Focus on ELT Focus on ELT Journal Vol 3, Issue 2, 2021 ISSN: 2687-5381  Corresponding Author: xiaoli@metu.edu.tr Copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to Focus on ELT Journal. Creating a frequency-based Turkish-English Loanword Cognates Word List (TELCWL) aXiaoli Yu and bVeysel Altunel aDr., Middle East Technical University, Turkey, xiaoli@metu.edu.tr bInstructor, Atılım University, Turkey, veysel.altunel@atilim.edu.tr APA Citation: Yu, X., & Altunel, V. (2021). Creating a frequency-based Turkish-English Loanword Cognates Word List (TELCWL). Focus on ELT Journal, 3(2), 5-35. https://doi.org/10.14744/felt.2021.3.2.2 ABSTRACT This lexical study aims to establish a frequency-based Turkish-English Loanword Cognates Word List (TELCWL) to assist Turkish English learners’ improvement in English language learning and the corresponding pedagogical practice. A final list of 582 Turkish-English loan-based cognate word pairs was derived from the New General Service List (NGSL) and the Frequency Dictionary of Turkish (FDT). For pedagogical purposes, the TELCWL was divided into five sublists with different features of the cognates in spelling and pronunciation. The coverages of the TELCWL were particularly high in discipline and field-specific corpora on average compared to general service written (5%) and spoken corpora (3.5%), accounting for more than 7%. This result suggests that the TELCWL may be more beneficial for enhancing learners’ reading and writing ability; in addition, not only general Turkish English learners but also learners who need to improve their English language proficiency in specific disciplines can benefit from the TELCWL. Further pedagogical implications are made for English instructors regarding the employment of the TELCWL in English classrooms in Turkey. Keywords cognates, corpus linguistics, coverage, frequency, loanwords, word list, Article History Received: 23.09.2021 Revised: 21.12.2021 Accepted: 22.12.2021 Published: 30.12.2021 Type Research Article Introduction New knowledge is constructed on top of existing knowledge. Second or foreign language learners enter language classrooms with their existing linguistic knowledge from the first language (L1), which may positively or negatively influence their learning of the second or foreign language (Selinker, 1972). In English as a Foreign Language (EFL) countries, such as Turkey, although it is advocated to avoid using L1 in English classrooms to increase the target language exposure, learners’ exposure to L1 from family or contexts outside of the classroom is inevitably preponderant. Hence, taking advantage of the potential facilitating impact from L1 on English learning should be encouraged (Bruen & Kelly, 2017; Meyer, 2008; Schweers, 1999). Despite various definitions of cognates, numerous empirical studies in different fields, such as second language acquisition, cognitive linguistics and neuroscience, have demonstrated the accelerating role of cognates or loanwords in second and foreign language acquisition (Daulton, mailto:xiaoli@metu.edu.tr mailto:veysel.altunel@atilim.edu.tr https://doi.org/10.14744/felt.2021.3.2.2 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8643-1084 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4562-1594 Yu, X., & Altunel, V. / Focus on ELT Journal, 2021, 3(2) 6 Focus on ELT www.focusonelt.com 2008; Marecka et al., 2020; Otwinowska & Szewczyk, 2017). Cross-linguistic similarity contributes to easier comprehension, better memorization, and improved production (Ringbom, 2006). For Turkish and English, although the two languages belong to different language families, there are evident connections between them (Karababa, 2011). However, few studies have extensively explored the loanwords and cognates between Turkish and English and their pedagogical implications. Based on a broader synchronic definition of cognates (Daulton, 2008), this study aims to establish a frequency-based Turkish-English loanword cognates word list (TELCWL) that can be employed by both learners and teachers to enhance the English language learning experience of Turkish speakers. The creation of the TELCWL takes the existing linguistic knowledge of the learners, especially their vocabulary knowledge, into account. Hence, the employment of the TELCWL in Turkish EFL teaching and learning practice is expected to be beneficial for lowering learners’ anxiety and promoting motivation and effectiveness in learning English Cognates, loanwords, and loanword cognates Based on Daulton’s (2008) broader synchronic viewpoint of cognates, cognates can be understood as two words in different languages that share a similar or same form and meaning regardless of etymology. This is different from the strict diachronic view, which emphasizes the common ancestor of the two languages when defining a cognate (Anthony, 1952). Applying the broader synchronic viewpoint in the current study presents the emphasis on pedagogical purposes that put learners’ rather than linguists’ study of cognates into focus. In Rogers et al.’s (2015) study, such a broad definition of cognates was also employed to elaborate the discussion of borrowed words or loanwords across historically unrelated languages. In contrast to cognates, false cognates refer to words that are only similar in form but have different meanings in two languages. Loanwords derive from lexical borrowing, which refers to “the adoption of individual or sets of words from another language or dialect” (Daulton, 2020, p. 1788). The forms of lexical borrowing may include roots and affixes, sounds, collocations, and grammatical processes. In the case of the Turkish language, throughout history, it has observed various changes. Starting from the end of the 15th century, Arabic and Persian borrowed words started to appear in Turkish as those languages represented prestigious culture and literacy by the educated community (Gibb, 2014). The most recent and crucial change occurred in 1928 with the replacement of the Ottoman Script (i.e., a version of the Arabic alphabet) to the Latin alphabet (Buğday & Frakes, 2009). Closer ties with the Western world, common usages of French as a prestigious diplomatic language, and Westernization attempts of the country enabled this orthographic reform, which led to lexical borrowing from French and other European languages (Hanioğlu, 2011). According to the Turkish Language Association (personal communication, 2020, see Appendix 1), Turkish has borrowed heavily from Arabic, Persian, French, English, Greek, Latin and so on; with 122.423 words included in modern Turkish, 15.373 of these words, namely nearly 13% have a foreign origin. Therefore, with both Turkish and English words closely connected to French and Latin (Durkin, 2014; Hanioğlu, 2011), even though Turkish may not directly borrow from English, a relatively Yu, X., & Altunel, V. / Focus on ELT Journal, 2021, 3(2) 7 Focus on ELT www.focusonelt.com strong connection between Turkish and English vocabulary can be observed, especially in scientific usages (Çakır, 2015). To this end, based on the broad synchronic viewpoint of cognates and due to the loanword- based characteristics of Turkish-English cognates, the phrase ‘loanword cognates’ is used in the present study. In addition, since the major objective of the current study is to create a word list of loanword cognates that may serve the purpose of language teaching and learning, especially for classroom practitioners and lower-level English learners rather than linguists, cognates and loanword cognates are used interchangeably in the study to avoid redundancy. In short, in the current study, cognates are word pairs that have identical or very similar semantic meaning and orthography between two languages, although the phonological forms of the two words may or may not be the same. For instance, alternative in English and alternatif in Turkish are loanword cognates. Cognates for L2 learning A large number of studies have revealed the facilitative effect of cognates regarding the recognition and production of words between diverse pairs of languages (Costa et al., 2005). In particular, the effect of cognates between Romance and Germanic languages and English in language learning and teaching has been thoroughly studied as they share substantial Latin origin (Blumenfeld & Marian, 2005; Bravo et al., 2006; Brenders et al., 2011; Gollan et al., 2007; Siyambalapitiya et al., 2009). Comesaña et al.’s (2015) experiments on the facilitative effect of cognate words revealed the importance of the degree of orthographic and phonological overlap between two languages in influencing word recognition and processing. Daulton’s extensive work on English-based loanword cognates in Japanese has shown the considerable potential of using cognates in EFL teaching even though the two languages may not be historically connected (Daulton, 2008, 2010). Gholami et al. (2015) suggested that the instruction of the structural similarities between the L1 and L2 lexicon facilitates L2 vocabulary acquisition for Iranian English learners. Baird et al.’s (2016) study on young bilinguals noted that emergent bilingual children had the advantage in using shared phonology of words and were able to recognize and produce cognates without extensive knowledge of orthography of the words. In addition, Jacobs et al.’s (2016) study found that cognate words were named more quickly and accurately than matched non-cognates regarding cross- language activation for English Spanish learners. Otwinowska and Szewczyk (2017) also suggested that cognates were easier to learn compared to non-cognate words, which verifies the notion that the meaning of unknown cognates is easier to be inferred due to the orthographical similarity in a known language (Vanhove & Berthele, 2017). Azieb et al.’s (2021) study on Jordanian English speakers’ French learning further supported the facilitative effects of cognates on comprehension of the foreign language. Following the facilitative impact of cognates for language learning, García et al. (2020) developed pedagogical approaches for improving Spanish- English bilingual students’ reading, spelling, and writing abilities. However, in foreign language teaching practice, what learners bring to the learning task may oftentimes be underestimated (Hall, 2002). In other words, language educators might overlook the fact that foreign language learners’ previous language knowledge may influence how Yu, X., & Altunel, V. / Focus on ELT Journal, 2021, 3(2) 8 Focus on ELT www.focusonelt.com foreign language instruction is perceived. As previous empirical studies have pointed out, language learners tend