Focus Fall 1995.tif tJ8 Foms on Lileralllr Notes J All subsequent citations to Theodor Storm occur parenrheriC3l1y in [he text. • 1 For an insightful study of the role played by fiction in broadening the discourse of history in the ni nereemh centu ry, see Brent Peterson's article. \VI a rks Cited Berman, RusselLThe Rise a/tlte AJodern Gerlllan Novel: Crisis and Charisma Chambridge: Harvard, 1986. . Bol lenbeck, Georg. Theador Storm: Elfie Biographie. Frankfurt : fn sel, 1988. Fuchs, Walter Peler, edDas Brie/wert. Ha mburg: Hoffmann WId Campe, 19-f9. 19gers, George. The German Conceplion a/flis/DIY: The Nallonal Tradition of Historical Thougll/ /rom Herder fa Ihe Prese"l . Middletown: Wesleyan L%8 > Jackson, David.1heodor Storm: The Life and Works of a Democratic Hlllllani­ tariatl . New York : Berg, 1992. LaCapra, Dominick. History and Criticism. Ithaca: Cornell 1985. Peterson, Brent. ·'Historica l Novels alld the Contents of German Hi story ." A4cmalsshefte 87.1 (1995): 48-67. Ranke, Leopold von. Aus Werk IIl/d Nach/ass. Vol. I(Tagehucher) . Mflnchen: R. Oldenbourg, 1964. Sheehan, James 1. ·: Foreword."Germall Essays on History. Ed. Rolf Siiltzer. New York: Continuum, 199 1. Srorm, Theodor. Werke. Miinchen: Kurt Desch, 1958. Helga Schubert's Judasfrauen: The Use of N arrative in Documentary Literature Cynthia Appl 1'111 elga Schubert, born in 19-1-0 in Berlin, spent years as a clinical OJ psychologist before devoting herself exclusively 10 her writing in 1977. Since then she has wrinen a number of novels and short StO­ ries, many of which deal with evelJ'day problems of women. Schubert's distinct sryle is at once characterized by rational distance and empa­ thy toward her characrers. Helga Schubert 's Jlldavrallen, published in 1990, begins with a chapter entitl ed "Spitze1 und Verdter," an exploration of possible motives and psychological processes behind acts of political denuncia· tion. Ten of the eleven remain ing chapters are based on documeOlec cases of denunciation by women in Nazi Germany. These case studie~ are based on historical documents, but rather than presenting docu mentary material d irectly, Schubert incorporates documented fact· into narrative form, filling in the gaps when necessary. The resu ll is, narrat ive that is a blend of fac t and fiction. Schubert, however, detail her work process so that the reader can discern where the factual basi ends and Schubert's speculation begins. In the preface to the Luchterhand edition, H elga Schubert state twO goals: 1) to subvert what she perceives as a one-dimensiona heroization of women (Frallenveredeillng), which fails to acknowl edge female destructive potential; 2) to better understand the behavio of citizens in a to talitarian state. By focusing on denunciation b: women in Nazi Germany, Schubert add resses both goa ls. Regarding the second goal-understanding the effects of the tOtair tar ian state-Schubert suggests that the histOrical selling serves as vehicle fo r criticism of the GD R. When she began the project in 198 she felt it necessary to offer an "encoded messJge" rather than direc critic ism. l Accordingly, the work impl ies pa rallels between structure of power and betrayal in the T hird Reich and in the GDR. FrxU$OIl Literatllr Vol. 2, No.2 (1995) tJ8 Foms on Lileralllr Notes J All subsequent citations to Theodor Storm occur parenrheriC3l1y in [he text. • 1 For an insightful study of the role played by fiction in broadening the discourse of history in the ni nereemh centu ry, see Brent Peterson's article. \VI a rks Cited Berman, RusselLThe Rise a/tlte AJodern Gerlllan Novel: Crisis and Charisma Chambridge: Harvard, 1986. . Bol lenbeck, Georg. Theador Storm: Elfie Biographie. Frankfurt : fn sel, 1988. Fuchs, Walter Peler, edDas Brie/wert. Ha mburg: Hoffmann WId Campe, 19-f9. 19gers, George. The German Conceplion a/flis/DIY: The Nallonal Tradition of Historical Thougll/ /rom Herder fa Ihe Prese"l . Middletown: Wesleyan L%8 > Jackson, David.1heodor Storm: The Life and Works of a Democratic Hlllllani­ tariatl . New York : Berg, 1992. LaCapra, Dominick. History and Criticism. Ithaca: Cornell 1985. Peterson, Brent. ·'Historica l Novels alld the Contents of German Hi story ." A4cmalsshefte 87.1 (1995): 48-67. Ranke, Leopold von. Aus Werk IIl/d Nach/ass. Vol. I(Tagehucher) . Mflnchen: R. Oldenbourg, 1964. Sheehan, James 1. ·: Foreword."Germall Essays on History. Ed. Rolf Siiltzer. New York: Continuum, 199 1. Srorm, Theodor. Werke. Miinchen: Kurt Desch, 1958. Helga Schubert's Judasfrauen: The Use of N arrative in Documentary Literature Cynthia Appl 1'111 elga Schubert, born in 19-1-0 in Berlin, spent years as a clinical OJ psychologist before devoting herself exclusively 10 her writing in 1977. Since then she has wrinen a number of novels and short StO­ ries, many of which deal with evelJ'day problems of women. Schubert's distinct sryle is at once characterized by rational distance and empa­ thy toward her characrers. Helga Schubert 's Jlldavrallen, published in 1990, begins with a chapter