Focus Spring 1999.tif 16 Focus on Literalltr Touche Portrait of the Artist a~ a Dead Communist Classic: The Image of Bertold Brecht 1ll the German Media Coverage of his l OO,h Birthday and its Connections to Recent Shifts in the German Brecht Reception Stefan H oppner-Stone U nd Brecht bestellt einen Erfrischungsdrink in de, Bar des neuen GnlSeikabinens des Anhalter Bahnhofs. Die Inhaberin spendiert ihm safan einen zweiten und spricht lachend: Mann, Sie sehen ja aus wie Brecht , wollen Sie nieht srundenweise bei mi, herumspuken?! Brecht denkt an die Brecht-Tage und schwitzt leicht . . .. Die Dialektik, stonert er. Gut, sehr gut , preSler die Chefin zurilck. Lu tz Rathenow Das G roBe bleibt groB nieht und klein nieht das Kleine. Berto lt Brech t T he lOOth anniversary of Ben:olt Brecht's birthday provides an opportunity to take stock of the image a reading public holds of this poet and playwright. There is no such thing as " the" image of Brecht as a given fact. Construct ing "one's own Brecht" using selec· rive quotes is easily possible, and one can choose from a wide array of Brecht images that already exist. This holds true especially in light of the recent celebration which has generated a vast multi rude of articles in magazines, newspapers, scholarly journals, as well as Iddio and TV documantaries . In examining the current Brecht reception, [he author's home country, Germany, promises to be of particular interest, especially since Focus on L iteralltr Vol. 6, No.1 (1999) 18 Focus on LiteratllY there the "images" of Brecht differ widely :it this point. On the one hand, he is celebrated and embraced by public institutions and repre­ sentauves of the political system, while others perceive him as a "dead classic," "der in der DDR zum Saulenheiligen erkoren wurde und spater auch im Westen zum unverzichtbaren Umerrichtsmaterial fur Post- 68er-Gymnasiasten wurde .... Mancher Unternchtsgeschadigte mag davan niehtS ruehr horeo" ("Brecht auf!" n. pag.). This study does not intend m reconcile these contradictions, but rather makes an attempt to explain them. To this end, 1 will exa­ mine small samples from a broad media coverage of the anniversary. The focus will be on contributi ons in two German newspapers that have appeared in celebration of Brecht's binhday. One of them is a daily series in die tageszeitzmg (taz) from Berlin, a liberal leh-wing newspaper founded in 1979 with a young to middle-age "alternati\'e" readership. The taz was chosen for this study because it targets an audien ce that supposedly has a high percentage of Brecht readers.' Under the tide "'Marmor Stein und Eisen Brecht!" t he UlZ ran a series of short "Wortmeldungen" by celebrities in honor of Brecht's birth­ day, beginning on January 3, 1998 and ending on February 10, 1998, the actual anniversary. The contributors encompassed a wide variety of persons who had any kind of relation to Brecht and his works, including a cigar salesman, a barkeeper, several actors and directors, as well as writers. Within the taZ series, I will focus mainly on the wri­ rers. Most of them grew up at a rime when Germany consisted of two seperate and opposed countries. They belong to a younger generation and did not get to know Brecht and his wo rks when he was alive. Therefore, they are fami liar only with posthumus representations of rum. The other series I will consider has appeared in Die Zeit, a weekly newspaper £rom Hamburg which targets an educated bour­ geois readership; Germany's BildungsburgerLUm. Die Zel! conducted a survey among female authors, directors, and actors about their image of Brecht. The survey ran as a three-part series in February 1998, The paper does not offer any explanation as to why they selected only female contributors. It is mOSt likely, however, that their choice is based on the ongoing discussion on Brecht's relationships to women. In recent years, the role of the women in Brecht's life and their influ­ ence on his writing have become the topic of major studies.1 Most The Artist as a Dead Comm.un ist C lassic 19 notably among [hem is John Fuegi's 1994 biography Brecht and Com­ pany.} In his study, Fuegi claims to have "'evidence that the wriuen work Brecht clai~led as his was often primarily the work of others, most notably: Elisabeth Hauptmann, Margarethe Steffin, and Ruth Berlau" (xviii). Within this series, I will again concentrate on the writers amonO' the contributOrs. The writers were chosen since they constitute a grou; that is well-represented in both samples. Aher an overview of the tendencies in Brecht reception dis­ played in these sources and the relation beo.·een Brecht's works and the authors' own writings, I will relate my firidmgs to a broader con­ texL There are th ree major shifts that have occured with in the last IO to 20 years and have considerably reshaped the Brecht reception in Germany. These shifts can be subsumed under the following themes: The Fall of the Iron Curtain and Political Disillusionment The Re­ ception of Postmodern Philosophy, and The Canonization ~f Brecht. Again, this,paper does not intend to compile one "true" image of Brecht. Instead, t hIS study merely aims to provide a few highlights. . ,D,ra~ing conclusions from sources that are predominantly Journal~s~IC m nature has drawbacks as well as advantages. DiHinc1y categonzlOg the statements can become quite difficult since most of them are personal in nature and detached from any research debates on Brecht, to which scholars are accustomed, and to which their state­ ments could be linked. The difficulty, however, also constitutes an inter~Sli ng challenge. The ~ources do not provide answers to specific questions. In the ta2, comnbulOfS were not asked any questions at all. For their "Wortmeldungen,'" the only requirement was that their text be about their relationship with Brecht, Moreover, some of the au­ thors are nOt yet established on Germany's literary market so that it sometimes proved difficult to gather any information on them at alL . .On the other h'3nd, a study like this one promises to yield Interesting results exactly because it is unorthodox. It intends to un­ earth voices that remain inaudible in conventional literary research because what t hey say is not carefully written and revised for a specific purpose, but rather for '3 more "spont.meous" print medium. This is what per,mits thi,s study to be rather "up to date," drawing on sources that, while 1 wore, have not been released and discussed for a lono time, but literally only for a few days Or weeks. Moreove r, because of 20 Focus on Lileraltlr the limited space they were given, the contributors had to be very concise. Out of the 30 contributors in the "Mannor Stern und Eisen Brecht" series, the following len were defined as writers: t"lauhias Altenburg, Funny von Dannen, Kerstin Hensel, logo Schramm, Di­ eter HLldehrandt, Kithe R.e:ichel, Rolf Schneider, Lutz. Rathenow,lens Sparschuh, Tom Liwa, Volker Frick, and Yang Lian. With the exception of Schneider, Hildebrandt, and Lian, all of the above writers grew up in a divided Germany. Facing a united Germany, it may appear problematic to speak of "East" or "West" German authors. With respect to their image of Brecht, however, there seems to be a clear division between those authors who grew up in the GDR and those who lived in the Federal Republic. In general, the Eastern writers who grew up with Brecht as a subject in school take a sceptical stance toward Brecht's political anitudes. Sometimes the re­ jection can be as radic:d as that of Schramm who, after describing an orthodox Brecht-loving literature teacher he abhorred, continues: Ich hane lange Haare. harte Hard Rock UDd war bis aufs leute rote Blutkorperchen von romantischemS u b j e k t i vis m u s durchtrinkt. Brecht war und blieb mir suspekt. ... Er hat Vorschl:ige gemacht. F~u Geschichte hat sie zufaIligerweise ignoriert. Friede seiner Asche. (n. pag.)' Not all Eastern authors are as strong in their reaction as Schramm who was born in 1962 and became a writer "im Widerwillen gegen den offizie.llen DDR-Literaturhetrieb" (peter Lauterbach n. pag.). M ost, however, share his judgment that Brecht 's Marxist convictions were "ein schlimmer Betriebsunfall." as Sparschuh purs it (n. pag.). H e goes against Brecht's political stance in his poem "Die Maske des Bosen;" a poem, "dem in seiner verrrackten Einfachheit mehr DiaJekcik innewohnt als dem &Wzen Hokuspokus des epischen ader sonstwie Theaters" (n. pag.): An meiner Wand hangt ein japanisches Holzwerk Maske eines bosen Damons, bemalt mit Goldlack. MitfUhlend sehe ich Die geschwollenen Stirnadem, andeutend The ArtiSt as a Dead Communi~t Classic 21 Wie anstrengend es ist, bose zu sein. (0'. pag.) Sparschuh eventually praises some of Brecht's works in order to save t~e~ fa: a posterity that rejects Brecht's political convictions. Along sl~!lar. I~nes, Schneld~r states that, although they were chiefly intended as poLiusche Indoktnnation," Brecht's works have ult.imately survived the downfall of the ideas th ey promoted (n. pag.). Of the Eastern writ­ ers, only H ensel attributes a positive value to reading Brecht in the ~DR. She is also the only one to reclaim the applicab il ity of his po­ Jltical point of view for a post-1998 Germany; Bre~h.t ... ~ette~e uns iiber die Zeiten desspieJ1igen Konsurn­ sozlahsmus Ifl die des spiel1igen Compute rkapitalisrnus. Heme konnen wir nun, von Freiheit bekifh und bekloppt. wie