to be more sensitive toward the similarities between the new language and their existing language knowledge (Pérez et al., 2010); in particular, if the learners are aware of the cognates between the two languages, it is more likely for them to use their existing linguistic and vocabulary knowledge to learn the new vocabulary items, further the vocabulary depth knowledge (Cena et al., 2013), and retain a higher level of motivation in learning (Uni, 2020). Hence, helping learners build a strong connection between their native languages and the target language by being aware of the interlingual similarities, especially at the initial learning stage, could be beneficial for their further learning. As Rubin (1987) pointed out, “once the students’ attention is drawn to the relationship, the same student may learn several hundred words in a very short time. Hence, some kinds of conscious interventions are assumed to be helpful in the learning process” (p. 16). As for Turkish and English, the relatively strong connection between the two languages has been demonstrated in the previous section. Moreover, studies have shown that Turkish English learners are frequently presented as being demotivated in terms of learning English (Akay, 2017). Therefore, there is a need to find means that help Turkish English learners connect the target language with their native language, which can motivate their further learning in English. A word list of Turkish-English cognates can be beneficial for tackling this issue. Word lists and cognates lists for language education In the past two decades, word lists derived from a variety of corpora for diverse purposes have been created to assist vocabulary learning and teaching (Nation, 2016). Commonly based on the features of frequency, range, and dispersion, word lists have shown considerable efficiency and effectiveness in promoting one’s vocabulary learning, from general to discipline-specific vocabulary. Regarding the English language, the General Service List (GSL; West, 1953) consists of the 2,000 most frequent English words. Despite its age, the GSL remains one of the best researched frequency-range-based word lists (Gilner, 2011). With a high lexical coverage of English (~70-90%), the GSL has been widely used for pedagogical purposes and vocabulary research (Nurmukhamedov & Webb, 2019). To update the GSL, the New General Service List (NGSL) was developed by Browne et al. (2013) for studying English as a second language, providing over 92% coverage for most general English texts. Besides word lists for general English, discipline- and purpose-specific word lists have also been developed to meet diverse learners’ needs, such as the Academic Word List (AWL; Coxhead, 2000), the Essential Word List by Dang and Webb (2016), the Business Word List (Konstantakis, 2007), the Basic Engineering List (Ward, 2009), the Medical Academic Word list (Wang, et al., 2008), and so forth. Regarding the use of word lists, well-designed word lists can be used for various purposes, including course designing, language teaching and learning, specialized vocabulary teaching and learning, as well as language testing (Nation, 2016). Folse (2004) also suggests the potential benefits of employing suitable word lists for foreign vocabulary learning. Moreover, word lists have also played an important role in the construction of learners’ dictionaries and graded reading programs. For instance, the Collins COBUILD dictionary marks the usefulness of the words according to their frequency for EFL learners (Sinclair, 1987). With more and better word lists Yu, X., & Altunel, V. / Focus on ELT Journal, 2021, 3(2) 9 Focus on ELT www.focusonelt.com developed, the reliability of vocabulary size and vocabulary level tests has been largely enhanced, which further assists in more precise planning of teaching the actual vocabulary that needs to be known (Nation, 2016). In terms of word lists of cognates, comparatively fewer studies have been conducted. Although some studies in the intersection of linguistics and computer science have developed various approaches for cognates recognition and identification (e.g., Arnaud, 2017; Hauer & Kondrak, 2011; Rama & List, 2019), the research motivation and implications for most of the studies do not serve the purpose of language education. For other lists of cognates, the scope of the lists is usually limited. For instance, Montelongo (2011) created a short list of Spanish-English cognates based on the Dewey Decimal System to help Latino English learners with recognizing cognates in texts. However, the list of cognates only contains 99 sets of Spanish-English cognates, which may provide merely limited use in language pedagogy. Montelongo et al. (2013) generated English-Spanish cognates from picture books to assist vocabulary instruction of K-4th grade learners. In the context of English education in Turkey, Uzun and Salіhoǧlu (2009, 2021) compiled a comprehensive list of English-Turkish cognates and false cognates according to university English learners’ judgment based on four English dictionaries. The list contains 2411 sets of English-Turkish cognates and false cognates. To the best of the researchers’ knowledge, this is the only existing list of English-Turkish cognates. Nevertheless, despite the indicated pedagogical implications, this list has yet to be employed extensively in pedagogical practice. This list was compiled based on dictionaries according to the alphabetical order and the number of participants who shared the same judgment. However, the frequency features of the words in the language were not taken into consideration. Therefore, the final list may not provide learners with the most frequently used cognates in the languages. In sum, with the advantages that cognates may bring to foreign language learning and the potentially large number of loanword cognates between Turkish and English, it is essential to provide a suitable and practical loanword cognates word list for pedagogical practice. Frequency features of the words are an essential factor when creating word lists for pedagogical purposes (Brysbaert et al., 2018). Currently, there has not been a list of Turkish-English loanword cognates that is generated systematically based on comprehensive corpora. Thus, based on pedagogical needs, the present study aims to create a Turkish-English loanword cognates word list depending on the frequency feature of the words, which can be employed to assist English vocabulary instruction to Turkish learners, especially at the initial learning stage. The following research questions led to the investigation of the current study: (1) How many loanword cognates and false cognates in Turkish can be identified among the 2801 words listed in the New General Service List (NGSL)? (2) How many loanword cognates and false cognates in English can be identified among the first 2801 words in the Frequency Dictionary of Turkish (FDT)? (3) How many Turkish-English loanword cognates are included in the final loanword cognates word list? (4) What are the coverages of this Turkish-English loanword cognates word list (TECLWL) in different corpora? Yu, X., & Altunel, V. / Focus on ELT Journal, 2021, 3(2) 10 Focus on ELT www.focusonelt.com Methodology Two base word lists: The New General Service List (NGSL) and the Frequency Dictionary of Turkish (FDT) Two word lists were selected as the base lists to identify the Turkish-English loanword cognates for this study. Both base word lists were compiled based on large-scope corpora according to the frequency feature of the words, which provides the foundation for creating the list of cognates in the current study. Based on high-frequency English and Turkish words, the finalized Turkish- English loanword cognates list is expected to present cognates that are highly frequent in both English and Turkish across various genres. The base high-frequency English word list chosen for the present study is the New General Service List (NGSL) created by Browne et al. (2013). The list includes 2801 high-frequency words in English that were derived from the 273-million-word subcorpus of the Cambridge English Corpus (CEC). The researchers aimed to create a practical word list which updates and increases the generalizability and validity of the original GSL, as well as facilitates vocabulary learning and teaching. The principles employed to create the NGSL resemble the development of the original GSL, meaning both quantitative and qualitative approaches were used to identify the high- frequency words that are most useful to the needs of language learners (Browne, 2014). The subcorpora of the CEC that the researchers used to generate the NGSL include the learner, fiction, journals, magazines, nonfictions, radio, spoken, documents, and TV corpus. Before finalizing the list, it was further compared to other important word lists, such as the original GSL, the British Nation Corpus (BNC), and Corpus of Contemporary American English (COCA), to make sure the inclusion and exclusion of certain words. As a result, the final NGSL provides over 92% coverage for most general English texts. Therefore, considering the wide scope of the base corpus, the scientific method of compilation, the high coverage, and the aim of serving English learners, the NGSL was employed in the current study to identify the Turkish cognates of the most frequent 2801 English words. In alignment with the principles used in establishing the NGSL, the Frequency Dictionary of Turkish (FDT) was also developed with the consideration of assisting learners of Turkish as a second or foreign language. The base corpus of the FDT is the 50-million-word Turkish National Corpus (TNC). The TNC was constructed following the BNC to form a balanced and representative corpus of contemporary Turkish (Aksan et al., 2012). Both written and spoken language were involved in the corpus. Thus, the FDT includes the 5000 most frequently used words in contemporary written and spoken Turkish. As the FDT was derived from general written and spoken Turkish under systematic principles and it was created with pedagogical purposes, the current study employed the FDT as the base Turkish word list to identify the English cognates. In order to have a clear comparison with the English word list, the first 2801 words from the FDT were examined. Yu, X., & Altunel, V. / Focus on ELT Journal, 2021, 3(2) 11 Focus on ELT www.focusonelt.com Identifying Turkish-English cognates and creating the loanword cognates word list To avoid ambiguity, the two researchers of this study invited three external native Turkish speakers whose English level was all near-native to