entitl ed "Spitze1 und Verdter," an exploration of possible motives and psychological processes behind acts of political denuncia· tion. Ten of the eleven remain ing chapters are based on documeOlec cases of denunciation by women in Nazi Germany. These case studie~ are based on historical documents, but rather than presenting docu mentary material d irectly, Schubert incorporates documented fact· into narrative form, filling in the gaps when necessary. The resu ll is, narrat ive that is a blend of fac t and fiction. Schubert, however, detail her work process so that the reader can discern where the factual basi ends and Schubert's speculation begins. In the preface to the Luchterhand edition, H elga Schubert state twO goals: 1) to subvert what she perceives as a one-dimensiona heroization of women (Frallenveredeillng), which fails to acknowl edge female destructive potential; 2) to better understand the behavio of citizens in a to talitarian state. By focusing on denunciation b: women in Nazi Germany, Schubert add resses both goa ls. Regarding the second goal-understanding the effects of the tOtair tar ian state-Schubert suggests that the histOrical selling serves as vehicle fo r criticism of the GD R. When she began the project in 198 she felt it necessary to offer an "encoded messJge" rather than direc critic ism. l Accordingly, the work impl ies pa rallels between structure of power and betrayal in the T hird Reich and in the GDR. FrxU$OIl Literatllr Vol. 2, No.2 (1995) 140 Focus on Literatur But rhe historical material does nor playas subordinate a role as Schubert implies. National Socialist Germany does nm function as a mere bac~drop OntO whic~ the issue of denunciation and betrayal in GDR ~l~[y can be ~upenmposed. Schubert's third agenda, though not expliCItly stated, IS to expose the failure of the GDR to honestly confront rhe history of National Socialist Germany. Because of its focus on denunciation by women however the discussion smroundingJudasfrauen has taken rhe for~ of a deba'te as t? whether the w~rk is antifeminist. While th is is an important ques­ tion, the work raISes the equally significant issue of Vergangenheits­ bewiilcigung in the former GDR. In the second chapter, entitled "Judasfrauen," Schubert relates ex­ periences fr0n:' ~er research process that show the unwillingness on the part of offiCIal East Germany to examine responsibly the history of the Nazi era. Time and again Schubert encounters obstacles to her research. She is encouraged to emphasize the role of the communist re.sistance and discouraged from delving imo such negative aspects as denunciation. Because archive personnel strictly limit her access to documems, she must ironically conclude, that "in diesem doch konsequent antifaschistischen Teil des ehemaligen Deutschland die Denunziantinnen in Sicherheit sind" (Schubert 37). Th.is chapter also includes a montage of conversational fragments stemming from different occasions, not arranged in chronologica l o r logical order. All, however, share a common element: they are con­ versations of the autho r with individuals who are either incredulous or outraged over Schu bert's choice of tOpic. Together they create an impression of the pervasive East German reluctance to confront its Nazi past. ~here have been several major trends in literature dealing with the hiStory of National Socialism and the H olocaust: the documen­ tary, the West German mythological novel, and the East German novel of socialist realism. Schubert's workjudasfrallen may serve as a useful model because in it she combines documentary with the narrative element of the novel, thus overcoming some of the weaknesses of each. The result is a work more grounded in fact than the mythologi­ calor the socialist realist novels, and absent the ambiguity and subtle manipulation character istic of some pure documentary. Because of ils documentary basis,jltdasjralte1l is more realistic than Narrative in Documentary Literature HI most early post-war West German novels. Martin Brosz.at would no doubt include writers such as Use Aichinger, \"X'olfgang Koeppen, Arno Schmidt, and Manin Walser in his "nachkriegsgeschichtliche Verinner­ lichungskultur" that was heavily reliant on parable and metaphor (DO). Also common to West German literature of this period are im­ ages of a monolithic system, against which resistance was virtually impossible. Only heroic characters possessing an. almOSt superhll~an willingness for self-sacrifice could resist. This, ot course, undermines the issue of individual responsibility . Not umilthe iihies with the Zeirromane of authors such as Boll, Grass and Lenz. did the portrayal of the Third Reich leave this personal realm, becoming more realistic and differentiated, with depictions of the mora l complexities of ev- eryday life under Nazism. . . In East Germany, literature and scholarship also t reated morality simplistically, but in a different way. They emphasized the East Ger­ man "resistance heritage" and depicted the Nazi era as a period of