der, der "wegen Mangel an Geld/ was das gro6te Verbrechen ist,! ?as auf dem Erdenrund vorkommt," nieht mehr in der Lage 1st, das Gliick offemlich zu beschreien. (n. pag.) . While Eastern authors who grew up in a coumry that pub­ hcl.y ce1ebra~ed Brecht now generally disapprove of Brecht's political attitude, theIr Western counterparts often lend 10 disregard the politi­ cal aspects, at least at a surface level. Poet and singer/songwri ter van I?annen. ~orn in 1960, for instance, goes into a freewheeling associa­ u.o~: for hllll, the name of Brecht's birthplace. Augsburg, evokes asso­ Clations of theAugsburgn- PuppenklSte,juvemus Turin, "Mackie Messer" as a children's lullaby, and contemporary Augsburg writer Franz Dahler. Van Dannen concludes his contribution by quoting a poem by a Polish author whose name he cannOt remember; Sieh scharf ins Morgen. Doch prophezeie nicht, Oberlafi das den QU3cksalbern. Wiederzugeben, was ist, ist schwer. Ich schreibe Gedichte langsam, Arbeite wie ein Ochs. (n. pag.) This poem can be read as a criticism as well as an appraisal of Brecht. ~hereas Brecht may have tried to write his poetry in a simi lar fash­ Ion, the sheer amount he wrote in his lifetime (nearly 1300 pages) 22 Focus on LiteralUY suggestS that he did nOt write all of them slqwly. Poems like "An die Nachgeborenen" (Brecht 724-25) definitely suggest an element of pre­ cliction.s With this implicit criticism (if it is one), however, van Dannen overlooks that many of Brecht's poems were written in a hislOrical situation in which Brecht simply had (0 hope thatcircuffistanCes would became better; "An die Nachgeborenen," for instance, was written in Danish exile in 19)9 (Knopf 129-30). Songwriter and poet Liwa o f the music band "Th e Flowerpornoes" tells a story that is even more remotely related to Brecht. [r is about his grandfather's dog which first W:lS called "Konsalik" aher a German paperback fiction novelist, but then was renamed. A story like this one indicates, as in the case of van Dannen, how irrele\'ant some younger Western authors find Brecht for their own writing. The twO songwriters do not even mention Brecht's name in their "Wortmeldungen. "1n other cases, authors claim to have been influenced roo strongly by Brecht's writing at an earlier point in their lives. Therefore, they now try to distance themselves from him and his works. As Altenburg puts it: Mit sechzehn hane ich die Gesammelten Werke zurn z.weiten Mal gelesen . Der Schaden ist bis heme nicht abz.usehen . Spa­ ter ging mir der Brecht-Ton auf die Nerven .... Brecht und Benn waren die groBen Textmaschinen der ersten JahrhunderthaIfte .... Das Zeitaiter der Maschinen ist vorbei. (n. pag.) Another path Eastern as well as Western authors in this series took was to contribute creative writing pieces of their own that dealt with Brecht. These textS deal with Brecht's texts in a playful way and the authors are much less dogmatic than the rejections of Brecht 's works by Altenburg or Schramm. Eastern writer Rathenow, born in 1952, invents an encounter between Brecht and Herrn Keuner. "Herr K. bereitet schweigend eine wiirdige Rolle vor. Brecht schreitet hurtig davon und murmelt: Hab ich den erfunden, mein Gon, wieso" (n. pag.). \X'hat makes this fictional encounter interesting from a politi­ cal point of view is that Herr Keuner sees Brecht as Ernst Ji.inger who has merely disguised himself as Brecht. What does that "recognition" The Artist as a Dead Communist Classic 23 imply? Does aligning Brecht with the East Getman governmem suo. gest that Brecht is politically at the same mor.r.l level ,vith a highl; conservative author like Junger who has regularly been seen as ideo­ logically linked to the Nazis (Treichel 2S)? Are [hey depicted as simi­ lar in their ambivalent relation to totalitarian powers? In their literary ~astersh ip? All these readi~gs are plausible. In any case, Herr Keltner IS. p~nrayed as a powerful hterary cba(2C(er who apparently survived hiS mventorand IS obviously strong enough to question even a literary representation of his author. Along similar lines~ Frick narrates a fictional encounter be. tween Brecht and Klaus Mann in a New York Ciry bar during \Xlorld \'(far n, and Lian contributes a 1993 poem about a visit at Brecht's gr.we in Berlin. But on ly Rathenow's piece, although nOt explicitly stated, makes use of Brecht's literary techniques. The enCOUOler be­ tween Brecht and his creation Keuner is cenainly an element of Verfremdung. Through this encounter, in turn, Brecht is depicted as a character, nOl as a "real- person outside the liter.r.ry text. Even more, the instability of this character (should we accept the label "Brecht" at ~ace value; should we call him Junger?) implicitly questions the va lid­ Ity ?f the current perceptions of Brecht as a communist, womanizer, g~~IUS, etc. ~~e.n ~Brecht" is confused about his identity. By empha. slz.mg the anlflClaLty of the different perceptions of Brecht Rathenow questions the more simplistic depictions of such wl"irers a; Schramm, Altenburg, and Sparschuh . A general tendency found in these contributions is that most authors feel compelled to take a predominantly political stance toward Bn:c~t. T hey discuss him and his works less with respect to rheir own wntmg. Even van Dannen's and Liwa's commentaries em be inter­ preted as a rejection of political literature altogether. On I)' Hensel still sees a po litical relevance in Brecht's works by relating {hem to the ~eteriorating economical conditions for a large part of the population I~ .contemporary Germany. Frick and Rathenow do not take a spe­ edlc stance, but counter Brecht's works with their own writing in which Brecht submerges as a literary character. Whereas the taz series draws its contributOrs from a wide range of areas related to Brecht, the D,e Zeil series is much narrower in its focus since it only considered female anists and research ers. Out of 21 contributors, seven are introduced as writers: G isela von Wysocki, Focus on Lireralltr Elfriede Jelinek, Eva Demski, Zoe Jenny, Ria Endres, Brigine Kronauer, and Frieduike Roth. In general, their ans~'ers are more elaborate and differentiated than those in the Caz, possibly because they were given more space. They also had to answer specific quest.ions, such as "\X'as bedeutet Ihnen Brecht heute?" Some tendencies are similar, such as the depiction of Brecht as an outdated classic: "Der Mann ist geistig gerongt, literaturgeschichtlich embeint, moralisch verschronet worden. Was man jetz[ noch sagen kennte, bewegt sich im leeren Raum, in der vierten Dimension" (von Wysocki n. pag.). In some instances, criticism of a part of Brecht's works is linked with the praise of another. Similar to Sparschuh's criticism, Demski rejects Brecht's plays in the light of post-war political events. At the same time, she praises his poetry: Zusammen mit dem Glauben an die Verinderbarkeit der Welt sind mir Brecbts Theatt:rstucke allmiihlicb abhanden gekommen .... Dmr iSt mir der Dichter Brecht immer lieber geworden .... Das kleine dicke Suhrkamp-Bricken mit den Gedichten Brechts ist eines jener Auf-die-Insel-mitnehm'­ Bucher. (n. pag.)' Apart from the similarities, however, there are aspects not 3ddressed in the liIz series. In contrast to those contriburors, Jelinek actually reflects on the economics of Brecht's writing and compares them to de Sade: Brecht wollte alles geben, doch darur muGIe er vie! 3ufnehmen, vielleicbt mehr als andere. Und das Aufnehmen und Abgeben stehen bei ibm in einem sehr durcbdachten Verhaltnis zuemander. Ja, die Aufgabe erfolgt kontrollierrer als bei den meisten anderen Autoren, denke ich .... Roland Barthes weist ja 3uch fur den Libertin de Sade nach, daR dessen Verausgabungssuchr langst keine schrankenlose ist. Das Essen, nllnuties geschilderr, ist netig, urn die Sperrnienbehaher der Herren wieder aufzufUl1en ... nur urn sie dann wieder leeren zu kannen ... diese genaue Bestimmung erfolgt ... bei Brecht auf das BewuBrsein der Selbmergeudung als Kiinsder hin. (n. pag.) The Artist as a Dead Communist Classic ,­., Jelinek's reflection is also closely related to the discussion sparked by Fuegi: "Er hat alles genommenj besonders viel, und das wird gerade wieder liberall diskutien, von den Frauen. die ihn geliebt und ihm mit de: Kraft ihrer Zuneigung zu-gearbeiter haben '" Gelinek n. pag.). J~I.llle.k's ~~mem apparendy follows Fuegi's to some extent, but jus. tlfles It wlthm the economy of his work. The majority of the writers in Ole Zeit, however, sees Brecht's image of women as more positive. Roth, for instance, writes about ber favorite Brecht poem, "Erinnerung an die Marie A. H (Brecht 232): Fu~ jene Wo~ke, die naturlich "'nur Minuten blUhte", sch lagt mem Herz bls heute .... Diese W01ke taucht auf im zunachst "Semirnemales Gedicht", dann "Erinnerung an Marie A." genan~ten G~dich[, das naturgemii6 eine Vorliiufergeschichte hat (wle aUes 1m Leben und in der Kunst - das wissen wir aber doch!). (n. pag.)' The prehistory Roth mentions, together with the de-lOdividualized in~age of ~e woman in the poem as suggested by her name (Marie A.), might be mterpreted as evidence of Brecht's alleged sexism. This seems most obvious in the original title, "'Sencirnentales Lied Nr. 1004," which refers to the 1003 women who Casanova, according to his aUlobiogra.