identify the loanword cognates in the two base word lists. In this way, the final decision of each loanword cognate was discussed and made by four native Turkish speakers with native-level English proficiency. The three external raters and the Turkish-speaking researcher in this study are experienced English teachers who have taught English to speakers of Turkish for at least ten years. In addition, the two researchers of this study and the three external raters all have daily communication with Turkish English learners. Based on the experienced Turkish-speaking English teachers’ understanding of the Turkish and English language as well as Turkish English learners’ needs and characteristics, the following five criteria were determined to identify different types of loanword cognates. The criteria were designed to serve potential pedagogical practices; moreover, higher consistency while identifying the cognates was reached based on the criteria. Six categories of cognates were concluded based on the criteria (see Table 1). Criterion 1. In terms of orthography, when the corresponding English and Turkish words contain 50% or more same letters in spelling, the two words were categorized as same or similar spelling, e.g., report and rapor, group and grup, information and enformasyon. In contrast, when the two words contain less than 50% same letters in spelling, the two words were categorized as different spelling, e.g., quality and kalite, chance and şans, club and kulüp. Criterion 2. Regarding the pronunciation between the corresponding English and Turkish words, the words were judged in a holistic way. The two researchers and the three external raters compared and contrasted the pronunciations in a joint effort to avoid subjectiveness. If the majority of the phonemes in each word were pronounced in a distinguishingly different manner, the two words were categorized as different pronunciations, e.g., budget and bütçe, equipment and ekipman, double and duble. On the other hand, if the two words share more recognizably similar phonemes, they were categorized as same or similar pronunciation, e.g., politics and politik, status and statü, physical and fiziksel. Criterion 3. There are also some loanword cognates in either English or Turkish only sharing one or a few of the multiple meanings that the corresponding word in the other language contains. Additionally, some words in one language can only be used in certain restricted disciplines or professions in the other language. These two types of corresponding English and Turkish words were categorized as partial cognates regardless of their similarities and differences in spelling and pronunciation. For instance, defans (i.e., defense in English) in Turkish is only used in sport-related contexts; solüsyon (i.e., solution in English) is only used as a technical term in certain science disciplines such as chemistry; kombine and kombin (i.e., combine in English) refer only to the combined tickets of sport events and harmony of outfits respectively. Criterion 4. Certain Turkish words contain an English cognate part and are followed by one or more Turkish suffixes, e.g., leadership and liderlik. Also, in certain cases, to form the corresponding meaning to an English word, an extra word needs to be added to the Turkish cognate word, such as automatically in English and otomatik şekilde in Turkish. Cases like these were categorized as partial cognates. Yu, X., & Altunel, V. / Focus on ELT Journal, 2021, 3(2) 12 Focus on ELT www.focusonelt.com Criterion 5. English and Turkish words that share either recognizable spelling or pronunciation but differ in meaning were categorized as false cognates, e.g., top in Turkish means ball, bin in Turkish means thousand. Table 1. Six Categories of Cognates Categories Descriptions Category 1 Cognates same/similar in both spelling and pronunciation Category 2 Cognates different in both spelling and pronunciation Category 3 Cognates same/similar in spelling but different in pronunciation Category 4 Cognates same/similar in pronunciation but different in spelling Category 5 Partial cognates Category 6 False cognates Adhering to the determined criteria, the categorization of the two base word lists (i.e., NGSL and FDT) was implemented. For each base word list, the 2801 words were color-coded in a joint manner by the five raters. As a result, six sublists of different types of loanword cognates were formed for each base word list. Appendix 2 and 3 show the complete sublists derived from the two base word lists. To assist the pedagogical practice in teaching English-Turkish loanword cognates, the final sublists of the TELCWL were combined based on the English word frequency, and the repetitive words appearing in both base lists were deleted and marked. Appendix 4 presents the combined loanword cognates word list, namely the TELCWL. Calculating the coverage of the TELCWL After the final list of Turkish-English loanword cognates was compiled, the coverages of the list, including the five sublists of loanword cognates, in different corpora were examined. This was to answer Research Question 4, which intends to reveal the coverages of the TELCWL across different genres to further validate the pedagogical value of the list. To calculate the coverages of the TELCWL, the Coverage Calculator v. 1.2 from Compleat Lexical Tutor (Cobb, n.d.) was employed. This program calculates how many times the words on a list appear in a corpus. Multiple corpora are embedded in this program. Examples of corpora for general service purposes are the Brown Corpus, the Lancaster-Oslo/Bergen Corpus (LOB Corpus), sample COCA and BNC corpora, and so forth. Several discipline and field-specific corpora are also included, such as BNC medical, commerce, law, and social science corpora, Research Article Corpus, and Electrical Engineering Corpus, and so on. The sublists of the TELCWL were tested by three categories of corpora to present a full profile. The corpora that were selected to calculate the coverages of the TELCWL include general service written and spoken corpora and discipline-specific corpora. This is to examine the coverages and representativeness of the TELCWL across various genres and registers to reveal its potential value in pedagogical practices. First, the coverages of the lists in four general service written corpora were calculated. The four corpora were the Brown Corpus (1M), the LOB Corpus, the COCA sampler corpus, and the BNC sampler written corpus. The second category of corpora was the general service spoken corpora. Three corpora were selected, including the COCA sampler Yu, X., & Altunel, V. / Focus on ELT Journal, 2021, 3(2) 13 Focus on ELT www.focusonelt.com speech corpus, the BNC sampler speech corpus, and the US TV talk corpus. Lastly, five corpora were selected to construct the discipline- and field-specific category, including the BNC medical, commerce, law, social science corpora and the RAC corpus. The coverages of the full word list and each sublist of the loanword cognates were investigated except the false cognates list because the main purpose of compiling the false cognates list was to provide a reference list that teachers and students may need to pay special attention to. Besides, the coverage of a false cognates list in a corpus may not have a critical influence on pedagogical practice. Results Research question 1 Research Question 1 investigated the number of Turkish loanword cognates of high-frequency English words in the NGSL. After the five raters discussed each word on the list, 329 Turkish loanword cognates that share the similar or same spelling and pronunciation of the English words were detected, this counts for 11.75% of words in the NGSL; 16 words, namely 0.57%, were categorized as having Turkish loanword cognates but with different spelling and pronunciation; as for the Turkish loanword cognates that share similar or same spelling only with the English words, 11 words were detected, which is 0.39% of the NGSL; 28 words (1%) were identified as having Turkish loanword cognates that are similar or same in pronunciation but not spelling. Figure 1. Loanword cognates in the NGSL. Yu, X., & Altunel, V. / Focus on ELT Journal, 2021, 3(2) 14 Focus on ELT www.focusonelt.com Turkish loanword cognates that were recognized as partial cognates of the English words take 3.14% of the NGSL, namely 88 words. Finally, 44 false cognates were detected, counting for 1.57% of the NGSL. Figure 1 visualizes the proportion of each category. The full lists of words in each category are shown in Appendix 2. Research question 2 The second research question focused on the percentage of English loanword cognates of high- frequency Turkish words in the FDT. The result shows that 244 Turkish words were detected with English cognates that share similar or same spelling and pronunciation, which counted for 8.71% of the top 2801 words in the FDT. There were 15 loanword cognates in English (0.54%) that shared different spelling and pronunciation with the Turkish words. As for the English loanword cognates considered as sharing similar or same spelling but different pronunciation, 8 were detected, which took 0.29% of the top 2801 words in the FDT. 26 words (0.93%) were categorized as having English loanword cognates that share only similar pronunciation. For the words that partial English cognates were identified, there were 9, taking 0.32% of the total words. Lastly, there were 116 words, namely 4.14%, in the list having false cognates in English. Detailed division of words from the FDT is depicted in Figure 2, and the full lists of each category are presented in Appendix 3. Figure 2. Loanword cognates in the FDT Yu, X., & Altunel, V. / Focus on ELT Journal, 2021, 3(2) 15 Focus on ELT www.focusonelt.com Research question 3 To form a complete loanword cognates word list, the detected Turkish-English loanword cognates in different categories from the NGSL and FDT were combined. The repetitive pairs were excluded in the combined list; in the end, there were 582 Turkish-English loanword cognate pairs distributed in 5 categories. There were 140 false Turkish-English cognates. Appendix 4 shows the complete loanword cognates lists, and Figure 3 illustrates the distribution of different categories. Figure 3. Category distribution of the Turkish-English loanword cognates word list Research question 4 To answer the last research question, first, coverages of the full list of Turkish-English loanword cognates (i.e., 582 lemmas) in different corpora were calculated. Table 2 presents the specific coverages in the 12 selected corpora. Compared to general service written and spoken corpora, the word list had the highest coverages of discipline and field-specific corpora (Mdiscipline = 7.17%). The average coverage of spoken corpora was the lowest (Mspoken = 3.48%), which was less than half of the coverage of the discipline and field-specific corpora. The written corpora demonstrated a 5.00% average coverage from the word list. Yu, X., & Altunel, V. / Focus on ELT Journal, 2021, 3(2) 16 Focus on ELT www.focusonelt.com Table 2. Coverages of the Turkish-English cognates word list Categories Corpora Full List SSSP DSDP SSDP DSSP Partial Written Corpora (general service) Brown 4.82% 2.56% 0.13% 0.88% 0.21% 1.05% LOB 4.76% 2.26% 0.14% 1.02% 0.23% 1.11% COCA Sam. 4.81% 2.26% 0.10% 1.12% 0.19% 1.14% BNC Sam. W. 5.61% 2.81% 0.14% 1.26% 0.24% 1.15% Average 5.00% 2.47% 0.13% 1.07% 0.22% 1.11% Spoken Corpora (general service) COCA Sam. S. 4.46% 2.19% 0.09% 0.80% 0.15% 1.22% BNC Sam. S. 2.71% 1.27% 0.10% 0.16% 0.15% 1.03% US TV Talk 3.27% 1.41% 0.06% 0.32% 0.20% 1.28% Average 3.48% 1.62% 0.08% 0.43% 0.17% 1.18% Discipline/Fiel d-specific Corpora BNC Med. 8.00% 3.85% 0.10% 3.04% 0.15% 0.85% BNC Commer. 