fo reign occupation from which the East had been !iberared. Nation~1 Socialism was viewed as a fascist outgrowth and dIrect result of capI­ tal ism. According to Peter Schneider: Dasantifaschistische Tremolo, das mangels winschafclicher Erfolge der wichtigsle Legilimalionsgrund des jungen TeilstJales wurde, verdichtete sich ... weiner Geschichtshige; danach war die DDR nicht nur nach sondern vor 1945 die Heimat des antifaschistischen Widerstands g~wesen, das Nniunwesen hatte wunderbarerweise an der Elbe hahgenucht. (140) Unlike the West German preoccupation with the persona! realm the literature of socia lISt realism se rved the official East German con cept of history by exalting heroes and martyrs of the communi~t re sistance. This approach has remained dominant, with few excep tlom and is still the object of cri ticism injudasfrallell. . The documentary literature of the sixties provided an alrernatlv to the mythological, metaphorical approach of the West and to so~ extent to the heroic model of socialist realism_ But documentary Itl erature often engages in extreme simplification, described here by Pett' \X'eiss: "Das Faktenmaterial wird sprachlich bearbeitet. In den Zitate w ird das Typische hervorgehoben. Figllren werden karikier 140 Focus on Literatur But rhe historical material does nor playas subordinate a role as Schubert implies. National Socialist Germany does nm function as a mere bac~drop OntO whic~ the issue of denunciation and betrayal in GDR ~l~[y can be ~upenmposed. Schubert's third agenda, though not expliCItly stated, IS to expose the failure of the GDR to honestly confront rhe history of National Socialist Germany. Because of its focus on denunciation by women however the discussion smroundingJudasfrauen has taken rhe for~ of a deba'te as t? whether the w~rk is antifeminist. While th is is an important ques­ tion, the work raISes the equally significant issue of Vergangenheits­ bewiilcigung in the former GDR. In the second chapter, entitled "Judasfrauen," Schubert relates ex­ periences fr0n:' ~er research process that show the unwillingness on the part of offiCIal East Germany to examine responsibly the history of the Nazi era. Time and again Schubert encounters obstacles to her research. She is encouraged to emphasize the role of the communist re.sistance and discouraged from delving imo such negative aspects as denunciation. Because archive personnel strictly limit her access to documems, she must ironically conclude, that "in diesem doch konsequent antifaschistischen Teil des ehemaligen Deutschland die Denunziantinnen in Sicherheit sind" (Schubert 37). Th.is chapter also includes a montage of conversational fragments stemming from different occasions, not arranged in chronologica l o r logical order. All, however, share a common element: they are con­ versations of the autho r with individuals who are either incredulous or outraged over Schu bert's choice of tOpic. Together they create an impression of the pervasive East German reluctance to confront its Nazi past. ~here have been several major trends in literature dealing with the hiStory of National Socialism and the H olocaust: the documen­ tary, the West German mythological novel, and the East German novel of socialist realism. Schubert's workjudasfrallen may serve as a useful model because in it she combines documentary with the narrative element of the novel, thus overcoming some of the weaknesses of each. The result is a work more grounded in fact than the mythologi­ calor the socialist realist novels, and absent the ambiguity and subtle manipulation character istic of some pure documentary. Because of ils documentary basis,jltdasjralte1l is more realistic than Narrative in Documentary Literature HI most early post-war West German novels. Martin Brosz.at would no doubt include writers such as Use Aichinger, \"X'olfgang Koeppen, Arno Schmidt, and Manin Walser in his "nachkriegsgeschichtliche Verinner­ lichungskultur" that was heavily reliant on parable and metaphor (DO). Also common to West German literature of this period are im­ ages of a monolithic system, against which resistance was virtually impossible. Only heroic characters possessing an. almOSt superhll~an willingness for self-sacrifice could resist. This, ot course, undermines the issue of individual responsibility . Not umilthe iihies with the Zeirromane of authors such as Boll, Grass and Lenz. did the portrayal of the Third Reich leave this personal realm, becoming more realistic and differentiated, with depictions of the mora l complexities of ev- eryday life under Nazism. . . In East Germany, literature and scholarship also t reated morality simplistically, but in a different way. They emphasized the East Ger­ man "resistance heritage" and depicted the Nazi era as a period of fo reign occupation from which the East had been !iberared. Nation~1 Socialism was viewed as a fascist outgrowth and dIrect result of capI­ tal ism. According to Peter Schneider: Dasantifaschistische Tremolo, das mangels winschafclicher Erfolge