­ ~hy, ~pposedly .seduced. Such a reading, however, neglects Brecht's mtentlon that hiS poem be a parody of sentimental bourgeois love poetry {Knopf 35-36).1 Demski citeS the poem U Auch das Beschiidigte" with rhe words "Fur die Frauen kann doch einer nichr gao:Z schlecht sein, der seine; Gefahrtin in einem Gedicht die Worre widme[" (n. pag.): DuJde den mindern Liebreiz der Wang Siebe, der Hintern Gleicht sich noch lang. (Brecht 857) V?n Wysocki, while criticizing Brecht for his rel:n ionship to Marieluise F~sche~, one"of F~egi's chief ex~mples, beglDs ~o reflect upon such dISCUSSions: Da sleht man es Wieder! Schon mlscht man seiber mit 26 27 Focus on Literatur beim Brechr-isr-ein-Unhold-Spiel, der Mann bierer sich dazu haIr an. Geradezu generalsrabsma~i g, deutsch-konsequent hat er sich in diese Rolle hineinmutiert" (n . pag.). . Although rhese wo men writers do in general take a rather posirive srance toward Brecht, the discussion surrounding Fuegi's bi­ ography is an underlying topic of many of the contributors in this series, and rhe tone of some of these writers is rhat of jusrification, even if ir is not always as explicit as in the examples of Demski and Roth. The fall of rhe Iron Curtain in 1989/90 did nOt only mark the end of a historical era. In its wake, dramatic shifts of political values have occured all over Europe. According to playwright Tony Kushner, the political system of the USSR and its allies had long ceased to be a true political alternative for the Western Left , but it had at least pro­ vided "an ideological space marked 'alternative'" (Weber 85). It had signified that other and potentially better political systems than West­ ern capitalism were feasible and desirable. With its disappearance, there seems to be hardly any hope for alternative political systems; this shift, in turn, weakens the oppositions to the powers that be (Weber 85). This development has had consequences in the reception of those lit­ erary authors who had put their hopes in Marxism to create a better world.9 One of those authors is Brecht, and the skepticism toward the validiry of his polirical visions in a post-Cold War world is widely spread even among committed Brecht scholars. John Willett voiced this skepticism in his keynote speech for The International Brecht Col­ loquium in Bourges, France: Today we have the radically changed political climare of the post-Gorbachev era. Nearly everywhere the communist sys­ tem has broken down; the Federal Republic has raken over rhe GDR, and the United States appears to be leading a campaign to seek out and destroy the remnants of rhat "specter of social­ ism" which once haunted Europe. So what about Brecht, who did so much to express, dramatize, and poe ri cize the great socialisr ideals ... ? Does he too now go into rhe dustbin of history, or does socialism still have somerhing to offer after all? (96-97)10 The Artist as a Dead Communist Classic Ulrich Klingmann argues rhat, insofar as Marx and his theoretical conceptions are made responsible for the apparent failure of socialism, Brecht as a Marxist is also contaminated (226). This is true especially for his reception in Germany, where the old regime was nor only re­ placed, but submerged by a Capitalisr West and irs value system. Alan Riding concludes in a New York Times article: "With the unification of Germany in 1990, Brechr's name seemed irrevacably linked to a repressive regime, and a failed ideology" (B 1). This, at leasr, is still a popular opinion among contemporary German intellectuals, and ir explains why Sparschuh can regard the aurhor's Marxist values as "einen schlimmen Betriebsunfall in Brechts Leben" (n. pag.).11 Thus, rhe po­ litical image of Brecht has tended to eclipse h is works: "Brechr wurde - zumal in der kulturellen Offendichkeir,. auf clem Thearer und in den Schulen-immer nur als Ideologe wahrgenommen, zue rs t ablehnend, dann zustimmend, dann wieder ablehnend" (Schlaffer n. pag.). The simplified perceprion of Brecht as a simple communist whose tens are plain and one-dimensio nal "polit ische Indokuinarion" (Schneider n. pag.) disregard the critical stance Brechr took toward the East German government in the wake of rhe 1953 uprising which is mirrowed in his poetry cycle "Buckower Elegien" (Klingmann 247). h also fails to recognize that his texts are not so much one-dimensional teachings as complex srructures which require the reader 's participa­ rion in a process of anive thoughrs as a social being (Klingmann 233) . But even reflecting on Brechr , as the answers of D emski and others show, has become rather unpopular in a politically disoriented Ger­ man left. Moreover, Brecht is often looked upon as a remnant of the Cold War, whose wrirings have become invalid for a wo rld that has radically changed since then. Leander Hau~mann, currently one of Germany's most acclaimed stage direcwrs, maimains "daJ3 das Klassenkampferische Brechts veraltet ist. Was aus Situationen heraus geschrieben wird, die brandaktuell sind, wenn man sie schreibt, lauh Gefahr, schnell verganglich zu werden" (10). 12 This shift of values ex­ plains the change in reception of one single reader. As Ruth Kluger points out, "Brechrs Sozialismus, der m ir frliher als das unerlamiche intellektuelle Gerust seiner Stucke vorkam, geht mir heute als rechthaberische Besserwisserei, die die SchwarzweiJ3malerei der geschilderten Figuren zur Folge har, auf die N erven" (n. pag.). In addition to the polirical developments, the broad recepri on 26 Focus on Literatur beim Brecht-ist-ein-Unhold-Spiel, der Mann bietet sich dazu halt an. Geradezu generalstabsma:(~ig, deutsch-konsequent hat er sich in diese Rolle hineinmutiert" (n. pag.). . Although these women writers do in general take a rather positive stance toward Brecht, the discussion surrounding Fuegi's bi­ ography is an underlying topic of many of the contributors in this series, and the tone of some of these writers is that of justification, even if it is not always as explicit as in the examples of Demski and Roth. The fall of the Iron Curtain in 1989/90 did nOt only mark the end of a historical era. In its wake, dramatic shifts of political values have occured allover Europe. According to playwright Tony Kushner, the political system of the USSR and its allies had long ceased to be a true political alternative for the Western Left, but it had at least pro­ vided "an ideological space marked 'alternative'" (Weber 85). It had signified that other and potentially better political systems than West­ ern capitalism were feasible and desirable. With its disappearance, there seems to be hardly any hope for alternative political systems; this shift, in turn , weakens the oppositions to the powers that be (Weber 85). This development has had consequences in the reception of those lit­ erary authors who had put their hopes in Marxism to create a better world.9 One of those authors is Brecht, and the skepticism toward the validity of his political visions in a post-Cold War world is widely spread even among committed Brecht scholars. John Willett voiced this skepticism in his keynote speech for The International Brecht Col· loquium in Bourges, France: Today we have the radically changed political climate of the post-Gorbachev era. Nearly everywhere the communist sys­ tem has broken down; the Federal Republic has taken over the GDR, and the United States appears to be leading a campaign to seek out and destroy the remnants of that "specter of social­ ism" which once haunted Europe. So what about Brecht, who did so much to express, dramatize, and poeticize the grea t socialist ideals .. . ? Does he too now go into the dustbin of history, or does socialism still have something to offer after all? (96-97)10 The Artist as a Dead Communist Classic 27 Ulrich Klingmann argues that, insofar as Made and his theoretical conceptions are made responsible for the apparent failure of socialism, Brecht as a Marxist is also contaminated (226) . This is true especially for his reception in Germany, where the old regime was not only re­ placed, but submerged by a Capitalist West and its value system. Alan Riding concludes in a New York Times article: "With the unification of Germany in 1990, Brecht 's name seemed irrevacably linked to a repressive regime, and a failed ideology" (B 1). This, at least, is still a popular opinion among contemporary German intellectuals, and it explains why Sparschuh can regard the author's Marxist values as "einen schlimmen Betriebsunfall in Brechts Leben" (n. pag.).11 Thus, the po· litical image of Brecht has tended to eclipse his works: "Brecht wurde - zumal in der kulturellen Offentlichkeit,. auf dem Theater und in den Schulen-immer nur als Ideologe wahrgenommen, zu~rst ablehnend, dann zustimmend, dann wieder ablehnend" (Schlaffer n. pag.). The simplified perception of Brecht as a simple communist whose texts are plain and one-dimensional "polit ische Indoktrination" (Schneider n. pag.) disregard the critical stance Brecht took toward the East German government in the wake of the 1953 uprising which is mirrowed in his poetry cycle "Buckower Elegien" (Klingmann 247).lt also fails to recognize that his texts are not so much one-dimensional teachings as complex structures which require the reader's participa­ tion in a process of active thoughts as a social being (Klingmann 233) . But even reflecting on Brecht, as the answers of Demski and others show, has become rather unpopular in a politically disoriented Ger­ man left. M oreover, Brecht is often looked upon as a remnant of the Cold War, wh ose writings have become invalid for a world that has radically changed since then. Leander HauBmann, currently one of Germany's most acclaimed stage directors, maintains "daB das Klassenbimpferische Brechts veraltet ist. Was aus Situationen heraus geschrieben wird, die brandaktuell sind, wenn man sie schreibt, laun Gefahr, schnell verga:nglich zu werden" (10). 