(a(question( to(answer:(why(are(we(not(violating(children’s(rights(by(not(redistributing(them?( Why(is(it(okay(to(leave(children(with(nonGideal(parents?(We(need(some(account( of(what(competing(considerations(are(tempering(children’s(rights(to(good(care.( Otherwise,(most(of(us(are(violating(the(rights(of(our(children(daily.39(What(I( would(like(to(propose(very(briefly(in(this(closing(section,(is(that(we(would(fare( better(explaining(why(good(enough(is(good(enough(by(building(a(deflationary( account(of(parental(rights,(one(that(piggybacks(on(parental(obligation.(( A(good(starting(point(for(such(an(account(is(Brennan(and(Noggle’s((1997)( stewardship(account(of(parental(rights.(According(to(this(account,(parental(rights( are(‘stewardship(rights’.(‘A(stewardship(right(is(a(right(someone(has(in(virtue(of( being(a(steward—as(opposed(to(an(owner—of(someone(or(something.’(The( owner(of(a(thing(has(a(right(to(dispose(of(it,(neglect(it,(sell(it(on;(and(no(obligation( to(care(for(it.(The(steward(of(a(thing,(on(the(other(hand,(has(an(obligation(to(care( for(it,(and(those(rights(necessary(for(doing(so.(Parental(rights,(then,(including(the( right(to(continue(to(parent(even(in(case(of(nonGoptimality,(are(‘necessary(to(allow( the(parents(the(freedom(to(effectively(protect(and(nurture(children’,(since(the( duty(to(promote(the(interest(of(the(child(is(an(imperfect(duty,(and(as(such,(the( parent(must(have(‘the(right(to(exercise(her(own(judgment(in(carrying(it(out’( (Brennan(and(Noggle(1997,(12G13).40(((( It(is(not(clear,(however,(that(stewardship(rights(can(explain(why(good( enough(is(good(enough.(Sometimes(it(is(perfectly(clear(that(one’s(parenting(is( nonGoptimal,(and(yet(we(think(that(this(is(not(a(reason(to(reassign(parentage,(and( nor(is(it(a(violation(of(the(child’s(rights,(so(long(as(the(parenting(meets(the(‘good( enough’(standard,(whatever(that(is.(Even(if(our(duties(to(our(children(are( imperfect(duties,(multiplyGrealisable(and(multiplyGfulfilled,(it(is(easy(enough(to( pick(out(clear(‘better’(or(‘worse’(parental(decisions.(So,(although(stewardship( 38(There(are(obvious(exceptions(to(the(claim(that(‘no(one(forced(them(to’.(( 39(While(I(certainly(have(days(when(this(feels(true,(I(hope(that(it(is(not!(( 40I(have(obviously(not(done(justice(to(the(richness(and(complexity(of(Brennan( and(Noggle’s(account(with(this(very(brief(runGthrough,(but(I(hope(it(is(sufficient(for( my(purposes(in(this(section.(( 24 Feminist Philosophy Quarterly, Vol. 1 [2015], Iss. 1, Art. 5 http://ir.lib.uwo.ca/fpq/vol1/iss1/5 DOI: 10.5206/fpq/2015.1.5 gets(us(a(fair(way(to(explaining(nonGproprietary(parental(rights,(it(alone(cannot( answer(the(goodGenough(worry.((( My(very(brief(and(speculative(answer(to(this(is(that,(in(addition(to(being(their( children’s(stewards,(parents—like(all(moral(agents—have(a((negative,(defeasible)( right(to(meet(their(moral(obligations—either(by(meeting(them(themselves,(or(by( actively(ensuring(that(they(are(met—and(this(right(competes(with(children’s(rights( to(best(care.41(Because(biological(parents(are(causal(parents((when(they(are)—that( is,(because(biological(parents(make(it(the(case(that(their(children(exist(and(need(care( in(the(first(instance—biological(parents(have(an(obligation(to(make(it(the(case(that( their(children’s(lives(are(good(ones,(so(far(as(they(are(able.42(And(because(parents( have(a(right(to(ensure(the(fulfilment(of(their(obligations,(biological(parents(thereby( have(a(limited(right(to(parent(their(biological(children.(The(limit(to(this(right(is((you( guessed(it)(good(enough.( ( ( References) Austin,(Michael(W.(2007.(Conceptions$of$Parenthood:$Ethics$and$the$Family.( Burlington:(Ashgate.( Bowlby,(John.(1957.("The(Nature(of(the(Child's(Tie(to(his(Mother."(The$International$ Journal$of$Psycho