der wichtigsle Legilimalionsgrund des jungen TeilstJales wurde, verdichtete sich ... weiner Geschichtshige; danach war die DDR nicht nur nach sondern vor 1945 die Heimat des antifaschistischen Widerstands g~wesen, das Nniunwesen hatte wunderbarerweise an der Elbe hahgenucht. (140) Unlike the West German preoccupation with the persona! realm the literature of socia lISt realism se rved the official East German con cept of history by exalting heroes and martyrs of the communi~t re sistance. This approach has remained dominant, with few excep tlom and is still the object of cri ticism injudasfrallell. . The documentary literature of the sixties provided an alrernatlv to the mythological, metaphorical approach of the West and to so~ extent to the heroic model of socialist realism_ But documentary Itl erature often engages in extreme simplification, described here by Pett' \X'eiss: "Das Faktenmaterial wird sprachlich bearbeitet. In den Zitate w ird das Typische hervorgehoben. Figllren werden karikier 142 Focus on Literatur Situationen werden drastisch vereinfacht" (47 1). This simplification can frequently lead to heroization not unlike that of socialist realism. Indeed Nikolaus Miller calls the martyr figure or AnlaB und Zentrum dokumentarischer Werke" (39). In contrast to the above approaches, Schubert deals realistically with mOfCll issues. She does not portray denunciators as purely im­ moral, or victims and resisters as purely moral characters. Tndividuals are shown being pulled in many di rections, influenced by varied cir­ cumstances. The tension between individual responsibility and socia l forces is always evident. Most of the case studies depict acts of denun­ ciation born nOl Out of moral conviction, but desperation, jealousy, the need for approval, or fea r . They also show different gradat ions of resistance, including the most subtle forms. This differentiated {reat­ ment of resistance fulfills Broszat's prescript ion: . . , neben dem kampferischen, konspirativen Widerstand, der Leib und Leben aufs Spiel settte, die vielen ~kleinen" Formen deszivilen ~ Iutes, cler jedem Zeitgenossen des Dritten Reiches ZU2uffiuten war, ... in die Berrachtung einzubeziehen. (71) In fact, Schubert finds realistic portrayals more powerful than idealiud ones. In "Uas Bose im historisch GUlen," an essay which appeared in the 1994 volume Dle Andersdenkende, she describes her encounter with the files that served as the basis for H ans Fallada's novel }eder scirbl/iir sich alleill. The files desc ribe a mar ried couple who risked and ultimately lost their lives by w riting postcards against the Naz.is and distribu ting them widely to public places. In Fallada's novel the tWO remain loyal 10 each mhe r unt il thei r execmion. Ac­ cording 10 the files, however> each claims innocence and po ints to the other as the instigator. Schubert wri tes: Fur mich ist es viel tragi scher und viel beriihrender, daB Leute, die so mUlig viel auf sich genommen, die im Gegensan zu Millionen anderen elwas getan haben, trondem gebrochen wu rden durdl Faher. (148) While the tendency to simplify moral questions and depict mar­ tyr figures is evident in both documentaries and novels of the pOSt- Na r rative in Documentary Literature l4J war period, documentary is problematic in yet another way by vinue of its form. The subjective element in documentary is not immedi· ately apparent. This seeming lack of creative content may appear to be at odds wi th the traditional nOtion of autonomous an. In the sub­ jective selection and arrangement of documentary material, however, li es its creative element. This subjective component contlicts with documentary literature's claim to factuality. The documentary, with its air of authenticity, can easily manipulate the reader by presenting only selected po rt ions of documentary ev idence. Political agitation is usually its goal. On the ot her hand, documentary has the potential to distance readers through va r ious Ver"fi"emdllllgseffekle, t hus enabling them to react critically and question assumptions. At its best, documentary literature presents a wealth of material in such a way as to require act ive pa rt icipation of the reader, who must draw parallels, notice discrepancies, etc . When dealing with a sensitive subject, however. the facts cannm always speak for themselves. As evidence of this, Judith Ryan cites Joachim Fest's documentary about Hitler, which left some viewers with a positive image of its subject (161·62). Martin Broszat warns that documentary material alone is often incapable of revealing com­ plex power stnJctures, or of clarifying relationships between events, etc. and suggests that the introduction of na rrative cou ld provide such clarification (39). Schubert draws on the tradit ion of documentary literature, but by combining documentary and na rrat ive she avoids the problems discussed above. Rather than simply creating a montage of documen­ ta ry raw material, Schubert integrates quotes and information from documents into narrative