12 This shift of values ex­ plains the change in reception of one single reader. As Ruth Kluger points out, "Brechts Sozialismus, der mir fr1iher als das unerlaBliche intellektuelle Gerust seiner Stucke vorkam, geht mir heme als rechthaberische Besserwisserei, die die SchwarzweiBmalerei der geschilderten Figuren zur Folge hat, auf die Nerven" (n. pag.). In addition to the political developments, the broad reception http:pag.).11 28 29 Focus on Literatur of postmodernist philosophy has posed another challenge to the re­ ception of Brecht's works. According to KJingmann, postmodernist philosophy has often criticized that the "Gro{;e Ordnung" to which Brecht aimed to contribute with his works, has victimized millions. These victims could have been avoided if the claim to change the world once and for all would have been less total. From there, postmodern philosophy criticizes all "totalitarian" images and "master narratives" (Klingmann 230-31).1) From this point of view, political commitment is discouraged, including a political reading of literary texts. The postmodern era threatens to become der asthetisch durchaus feinsinnige, politisch jedoch vollig taubstumme Kolo{; .... Fur ihn ist die Kunst die Fluchtburg, in die er sich vor seinem Alltag zuriickziehen kann, in der er neue Kraft schopft, urn sich auf dem Markt zu bewahren .... Politische Literatur ... begeht in seinem Blick gleich zwei Sakrilegien: ersten, sie Start den Kunstfreund in seinem Idyll auf, zweitens und noch weit schlimmer: sie ist uncool. (Hoppner 14-15) In its more radical forms, postmodern philosophy questions concepts like rationality, reason, identity, and reference altogether and thus threat­ ens to discern any kind of subject that could learn lessons from Brecht's texts and put them into practice (KJingmann 231) .14 The rise of postmodern philisophy in a broad readership, how­ ever, coincided with "the Reaganite and Thatcherite 1980's" (Riding B12). In some respects, that era has not yet ended in Germany which was run by the same conservative government for 16 years. Although postmodern philosophy might not deliberately aim to serve a capita­ list hegemony, KJingmann argues, it still must be questioned in regard to whom its literary theory serves politically. There is a nexus be­ tween literary theory and the powers that be (KLngmann 245-47). This holds especially true for Germany where universities are state-owned institutions and tenured faculty has the status of public officials, Beamte. While certainly not conciously aiming at a conservative hegemony, it is their inherent interest that the social and political status quo which guarantees their workplace is maintained. Among other intellectuals, the broad reception of this philosophy has resulted in a major disillu- The Artist as a Dead Communi~t Classic sionment, as can be seen in the answers of Demski and others.!S On the other hand, the postmodern relativation of Brecht as a literary authority has certainly facilitated the playfulness with which Brecht can by treated by Rathenow and Frick, as well as the taz house car­ toonist Tom who has celebrated Brecht's birthday with one of his daily cartoons in a school setting,16 and even the series title "Marmor Stein und Eisen Brecht!" which is an allusion to a German hit parade song from the 1960's. The third major shift is that there has been a resurgence of the strong Brecht reception that Germany experienced throughout the 1960's and 1970's in the West and since the 1950's in the East. Brecht has been presented as a Socialist "classic" whose works have to be read and understood largely in terms already prefigured by the state. This is obvious for East Germany and accounts for the aversion to Brecht among a younger generation which increasingly questioned the gov­ ernment and its cultural politics. The aggressive reaction of Schramm, who associated Brecht with a politically orthodox teacher he despised, is just one example of this. But this aversion to the "classic" Brecht even got hold of those who had witnessed the author's works in prac­ tice. As a child, Hau{;mann had witnessed rehearsals at the Berliner' Ensemble while it was run by Helene Weigel after Brecht had died . Even he rediscovered Brecht only after finishing school because of the teachers' strong emphasis on Brecht's communist outlook. In his re­ discovery and obviously influenced by the political and philosophical paradigm shifts, he denies the communist impetus in Brecht in gen­ eral: In der Schule begegnete man nicht so sehr dem Literaten, als dem Kommunisten Brecht. Das war, was uns, der nachfolgenden Generation, ihn ein biGchen verleidet hat, diese verlogene Geschichte, er sei ein Kommunist gewesen.. . . Insofern war es ein mieser Trick von der DDR, uns Brecht, der einfach ein genialischer Theatermann war, als Kommunist zu verkaufen. (Hau{;mann 8) The reception in West Germany also changed over time. While even the possession of one of his books was still a reason to be expelled from a Catholic school in the 1950's (Endes n. pag.), Brecht's works 28 Focus on Literatur of postmodernist philosophy has posed another challenge to the re­ ception of Brecht's works. According to KJingmann, postmodernist philosophy has often criticized that the "Gro!;e Ordnung" to which Brecht aimed to contribute with his works, has victimized millions. These victims could have been avoided if the claim to change the world once and for all would have been less total. From there, postmodern philosophy criticizes all "totalitarian" images and "master narratives" (Klingmann 230-31).13 From this point of view, political commitment is discouraged, including a pol.itical reading of literary texts. The postmodern era threatens to become der asthetisch durchaus feinsinnige, politisch jedoch vollig taubstumme Kolo!; .... Fur ihn ist die Kunst die Fluchtburg, in die er sich vor seinem Alltag zuri.ickziehen kann, in der er neue Kraft schopft, urn sich auf dem Markt zu bewahren .... Politische Literatur ... begeht in seinem Blick gleich zwei Sakrilegien: ersten, sie Start den Kunstfreund in seinem Idyll auf, zweitens und noch weit schlimmer: sie ist uncool. (Hoppner 14-15) In its more radical forms, postmodern philosophy quest.ions concepts like rationality, reason, identity, and reference altogether and thus threat­ ens to discern any kind of subject that could learn lessons from Brecht's texts and put them into practice (KJingmann 231).14 The rise of postmodern philisophy in a broad readership, how­ ever, coincided with "the Reaganite and Thatcherite 1980's" (Riding B12). In some respects, that era has not yet ended in Germany which was run by the same conservative government for 16 years. Although postmodern philosophy might not deliberately aim to serve a capita­ list hegemony, KJingmann argues, it still must be questioned in regard to whom its literary theory serves politically. There is a nexus be­ tween literary theory and the powers that be (Klingmann 245-47). This holds especially true for Germany where universities are state-owned institutions and tenured faculty has the status of public officials, Beamte. While certainly not conciously aiming at a conservative hegemony, it is their inherent interest that the social and political status quo which guarantees their workplace is maintained. Among other intellectuals, the broad reception of this philosophy has resulted in a major disillu- The Artist as a Dead Communi~t Classic 29 sionment, as can be seen in the answers of Demski and others.!S On the other hand, the postmodern relativation of Brecht as a literary authority has certainly facilitated the playfulness with which Brecht can by treated by Rathenow and Frick, as well as the taz house car­ toonist Tom who has celebrated Brecht's birthday with one of his daily cartoons in a school sening,16 and even the series title "Marmor Stein und Eisen Brecht!" which is an allusion to a German hit parade song from the 1960's. The third major shift is that there has been a resurgence of the strong Brecht reception that Germany experienced throughout the 1960's and 1970's in the West and since the 1950's in ~he East. Brecht has been presented as a Socialist "classic" whose works have to be read and understood largely in terms already prefigured by the state. This is obvious for East Germany and accounts for the aversion to Brecht among a younger generation which increasingly questioned the gov­ ernment and its cultural politics. The aggressive reaction of Schramm, who associated Brecht with a politically orthodox teacher he despised, is just one example of this. But this aversion to the "classic" Brecht even got hold of those who had witnessed the author's works in prac­ tice. As a child, Hau!;mann had witnessed rehearsals at the Berliner' Ensemble while it was run by Helene Weigel after Brecht had died. Even he rediscovered Brecht only after finishing school because of the teachers' strong emphasis on Brecht's communist outlook. In his re­ discovery and obviously influenced by the political and philosophical paradigm shifts, he denies