7.79% 4.33% 0.17% 1.68% 0.24% 1.36% BNC Law 7.37% 2.97% 0.15% 2.77% 0.24% 1.24% BNC Soc. Science 6.55% 3.69% 0.13% 1.54% 0.20% 0.98% RAC Academic 6.13% 2.92% 0.10% 2.25% 0.15% 0.71% Average 7.17% 3.55% 0.13% 2.26% 0.20% 1.03% Figure 4. Coverages of the Turkish-English loanword cognates word list Second, the coverages of each sublist in the 12 corpora were calculated (see Table 2). Following the pattern of the full list coverages in the corpora, except for the sublist of partial cognates, on average, the coverages of the other sublists appeared mostly higher in written and field-specific Yu, X., & Altunel, V. / Focus on ELT Journal, 2021, 3(2) 17 Focus on ELT www.focusonelt.com corpora; in particular, the coverages in the discipline and field-specific corpora were the highest. However, the coverages of the spoken corpora were considerably lower. Figure 4 visualizes the average coverages of the full word list and the sublists in different corpora. Discussion Summary of results For the first two research questions, relatively high percentages of loanword cognates were identified in both the NGSL (i.e., 472 cognates in total, 16.85% of the entire NGSL) and the FDT (i.e., 302 cognates in total, 10.79% of the entire FDT). In particular, for the NGSL, more than one- sixth of the entire word list can be found corresponding loanword cognates in Turkish, meaning that with effective guidance, Turkish English learners will be able to easily detect one Turkish loanword cognate word in every six high-frequency English words. This can be of particular benefit for Turkish English learners’ receptive skills, including reading and listening. During the reading and listening process, learners’ existing linguistic knowledge of the corresponding Turkish loanword cognates could be beneficial for enhancing their understanding of the English text and lowering their anxiety in reading and listening to the foreign language. To answer the third research question, combining the identified Turkish-English loanword cognates from the NGSL and the FDT, 582 Turkish-English loanword cognate word pairs were finally compiled to form the Turkish-English Loanword Cognates Word List (TELCWL). For pedagogical purposes, the TELCWL was compiled based on the frequency of the English words and divided into five sublists, including cognates with same/similar spelling and same/similar pronunciation, cognates with different spelling and different pronunciation, cognates with same/similar spelling but different pronunciation, cognates with different spelling but same/similar pronunciation, and partial cognates. To answer the fourth research question, the coverages of the TELCWL and the sublists were then examined in different corpora to investigate their validity and practicability. The TELCWL and most sublists had relatively high average coverages in discipline and field-specific corpora. For the full list of TELCWL, the coverage in the discipline and field-specific corpora was 7.17% on average. Compared to the coverages of other word lists for specific purposes in their corresponding corpora, such as the Academic Word List in academic texts (~10%; Coxhead, 2000), the basic engineering word list in engineering texts (~16%; Ward, 2009), the nursing academic word list in nursing research articles corpus (~14%; Yang, 2015), and the Medical Academic Word list in medical research articles (~12%; Wang, et al., 2008), the coverage of the TELCWL can be considered as relatively high. In sum, the results of the current study provide a comprehensive list of Turkish-English loanword cognates that are organized according to the frequency features of both languages. This list is expected to fill the current gap in Turkish-English cognate research that may assist pedagogical practices of English education in Turkey. Compared to the previous relevant studies, such as Uzun and Salіhoǧlu (2009, 2021), the list of loanword cognates in the present study is primarily compiled for pedagogical practice. Since the frequency features of the cognate words played a critical role in the compiling process, moreover, the coverages of the TELCWL have been Yu, X., & Altunel, V. / Focus on ELT Journal, 2021, 3(2) 18 Focus on ELT www.focusonelt.com examined as high across various corpora, the final list is expected to assist Turkish English learners in identifying and learning English vocabulary efficiently and effectively. Pedagogical implications Regarding pedagogical implications, having explicit instruction of the TELCWL in English classrooms and establishing the connection between Turkish and English can be helpful for Turkish English learners in learning English for specific purposes, such as academic purposes. With the assistance of Turkish-English loanword cognates, Turkish English learners’ vocabulary learning could be enlarged with little effort expected as they might be already familiar with the Turkish loanword cognates. This is in line with previous studies that have shown the effectiveness of explicit vocabulary and morphological instruction (Schmitt & Zimmerman, 2002; Sukying, 2020). Naturally, some cross-linguistic awareness activities can be employed in EFL classrooms in Turkey. These activities can be both paper-based or computer-based. On the other hand, although there are a large number of Turkish-English loanword cognates among the high- frequency words, to avoid fossilization and ill-usages, classroom instructors should explicitly point out the differences between the cognates in spelling and pronunciation; in addition, for partial cognates, comprehensive explanation of the Turkish and English words and their differences in usages should be presented. For false cognates, English instructors should also specifically underline the differences between the Turkish and English words to prevent misunderstanding of the learners. On the other hand, research has also shown the value of incidental learning for acquiring cognates (De Vos et al., 2019; Puimège & Peters, 2019). Hence, English educators may also consider employing various activities that help the learner access the cognates incidentally. For instance, using multimedia technology to expose the learners to selective video clips containing the target cognates may increase their encountering of the vocabulary as well as further encourage their motivation in language learning (Zhang & Zou, 2021). Finally, research in translanguaging also supports the employment of the TELCWL in English language teaching in Turkey. As stated by Swain and Watanabe (2019), L2 learners’ usage of L1 is a prominent instrument which helps L2 learners to form their opinions, focus their attention and scaffold their understanding and production in L2. Additionally, enhancing home- school associations and collaboration, incorporating fluent speakers with language learners, and promoting a deeper understanding of the content are some of the noticeable benefits of translanguaging (Baker, 2011). Clancy’s (2018) study also suggests that learners may desire the use of L1 in certain circumstances to foster their understanding of the target language. Hence, introducing the loanword cognate list can be supportive of students’ foreign language learning by using their existing linguistic repertoire. Furthermore, both learners and teachers can focus on the process of teaching and learning on meaning-making and improving the learning experience (Creese & Blackledge, 2015; García, 2019). Limitations and suggestions for further research Yu, X., & Altunel, V. / Focus on ELT Journal, 2021, 3(2) 19 Focus on ELT www.focusonelt.com With respect to the limitations of the study, first, the categorization of the cognate words was conducted according to the raters’ subjective decisions. Therefore, even though the raters were chosen carefully to present Turkish English learners’ and educators’ perspectives, the controversy regarding the cognateness of the words might exist. We encourage further research in examining the individual loanword cognates provided in this study. Second, the study is limited by the lack of generalization for other language pairs. The criteria determined in identifying different types of Turkish-English cognates in the present study may not apply to other language pairs that use different alphabetical systems, such as Chinese and English. Finally, since this study aims to provide an initial step for instructing Turkish-English cognate words, the scope of the study does not allow us to develop specific teaching materials or activities for language learners and educators. Further studies may consider developing various activities that apply the TELCWL in pedagogical practices, this will also provide channels to further validate the effectiveness of the TELCWL. Conclusions In this study, the Turkish-English Loanword Cognates Word List (TELCWL) was established, containing 582 Turkish-English cognate word pairs. With the relatively high coverage of the word list in written and discipline and field-specific corpora, as well as the potential benefits of including learners’ first language in foreign language instruction, employing the TELCWL in English classroom instruction in Turkey may help Turkish English learners be aware of the connection between their native language and the target language. 