form. By using narrative to relate documen· tary materia l, Schubert is able to interject commemary and pose thought-provoking questions. This mediating position al!ows her to overcome the dangerous potential for misunderstanding some docu· mentary literawre. Schubert refers to the form of }lldasfrallen a~ "kommemiene Dokumentar literatur" (Thomalla). Although she maintains a succinct sty le and remains faithful Ie fac ts conta ined in the documents, Schubert's commentary and ques tions often stem from her own personal struggle with {he material The result of this mixture is aptly described by Christine Cosentino 142 Focus on Literatur Situationen werden drastisch vereinfacht" (47 1). This simplification can frequently lead to heroization not unlike that of socialist realism. Indeed Nikolaus Miller calls the martyr figure or AnlaB und Zentrum dokumentarischer Werke" (39). In contrast to the above approaches, Schubert deals realistically with mOfCll issues. She does not portray denunciators as purely im­ moral, or victims and resisters as purely moral characters. Tndividuals are shown being pulled in many di rections, influenced by varied cir­ cumstances. The tension between individual responsibility and socia l forces is always evident. Most of the case studies depict acts of denun­ ciation born nOl Out of moral conviction, but desperation, jealousy, the need for approval, or fea r . They also show different gradat ions of resistance, including the most subtle forms. This differentiated {reat­ ment of resistance fulfills Broszat's prescript ion: . . , neben dem kampferischen, konspirativen Widerstand, der Leib und Leben aufs Spiel settte, die vielen ~kleinen" Formen deszivilen ~ Iutes, cler jedem Zeitgenossen des Dritten Reiches ZU2uffiuten war, ... in die Berrachtung einzubeziehen. (71) In fact, Schubert finds realistic portrayals more powerful than idealiud ones. In "Uas Bose im historisch GUlen," an essay which appeared in the 1994 volume Dle Andersdenkende, she describes her encounter with the files that served as the basis for H ans Fallada's novel }eder scirbl/iir sich alleill. The files desc ribe a mar ried couple who risked and ultimately lost their lives by w riting postcards against the Naz.is and distribu ting them widely to public places. In Fallada's novel the tWO remain loyal 10 each mhe r unt il thei r execmion. Ac­ cording 10 the files, however> each claims innocence and po ints to the other as the instigator. Schubert wri tes: Fur mich ist es viel tragi scher und viel beriihrender, daB Leute, die so mUlig viel auf sich genommen, die im Gegensan zu Millionen anderen elwas getan haben, trondem gebrochen wu rden durdl Faher. (148) While the tendency to simplify moral questions and depict mar­ tyr figures is evident in both documentaries and novels of the pOSt- Na r rative in Documentary Literature l4J war period, documentary is problematic in yet another way by vinue of its form. The subjective element in documentary is not immedi· ately apparent. This seeming lack of creative content may appear to be at odds wi th the traditional nOtion of autonomous an. In the sub­ jective selection and arrangement of documentary material, however, li es its creative element. This subjective component contlicts with documentary literature's claim to factuality. The documentary, with its air of authenticity, can easily manipulate the reader by presenting only selected po rt ions of documentary ev idence. Political agitation is usually its goal. On the ot her hand, documentary has the potential to distance readers through va r ious Ver"fi"emdllllgseffekle, t hus enabling them to react critically and question assumptions. At its best, documentary literature presents a wealth of material in such a way as to require act ive pa rt icipation of the reader, who must draw parallels, notice discrepancies, etc . When dealing with a sensitive subject, however. the facts cannm always speak for themselves. As evidence of this, Judith Ryan cites Joachim Fest's documentary about Hitler, which left some viewers with a positive image of its subject (161·62). Martin Broszat warns that documentary material alone is often incapable of revealing com­ plex power stnJctures, or of clarifying relationships between events, etc. and suggests that the introduction of na rrative cou ld provide such clarification (39). Schubert draws on the tradit ion of documentary literature, but by combining documentary and na rrat ive she avoids the problems discussed above. Rather than simply creating a montage of documen­ ta ry raw material, Schubert integrates quotes and information from documents into narrative form. By using narrative to relate documen· tary materia l, Schubert is able to interject commemary and pose thought-provoking questions. This mediating position al!ows her to overcome the dangerous potential for misunderstanding some docu· mentary literawre. Schubert refers to the form of }lldasfrallen a~ "kommemiene Dokumentar literatur" (Thomalla). Although she maintains a succinct sty le and