the communist impetus in Brecht in gen­ eral: In der Schule begegnete man nicht so sehr dem Literaten, als dem Kommunisten Brecht. Das war, was uns, der nachfolgenden Generation, ihn ein bi!;chen verleidet hat, diese verlogene Geschichte, er sei ein Kommunist gewesen .. .. Insofern war es ein mieser Trick von der DDR, uns Brecht, der einfach ein genialischer Theatermann war, als Kommunist zu verkaufen. (Hau!;mann 8) The reception in West Germany also changed over time. While even the possession of one of his books was still a reason to be expelled from a Catholic school in the 1950's (Endes n. pag.), Brecht's works 30 31 Focus on Literatur were heavily read in West German high schools and universities after 1968 ("Brecht auf!" n. pag.), which likely caused later students, like Liwa and van Dannen, to revolt against reading Brecht. As professor of literature Sigrid Weigel puts it: Meine behaarliche Indifferenz gegenuber der Literatur Brechts ist das Resultat eines vermutlich generationsbedingten Uberdrusses, eines Germanistikstudiums Anfang der siebziger Jahre. Die Unvermeidlichkeit, mit der man "damals" im Kia jeder Wohngemeinschaft auf das Plakat mit einem Lehrsatz Brechts blicken muISte, und die endlosen Erorterungen der "Brecht-Lukacs-Debatte" und der Lehrstucke in den Seminaren hinterlienen eine bleibende Unlust, uberhaupt einen Brecht­ Text zur Hand Zu nehmen. (n. pag.) ~eigel's description suggests that Brecht was read in West Germany as til authority by many readers who might have tended to take the texts 'ather at face value instead of reading them against the grain, quite in :ontrast to the process of thinking he aimed at with his texts Klingmann 230). Weigel goes even further: "DaIS Brecht, seiner Lntikonventionellen Montage- und Zitatasthetik zum Trotz ... schon :um Klassiker erstarren konnte, ist der paradoxe Effekt seiner lopularitat und vielleicht zu groISen Wirkung" (n. pag.). One must lot forget that the intellectuals who read Brecht in the 1960's and 970' s are now middle-aged, and many of them are in well-established )ositions, have tenure, run theatres, and run for elections. Thus, they re also a target of revolt for younger generations, as the struggle over lrecht is a minor battlefield in a generational struggle. Brecht, however, has not only been praised by liberal and left­ ling German readers. The broad media coverage and the number of ,fficial events in the name of Brecht's birthday show that Brecht has ·ecome an officially acknowledged, canonized writer. The "zum chulbuchklassiker und Vorzugsautor burgerlicher Stadttheater ufgestiegene Dichter kann nunmehr gefeiert werden selbst von Leuten, ie sich anderntags wieder in wiitender Polemik gegen die "Roten ocken" ergehen" (Schneider n. pag.)Y rom the official embrace many readers, among them Altenburg, iauISmann, Weigel, and Demski, seem to conclude that Brecht's works The Artist as a Dead Communist Classic must generally be outdated, since they are now considered as harmless for the current political establishment in Germany. For these readers, the celebration is merely a sign of the canonization of a writer who once may have been regarded as revolutionary and disturbing the bour­ geois order, as has been the case with Kleist, Kafka and Heine. This can also be regarded as a late triumph for an old Western policy toward Brecht that Schneider mentions-to separate the political and aesthetic aspects of Brecht's work and only to celebrate the former ones. IS The larger-than-life classic Brecht then becomes an authority many young writers like van Dannen, Liwa, and Altenburg feel they have to disso­ ciate from in order to develop their own writings. 19 This becomes especially clear in Altenburg 'S demonstrative gesture: "Mit sechzehn hatte ich die Gesammelten Werke zum z:weiten Mal gelesen. Der Schaden ist bis heute nicht abzusehen" (n. pag .), but also in the urge of Rathenow and Frick to counter the author Brecht with their own creations of Brecht as a literary character. W here does the German reception of Brecht proceed from here? Is there a chance for a more positive and more politically subver­ sive reading of Brecht in the near future? First of all, the variety of attitudes toward Brecht even in the two series examined here is much broader than could be demonstrated within a sample that in both cases included only about a third of the total number of contributors. Thus, many more facets, many more current images of Brecht in contemporary Germany could not be ex­ amined here. Marc Silbermann, editor of the 1998 joint edition of Theater der Zeit and The Brecht Yearbook, argues that the lively discus­ sions on Brecht are far from being over: Die Qualitat der ... Beitrage ... erweisen [sic] die heute zu oft zitierten Klischees als falsch: Brecht Mudigkeit [sic], Eiszeit fur Brecht, Denkmal Brecht, die Musealisierung Brechts .... Die Vielfalt der hier ausgewahlten Ansatze ist dafur ein Zeugnis: Enttauschung, Verteidigung, Provokation, N 0­ stalgie, Ablehnung, Verleugnungen, Berichterstattung, Historisieren. Das sind Haltungen, die durchschimmern. (4) While the importance and validity of Brecht's writing for German politics is presently considered rather minimal, this could change in 30 Focus on Literatur were heavily read in West German high schools and universities after 1968 ("Brecht auf!" n. pag.), which likely caused later students, like Liwa and van Dannen, to revolt against reading Brecht. As professor of literature Sigrid Weigel puts it: Meine behaarliche Indifferenz gegenuber der Literatur Brechts 1st das Resultat eines vermutlich generationsbedingten Uberdrusses, eines Germanistikstudiums Anfancr der siebzicrer b b Jahre. Die Unvermeidlichkeit, mit der man "damals" im KIa jeder Wohngemeinschaft auf das Plakat mit einem Lehrsatz Brechts blicken muBte, und die endlosen Erorterungen der "Brecht-Lukacs-Debane" und der Lehrstucke in den Seminaren hinterlieBen eine bleibende Unlust, uberhaupt einen Brecht­ Text zur Hand Zu nehmen. (n. pag.) ~eigel's description suggests that Brecht was read in West Germany as m authority by many readers who might have tended to take the texts 'ather at face value instead of reading them against the grain, quite in :ontrast to the process of thinking he aimed at with his texts Klingmann 230). Weigel goes even further: "DaIS Brecht, seiner mtikonventionellen Montage- und Zitatasthetik zum Trotz ... schon :um Klassiker erstarren konnte, ist der paradoxe Effekt seiner lopularitat und vielleicht zu groISen Wirkung" (n. pag.). One must lot forget that the intellectuals who read Brecht in the 1960's and 970' s are now middle-aged, and many of them are in well-established )ositions, have tenure, run theatres, and run for elections. Thus, they re also a target of revolt for younger generations, as the struggle over lrecht is a minor battlefield in a generational struggle. Brecht, however, has not only been praised by liberal and left­ {ing German readers. The broad media coverage and the number of ,fficial events in the name of Brecht's birthday show that Brecht has ·ecome an officially acknowledged, canonized writer. The "zum chulbuchklassiker und Vorzugsautor burgerlicher Stadttheater ufgestiegene Dichter kann nUf1ffiehr gefeiert werden selbst von Leuten, ie sich anderntags wieder in wtitender Polemik gegen die "Roten ocken" ergehen" (Schneider n. pag.)Y rom the official embrace many readers, among them Altenburg, IauBmann, Weigel, and Demski, seem to conclude that Brecht's works The Artist as a Dead Communist Classic 31 must generally be outdated, since they are now considered as harmless for the current political establishment in Germany. For these readers, the celebration is merely a sign of the canonization of a writer who once may have been regarded as revolutionary and disturbing the bour­ geois order, as has been the case with Kleist , Kafka and Heine. This can also be regarded as a late triumph for an old Western policy toward Brecht that Schneider mentions-to separate the political and aesthetic aspects of Brecht's work and only to celebrate the former ones. IS The larger-than-life classic Brecht then becomes an authority many young writers like van Dannen, Liwa, and Altenburg feel they have to disso­ ciate from in order to develop their own writings.19 This becomes especially clear in Altenburg 'S demonstrative gesture: "'Mit sechzehn hatte ich die Gesammelten Werke zum zweiten Mal gelesen. Der Schaden ist bis heute nicht abzusehen" (n. pag.), but also in the urge of Rathenow and Frick to counter the author Brecht with their own creations of Brecht as a literary character. Where does the German reception of Brecht proceed from here? Is there a chance for a more positive and more politically subver­ sive reading of Brecht in the near future? First of all, the variety of attitudes toward Brecht even in the two series examined here is much broader than could be demonstrated within a sample that in both cases included only about a third of the total number of contributors. Thus, many more facets, many more current images of Brecht in contemporary Germany could not be ex­ amined here. Marc Silbermann, editor of the 1998 joint edition of Theater der Zeit and The Brecht Yearbook, argues that the lively discus­ sions on Brecht are far from being over: Die Qualitat der ... Beitrage ... erweisen [sic] die heute zu oft zitierten Klischees als falsch: Brecht Mudigkeit [sic], Eiszeit fur Brecht, Denkmal