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This is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution license (CC BY-NC-ND) (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/). https://doi.org/10.1177/1362168814541752 https://doi.org/10.2307/3588328 https://doi.org/10.1515/iral.1972.10.1-4.209 https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1017/S0142716409090262 https://doi.org/10.1002/9781405198431.wbeal0664.pub2 https://doi.org/10.2478/v10010-009-0031-5 https://doi.org/10.1515/psicl-2021-0014 https://doi.org/10.1515/iral-2017-0007 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.esp.2008.05.003 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.esp.2009.04.001 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.esp.2014.05.003 https://doi.org/10.1080/09588221.2021.1896555 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ Yu, X., & Altunel, V. / Focus on ELT Journal, 2021, 3(2) 23 Focus on ELT www.focusonelt.com Appendix 1: Personal Communication Email about Contemporary Turkish Dictionary Translation: Answer: Atatürk Supreme Council for Culture, Language and History (12.16.2020 23:16) Dear _________; Your query, which was received by the Presidency Communication Center (CIMER) and sent to the Atatürk Supreme Council for Culture, Language and History, was examined by the Turkish Language Association within the framework of the Right to Information Law and was answered as follows: "The query asks for the number of words in the Contemporary Turkish Dictionary and the number of words of foreign origin. Contemporary Turkish Dictionary has 122,423 vocabulary consisting of words, terms, idioms and meanings. There are 92,292 words in the dictionary, of which 77,005 are per item and 15,287 are within items. Of these, 15,373 are the words that have been borrowed to Turkish from foreign languages. " Best wishes. Appendix 2: Turkish-English Loanword Cognates Based on the NGSL Sublist 1: Cognates with same/similar spelling and pronunciation N o . Ran k English Turkish 1 120 problem problem 2 164 course kurs 3 166 report rapor 4 167 group grup 5 179 system sistem 6 213 information enformasyon 7 219 market market 8 232 plan plan 9 240 program program 1 0 262 level level 1 1 289 train tren 1 2 299 party parti 1 3 301 control kontrol 1 4 332 test test 1 5 343 office ofis 1 6 381 social sosyal 1 7 384 note not 1 8 392 music müzik 1 9 394 political politik 2 0 404 general genel 2 1 426 position pozisyon 2 2 432 activity aktivite 2 3 433 film film 2 4 468 role rol 2 5 472 detail detay 2 6 474 action aksiyon 2 7 485 model model 2 8 493 economic ekonomik 2 9 512 organization organizasyon 3 0 518 project proje 3 1 522 accord akort 3 2 523 list liste 3 3 530 industry endüstri 3 4 545 risk risk 3 5 547 standard standart 3 6 556 data data 3 7 559 performance performans 3 8 563 technology teknoloji 3 9 568 culture kültür 4 0 571 material materyal 4 1 572 limit limit 4 2 596 leader lider 4 3 603 sport spor 4 4 616 police polis 4 5 627 bank banka 4 6 632 attack atak 4 7 634 surprise sürpriz 4 8 636 factor faktör 4 9 644 financial finansal 5 0 647 campaign kampanya 5 1 657 park park 5 2 691 stock stok 5 3 693 character karakter 5 4 698 final final 5 5 699 economy ekonomi 5 6 700 fit fit 5 7 702 function fonksiyon 5 8 704 image imaj 5 9 709 station istasyon 6 0 710 population popülasyon 6 1 724 direct direkt 6 2 727 director direktör 6 3 736 department departman 6 4 755 method metod 6 5 756 analysis analiz 6 6 759 hotel otel 6 7 763 doctor doktor 6 8 770 link link 6 9 773 advantage avantaj 7 0 780 unit unite 7 1 781 card kart Yu, X., & Altunel, V. / Focus on ELT Journal, 2021, 3(2) 24 Focus on ELT www.focusonelt.com 7 2 790 popular popüler 7 3 791 specific spesifik 7 4 795 television televisyon 7 5 808 modern modern 7 6 816 natural natürel 7 7 817 express ekspress 7 8 822 score skor 7 9 823 organize organize 8 0 829 potential potansiyel 8 1 830 energy enerji 8 2 836 bar bar 8 3 838 strategy strateji 8 4 848 operation operasyon 8 5 854 normal normal 8 6 855 goal gol 8 7 858 positive pozitif 8 8 859 option opsiyon 8 9 862 message mesaj 9 0 870 baby bebek 9 1 875 theory teori 9 2 877 reference referans 9 3 878 argument argüman 9 4 881 document doküman 9 5 891 career kariyer 9 6 906 balance balans 9 7 918 restaurant restorant 9 8 927 post posta 9 9 935 professional profesyonel 1 0 0 943 credit kredi 1 0 1 951 direction direksiyon 1 0 2 958 dance dans 1 0 3 962 original orijinal 1 0 4 967 university üniversite 1 0 5 970 dollar dolar 1 0 6 977 legal legal 1 0 7 979 version versiyon 1 0 8 990 agent acente 1 0 9 996 generation jenerasyon 1 1 0 998 favorite favori 1 1 1 102 8 element element 1 1 2 103 1 medical medikal 1 1 3 103 4 telephone telefon 1 1 4 103 5 copy kopya 1 1 5 103 6 committee komite 1 1 6 104 2 stress stres 1 1 7 104 3 radio radyo 1 1 8 104 5 complex kompleks 1 1 9 104 9 directly direkt 1 2 0 105 6 extra ekstra 1 2 1 106 1 sex seks 1 2 2 106 3 video video 1 2 3 108 2 collection koleksiyon 1 2 4 108 4 negative negatif 1 2 5 108 5 band bando 1 2 6 108 7 tour tur 1 2 7 108 8 alternative alternatif 1 2 8 110 5 politics politik 1 2 9 110 8 transfer transfer 1 3 0 112 1 federal federal 1 3 1 112 5 status statü 1 3 2 113 4 partner partner 1 3 3 113 5 institution enstitü 1 3 4 114 6 taxi taksi 1 3 5 114 9 sector sektör 1 3 6 115 5 expert eksper 1 3 7 116 3 camp kamp 1 3 8 116 6 procedure prosedür 1 3 9 116 7 email email 1 4 0 116 8 global global 1 4 1 118 0 photograph fotoğraf 1 4 2 118 1 artist artist 1 4 3 118 7 gas gaz 1 4 4 119 0 category kategori 1 4 5 119 1 secretary sekreter 1 4 6 119 6 nuclear nükleer 1 4 7 120 6 photo foto 1 4 8 121 1 concept konsept 1 4 9 121 3 reform reform 1 5 0 121 5 football futbol 1 5 1 122 3 traffic trafik 1 5 2 122 9 reaction reaksiyon 1 5 3 125 9 lady leydi 1 5 4 126 3 cultural kültürel 1 5 5 127 9 trend trend 1 5 6 128 3 critical kritik 1 5 7 130 2 boat bot 1 5 8 130 4 fan fan 1 5 9 134 4 code kod 1 6 0 135 2 active aktif 1 6 1 135 5 cancer kanser 1 6 2 136 3 location lokasyon 1 6 3 136 7 actor aktör 1 6 4 137 5 monitor monitor 1 6 5 137 7 finance finans 1 6 6 138 0 concert konser 1 6 7 138 1 shock şok 1 6 8 138 8 camera kamera 1 6 9 139 5 museum müze 1 7 0 140 8 route rota 1 7 1 141 5 bomb bomba 1 7 2 142 1 editor editör 1 7 3 142 2 normally normalde 1 7 4 144 7 civil sivil 1 7 5 147 0 capacity kapasite 1 7 6 148 1 studio stüdyo 1 7 7 148 4 tourist turist 1 7 8 148 9 cup kupa 1 7 9 149 2 industrial endüstriyel 1 8 0 149 4 perspective perspektif 1 8 1 151 7 literature literatür 1 8 2 155 0 combination kombinasyon 1 8 3 157 0 theme tema 1 8 4 157 7 atmosphere atmosfer 1 8 5 158 0 characteristic karakteristik 1 8 6 158 1 license lisans 1 8 7 159 1 commission komisyon 1 8 8 159 4 instrument enstrüman 1 8 9 159 6 practical pratik 1 9 0 161 7 notion nosyon 1 9 1 162 3 honor onur 1 9 2 162 8 musical müzikal 1 9 3 163 9 analyze analiz 1 9 4 164 7 mental mental 1 9 5 164 9 vision vizyon 1 9 6 167 2 ideal ideal 1 9 7 168 9 mission misyon 1 9 8 169 1 tone ton 1 9 9 170 6 protest protesto 2 0 0 172 0 electronic elektronik 2 0 1 172 1 impose empoze 2 0 2 172 2 criminal kriminal 2 0 3 173 6 mobile mobil 2 0 4 173 7 assistant asistan 2 0 5 174 0 attach ataş 2 0 6 174 9 academic akademik 2 0 7 176 0 professor profesör 2 0 8 176 7 minimum minimum 2 0 9 177 6 critic kritik 2 1 0 179 2 online online 2 1 1 179 4 pilot pilot 2 1 2 180 2 producer prodüktör 2 1 3 181 9 liberal liberal 2 1 4 182 7 disk disk 2 1 5 183 2 metal metal 2 1 6 183 5 panel panel 2 1 7 183 9 maximum maksimum 2 1 8 184 3 initiative inisiyatif 2 1 9 184 5 diet diyet 2 2 0 184 7 gray gri 2 2 1 184 8 plastic plastik 2 2 2 185 0 discipline disiplin 2 2 3 186 0 mechanism mekanizma 2 2 4 186 2 democracy demokrasi 2 2 5 186 8 concentratio n konsantrasyon 2 2 6 187 3 classic klasik 2 2 7 191 5 tennis tenis 2 2 8 192 5 mathematics matematik 2 2 9 194 3 comfort konfor 2 3 0 195 1 criterion kriter 2 3 1 197 3 dramatic dramatik 2 3 2 197 6 protein protein 2 3 3 197 9 intellectual entelektüel 2 3 4 198 8 gentleman centilmen 2 3 5 198 9 drama drama 2 3 6 201 2 electricity elektrik 2 3 7 201 7 variation varyasyon 2 3 8 202 8 agenda ajanda 2 3 9 203 8 gay gey 2 4 0 204 6 inch inç 2 4 1 205 3 uniform üniforma 2 4 2 206 3 profile profil 2 4 3 206 4 mood mod 2 4 4 206 9 symptom semptom 2 4 5 207 3 tension tansiyon 2 4 6 207 4 cable kablo 2 4 7 209 9 formula formül 2 4 8 210 2 routine rutin 2 4 9 211 0 meter metre 2 5 0 211 9 terrorist terörist 2 5 1 212 6 depression depresyon 2 5 2 213 9 pub pub 2 5 3 216 5 symbol sembol 2 5 4 216 6 apartment apartman 2 5 5 216 8 analyst analist 2 5 6 216 9 platform platform 2 5 7 217 8 innovation inovasyon 2 5 8 217 9 album albüm 2 5 9 218 7 tank tank 2 6 0 220 5 pose poz 2 6 1 220 7 creative kreatif 2 6 2 221 2 alcohol alkol 2 6 3 221 3 festival festival 2 6 4 222 1 web web 2 6 5 222 7 portion porsiyon 2 6 6 224 4 radical radikal 2 6 7 225 0 infection enfeksiyon 2 6 8 225 1 jacket ceket 2 6 9 225 4 statistic istatistik 2 7 0 226 9 alarm alarm 2 7 1 227 7 parallel paralel 2 7 2 227 9 sponsor sponsor 2 7 3 228 0 boot bot 2 7 4 230 7 digital dijital 2 7 5 231 0 formation formasyon 2 7 6 231 1 deposit depozito 2 7 7 232 1 tube tüp 2 7 8 232 3 characterize karakterize 2 7 9 232 7 operator operatör 2 8 0 233 9 virus virüs 2 8 1 235 1 illegal illegal 2 8 2 236 3 ethnic etnik 2 8 3 236 5 clinical klinik 2 8 4 237 0 adapt adapte 2 8 5 238 5 dialog diyalog 2 8 6 240 0 barrier bariyer 2 8 7 240 8 motor motor 2 8 8 241 8 electric elektrik 2 8 9 243 9 motivate motive 2 9 0 244 0 laboratory laboratuvar 2 9 1 244 2 promotion promosyon 2 9 2 244 4 champion şampiyon 2 9 3 245 1 march Mart/marş 2 9 4 245 9 opera opera 2 9 5 246 3 gallery galeri 2 9 6 246 4 genetic genetik Yu, X., & Altunel, V. / Focus on ELT Journal, 2021, 3(2) 25 Focus on ELT www.focusonelt.com 2 9 7 246 5 aggressive agresif 2 9 8 246 7 format format 2 9 9 247 6 golf golf 3 0 0 249 0 fantastic fantastik 3 0 1 249 2 inflation enflasyon 3 0 2 249 6 therapy terapi 3 0 3 249 9 personnel personel 3 0 4 251 4 ceremony seramoni 3 0 5 252 0 psychologica l psikolojik 3 0 6 252 7 penalty penaltı 3 0 7 254 4 democratic demokratik 3 0 8 258 0 carbon karbon 3 0 9 258 6 guitar gitar 3 1 0 258 8 piano piyano 3 1 1 259 4 menu menü 3 1 2 260 2 jury jüri 3 1 3 260 4 civilian sivil 3 1 4 260 5 composition kompozisyon 3 1 5 261 5 paragraph paragraf 3 1 6 262 0 potato patates 3 1 7 262 5 tourism turizm 3 1 8 263 0 motivation motivasyon 3 1 9 263 1 romantic romantik 3 2 0 264 8 catalog katalog 3 2 1 268 4 grammar gramer 3 2 2 269 0 panic panik 3 2 3 270 2 comedy komedi 3 2 4 271 0 portrait portre 3 2 5 271 6 filter filtre 3 2 6 275 2 functional fonksiyonel 3 2 7 275 6 athlete atlet 3 2 8 275 7 organic organik 3 2 9 278 5 module modül Sublist 2: Cognates with different spelling and pronunciation No. Rank English Turkish 1 517 quality kalite 2 760 club kulüp 3 820 brother birader 4 847 generally genelikle 5 1014 budget bütçe 6 1053 