Microsoft Word - Fall04W.doc 32 The Secret Speech of Lirnyky and Kobzari Encoding a Life Style Andrij Hornjatkevyč, Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies University of Alberta In Ukraine, minstrels have been part of the folk tradition for centuries. There were two types of minstrels: kobzari who played a stringed musical instrument called the kobza, later to develop into the bandura, and lirnyky, who played the crank-driven hurdy-gurdy called the lira. These minstrels were traveling musicians – and much more besides. They were major sources of historical and religious information and, interestingly, most of them were blind. This infirmity made them dependent upon others for their livelihood, but they were not beggars. On the contrary, they were well-respected by the general populace. As with other professional groups, they belonged to guilds and new members, young children, went through an extensive apprenticeship period. Minstrels also spoke using a secret language called lebiis’ka mova, henceforth the Lebian language (argot) or Lebian. It should be pointed out immediately that this was not a full-fledged language with a distinct phonetic, lexical, morphological, and syntactic system. On the contrary, its underlying structure was that of contemporary Ukrainian, but crucial standard Ukrainian lexemes – nouns, pronouns, adjectives, numerals and verbs – were replaced by others. To an outsider, i.e., one not initiated into the guild, who might chance to hear a conversation in this argot, it might sound like Ukrainian, but, except for such ancillary parts of speech such as conjunctions, prepositions, interjections and particles – words that carry only relational information – it would be entirely unintelligible. This was reinforced by the fact that Lebian lexemes would be inflected – declined or conjugated – exactly as analogous Ukrainian words would be. Furthermore, the speaker of the argot did not have to replace every plaintext lexeme by an argotic one. Let us examine two brief passages. Prayers would always be said in plaintext, but they would be prefaced by the following phrase: О, фез комуніський, до тебе кизітаю. О, Боже ласкавий, до Тебе молюся. O merciful God, I pray to you. The nominative singular masculine ending –yj of the adjective komunis’k- (merciful) is taken from standard Ukrainian, just as the first person singular present ending –’u of the verb kyzitaj-. Most works quote the humorous song: Lebian Ukrainian English Коби мені кумса сяна, А до кумси ще й тириня І бутельбух вовчаку, Каравона чорнобрива. Коби мені хлібець святий, А до хліба трошки сира, А до сира склаянка пива І дівчина чорнобрива. If I had some holy bread, And some cheese to go along with the bread, And a glass of beer, [And] a girl with black eyebrows. FOLKLORICA 2004, Vol. IX No. 2 33 Here again readers familiar with Ukrainian will see that Lebian words are inflected exactly as lexemes in the standard language. All this must be kept in mind hereinafter whenever the word “language” is applied to the Lebian argot. Novices learned Lebian during their apprenticeship and mature minstrels used it amongst themselves, and only when they could not be overheard. While the language was a deep secret, eventually certain minstrels were willing to dictate a dictionary of sorts to scholars such as Studyns'ky and Malinka. Thus, we have a good idea of the lexical items which comprised Lebian. What is this language and what was its purpose? What do the lexical items included in the language – and those omitted from it – tell us about minstrel life? Scholars interested in minstrel life observed the existence of a secret language early on (Hnatiuk: 1-73, Khotkevych: 1: 455-518, Iemets': 81-2). They also noted that training in the Lebian language was part of the learning process. Apprentices would learn it from their master along with their growing command of the instrument, its repertoire, and the repertoire of minstrel songs. This fact is reflected in the etymology of the term used for the language itself, since lebii means master minstrel and thus the Lebian language is the language of fully-trained professionals. As living speech, Lebian had numerous dialects. This applies both to pronunciation and word choice. Different Lebian words might be used for the same concept in different geographical areas. Nevertheless, many lexemes can be found throughout Ukraine. Furthermore, the phonological features of Ukrainian dialects are reflected in the Lebian language and the dialect boundaries of Lebian and Ukrainian are approximately the same. Scholars are of different opinions as to the purpose of the Lebian language, but two views dominate. One may be called the recognition theory. It maintains that musicians used this language when no strangers were present as a means of mutual recognition. By using the language, musicians let each other know that they had completed the full course of instruction, including the mastery of Lebian, and thus were members in good standing of a guild or minstrel brotherhood. A musician who had not completed the full course of instruction would either be ignorant of the Lebian language or have an imperfect command of it. Thus, lack of language mastery would betray a person who did not have the right to practice the craft of the lirnyk or kobzar. The other explanation may be called the conspiracy theory. It maintains that the kobza and lira players functioned on the periphery of society and were often at odds with