Brecht, die Musealisierung Brechts .... Die Vielfalt der hier ausgewahlten Ansatze ist dafur ein Zeugnis: Enttauschung, Verteidigung, Provokation, N 0- stalgie, Ablehnung, Verleugnungen, Berichterstattung, Historisieren. Das sind Haltungen, die durchschimmern. (4) While the importance and validity of Brecht's writing for German politics is presently considered rather minimal, this could change in http:writings.19 32 33 Focus on Literatur the face of Germany's increasing social problems, including the high­ est unemployment rates since the early 1930's on the one hand and the highest profits ever generated by German corporations in history on the other. As Germany's political establishment sheds more and more of its social institutions and rapidly cuts back on the existing ones, as the "Soziale Marktwirtschaft" models itself more and more into "pure" capitalism, there is hope for more social and political ac­ tivism of an opposition, and thus for a new Brecht renaissance that Opts to use Brecht's texts as m odels for learning rather than the writ ­ ings of a dead classic. This is what actress Susanne Lothar articulates in Die Zeit: In Zeiten mit fast funf Millionen Arbeitslosen - wo em Arbeitnehmer sich keine Arbeit mehr nehmen kann, weil keine mehr da ist, jedenfalls nicht da, wo er so fortschrinsfeindlich unglobal seine kleine Heimat definiert, und bei einer Poli ­ tikerklasse, die von den Arbeitgebern auf den Strich geschickt wird ... ist der hundertjahrige Brecht plotzlich wieder ganz . ( )20Jung. n. pag. University of Oregon Notes [This assumption is partly confirmed by the fact that the taz could run a Brecht title page on February 10, 1998. The title page consisted entirely of headlines announcing current events that were followed by excerpts from Brecht's works on similar topics instead of regular news articles. See "Seite 1" n. pag. 2The topic is not entirely new. Among others, Klaus Theleweit brought it up as early as 1988 in the first volume of his monumental study Buch der Konige. See "Orpheus im realen Sozialismus" 706-39. Here, Theleweit speaks about Brecht's poem "Nach dem Tod meiner Mitarbeiterin M.S." He does not criticize Brecht for leaving her behind in a Moscow hospital in order to make it to the U.S., but rather sees her transforming into Eurydice so Brecht can stylize himself into an Orpheus character (714-15) . 3Fuegi's book has caused major surges in Brecht research; yet, it is The Artist as a Dead Communist Classic not specific to German scholarship. Therefore, I will not concentrate on the ongoing discussion. 4This quote is an allusion to Brecht's poem "Ich benotige keinen Grabstein:" Ich benotige keir.en Grabstein, aber Wenn ihr einen fur mich benotigt Wunschte ich, es stunde darauf: Er hat Vorschhige gemacht. Wir haben sie angenommen. (Brecht 1029) ;In particular, see the third section: "Ihr, die ihr auftauchen werdet aus der Flut ..." (724). 6A lot of other similarities could be added to this Est. Just to men­ tion one of them, Jenny has also contributed a "literary" portrait (like Rathenow and Frick) , albeit more lyrical in n?-ture: "Ware Bertoit Brecht ein Land, dann Jage es irgendwo im Nordosten .... Es gabe kein Meer, keine Seen, keine Flusse; nur ebenes Land mit sehr vielen Baumen, zum Teil sehr alten Baumen. In die Stille hinein hone man von Zeit zu Zeit das TrompeTengeschmetter der Kraniche, die in dichten Schwarmen uber den Himmel zogen" (n. pag.). 7Roth alludes to the follwing lines: "Doch jene Wolke bluhte nur Minuten/Und als ich aufsah, schwand sie schon im Wind" (Brecht 232) . look­ ing at this poem, even Altenburg concedes in spite of his rej ection of Brecht in general: "Aber die Lyrik, die Lyrik! Ja, freilich jene Wolke ..." (n. pag.). 8The poem itself is loosely based on Brecht's firST love relationship .to Marie Rose Aman, a barber's daughter in Augsburg, which had an un­ happy ending. For an account of this relationship, see Mittenzwei 50-52,158. 9For a description of these developments, see Hoppner 14-15. IOObviously, Marxism is stilL being discussed and developed as a phi­ losophy. However, it can hardly be denied that it does nO( have the same appeal in Western countries as it did 30 years ago or even in The 1980's. llIt would be of interest to research specific motivations for judg­ ments like this, i.e. whether these authors were former Marxists who revised their beliefs after The Wende. Sparschuh, for instance, used to teach German Literature at Humboldt University in Berlin from 1978-83; a posiTion he would not have held had he openly opposed the East German government at the Time (Lindenberg n. pag.). 12For Hau~mann, the political impetus of Brecht's works is mosdy of hisrorical interest: "Man konnte zeigen: es gab einmal so etwas wie einen Klassenkampf, was wir vergessen haben, und Menschen, die sich dafur engagiert und aus dieser Situation heraus gute TheatersTucke geschrieben haben" (10). ; 13Klingmann takes a very heterogeneous group of philosophers (some, 32 Focus on Literatur the face of Germany's increasing social problems, including the high­ est unemployment rates since the early 1930's on the one hand and the highest profits ever generated by German corporations in history on the other. As Germany's political establishment sheds more and more of its social institutions and rapidly cuts back on the existing ones, as the "Soziale Marktwirtschaft" models itself more and more into "pure" capitalism, there is hope for more social and political ac­ tivism of an opposition, and thus for a new Brecht renaissance that Opts to use Brecht's texts as models for learning rather than the writ­ ings of a dead classic. This is what actress Susanne Lothar articulates in Die Zeit: In Zeiten mit fast funf Millionen Arbeitslosen - wo ein Arbeitnehmer sich keine Arbeit mehr nehmen kann, weil keine mehr da ist, jedenfalls nicht da, wo er so fortschrittsfeindlich unglobal seine kleine Heimat definiert, und bei einer Poli­ tikerklasse, die von den Arbeitgebern auf den Strich geschickt wird .. . ist der hundertjahrige Brecht plotzlich wieder ganz . ( )20 Jung. n . pag. University of Oregon Notes [This assumption is partly confirmed by the fact that the taz could run a Brecht title page on February 10, 1998. The title page consisted entirely of headlines announcing current events That were followed by excerpts from Brecht's works on similar topics instead of regular news articles. See "Seite I" n. pag. "The topic is not entirely new. Among others, Klaus Theleweit brought it up as early as 1988 in The first volume of his monumental study Buch der Konige. See "Orpheus im real en Sozialismus" 706-39. Here, Theleweit speaks about Brecht's poem "Nach dem Tod meiner MiTarbeiterin M.S." He does not criticize Brecht for leaving her behind in a Moscow hospital in order to make it to the U.S., but rather sees her transforming into Eurydice so Brecht can stylize himself into an Orpheus character (714-15). 3Fuegi's book has caused major surges in Brecht research; yet, it is The Artist as a Dead Communist Classic 33 not specific to German scholarship. Therefore, I will not concentrate on the ongoing discussion. iThis quote is an allusion to Brecht's poem "Ich benotige keinen Grabstein:" Ich benotige keinen Grabstein, aber Wenn ihr einen fur mich benotigt Wunschte ich, es stunde darauf: Er hat Vorschhige gemacht. Wir haben sie angenommen. (Brecht 1029) sIn particular, see the third section: "Ihr, die ihr auftauchen werdet aus der Flut .. . " (724). 6A lot of other similarities could be added to this Est. Just to men­ tion one of them, Jenny has also contributed a "literary" portrait (like Rathenow and Frick), albeit more lyrical in n?-ture: "Ware Bertolt Brecht em Land dann lage es irc-endwo im Nordosten .... Es gabe kein Meer, keIne '0 '1 h Seen keine Flusse; nur ebenes Land mit sehr vielen Baumen, zum Tel se r alte~ Baumen. In die Stille hinein hone man von Zeit zu Zeit das Trompetengeschmetter der Kraniche, die in dichten Schwarmen uber den Himmel zogen" (n. pag.) . 7Roth alludes to the follwing lines: "Doch jene Wolke bluhte nur Minuten/Und als ich aufsah, schwand sie schon im Wind" (Brecht 232). Look­ inc- at this poem, even Altenburg concedes in spite of his rejection of Brecht in bgeneral: "Aber die Lyrik, die Lyrik! Ja, freilich jene W.olke ... " (n. pag.). 8The poem itself is loosely based on Brecht's fmt love relationshIp to Marie Rose Aman, a barber's daughter in Augsburg, which had an un- o happy ending. For an account of this relationship, see Mittenzwei 50-~2, 158. 9For a description of these developments, see Hoppner 14-b. . lOObviously, Marxism is stilL being discussed and developed as a phI­ losophy. However, it can hardly be denied that it does nO( have th,e same appeal in Western countries as it did 30 years ago or even In the 1980 s. lIlt would be of interest to research speCIfIC motlvatlons for Judg­ ments like this, i.e. whether these authors were former Marxists who revised their beliefs after the Wende. Sparschuh, for instance, used to teach German Literature at Humboldt University in Berlin from 1978-83; a position he would not have held had he openly opposed the East German government at the time (Lindenberg n. pag.). . 