equipment ekipman 7 1153 chief şef 8 1300 crisis kriz 9 1420 council konsey 10 1763 dozen düzine 11 2078 isolate izole 12 2359 cousin kuzen 13 2657 luxury lüks 14 2771 hypothesis hipotez 15 2773 theoretical teorik 16 2778 tournament turnuva Sublist 3: Cognates with same/similar spelling and different pronunciation No. Rank English Turkish 1 127 number numara 2 389 type tip 3 484 practice pratik 4 527 fund fon 5 745 machine makine 6 777 mile mil 7 810 bus otobüs 8 864 style stil 9 1094 double duble 10 1500 signal sinyal 11 1946 gene gen Sublist 4: Cognates with different spelling and same/similar pronunciation No. Rank English Turkish 1 441 design dizayn 2 560 chance şans 3 969 agency ajans 4 1002 announce anons 5 1118 physical fiziksel 6 1222 technique teknik 7 1317 package paket 8 1340 coach koç 9 1391 theater tiyatro 10 1393 coffee kahve 11 1456 technical teknik 12 1530 channel kanal 13 1534 typical tipik 14 1539 concentrate konsantre 15 1568 guarantee garanti 16 2060 beer bira 17 2171 cake kek 18 2296 philosophy felsefe 19 2348 musician müzisyen 20 2354 cigarette sigara 21 2372 cap kep 22 2384 league lig 23 2386 cream krema 24 2413 valley vadi 25 2478 classical klasik 26 2531 chat çet 27 2617 chocolate çikolata 28 2655 biological biyolojik Sublist 5: Partial cognates N o. Rank English Turkish 1 55 out aut 2 94 back bek 3 110 show şov 4 123 lot lot 5 223 service servis 6 257 form form 7 309 stand stant 8 315 effect efekt 9 344 record rekor 10 354 real reel 11 357 figure figür 12 382 period periyot 13 399 policy poliçe 14 407 team tim 15 416 pass pas 16 443 special spesiyal 17 445 condition kondisyon 18 450 table tablo 19 452 forward forvet 20 498 charge şarj 21 519 round raunt 22 558 address adres 23 577 effort efor 24 580 check çek 25 581 complete komple 26 600 contact kontakt 27 615 court kort 28 628 firm firma 29 661 manager manajer 30 674 press pres 31 689 medium mediyum 32 690 average averaj 33 695 hit hit 34 713 production prodüksyon 35 750 season sezon 36 788 solution solüsyon 37 839 deep dip 38 843 advance avans 39 849 match maç 40 941 object obje 41 1001 shoot şut 42 1018 block blok 43 1069 principle prensip Yu, X., & Altunel, V. / Focus on ELT Journal, 2021, 3(2) 26 Focus on ELT www.focusonelt.com 44 1078 fair fuar 45 1177 contrast kontrast 46 1186 corner korner 47 1188 shift şift 48 1189 net net 49 1192 defense defans 50 1239 speaker spiker 51 1242 combine kombine/kombin 52 1287 pop pop 53 1293 path patika 54 1333 actual aktüel 55 1400 objective objektif 56 1405 branch branş 57 1478 hall hol 58 1504 leadership liderlik 59 1565 shot şut 60 1631 stretch streç 61 1645 selection seleksiyon 62 1653 entry antre 63 1657 tip tip 64 1659 peak pik 65 1675 guard gard 66 1686 reserve rezerve 67 1695 phase faz 68 1810 politician politikacı 69 1856 passage pasaj 70 1895 slide slayt 71 1908 chip çip 72 1927 creation kreasyon 73 2081 tight tayt 74 2094 phenomenon fenomen 75 2097 assist asist 76 2224 log log 77 2283 button buton 78 2291 resistance reziztans 79 2293 frequency frekans 80 2342 offense ofans 81 2410 counter kontra 82 2483 flash flaş 83 2518 automatically otomatik şekilde 84 2521 dramatically dramatik şekilde 85 2555 potentially potansiyel olarak 86 2626 pro pro 87 2666 exhaust egzoz 88 2780 fragment fragman False cognates No Rank English Turkish & meaning 1 9 it it (T: dog) 2 17 on on (T: ten) 3 22 as as (T: hang) 4 23 at at (T: throw) 5 25 but but (T: chicken drumstick) 6 30 say say (T: count) 7 38 can can (T: soul; life) 8 60 no No (T: abbr. Numara) 9 63 very veri (T: data) 10 99 many meni (T: sperm) 11 117 feel fiil (T: verb) 12 220 pay pay (T: share) 13 245 far far (T: headlight) 14 265 once önce (T: before) 15 279 sure sure (T: section) 16 280 term terim (T: locution) 17 313 care çare (T: cure) 18 352 bit bit (T: end; louse) 19 362 class klas (T: classy) 20 375 top top (T: ball) 21 419 short şort (T: shorts) 22 494 site site (T: building complex) 23 506 nice nice (T: plenty) 24 510 boy boy (T: height) 25 687 son son (T: end) 26 705 size size (T: to you) 27 707 addition adisyon (T: check) 28 739 college kolej (T: private high school) 29 824 trip trip (T: attitudinize) 30 834 file file (T: net) 31 860 box boks (T: boxing) 32 929 define define (T: treasure) 33 936 mine mine (T: enamel) 34 983 magazine magazin (T: celebrity news) 35 1119 apart apart (T: aparthotel) 36 1120 suit suit (T: suite) 37 1329 tire tire (T: hyphen) 38 1476 ad ad (T: name) 39 1548 moral moral (T: morale) 40 1748 hat hat (T: line) 41 1903 reporter raportör (T: person who prepared the report) 42 1904 climate klima (T: air conditioner) 43 2202 mode mod (T: mood) 44 2215 van Van (T: city name) Appendix 3: Turkish-English Loanword Cognates Based on the FTD Sublist 1: Cognates with same/similar spelling and pronunciation No. Rank Turkish English 1 175 genel general 2 176 sistem system 3 193 grup group 4 292 parti party 5 308 program program 6 320 kültür culture 7 328 üniversite university 8 340 sosyal social 9 348 film film 10 354 ekonomik economic 11 370 politika politics 12 386 yat yacht 13 389 telefon telephone 14 448 proje project 15 461 plan plan 16 483 sektör sector 17 487 hoca hodja 18 489 enerji energy 19 498 ekonomi economy 20 517 banka bank 21 519 rol role 22 524 doktor doctor 23 532 kontrol control Yu, X., & Altunel, V. / Focus on ELT Journal, 2021, 3(2) 27 Focus on ELT www.focusonelt.com 24 533 müzik music 25 537 teknoloji technology 26 541 polis police 27 549 pazar bazaar 28 552 model model 29 593 televizyon television 30 626 fotoğraf photograph 31 642 demokrasi democracy 32 687 firma firm 33 692 rapor report 34 724 normal normal 35 728 problem problem 36 776 paşa pasha 37 792 planla plan 38 799 lira lira 39 816 lider leader 40 849 mesaj message 41 856 faktör factor 42 888 kredi credit 43 905 internet internet 44 906 bebek baby 45 946 modern modern 46 964 analiz analysis 47 972 risk risk 48 974 kültürel cultural 49 996 sinema cinema 50 999 spor sport 51 1004 otel hotel 52 1048 standart standard 53 1057 elektrik electric 54 1063 sivil civil 55 1067 organ organ 56 1088 medya media 57 1089 liste list 58 1107 sultan sultan 59 1109 demoktratik democratic 60 1130 gaz gas 61 1138 not note 62 1145 nükleer nuclear 63 1148 rejim regime 64 1152 komisyon commission 65 1155 petrol petrol 66 1182 karakter character 67 1183 kart card 68 1184 radyo radio 69 1200 strateji strategy 70 1201 ton ton 71 1214 personel personnel 72 1215 servis service 73 1221 fakülte faculty 74 1128 maç match 75 1234 teori theory 76 1266 mekanizma mechanism 77 1282 operasyon operation 78 1283 mart march 79 1284 potansiyel potential 80 1299 turizm tourism 81 1306 terör terror 82 1310 klasik classic 83 1311 kapasite capacity 84 1340 park park 85 1351 metre meter 86 1360 politik politic 87 1364 tren train 88 1371 pratik practical 89 1386 trafik traffic 90 1390 test test 91 1404 dolar dollar 92 1406 terim term 93 1409 kilo kilo 94 1411 performans performance 95 1412 enflasyon inflation 96 1442 ideoloji ideology 97 1486 aktif active 98 1488 dans dans 99 1513 alternatif alternative 100 1516 fonksiyon function 101 1531 reform reform 102 1539 kulüp club 103 1550 form form 104 1552 otomobil automobile 105 1560 kongre congress 106 1562 psikolojik psychological 107 1580 profesör professor 108 1582 futbol football 109 1583 adres address 110 1584 ağustos august 111 1609 organizasyon organization 112 1615 disiplin discipline 113 1630 dinamik dynamic 114 1662 parlamento parliament 115 1666 konferans conference 116 1677 konser concert 117 1683 kapitalizm capitalism 118 1688 matematik mathematics 119 1697 kampanya campaign 120 1718 onur honor 121 1720 motor motor 122 1727 transfer transfer 123 1728 paralel parallel 124 1736 bomba bomb 125 1738 elektronik electronic 126 1745 statü status 127 1749 etik ethics 128 1752 teknolojik technological 129 1769 endüstri industry 130 1794 avantaj advantage 131 1798 demokrat democrat 132 1804 kamp camp 133 1817 tur tour 134 1825 hacı hadji 135 1830 apartman apartment 136 1870 taksi taxi 137 1871 kategori category 138 1873 ideal ideal 139 1882 sosyalist socialist 140 1891 turist tourist 141 1901 müze museum 142 1906 tuvalet toilet 143 1916 kamera camera 144 1929 sekreter secretary 145 1952 formül formula 146 1955 stratejik strategic 147 1963 etnik ethnic 148 1989 albüm album 149 1993 alkol alcohol 150 2005 seri serial 151 2008 asit acid 152 2015 ideolojik ideological 153 2020 kriter criterion 154 2023 diyalog dialogue 155 2024 komunist communist 156 2038 psikoloji psychology 157 2054 slogan slogan Yu, X., & Altunel, V. / Focus on ELT Journal, 2021, 3(2) 28 Focus on ELT www.focusonelt.com 158 2059 atmosfer atmosphere 159 2063 enstitü institute 160 2076 pozitif positive 161 2108 estetik aesthetics 162 2114 şok shock 163 2125 baz base 164 2133 profesyonel professional 165 2140 general general 166 2147 finansal financial 167 2158 kapitalist capitalist 168 2159 imaj image 169 2167 pozisyon position 170 2181 balkon balcony 171 2184 kanser cancer 172 2188 sürpriz surprise 173 2206 programla program 174 2209 komite committee 175 2239 bar bar 176 2250 koridor corridor 177 2252 liberal liberal 178 2256 kariyer career 179 2259 laboratuvar laboratory 180 2263 metal metal 181 2265 kilometre kilometer 182 2274 atom atom 183 2284 süper super 184 2294 festival festival 185 2295 kaptan captain 186 2299 divan divan 187 2305 norm norm 188 2316 moral morale 189 2317 popüler popular 190 2319 protokol protocol 191 2325 kuruş kurus 192 2344 jandarma gendarme 193 2355 akademik academic 194 2377 biyolojik biological 195 2399 emperyalizm imperialism 196 2406 vidoe video 197 2410 plastik plastic 198 2423 protein protein 199 2430 kritik critical 200 2432 kod code 201 2444 radikal radical 202 2449 aktivite activity 203 2454 imge image 204 2459 pantolon pants 205 2460 propaganda propaganda 206 2484 sembol symbol 207 2485 protesto protest 208 2488 sosyalizm socialism 209 2492 materyal material 210 2499 organik organic 211 2515 terörist terrorist 212 2531 domates tomato 213 2556 organize organize 214 2574 negatif negative 215 2576 rakı raki 216 2577 genetik genetic 217 2590 reaksiyon reaction 218 2596 lamba lamp 219 2608 metot method 220 2609 posta post 221 2613 aktör actor 222 2617 virüs virus 223 2622 koalisyon coalition 224 2627 stres stress 225 2662 platform platform 226 2664 oksijen oxygen 227 2673 taktik tactics 228 2701 otomatik automatic 229 2703 sinyal signal 230 2708 istatistik statistics 231 2710 muhtar mukhtar 232 2716 panik panic 233 2717 sezon season 234 2718 objektif objective 235 2722 misyon mission 236 2725 rektör rector 237 2726 finans finance 238 2731 tüp tube 239 2742 bakteri bacterium 240 2745 ceket jacket 241 2759 gri gray 242 2786 grafik graph 243 2792 pilot