the law. According to this theory, Lebian was needed, not for relations within the community of minstrels, but to protect this community from the outside world. Minstrels needed a secret language, it was thought, to hide their activities from the civil authorities, and even the general populace, because some of what they did might be construed as, or was in fact, outside the law. To support this view, scholars cite the fact that having an argot, or secret language, is a characteristic typical of outlaw groups. For such groups, secret speech permits the planning and execution of illegal acts without the fear of detection. Pravdiuk (34-7) actually cites specific and striking examples of the Lebian language being used for conspiratorial purposes. This is not the place to give a definitive answer to the question of whether Lebian was used for recognition or for conspiratorial purposes. Arguments can be made for both points of view. It is generally 34 believed the common people respected the kobzari and lirnyky, so they could hardly have been considered outlaws with a need to conceal their activities. At the same time, it is a fact that tsarist police and other civil authorities often persecuted minstrels, viewing their singing as subversive and thus, illegal. Minstrels have often had to hide from the powers that be, a fact that lends credence to the conspiracy theory. (Kononenko, 30-32) Conspiracy theory and recognition theory aside, however, Lebian can give us a great deal of information about Ukrainian minstrels, how they lived, and what was important to them. While working on the lexicon (over a thousand lexemes), it became apparent that this argot gives a remarkable picture of the life style of the kobzari and lirnyky. It shows us what they talked about, the conditions under which they lived and worked, and the people with whom they had to deal. The most complete dictionary of the Lebian language was prepared on the basis of the materials collected and compiled by Horbach (7-44). It is limited by the fact that the data in it was collected primarily from lirnyky in Galicia; less material has been collected from kobzari in the eastern half of Ukraine. Still, there is enough commonality between Horbach’s work and the information that we do have directly from kobzari to assume, as stated earlier, that Lebian is a single entity, reflecting both kobzar and lirnyk life. It should also be noted that Kononenko has demonstrated that kobzari and lirnyky were one unit, belonging to the same guilds and often learning from each other, both during apprenticeship and subsequently. Thus, using Horbach’s dictionary, supplemented by other materials as available, we can attempt an analysis of the life style of all Ukrainian minstrels as reflected in their secret language. We will group the lexemes of the language into categories, and then examine these categories, discussing both what is in them and what is omitted and what this shows us about minstrel life. It should be noted that Horbach's work lists some thousand lexemes, and, in the opinion of some linguists, a speaker must know a minimum of two thousand words to communicate effectively in any language. If this is true, then the corpus presented by Horbach satisfied half of that need. What minstrels must have done, then, is use Lebian to encode only the most important words; they said the rest of what they needed to communicate in plain Ukrainian, without encryption. This makes Lebian even more effective as a key to minstrel life. If this secret language contains the most crucial concepts only, then it points us to the most important aspects of minstrelsy. Looking at grammatical categories first, we find that the overwhelming majority of the lexemes are nouns, adjectives and verbs; pronouns, numerals and adverbs are far fewer. The corpus contains no prepositions, conjunctions, interjections or particles, which is hardly surprising because ancillary words have little or no content that would require encoding. It is the nouns and verbs that bear the primary meanings and need to be disguised by a secret argot. Examining the data by grammatical category, we find that nouns can be divided into several semantic groups. First are the words that name and describe human beings: Lebian Ukrainian English мóздір людина human мех чоловік man рáха жінка woman FOLKLORICA 2004, Vol. IX No. 2 35 свирит, хведня дитина child лобзюк, отеплюх, отерплюшóк хлопець boy каравóна, карига, раклí, каравíнча дівч(ин)а girl йоруха, йóра киврíйка старуха, стара пані old woman херáне, хирáни люди people Next are parts of the body, namely the head: глáда, главдá, лавдá голова head and its parts чимéрсьи [чимéрся] волосся hair слухóмка, слихтó вухо ear зікрó око eye зікрá очі eyes нóскотинь ніс nose хвéйло, фéйло рот mouth лизинь язик tongue кусьмóрники, мóскутні зуби teeth other body parts include: херута, хирута, рутáвка рука arm, hand нахирник палець finger ходуха, хóдня нога leg, foot пліхтí, стипрá плечі shoulders комрíй, химрó живіт belly кузад зад behind стиз, стил, стига задниця anus псил пеніс penis туха вульва vulva Internal anatomy is poorly represented and, if belly is discounted, we have only кохтáвка кість bone крáсінка, красíмка кров blood There are names for various human ailments, for example, кáліпний сліпий blind man трóняшний хворий sick person шмурáк дурак fool as well as nouns for such diseases as трясóмниця, трахóмниця, трихóмниця гарячка, лихорадка, пропасниця fever трунька тиф typhus