12For Hau~mann, the political impetus of Brecht's works IS mostly of historical interest: "Man konnte zeigen: es gab einmal so etwas wie einen Klassenkampf, was wir vergessen haben, und Menschen, die sich dafur engaaiert und aus dieser Situation heraus gute TheatersTucke geschneben ° , haben" (10). . • 13Klingmann takes a very heterogeneous group of phIlosophers (some, 34 35 Pocus on Literatur like Derrida, would even claim that they do not consider themselves philoso­ phers) and turns them into one monolithic block with one opinion. Although this is obviously a simplification, the simplification might be justified insofar as the combined receptions of these thinkers might very well cause the shift in German Brecht reception.-As an example of a "master narrative" serve the opening sentences of the Communist Manifesto: Die Geschichte aUer bisherigen Gesellschaft ist eine Geschichte von Klassenkampfen.... Unterdriicker und Unterdriickte ... fiihrten einen . .. Kampf, der jedesmal mit einer revolutionaren Umgestalrung der Gesellschaft endete oder mit dem gemeinsamen Untergang der kampferischen Klassen" (Marx, Engels 44, my emphasis). HKlingmann argues that in accordance with their premises , postmodern theories mostly refuse to legitimize themselves on a rational ba­ sis. In contrast to this, sociological research shows that human beings are always determined by their social and economical status in a given society and cannot exist without social interaction. \)/ithin this social context, we can learn and draw conclusions from literary text. That means, identity and truth exist, but they are subject to a constant change, i. e. through learning. Exactly because Brecht's poems aim at that constant questioning, a reshap­ ing, they have not become invalid (233). ISAdmittedly, the stance of postmodern literary theory (not of wri­ ters or a broad readership) toward Brecht has been less monolithic. There have even been attempts to win Brecht's work for the postmodern movement(s). Claudette Sartiliot, for example, tries to show parallels between Brecht's theatrical works and Derrida's writings (115-152). Hans-Christian von Hermann examines Brecht's use of (then) contemporary media in the light of Friedrich Kittler's media theory. 16See title page of this study. l7The term "Rote Socken" refers to the PDS, the follow-up pany of the former SED, minted by the CDU in 1994 when the PDS not only main­ tained its residence in Eastern state parliaments, but even gained more seats during the elections. liThe canonization of Brecht may be one of the foundations for Fuegi's criticism. The very status of Brecht as a cl2.Ssic is mirrowed in the attitude that Fuegi seems to take in his project, that of an iconoclast attacking a monument, trying to de-throne Brecht in similar ways as statues of Marx, Lenin, and Stalin were taken from their pedestals at the beginning of this decade. 1 9The fact that van Dannen claims that he cannot remember the name of the Polish poet whose poem he quotes, may be interpreted as a resistance against "classics," against poets as authorities, resenting the poet becoming more important than his writings.-Interestingly, the general atti- The Artise as a Dead Communise Classic tude of the mostly male writers in the caz is more negative than that of the female writers in Die Zeit. Do the former rega~d Brecht as more of a rival in writing than the latter? lOIn the same week's edition, Linda Reisch argues along similar lines: "Vielleicht wird die Lektiire hier auch bald wieder inreressanter, weil mit pur kapitalistischen Verhalrnissen gedroht wird" (n. pag). Works Cited Altenburg, Matthias. "Die Lyrik, die Lyrikl: Eine Wortmeldung zum 100. Gebunstag." caz 3 Jan. 1998: n. pag. Online. Internet 26 Feb.- 28 Feb. 1998. "Brecht auf!: Zum hundersten Gebunstag <;ies armen B. B. schreiben Promi­ nenre und weniger Prominenre in einer taz-Serie." taz 3 Jan. 1998: n. pag. Online. Internet. 26 Feb. - 28 Feb. 1998. Brecht, BenoIt. Dze Gedichte von Bertolt Brecht in eznem Band. 9th ed. Frank fun a. M.: Suhrkamp, 1997. Dannen, Funny van. "Wie der Ochs arbeitet: Eine Wonmeldung zum 100. Gebunstag." caz 4 Jan. 1998: n. pag. Online. Internet. 26 Feb.­ 28 Feb. 1998. t Droste, Wiglaf. "Brecht-Jahr: 'Fut und griine Bohnen'." caz 9 Jan. 1998: n. pag. Online. Internet. 28 Feb. 1998. Endres, Ria. "Deutsch - Herz - Zoom - Was bedeutet Ihnen Brecht heme?: Eine Umfrage unter prominenten Frauen zum 100. Gebunstag des Dichters, Teil II." Die Zeit 12 Feb. 1998: n. pag. Online. Internet. I { 4 Mar. 1998. Fischer, Reinhard. "Guter Rat fiir Raucher: Eine Wortmeldung zum 100. Gebunstag." caz 22 Jan. 1998: n. pag. Online. Internet. 26 Feb.­ 28 Feb. 1998. Frick, Volker. "Alles, was Brecht ist: Eine Wonmeldung zum 100. Gebunstag." f caz 2 Feb. 1998: n . pag. Online. Inrernet. 26 Feb. - 28 Feb. 1998. Fuegi, John. Brecht and Company: Sex, Politzc5, and the Making 0/ the ModemI Drama. New York: Grove, 1994. t "Ein gro~er deutscher Romanriker: Funny van Dannen in cler Volksbiihne." Berliner Zeitung 5 June 1997: n. pag. Online. Internet. 4 Mar. 1998. Hau~mann, Leander. "Ich wiirde mich mit Brechts Erben wunderbar i verstehen: 1m Gesprach mit Ulrich Demer." drive b: brecht 100. I A rbeitsbuch/Sourcebook. Theater der Zeit/The Brecht Yearbook. Eds. t Marc Silbermann, Stefan Mahlke, and Kristin Schpltz. Berlin: The­ ~ ater der Zeit/The International Brecht Society, 1997. 8-11. Hensel, Kerstin. "Wie man bose wird: Eine Wonmeldung zum 100.Gebun­ , t 1 34 Focus on Literatur like Derrida, would even claim that they do not consider themselves philoso­ phers) and turns them into one monolithic block with one opinion. Although this is obviously a simplification, the simplification might be justified insofar as the combined receptions of these thinkers might very well cause the shift in German Brecht reception.-As an example of a "master narrative" serve the opening sentences of the Commun ist Manifesto: Die Geschichte aUer bisherigen Gesellschaft ist eine Geschichte von Klassenkampfen .... U nterdriicker und U nterdriickte .. . fiihrten einen ... Kampf, der jedesmal mit einer revolutionaren Umgestalrung der Gesellschafr endete oder mit dem gemeinsamen U ntergang der kampferischen Klassen" (Marx, Engels 44, my emphasis). HKlingmann argues that in accordance with their premises, postmodern theories mostly refuse to legitimize themselves on a rational ba­ sis. In contrast to this, sociological research shows that human beings are always determined by their social a~d economical status in a given society and cannot exist without social interaction. \)lithin this social context, we can learn and draw conclusions from literary text. That means, identity and truth exist, but they are subject to a cons tant change, i. e. through learning. Exactly because Brecht's poems aim at that constant questioning, a reshap­ ing, they have not become invalid (233). ISAdmittecUy, the stance of postmodern literary theo ry (not of wri­ ters or a broad readers hip) toward Brecht has been less mo nolithic. There have even been attempts to win Brec ht 's work for the postmodern movement (s). Claudette Sartiliot, for example, tries to show parallels between Brecht's theatrical works and Derrida's writings (115-152). Hans-Christian von Hermann examines Brecht's use of (then) contemporary media in the light of Friedrich Kittler's media theory. 16See title page of this study. 17The term "Rote Socken" refers to the PDS, the follow-up party of the former SED, minted by the CDU in 1994 when the PDS not only main­ tained its residence in Eastern state parliaments, bur even gained more seats during the elections. 18The canonization of Brecht may be one of the foundati ons for Fuegi's criticism. The very status of Brecht as a cl2Ssic is mirrowed in the attitude that Fuegi seems to take in his project, that of an iconoclast attacking a monument , trying to de-throne Brecht in similar ways as statues of Marx, Lenin, and Stalin were taken from their pedestals at the beginning of this decade. 19The fact that van Dannen claims that he cannor remember the name of the Polish poet whose poem he quotes, may be interpreted as a resistance against "classics," against poets as authorities, resenting the poet becoming more important than his writings.-Interestingly, the general atti- t > 1 The Artist as a Dead Communist Classic 35 tude of the mostly male writers in the taz is more negative than that of the female writers in Die Zeit. Do the former rega;d Brecht as more of a rival in writing than the latter? lOIn the same week's edition, Linda Reisch argues along similar lines: "Vielleicht wird die Lektiire hier auch bald wieder inreressanter, weil mit pur kapitalistischen Verhaltnissen gedroht wird" (n. pag) . Works Cited Altenburg, Matthias. "Die Lyrik, die Ly rikl: Eine Wo rtmeldung zum lOa. Geburtstag." taz 3 Jan . 1998: n. pag. Online. Internet. 26 Feb.- 28 Feb. 1998. "Brecht auf!: Zum hundersten Geburtstag <;ies armen B. B. schreiben Promi­ nente und weniger Prominente in einer taz-Serie. " taz 3 Jan. 1998: n. pag. Online. Internet. 26 Feb. - 28 Feb. 1998 . Brecht, Bertolt. Dze Gedichte von Bertolc Brecht in einem Band. 9th ed. Frank furt a. M.: Suhrkamp, 1997. Dannen, Funny van. "Wie der Ochs arbeitet: Eine Wortmeldung zum 100. Geburtstag." taz 4 Jan. 1998: n. pag. Online. Internet. 26 Feb.- 28 Feb. 1998. Droste, Wiglaf. "Brecht-Jahr: 'Fut und griine Bohnen'." taz 9 Jan. 1998: n. pag. Online. Internet. 28 Feb. 1998. Endres, Ria. "Deutsch - Herz - Zoom - Was bedeutet Ihnen Brecht heute?: Eine Umfrage unter prominenten Frauen zum 100. Geburtstag des Dichters, Teil 11. " Die Zeit 12 Feb. 1998: n. pag. Online. Internet. 