remains faithful Ie fac ts conta ined in the documents, Schubert's commentary and ques tions often stem from her own personal struggle with {he material The result of this mixture is aptly described by Christine Cosentino 144 Focus on Literatur Oem Leser (lillt safan auf, daR die Autorin in jeder der Fallgeschichten unmittelbar :mwesend ist, .... Dieses bohrende Fr2gen und Kommentieren im ProzeB einer Gewissensforschung gibt den Text die fur ein Tagebuch lypischen Zuge. (110) The virtue of Schubert's personal commentary on possible motiva­ tions or emotional reactions of characters is that her speculation is dearly identifiable as such, often taking the form of a question: Nach zwei W-ochen wurde er ins Gestapo-Gefangnis nach Berlin gebracht und don seiner Verraterin gegeniibergestelh. Was mochte die Frau empfuoden haben, als sie in das huogrige und zerschlagene Gesich r des Sohoes ih rer Freundin blickte? (99) Several of the case studies. though still based on fact. are written entirely in the first person, with Schubert filling in the gaps nOt pro­ vided in the documents. Schubert is again honest about her involve­ ment with the material. She dearly emphasizes the fictional nature of these chapters in her foreword. Schubert thus reflects not only on manipulation of history at a national level, but on a personal level as well. By drawing attention to her own manipulation of the documen­ tary material, and exploring her motivations for writing this book, she forces the reader to take this manipulation into account and to reflect critically on the truth value of what is read. Preceding the commentary and the provocative questions in the case studies, Schubert devotes an entire chapter, "Spitzel und Verrater," to examining the phenomenon of denunciation. In it Schubert, a psy­ chologist, tries to understand the roles of denunciators and victims. Here Schubert abstracts from the individual cases the basic StnlClures of betrayal. This chapter is nor intended to judge or to excuse the perpetrators. Schubert focuses less on the historical material itself and more on Ollr relationship to it. "Nicht urn 'Ent-Schuld igung' geht es allerdings, sondern um Be-Schuldigung im Sinne des Akzeptierens potentieller Eigenschuld" (Cosentino 118). Schubert draws on the tradition of Allragsgeschichce as well as that of documentary literature. One case study takes the form of an inter­ view with a surviving denunciator. This is not really a departure, given that such works.s Erika Runge's &ttroper Procokolle were consid- Narrative in Documentary Literature 1-IS ered part of the surge of documentary literature of the sixties. Here. as in the other chapters, Schubert presents documentary material in nar­ rative form. Rather than presenting directly transcribed dialogue, Schubert gives a narrative account of the interview as it is remem­ bered. It is also not an instance of oral history in the strict method­ ologica l sense of Lutz Niethammer, because the luthor's commen­ tary is interjected into the now of the narrative. The commentary and the fact that the interview is rendered from memory force the reader to again take into account the author's manipulation of the actual conversation, thus encouraging critical reflection. But one of the problems of documentary literature remains: that of selection. Although Schubert lists her sources and describes her research p rocess, the reader cannot be sure that the case studies pre­ sented constitu te a representative sample. Only one of the len case Studies, "Die Kamaradenfrau," involves the denunciation of a Jew. This may in fact reflect a consc ious attempt on the author's part to universalize the material. But because it perpelUates the neglect of anti­ Semitism as a subject of both literature and study-which has been particularly acute in the EaSt-this neglect must be considered a weak­ ness. Schubert's case study of the denunciation of Carl Goerdeler also reflects the problem of selection: although Goerdeler opposed Hitler, the historian ChristOf Dipper has established that Goerdeler was at one time in agreement with the basic idea of thl! Niirnberg Laws of 1935, and in general favored limiting the equali ty and freedom of Jew­ ish citizens. Although this information in no way negates Goerdeler's later act of courage, the absence of these facts in Schubert's portrayal is surprising. It seems probab le, however, dw this information was unknown to Schuben, when one considers her otherwise subdy dif­ ferentiated treatment of moral character and ber limited research re­ sou rces. In summary, by filtering documentary materia! through narra­ tive, Schubert avoids the ambiguity frequently resulting from docu­ mentary literaltlre-an ambiguity which can provoke unpred iCled responses such as those generated by Fest's Hitler documentary. This has, of cou rse, the consequence that the reader IS not called upon (Q reach as many conclusions independently. Bur the participation ele­ ment in }lIdasfrauen is still strong, insofar as the reader, as in