pilot 244 2798 kompleks complex Sublist 2: Cognates with different spelling and pronunciation No. Rank Turkish English 1 679 kriz crisis 2 750 genellikle generally 3 960 kalite quality 4 1045 bütçe budget 5 1352 dosya dossier 6 1713 tez thesis 7 1976 prensip principle 8 2086 şeytan Satan 9 2115 konsey council 10 2442 kaliteli quality 11 2464 lüks luxurious 12 2588 teorik theoretical 13 2658 burjuva bourgeois 14 2685 sentez synthesis 15 2700 numaralı numbered Sublist 3: Cognates with same/similar spelling and different pronunciation No. Rank Turkish English 1 579 tip type 2 978 makine machine 3 1170 numara number 4 1178 otobüs bus 5 1198 mayıs may 6 1525 fon fund 7 2169 gen gene 8 2532 mil mile Sublist 4: Cognates with different spelling and same/similar pronunciation No. Rank Turkish English 1 504 teknik technique 2 762 sigara cigarette 3 954 tiyatro theatre 4 979 felsefe philosophy 5 1003 kanal channel 6 1035 şans chance 7 1062 kahve coffee, cafe 8 1287 paket package 9 1650 coğrafya geography 10 1654 fiziksel physical 11 1659 otorite authority 12 1810 istasyon station 13 1907 kurs course 14 1947 senaryo scenario 15 1984 büro bureau 16 1988 fizik physics 17 2031 garanti guarantee 18 2097 şeyh sheikh 19 2179 lisans license 20 2433 bira beer Yu, X., & Altunel, V. / Focus on ELT Journal, 2021, 3(2) 29 Focus on ELT www.focusonelt.com 21 2529 ajans agency 22 2541 vadi valley 23 2594 coğrafi geographic 24 2638 prens prince 25 2709 tipik typical 26 2737 filozof philosopher Sublist 5: Partial cognates No. Rank Turkish English 1 767 tablo table 2 1271 net net 3 2143 şef chef, chief 4 2246 reel real 5 2253 blok block 6 2320 liderlik leadership 7 2369 bankacılık banking 8 2414 gol goal 9 2508 politikacı politician False cognates No. Rank Turkish False cognates in English & Turkish meaning 1 11 ben ben (T: I) 2 12 gel gel (T: come) 3 31 her her (T: every) 4 58 i i (T: to be - defective copular verb) 5 62 son son (T: end) 6 94 alan alan (T: field) 7 116 bile bile (T: even, "bill") 8 127 ad ad (T: name) 9 128 hak hak (T: right, "hack") 10 130 adam adam (T: man) 11 139 at at (T: throw, horse) 12 143 ora ora (T: that place, "aura") 13 158 an an (T: moment) 14 167 anne anne (T: mother) 15 181 art art (T: increase, back) 16 191 ay ay (T: moon, month) 17 214 say say (T: count) 18 215 bit bit (T: finish) 19 223 az az (T: few, "as") 20 250 yak yak (T: ignite, "yack") 21 261 kim kim (T: who) 22 275 bin bin (T: ride) 23 315 doğ doğ (T: be born, "dog") 24 321 tart tart (T: weigh) 25 331 can can (T: soul) 26 332 asker asker (T: soldier, "ask her") 27 344 din din (T: religion, "dean") 28 351 in in (T: descend, get off) 29 363 sat sat (T: sell, "said") 30 364 bey bey (T: gentleman) 31 385 sun sun (T: present) 32 387 kar kar (T: mix, "car") 33 398 aşk aşk (T: love, "ask") 34 421 yet yet (T: suffice) 35 450 renk renk (T: color, "rank") 36 494 millet millet (T: nation) 37 496 tak tak (T: attach, "take") 38 510 sol sol (T: left, "sole") 39 545 boy boy (T: height) 40 570 beri beri (T: since, "berry") 41 576 il il (T: city, "ill") 42 623 hani hani (T: so, "honey") 43 630 aş aş (T: food, "as") 44 633 birden birden (T: suddenly, "burden") 45 643 sok sok (T: insert, "soak") 46 652 yay yay (T: bow) 47 693 dağ dağ (T: mountain, "dog") 48 716 basın basın (T: press, "basin") 49 747 pay pay (T: share) 50 757 çarp çarp (T: bump, "sharp") 51 838 salon salon (T: hall, "saloon") 52 875 ada ada (T: island, "Ada") 53 885 top top (T: ball) 54 899 dik dik (T: plant, "Dick") 55 915 engel engel (T: obstacle, "angel") 56 924 okur okur (T: reader, "occur") 57 948 bağ bağ (T: tie, "bag") 58 953 sil sil (T: wipe up, "seal") 59 973 hat hat (T: line) 60 992 diş diş (T: tooth, "dish") 61 1097 it it (T: push, stray dog) 62 1102 laf laf (T: remark, "laugh") 63 1114 bol bol (T: plentiful, "ball") 64 1235 eleman eleman (T: staff, "almond") 65 1236 as as (T: hang) 66 1249 dip dip (T: bottom) 67 1257 site site 68 1262 deli deli (T: insane) 69 1280 sır sır (T: secret, "sir") 70 1316 boya boya (T: paint, "boy") 71 1342 bat bat (T: sink) 72 1421 marka marka (T: trademark) 73 1438 tarif tarif (T: description, "tariff") 74 1454 bel bel (T: waist, "bell") 75 1471 sal sal (T: release, "sell") 76 1499 bank bank (T: bench) 77 1503 usul usul (T: method, "usual") 78 1505 çare çare (T: cure, "chair") 79 1524 tel tel (T: telephone; wire) 80 1533 sön sön (T: die down, "son") 81 1534 çap çap (T: diameter, "cap") 82 1553 çak çak (T: nail, "Chuck") 83 1591 vali vali (T: governer, "valley") 84 1597 göl göl (T: lake, "goal") 85 1643 um um (T: hope, "filler word") 86 1651 soy soy (T: peel) 87 1780 kör kör (T: blind, "core") 88 1814 bay bay (T: Mr.) 89 1834 sel sel (T: flood, "sell") 90 1930 dam dam (T: roof) 91 1970 kaba kaba (T: rude, "kaaba") 92 1971 fiil fiil (T: act, "fill") 93 1980 liman liman (T: port, "lemon") 94 2021 patron patron (T: boss) 95 2025 nice nice (T: so many, "niece") 96 2080 sin sin (T: pervade) 97 2131 salt salt (T: solely) 98 2172 bal bal (T: honey, "ball") 99 2178 his his (T: feeling, "hiss") 100 2182 ten ten (T: skin) 101 2199 sav sav (T: get rid of, "saw") 102 2315 maden maden (T: mine) 103 2336 set set (T: barrier) 104 2357 harp harp (T: war) 105 2411 fare fare (T: rat) 106 2428 onca onca (T: so much, "once") 107 2513 prim prim (T: bonus, "prime") 108 2521 vapur vapur (T: ship, "vapor") 109 2536 had had (T: limit) Yu, X., & Altunel, V. / Focus on ELT Journal, 2021, 3(2) 30 Focus on ELT www.focusonelt.com 110 2583 bari bari (T: at least, "barry") 111 2654 hırs hırs (T: ambition, "hers") 112 2723 mor mor (T: purple, "more") 113 2754 has has (T: peculiar) 114 2755 kin kin (T: grudge) 115 2757 pis pis (T: dirty, "piss") 116 2765 artı artı (T: plus, "art") Appendix 4: Combined Turkish-English Loanword Cognates Word List (TELCWL) Sublist 1: Cognates with same/similar spelling and pronunciation No. English Turkish 1 problem problem 2 course kurs 3 report rapor 4 group grup 5 system sistem 6 information enformasyon 7 market market 8 plan plan 9 program program 10 level level 11 train tren 12 party parti 13 control kontrol 14 test test 15 office ofis 16 social sosyal 17 note not 18 music müzik 19 political politik 20 general genel 21 position pozisyon 22 activity aktivite 23 role rol 24 detail detay 25 action aksiyon 26 model model 27 economic ekonomik 28 organization organizasyon 29 project proje 30 accord akort 31 list liste 32 industry endüstri 33 risk risk 34 standard standart 35 data data 36 performance performans 37 technology teknoloji 38 culture kültür 39 material materyal 40 limit limit 41 leader lider 42 sport spor 43 police polis 44 bank banka 45 attack atak 46 surprise sürpriz 47 factor faktör 48 financial finansal 49 campaign kampanya 50 park park 51 stock stok 52 character karakter 53 final final 54 economy ekonomi 55 fit fit 56 function fonksiyon 57 image imaj 58 station istasyon 59 population popülasyon 60 direct direkt 61 director direktör 62 department departman 63 method metod 64 analysis analiz 65 hotel otel 66 doctor doktor 67 link link 68 advantage avantaj 69 unit ünite 70 card kart 71 popular popüler 72 specific spesifik 73 television televizyon 74 modern modern 75 natural natürel 76 express ekspres 77 score skor 78 organize/organise organize 79 potential potansiyel 80 energy enerji 81 bar bar 82 strategy strateji 83 operation operasyon 84 normal normal 85 goal gol 86 positive pozitif 87 option opsiyon 88 message mesaj 89 baby bebek 90 theory teori 91 reference referans 92 argument argüman 93 document döküman 94 career kariyer 95 balance balans 96 restaurant restorant 97 post posta 98 professional profesyonel 99 credit kredi 100 direction direksiyon 101 dance dans 102 original orijinal 103 university üniversite 104 dollar dolar 105 legal legal 106 version versiyon 107 agent acente 108 generation jenerasyon 109 favorite favori 110 element element 111 medical medikal 112 telephone telefon Yu, X., & Altunel, V. / Focus on ELT Journal, 2021, 3(2) 31 Focus on ELT www.focusonelt.com 113 copy kopya 114 committee komite 115 stress stres 116 radio radyo 117 complex kompleks 118 directly direkt 119 extra ekstra 120 sex seks 121 video video 122 collection koleksiyon 123 negative negatif 124 band bando 125 tour tur 126 alternative alternatif 127 politics politik 128 transfer transfer 129 federal federal 130 status statü 131 partner partner 132 institution enstitü 133 taxi taksi 134 sector sektör 135 expert eksper 136 camp kamp 137 procedure prosedür 138 email email 139 global global 140 photograph fotoğraf 141 artist artist 142 gas gaz 143 category kategori 144 secretary sekreter 145 nuclear nükleer 146 photo foto 147 concept konsept 148 reform reform 149 football futbol 150 traffic trafik 151 reaction reaksiyon 152 lady leydi 153 cultural kültürel 154 trend trend 155 critical kritik 156 boat bot 157 fan fan 158 code kod 159 active aktif 160 cancer kanser 161 location lokasyon 162 actor aktör 163 monitor monitor 164 finance finans 165 concert konser 166 shock şok 167 camera kamera 168 museum müze 169 route rota 170 bomb bomba 171 editor editör 172 normally normalde 173 civil sivil 174 capacity kapasite 175 studio stüdyo 176 tourist turist 177 cup kupa 178 industrial endüstriyel 179 perspective perspektif 180 literature literatür 181 combination kombinasyon 182 theme tema 183 atmosphere atmosfer 184 characteristic karakteristik 185 license lisans 186 commission komisyon 187 instrument enstrüman 188 practical pratik 189 notion nosyon 190 honor onur 191 musical müzikal 192 analyze analiz 193 mental mental 194 vision vizyon 195 ideal ideal 196 mission misyon 197 tone ton 198 protest protesto 199 electronic elektronik 200 impose empoze 201 criminal kriminal 202 mobile mobil 203 assistant asistan 204 attach ataş 205 academic akademik 206 professor profesör 207 minimum minimum 208 critic kritik 209 online online 210 pilot pilot 211 producer prodüktör 212 liberal liberal 213 disk disk 214 metal metal 215 panel panel 216 maximum maksimum 217 initiative inisiyatif 218 diet diyet 219 gray gri 220 plastic plastik 221 discipline disiplin 222 mechanism mekanizma 223 democracy demokrasi 224 concentration konsantrasyon 225 classic klasik 226 tennis tenis 227 mathematics matematik 228 comfort konfor 229 criterion kriter 230 dramatic dramatik 231 protein protein 232 intellectual entelektüel 233 gentleman centilmen 234 drama drama 235 electricity elektrik 236 variation varyasyon 237 agenda ajanda 238 gay gey 239 inch inç 240 uniform üniforma 241 profile profil 242 mood mod 243 symptom semptom 244 tension tansiyon Yu, X., & Altunel, V. / Focus on ELT Journal, 2021, 3(2) 32 Focus on ELT www.focusonelt.com 245 cable kablo 246 formula formül 247 routine rutin 248 meter metre 249 terrorist terörist 