4 Mar. 1998. Fischer, Reinhard. "Guter Rat fur Raucher: Eine Worrmeldung zum 100. Geburtstag." taz 22 Jan. 1998: n. pag. Online. Internet. 26 Feb.- 28 Feb. 1998. Frick, Volker. "Alles, was Brecht ist: Eine Wortmeldung zum 100. Geburtstag." taz 2 Feb. 1998: n . pag. Online. Internet. 26 Feb. - 28 Feb 1998. Fuegi, John. Brecht and Company: Sex, Politics, and the Making 0/ the Modem Drama. New York: Grove, 1994. "Ein gro~er deutscher Romanriker: Funny van Dannen in der Volksbiihne." Berliner Zeitung 5 June 1997: n. pag. Online. Internet. 4 Mar. 1998. Hau~mann, Leander. "Ich wiirde mich mit Brechts Erben wunderbar verstehen: 1m Gesprach mit Ulrich Deuter." drive b: brecht 100. A rbeitsbuch/Souycebook. Theater dey Zeit/The Brecht Yearbook. Eds. Marc Silbermann, Stefan Mahlke, and Kristin Schpltz. Berlin: The­ ater der Zeit/The International Brecht Society, 1997. 8-11. H ensel , Kerstin. "Wie man bose wird: Eine Wortmeldung zum 100.Geburt- 36 37 Focus on Literatur stag." taz 6 Jan. 1998: n. pag. Online. Internet. 26 Feb.- 28 Feb. 1998. Hermann, Hans-Christian von . Sang der Maschinen: Brechts Medienasthetik. Munchen: Fink, 1996. Hildebrandt, Dieter. "Sie hat die Liebe lieb: Eine Wortmeldung zum 100. GeburtStag." taz 12 Jan. 1998: n. pag. Online. Internet. 26 Feb.­ 28 Feb. 1998. Hoppner, Stefan. "Asthetik)! Widerstand!: Zur politischen Aktualitat eines Romanes von Peter Weiss." FAUST Bundesweite Studentenzeitung 3-4 (1994): 14-15. Klingmann, Ulrich. "Brecht, Wirklichkeit und Postmoderne: 'Nur belehrt von der Wirklichkeit, konnen wir die Wirklichkeit andern. ", Brecht Yearbook 19 (1994): 225-52. Knopf, Jan. Brecht-Handbuch: Lyrik, Prosa, Schri/ten - Eine Asthetik der Widerspriiche, mit einem A nhang: Film. Stungart: Metzler, 1984. Lauterbach, Konstanze. "Vom Dach steigt Rauch - Was bedeutet Ihnen Brecht heute?: AbschlufS der Umfrage unter Kunstlerinnen zum 100. GeburtStag des Dichters." Die Zeit 19 Feb. 1998: n. pag. Online. Internet. 4 Mar. 1998. Lauterbach, Peter. "Es wird getrunken und gewartet: Zwei neue Romane zeigen Berlin als Stadt, die nur von verkrachten Existenzen bewohnt scheint." Der Tagesspiegel17 Aug. 1997: n. pag. Online. Internet. 4 Mar. 1998. Lian, Yang. "Die letzte Frage Bertolt Brechts: Eine Wortmeldung zum 100. Geburtstag." taz 9 Feb. 1998: n. pag. Online. Internet. 26 Feb.­ 28 Feb. 1998. Lindenberg, Rene. "Der zugefrorene Springbrunnen: Ein Ostdeutscher schreibt uber Schneemenschen und Springbrunnen." morgenRot 25 June 1997: n. pag. Online. Internet. 5 Mar. 1998. Liwa, Tom. "Opa, Brecht und das Handy: Eine Wortmeldung zum 100. Geburtstag." taz 31 Jan. 1998: n. pag. Online. Internet. 26 Feb.­ 28 Feb. 1998. Marx, Karl, and Friedrich Engels. Manifest der Kommunistischen Partei. 53rd ed. Berlin: Dietz, 1986. Minenzwei, Werner. Das Leben des Bertolt Brecht oder Der Umgang mit den Weltratseln. 2 Vol. Frankfurt a. M.: Suhrkamp, 1987. Rathenow, Lutz. "Brecht mufS sein: Eine Wortmeldung zum 100. Geburtstag" taz 23 Jan. 1998: n. pag. Online. Internet. 26 Feb. - 28 Feb. 1998. Riding, Alan. "Beyond Rancor, Brecht Remounts His Pedestal: Playwright Is an Icon Again as Many Forgive His Marxist Politics." New York Times 11 Feb. 1998: B 12. Sartilliot, Claudette. Citation and Modernity: Derric&., jeryce, and Brecht. The Artist as a Dead Communist Classic Norman: U of Oklahoma. P, 1993. ' Schneider, Rolf. "Glanzvoll uberlebt: Eine Wortmeldung zum 100. Geburtsrag." taz 20 Jan. 1998: n. pag. Online. Internet. 26 Feb.­ 28 Feb. 1998. "Seite 1." taz 10 Feb. 1998: n. pag. Online. Internet. 1 Mar. 1998 Silbermann, Marc. Vorwort/Preface. drive b: brecht 100 . ./"1 rbeitsbuch/ Sourcebook. Theater der Zeit/The Brecht Yearbook. Eds. Marc Silber­ mann, Stefan Mahlke, and Kristin Schultz. Berlin: Theater der Zeit/ The International Brecht Society, 1997. 4-5. Schramm, Ingo. "1m Schauen des Klassenlehrers: Eine Wortmeldung zum 100. GeburtStag." taz 9 Jan. 1998: n. pag. Online. Internet. 26 Feb.­ 28 Feb. 1998. " Schumann, Charles. "Gast mit Anhang: Eine Wortmeldung zum 100. Geburt­ stag." taz 6 Jan. 1998: n. pag. Online. Internet. 26 Feb.-28 Feb. 1998. Sparschuh, Jens. "Brechts Maske: Eine Wortmeldung zum 100. GeburtStag." taz 28 Jan. 1998: n. pag. Online. Internet. 26 Feb. - 28 Feb 1998 Theleweit , Klaus. Das Buch der Konige . Vol. 1. Basel: Stroemfeld/ Roter Stern, 1988. Tom. "Touche." Cartoon. taz 14 Feb. 1998: n . pag. Online. Internet. 14 Feb. 1998. Treichel, Hans-Ulrich. "Forscher der menschlichen Natur: Vor all em irritierte seine U ngeriihrtheit - Ernst Junger, Zeuge und Protagonist der kat a­ srrophischen Moderne dieses Jahrhunderts, ist tot." Der Tagesspzegel 18 Feb. 1998: 25. "Vorgestellt: Lutz Rathenow." Stuttgarter Nach richten 8 Dec. 1997: n. pag. Online. Internet. 4 Mar. 1998. Weber, Carl. "As I Go Back to Brecht: A Conversation with the Playwright Tony Kushner." Brecht Yearbook 20 (1995): 67-88. Willett, John. "The International Brecht Colloquium at Bourges: Introduc­ tion." Brecht Yearbook 20 (1995) : 91-100. Wysocki, Gisela von. "Brecht-Umfrage: Mann ist Mann - Die Zeit wollte von Autorinnen, Theaterfrauen und Politikerinnen wissen: Was bedeutet Ihnen Brecht heute?" Die Zeit 5 Feb. 1998: n. pag. Online. Internet. 8 Feb. 1998. 36 Focus on Literatur stag." taz 6 Jan. 1998: n. pag. Online. Internet. 26 Feb.- 28 Feb. 1998. Hermann, Hans-Christian von . Sang der Maschinen: Brechts Medienasthetik. Munchen: Fink, 1996. Hildebrandt, Dieter. "Sie hat die Liebe lieb: Eine Wortmeldung zum 100. GeburtStag." taz 12 Jan. 1998: n. rag. Online. Internet. 26 Feb.- 28 Feb. 1998. Hoppner, Stefan. ~ Asthetik)! Widerstand!: Zur politischen Aktualitat eines Romanes von Peter Weiss ." FAUST Bundesweite Studentenzeituno 3-4 (1994): 14-15. '" Klingmann, Ulrich. "Brecht, Wirklichkeit und Postmoderne: 'Nur belehrt von der Wirklichkeit, konnen wir die Wirklichkeit andern. '" Brecht Yearbook 19 (1994): 225-52. Knopf, Jan. Brecht-Handbuch: Lyrik, Prosa, Schri/ten - Eine Asthetik der Widerspruche, mit einem A nhang: Film. Stungart: Metzler, 1984. Lauterbach, Konstanze. "Vom Dach steigt Rauch - Was bedeutet Ihnen Brecht heute?: Abschlu~ der Umfrage unter Kunstlerinnen zum 100. GeburtStag des Dichters." Die Zeit 19 Feb. 1998: n. pag. Online. Internet. 4 Mar. 1998. Lauterbach, Peter. "Es wird getrunken und gewartet: Zwei neue Romane zeicren Berlin als Stadt, die nur von verkrachten Existenzen bewohnt schei~t." . Der"Tagessp iegel17 Aug. 1997: n. pag. Online. Internet. 4 Mar. 1998. Llan, Yang. DIe letzte Frage Bertolt Brechts: Eine Wortmelduncr zum 100. Geburtstag." taz 9 Feb. 1998: n. pag. Online. Internet. 26 Feb.- 28 Feb. 1998. Lindenberg, Rene. "Der zugefrorene Springbrunnen: Ein Ostdeutscher schreibt uber Schneemenschen und Springbrunnen." morgenRot 25 June 1997: n. pag. Online. Internet. 5 Mar. 1998. Liwa, Tom. "Opa, Brecht und das Handy: Eine Wortmelduncr zum 100. Geburtstag." taz 31 Jan. 1998: n. rag. Online. Internbet. 26 Feb.- 28 Feb. 1998. Marx, Karl, and Friedrich Engels. Manifest der Kommunistischen Partei. 53rd ed. Berlin: Dietz, 1986. Mittenzwei, Werner. Das Leben des Bertolt Brecht oder Der Umgan a mit den Weltratseln. 2 Vol. Frankfurt a. M.: Suhrkamp, 1987. "" Rathenow, Lutz. "Brecht mu~ sein: Eine Wortmeldung zum 100. Geburtstag." .. taz 23 Jan. 1998: n. pag. Online. Internet. 26 Feb. - 28 Feb. 1998. RldlDg, Alan. "Beyond Rancor, Brecht Remounts His Pedestal: Playwright Is an Icon AgalD as Many ForgIve His Marxist Politics." New York Times 11 Feb. 1998: B 12. Sartilliot, Claudene. Citation and Modernity: Derrida, jeryce, and Brecht. The Artist as a Dead Communist Classic 37 Norman: U of Oklahoma. P, 1993. ' Schneider, Rolf. "Glanzvoll uberlebt: Eine Wortmeldung zum 100. Geburtsrag." taz 20 Jan. 1998: n. pag. Online. Internet. 26 Feb.- 28 Feb. 1998. "Seite 1." taz 10 Feb. 1998 : n. pag. Online. Internet. 1 Mar. 1998 Silbermann, Marc. Vorwort/Preface. drive b: brecht 100. £1 rbeitsbuch/ Sourcebook. Theater der Zeit/ The Brecht Yearbook. Eds. Marc Silber­ mann, Stefan Mahlke, and Kristin Schultz. Berlin: Theater der Zeit/ The International Brecht Society, 1997 4-5. Schramm, Ingo. "1m Schatten des Klassenlehrers : Eine Wortmeldung zum 100. GeburtStag." taz 9 Jan. 1998: n. pag. Online. Internet. 26 Feb.- 28 Feb. 1998. Schumann, Charles. "Gast mit Anhang: Eine Wortmeldung zum 100. Geburt­ stag." taz 6 Jan. 1998: n. pag. Online. Internet. 26 Feb.-28 Feb. 1998. Sparschuh, Jens. "Brechts Maske: Eine Wortmeldung zum 100. GeburtStag." taz 28 Jan. 1998: n. pag. Online. Internet. 26 Feb. - 28 Feb 1998. Theleweit , Klaus. Das Buch der Konige . Vol. 1. Basel: Stroemfeld/ Roter Stern, 1988. Tom. "Touche." Cartoon. taz 14 Feb. 1998: n . rag. Online. Internet. 14 Feb. 1998. Treichel, Hans-Ulrich. "Forscher der menschlichen Natur: Vor allem irritierte seine U ngeriihrtheit - Ernst Junger, Zeuge und Protagonist der kata­ srrophischen Moderne dieses Jahrhunderts, ist toL" Der Tagesspzegel 18 Feb. 1998: 25. "Vorgestellt: Lutz Rathenow." Stuttgarter Nachrichten 8 Dec. 1997: n. rag. Online. Internet. 4 Mar. 1998. Weber, Carl. "As I Go Back to Brecht: A Conversation with the Playwright Tony Kushner." Brecht Yearbook 20 (1995): 67-88 Willett, John. "The International Brecht Colloquium at Bourges: Introduc­ tion." Brecht Yearbook 20 (1995) : 91-100. Wysocki, Gisela von. "Brecht-Umfrage: Mann ist Mann - Die Zeit wollte von Autorinnen, Theaterfrauen und Politikerinnen wissen: Was bedeutet Ihnen Brecht heute?" Die Zeit 5 Feb. 1998: n. pag. Online. Internet. 8 Feb. 1998.