most 144 Focus on Literatur Oem Leser (lillt safan auf, daR die Autorin in jeder der Fallgeschichten unmittelbar :mwesend ist, .... Dieses bohrende Fr2gen und Kommentieren im ProzeB einer Gewissensforschung gibt den Text die fur ein Tagebuch lypischen Zuge. (110) The virtue of Schubert's personal commentary on possible motiva­ tions or emotional reactions of characters is that her speculation is dearly identifiable as such, often taking the form of a question: Nach zwei W-ochen wurde er ins Gestapo-Gefangnis nach Berlin gebracht und don seiner Verraterin gegeniibergestelh. Was mochte die Frau empfuoden haben, als sie in das huogrige und zerschlagene Gesich r des Sohoes ih rer Freundin blickte? (99) Several of the case studies. though still based on fact. are written entirely in the first person, with Schubert filling in the gaps nOt pro­ vided in the documents. Schubert is again honest about her involve­ ment with the material. She dearly emphasizes the fictional nature of these chapters in her foreword. Schubert thus reflects not only on manipulation of history at a national level, but on a personal level as well. By drawing attention to her own manipulation of the documen­ tary material, and exploring her motivations for writing this book, she forces the reader to take this manipulation into account and to reflect critically on the truth value of what is read. Preceding the commentary and the provocative questions in the case studies, Schubert devotes an entire chapter, "Spitzel und Verrater," to examining the phenomenon of denunciation. In it Schubert, a psy­ chologist, tries to understand the roles of denunciators and victims. Here Schubert abstracts from the individual cases the basic StnlClures of betrayal. This chapter is nor intended to judge or to excuse the perpetrators. Schubert focuses less on the historical material itself and more on Ollr relationship to it. "Nicht urn 'Ent-Schuld igung' geht es allerdings, sondern um Be-Schuldigung im Sinne des Akzeptierens potentieller Eigenschuld" (Cosentino 118). Schubert draws on the tradition of Allragsgeschichce as well as that of documentary literature. One case study takes the form of an inter­ view with a surviving denunciator. This is not really a departure, given that such works.s Erika Runge's &ttroper Procokolle were consid- Narrative in Documentary Literature 1-IS ered part of the surge of documentary literature of the sixties. Here. as in the other chapters, Schubert presents documentary material in nar­ rative form. Rather than presenting directly transcribed dialogue, Schubert gives a narrative account of the interview as it is remem­ bered. It is also not an instance of oral history in the strict method­ ologica l sense of Lutz Niethammer, because the luthor's commen­ tary is interjected into the now of the narrative. The commentary and the fact that the interview is rendered from memory force the reader to again take into account the author's manipulation of the actual conversation, thus encouraging critical reflection. But one of the problems of documentary literature remains: that of selection. Although Schubert lists her sources and describes her research p rocess, the reader cannot be sure that the case studies pre­ sented constitu te a representative sample. Only one of the len case Studies, "Die Kamaradenfrau," involves the denunciation of a Jew. This may in fact reflect a consc ious attempt on the author's part to universalize the material. But because it perpelUates the neglect of anti­ Semitism as a subject of both literature and study-which has been particularly acute in the EaSt-this neglect must be considered a weak­ ness. Schubert's case study of the denunciation of Carl Goerdeler also reflects the problem of selection: although Goerdeler opposed Hitler, the historian ChristOf Dipper has established that Goerdeler was at one time in agreement with the basic idea of thl! Niirnberg Laws of 1935, and in general favored limiting the equali ty and freedom of Jew­ ish citizens. Although this information in no way negates Goerdeler's later act of courage, the absence of these facts in Schubert's portrayal is surprising. It seems probab le, however, dw this information was unknown to Schuben, when one considers her otherwise subdy dif­ ferentiated treatment of moral character and ber limited research re­ sou rces. In summary, by filtering documentary materia! through narra­ tive, Schubert avoids the ambiguity frequently resulting from docu­ mentary literaltlre-an ambiguity which can provoke unpred iCled responses such as those generated by Fest's Hitler documentary. This has, of cou rse, the consequence that the reader IS not called upon (Q reach as many conclusions independently. Bur the participation ele­ ment in }lIdasfrauen is still strong, insofar as the reader, as in most 146 FOClt5 on Literatttr documentary literature, muS( still draw parallels between the histOri­ cal material and contemporary soc iety. More importantly, lhe reader must constantly discern fac t from fiction. Schubert