250 depression depresyon 251 pub pub 252 symbol sembol 253 apartment apartman 254 analyst analist 255 platform platform 256 innovation inovasyon 257 album albüm 258 tank tank 259 pose poz 260 creative kreatif 261 alcohol alkol 262 festival festival 263 web web 264 portion porsiyon 265 radical radikal 266 infection enfeksiyon 267 jacket ceket 268 statistic istatistik 269 alarm alarm 270 parallel paralel 271 sponsor sponsor 272 boot bot 273 digital dijital 274 formation formasyon 275 deposit depozito 276 tube tüp 277 characterize karakterize 278 operator operatör 279 virus virüs 280 illegal illegal 281 ethnic etnik 282 clinical klinik 283 adapt adapte 284 dialogue diyalog 285 barrier bariyer 286 motor motor 287 electric elektrik 288 motivate motive 289 laboratory laboratuvar 290 promotion promosyon 291 champion şampiyon 292 march mart/marş 293 opera opera 294 gallery galeri 295 genetic genetic 296 aggressive agresif 297 format format 298 golf golf 299 fantastic fantastic 300 inflation enflasyon 301 therapy terapi 302 personnel personel 303 ceremony seramoni 304 psychological psikolojik 305 penalty penalty 306 democratic demokratik 307 carbon karbon 308 guitar gitar 309 piano piyano 310 menu menü 311 jury juri 312 civilian sivil 313 composition kompozisyon 314 paragraph paragraf 315 potato patates 316 tourism turizm 317 motivation motivasyon 318 romantic romantik 319 catalog katalog 320 grammar gramer 321 panic panik 322 comedy komedi 323 portrait portre 324 filter filtre 325 functional fonksiyonel 326 athlete atlet 327 organic organik 328 module modül 329 film film 330 yacht yat 331 hodja hoca 332 bazaar pazar 333 firm firma 334 pasha paşa 335 lira lira 336 internet internet 337 cinema sinema 338 organ organ 339 media medya 340 sultan sultan 341 regime rejim 342 petrol petrol 343 ton ton 344 service servis 345 faculty fakülte 346 match maç 347 march mart 348 potential potansiyel 349 terror terör 350 politic politika 351 term terim 352 kilo kilo 353 ideology ideoloji 354 function fonksiyon 355 club kulüp 356 form form 357 automobile otomobil 358 congress kongre 359 address adres 360 august ağustos 361 dynamic dinamik 362 parliament parlamento 363 conference konferans 364 capitalism kapitalizm 365 ethics etik 366 technological teknolojik 367 democrat demokrat 368 hadji hacı 369 socialist sosyalist 370 museum müze 371 toilet tuvalet 372 strategic stratejik 373 serial seri 374 acid asit 375 ideological ideolojik 376 communist komünist Yu, X., & Altunel, V. / Focus on ELT Journal, 2021, 3(2) 33 Focus on ELT www.focusonelt.com 377 psychology psikoloji 378 slogan slogan 379 institute enstitü 380 aesthetics estetik 381 base baz 382 capitalist kapitalist 383 image imge 384 balcony balkon 385 corridor koridor 386 kilometer kilometre 387 atom atom 388 super süper 389 captain kaptan 390 divan divan 391 norm norm 392 morale moral 393 protocol protokol 394 kurus kuruş 395 gendarme jandarma 396 biological biyolojik 397 imperialism emperyalizm 398 pants pantolon 399 propaganda propaganda 400 socialism sosyalizm 401 tomato domates 402 raki rakı 403 lamp lamba 404 coalition koalisyon 405 oxygen oksijen 406 tactics taktik 407 automatic otomatik 408 signal sinyal 409 statistics istatistik 410 mukhtar muhtar 411 season sezon 412 objective objektif 413 rector rektör 414 bacterium bakteri 415 graph grafik Sublist 2: Cognates with different spelling and pronunciation No. English Turkish 1 quality kalite 2 club kulüp 3 brother birader 4 generally genelikle 5 budget bütçe 6 equipment ekipman 7 chief şef 8 crisis kriz 9 council konsey 10 dozen düzine 11 isolate izole 12 cousin kuzen 13 luxury lüks 14 hypothesis hipotez 15 theoretical teorik 16 tournament turnuva 17 dossier dosya 18 thesis tez 19 principle prensip 20 Satan şeytan 21 luxurious lüks 22 bourgeois burjuva 23 synthesis sentez 24 numbered numaralı Sublist 3: Cognates with same/similar spelling and different pronunciation No. English Turkish 1 number numara 2 type tip 3 practice pratik 4 fund fon 5 machine makine 6 mile mil 7 bus otobüs 8 style stil 9 double duble 10 signal sinyal 11 gene gen 12 may mayıs Sublist 4: Cognates with different spelling and same/similar pronunciation No. English Turkish 1 design dizayn 2 chance şans 3 agency ajans 4 announce anons 5 physical fiziksel 6 technique teknik 7 package paket 8 coach koç 9 theater tiyatro 10 coffee kahve 11 technical teknik 12 channel kanal 13 typical tipik 14 concentrate konsantre 15 guarantee garanti 16 beer bira 17 cake kek 18 philosophy felsefe 19 musician müzisyen 20 cigarette sigara 21 cap kep 22 league lig 23 cream krema 24 valley vadi 25 classical klasik 26 chat çet 27 chocolate çikolata 28 biological biyolojik 29 geography coğrafya 30 authority otorite 31 station istasyon 32 course kurs 33 scenario senaryo 34 bureau büro 35 physics fizik 36 sheikh şeyh 37 license lisans 38 geographic coğrafi 39 prince prens 40 philosopher filozof Sublist 5: Partial cognates No. English Turkish 1 out aut 2 back bek 3 show şov 4 lot lot 5 service servis 6 form form 7 stand stant 8 effect efekt 9 record rekor 10 real reel 11 figure figür 12 period periyot 13 policy poliçe 14 team tim 15 pass pas 16 special spesiyal 17 condition kondisyon 18 table tablo 19 forward forvet 20 charge şarj 21 round raunt 22 address adres 23 effort efor 24 check çek 25 complete komple 26 contact kontakt 27 court kort 28 firm firma Yu, X., & Altunel, V. / Focus on ELT Journal, 2021, 3(2) 34 Focus on ELT www.focusonelt.com 29 manager menajer 30 press pres 31 medium mediyum 32 average averaj 33 hit hit 34 production prodüksyon 35 season sezon 36 solution solüsyon 37 deep dip 38 advance avans 39 match maç 40 object obje 41 shoot şut 42 block blok 43 principle prensip 44 fair fuar 45 contrast kontrast 46 corner korner 47 shift şift 48 net net 49 defense defans 50 speaker spiker 51 combine kombine/kombin 52 pop pop 53 path patika 54 actual aktüel 55 objective objektif 56 branch branş 57 hall hol 58 leadership liderlik 59 shot şut 60 stretch streç 61 selection seleksiyon 62 entry antre 63 tip tip 64 peak pik 65 guard gard 66 reserve rezerve 67 phase faz 68 politician politikacı 69 passage pasaj 70 slide slayt 71 chip çip 72 creation kreasyon 73 tight tayt 74 phenomenon fenomen 75 assist asist 76 log log 77 button buton 78 resistance reziztans 79 frequency frekans 80 offense ofans 81 counter kontra 82 flash flaş 83 automatically otomatik şekilde 84 dramatically dramatik şekilde 85 potentially potansiyel olarak 86 pro pro 87 exhaust egzoz 88 fragment fragman 89 chef, chief şef 90 banking bankacılık 91 goal gol False cognates No. English Turkish 1 it it (T: dog) 2 on on (T: ten) 3 as as (T: hang) 4 at at (T: throw) 5 but but (T: chicken drumstick) 6 say say (T: count) 7 can can (T: soul; life) 8 no no (T: abbr. numara) 9 very veri (T: data) 10 many meni (T: sperm) 11 feel fiil (T: verb) 12 pay pay (T: share) 13 far far (T: headlight) 14 once önce (T: section) 15 sure sure (T: section) 16 term terim (T: locution) 17 care çare (T: cure) 18 bit bit (T: end; louse) 19 class klas (T: classy) 20 top top (T: ball) 21 short şort (T: shorts) 22 site site (T: building complex) 23 nice nice (T: plenty) 24 boy boy (T: height) 25 son sön (T: die down, "son") 26 size size (T: to you) 27 addition adisyon (T: check) 28 college kolej (T: private high school) 29 trip trip (T: attitudinize) 30 file file (T: net) 31 box boks (T: boxing 32 define define (T: treasure) 33 mine mine (T: enamel) 34 magazine magazin (T: celebrity news) 35 apart apart (T: aparthotel) 36 suit suit (T: suite) 37 tire tire (T: hyphen) 38 ad ad (T: name) 39 moral moral (T: morale) 40 hat hat (T: line) 41 reporter raportör (T: person who prepared the report) 42 climate klima (T: air conditioner) 43 mode mod (T: mood) 44 van Van (T: city name) 45 ben ben (T: I) 46 gel gel (T: come) 47 her her (T: every) 48 i i (T: to be - defective copular verb) 49 alan alan (T: field) 50 bill bile (T: even, "bill") 51 hack hak (T: right, "hack") 52 adam adam (T: man) 53 aura ora (T: that place, "aura") 54 an an (T: moment) 55 anne anne (T: mother) 56 art artı (T: plus, "art") 57 ay ay (T: moon, month) 58 as az (T: few, "as") 59 yack yak (T: ignite, "yack") 60 kim kim (T: who) 61 bin bin (T: ride) 62 dog doğ (T: be born, "dog") 63 tart tart (T: weigh) 64 ask her asker (T: soldier, "ask her") 65 dean din (T: religion, "dean") 66 in in (T: descend, get off) 67 sat sat (T: sell, "said") 68 bey bey (T: gentleman) 69 sun sun (T: present) 70 car kar (T: mix, "car") 71 ask aşk (T: love, "ask") 72 yet yet (T: suffice) 73 rank renk (T: color, "rank") 74 millet millet (T: nation) 75 take tak (T: attach, "take") 76 sole sol (T: left, "sole") 77 berry beri (T: since, "berry") 78 ill il (T: city, "ill") 79 honey hani (T: so, "honey") 80 as aş (T: food, "as") 81 burden birden (T: suddenly, "burden") 82 soak sok (T: insert, "soak") Yu, X. & Altun, V. / Focus on ELT Journal, 2021, 3(2) 35 Focus on ELT Journal (FELT) 83 yay yay (T: bow) 84 dog dağ (T: mountain, "dog") 85 basin basın (T: press, "basin") 86 sharp çarp (T: bump, "sharp") 87 saloon salon (T: hall, "saloon") 88 ada ada (T: island, "ada") 89 dick dik (T: plant, "Dick") 90 angel engel (T: obstacle, "angel") 91 occur okur (T: reader, "occur") 92 bag bağ (T: tie, "bag") 93 seal sil (T: wipe up, "seal") 94 dish diş (T: tooth, "dish") 95 laugh laf (T: remark, "laugh") 96 ball bol (T: plentiful, "ball") 97 element eleman (T: staff, "almond") 98 dip dip (T: bottom) 99 deli deli (T: insane) 100 sir sır (T: secret, "sir") 101 bat bat (T: sink) 102 mark marka (T: trademark) 103 tariff tarif (T: description, "tariff") 104 bell bel (T: waist, "bell") 105 sell sal (T: release, "sell") 106 bank bank (T: bench) 107 usual usul (T: method, "usual") 108 chair çare (T: cure, "chair") 109 tel tel (T: telephone; wire) 110 cap çap (T: diameter, "cap") 111 chuck çak (T: nail, "Chuck") 112 valley vali (T: governer, "valley") 113 goal göl (T: lake, "goal") 114 um um (T: hope, "filler word") 115 soy soy (T: peel) 116 core kör (T: blind, "core") 117 bay bay (T: Mr.) 118 dam dam (T: roof) 119 kaaba kaba (T: rude, "kaaba") 120 fill fiil (T: act, "fill") 121 lemon liman (T: port, "lemon") 122 patron patron (T: boss) 123 sin sin (T: pervade) 124 salt salt (T: solely) 125 hiss his (T: feeling, "hiss") 126 ten ten (T: skin) 127 save sav (T: get rid of, "saw") 128 maden maden (T: mine) 129 set set (T: barrier) 130 harp harp (T: war) 131 fare fare (T: rat) 132 prime prim (T: bonus, "prime") 133 vapor vapur (T: ship, "vapor") 134 had had (T: limit) 135 barry bari (T: at least, "barry") 136 hers hırs (T: ambition, "hers") 137 more mor (T: purple, "more") 138 has has (T: peculiar) 139 kin kin (T: grudge) 140 piss pis (T: dirty, "piss")