also encourages participation by interjecting provocative questions. The case studies do nO[ offer answers, but rather problematize questions to which no dea r answers exist. Al though the problem of selection remains a factor inJudasfraue7/, the potential to mislead o r mani pulate the reader is minimiz.ed, when Schubert reveals her agenda and describes her writing process. A more complete solution to this problem might consist of providing statis­ t ics to verify the representativeness of the selection of case studies. Bur to hold literature to such standa rds of scholarship is to essentially destroy the boundary between literature and historiography-some­ thing which is neither desirable nor practical. Authors and historians must simply promote responsib le treatments of Nazism and the Ho­ locaust by setting examples through their own work and by offering judicious criricism of others. Although Scht1b~rt's neglect of anti­ Semitism mUSt be criticiz.ed, her use of narrative may prove to be a valuable model. University of Pennsylvania Note 1 T wo editions of fuddsfrauen appea red in 1990. Perhaps because the Aufbau edition may have been submined for publication before November 1989, it does not include a preface explicitly seating Schubert's aims as does the later Ludnerhand edition. Works Cited Broslat, Martin.Nach Hitler. Der schwierige Umgallg milli/lserer Geschichre. Miinchen: Oldenbourg, \987. Cosentino, Christine. '''Heute fTeilich Illochte man fragen .. .' : Zum 111em3 von Schuld und Verantwortung in Christa Wo lfs Was bleibl, Helga Konigsdorfs Ungelegeller Bejund und Helga Schuben s Judasjrauen ." Neophilologus 76.1 (1992): 108-20. Miller, Nikolaus. Prolegomena zu einer Poetik der DokUlI/elltarfiterafUt Miinchen: Fink, 1982. Narrative in Documentary Literature 147 Ryan, Judilh. The Uncompleled Pa~'I: Posl\llar Germall Novels (lIIfI Ihe 17lird Reich. DelfOil : Wayne Slate VI), 1983. Schubert, Helga. Judasjrouen: ZeJlII Fallge:"chichlen lI'eiblicher Dellllll zialiOIl illl Drillen Reich. FrankfU I1 am Mai n: Luchterhalld 1990 ---. " 01lS Bose im hislorisch GUlen."Die Alldersdenkellde. Mii;lchcn: dtv 199-1-, 146-149. ' Tho~all a, Ariane. "Schriftstellerin und Psychotherapeutin ill derDDR. Gesprach nUl Helga Schubert." Delllschialld Archiv 10. ( 1986): 11 09. Weiss, Peter. "Oas Materialund die Modelle.'Peler We/~'s Dmmen 2. Frank­ furt am Ma in: Suhrkarnp, 1968.464-72. 146 FOClt5 on Literatttr documentary literature, muS( still draw parallels between the histOri­ cal material and contemporary soc iety. More importantly, lhe reader must constantly discern fac t from fiction. Schubert also encourages participation by interjecting provocative questions. The case studies do nO[ offer answers, but rather problematize questions to which no dea r answers exist. Al though the problem of selection remains a factor inJudasfraue7/, the potential to mislead o r mani pulate the reader is minimiz.ed, when Schubert reveals her agenda and describes her writing process. A more complete solution to this problem might consist of providing statis­ t ics to verify the representativeness of the selection of case studies. Bur to hold literature to such standa rds of scholarship is to essentially destroy the boundary between literature and historiography-some­ thing which is neither desirable nor practical. Authors and historians must simply promote responsib le treatments of Nazism and the Ho­ locaust by setting examples through their own work and by offering judicious criricism of others. Although Scht1b~rt's neglect of anti­ Semitism mUSt be criticiz.ed, her use of narrative may prove to be a valuable model. University of Pennsylvania Note 1 T wo editions of fuddsfrauen appea red in 1990. Perhaps because the Aufbau edition may have been submined for publication before November 1989, it does not include a preface explicitly seating Schubert's aims as does the later Ludnerhand edition. Works Cited Broslat, Martin.Nach Hitler. Der schwierige Umgallg milli/lserer Geschichre. Miinchen: Oldenbourg, \987. Cosentino, Christine. '''Heute fTeilich Illochte man fragen .. .' : Zum 111em3 von Schuld und Verantwortung in Christa Wo lfs Was bleibl, Helga Konigsdorfs Ungelegeller Bejund und Helga Schuben s Judasjrauen ." Neophilologus 76.1 (1992): 108-20. Miller, Nikolaus. Prolegomena zu einer Poetik der DokUlI/elltarfiterafUt Miinchen: Fink, 1982. Narrative in Documentary Literature 147 Ryan, Judilh. The Uncompleled Pa~'I: Posl\llar Germall Novels (lIIfI Ihe 17lird Reich. DelfOil : Wayne Slate VI), 1983. Schubert, Helga. Judasjrouen: ZeJlII Fallge:"chichlen lI'eiblicher Dellllll zialiOIl illl Drillen Reich. FrankfU I1 am Mai n: Luchterhalld 1990 ---. " 01lS Bose im hislorisch GUlen."Die Alldersdenkellde. Mii;lchcn: dtv 199-1-, 146-149. ' Tho~all a, Ariane. "Schriftstellerin und Psychotherapeutin ill derDDR. Gesprach nUl Helga Schubert." Delllschialld Archiv 10. ( 1986): 11 09. Weiss, Peter. "Oas Materialund die Modelle.'Peler We/~'s Dmmen 2. Frank­ furt am Ma in: Suhrkarnp, 1968.464-72.