тругнячка холера cholera Last in the category of words dealing with people we should include хáля смерть, труп, мерлець death, corpse and, perhaps also such words as кирдимня життя life кóзум розум intellect кíманя спання sleep йóристь старість old age Kinship terms are well represented and include the following terms for people and for actions that create kin relationships: 36 кирдимний кревний, свояк blood relative, in-law яничиня сватання wooing ставéр(а), штавéра шлюб, подружжя marriage яник, янига, юнико весілля wedding лебíй, липетень, швед, шкред дід(о) grandfather штуба, цуба, цюба баба grandmother батíй батько father маниця, омáниця мати mother курдиміль дядько uncle курдимілька тітка aunt мех чоловік husband рáха жінка wife áндрус, яндрус брат brother áндруска, яндруска сестра sister іóнус, юнець, юньчик, нюньчик син son іóнуска, юньчиця, нюньчичка дочка daughter бахтíй тесть wife’s father ставрóчник кум godfather ставрóчниця кума godmother отерплюшóк, отеплюх, терпелюк, трепелюк парубок unmarried young man рáха, трепелиця молодиця young married woman поставрóчник похресник godson поставрóчниця похресниця goddaughter as well as скульбáнка коханка lover (female) кульбáнок коханець lover (male) шлягун ловелас lothario нюнька пестій(ка) spoiled child перекривóшниця, покривóшниця покритка unmarried mother Inasmuch as only men could be professional minstrels in the nineteenth century, it should come as no surprise that the words for husband's father or mother are missing from the linguistic corpus. Society and its classes are reflected in words such as киврíй, ґаврíй, каврíй пан mister каврíйка, киврíйка, ґаврíїха пані missis трепéла киврíйка панна miss похáзник господар master похáзниця господиня mistress острочинець гість guest шóсті, острочинці гості guests мугир хлоп peasant накачитель начальник boss наюхник наймит hireling (мале) наюхниця, наймичка, hireling (female) слугóнниця служанка maid стóтень, стóдонь багач rich man порутник бідак poor man порутниця бідачка poor woman шуя бідний impoverished man шуйство біднота the poor кубрáк, липетень прошак beggar FOLKLORICA 2004, Vol. IX No. 2 37 буций, укираний п’яний drunk укирáчка жінка п’яниця drunkard (female) кирáка, укирáґа п’яниця drunkard (male) накирвання п’яничення drinking ряха чепурня fastidious woman неряха нехлюйна жінка slovenly woman кóльба повія whore клімута, клімутник злодій thief розкульник розбійник brigand кирхушник карник criminal Human relationships and conflicts can be seen in such words as ошáр, ошáрник торг, ярмарок trade, market гавлиста товар goods лубуненя сварка quarrel кóпсаня бійка, драка fight клімута крадіж theft The argot also has a lexicon for civil authority: тирлик цар tsar тирлиця цариця tsaritsa накачур бурмістр, війт mayor, reeve ґóрґуль жандарм gendarme накатóрський соцький country policeman йóриста, іóруста староста elder гальóмний накачитель становий пристав assistant bailiff яршинá, йоршинá старшина officer бецáк салдат soldier матлáнник фінансер financier зíтник, скерéтник урядник official Clearly, the musicians had to deal with the guardians of the law, because we have the words бікуцель, ґóрґуль поліцай policeman стерегóмник сторож guard дíкончик, дíкунчик десятник constable бікуцéльники, шулíція поліція police стерегóмка, шпарута варта guardhouse бікуция, лямос в’язниця prison The musicians dealt with people of various professions, for example: курáшник, кудрипник музика(нт) musician кугрáчник, либіщáк, липкó лірник lirnyk кугрáчник скрипник violinist повандзóрник, провандзирник проводир guide (of the blind) вкóрник, наукóрник учитель teacher лíкорник лікар physician рéпсаник писар scribe бецáк, ґóрґуль вояк soldier кулáшник стрілець rifleman возмóнник візник teamster жуклíйник, ковíзник коваль smith махлишник, махличник косар reaper вошáрник купець merchant лопóтник молотник thresher лопстирник, таткó, явлидник, авлидник пастух herder 38 махлишник, махличник різник butcher опукáр, лопухáр швець cobbler гертишник шинкар tavernkeeper накéвричник, махирник рукавичник glove maker The lexicon dealing with clothing is rather limited. We have the clothing that would be worn by both sexes: сип’яг(а) свитка coat махирниця, накéвниця, рутáвниця рукавиця glove нахирник перстень ring шуманчá опанча overcoat бучмаки черевики shoes óпук(и), лóпух(и), óбоки чобіт, чоботи boot кравáтка повивач swaddling band Clothing worn exclusively by women includes филистка, хвелюстка хустина kerchief застіжмóрник стяжка ribbon патéри коралі coral beads чухниця спідниця skirt фартíйка, фортійóк запаска apron while that worn typically by men lists мислюжник, вислюжник капелюх hat камéха, камуха шапка cap сип’яг(а) сіряк grey coat нáсти, нáсики, настíги, настíжники штани trousers звертíй пояс belt Nature is reflected in such words as свíтомка світ world сянко сонце sun накачíй, макохтíй, сянник місяць moon рахтій дощ rain рáхта сльота rainy weather сíвер сніг snow терига, тирига, трига земля soil отропíль, стропíля, митропíльи поле field ямóшниця яма pit свігрá гора mountain дéлька, дéйка, сугá вода water дильмá ріка river дéльман, стичинь став pond шалóто, шолóто болото mud шмура бруд dirt дуляс, дулясник вогонь fire Flora is represented primarily by edible plants: сухéчка, суячка, сéв’ячка гречка buckwheat ризавка, сапсаї кукурудза maize буравíнь, чухлíй овес oats цесó просо, пшоно millet яшпурка, яшкурниця пшениця wheat бурвíнь, бурбíль ячмінь barley букшíй, гавришник біб lima bean FOLKLORICA 2004, Vol. IX No. 2 39 гавриш горох pea гавришниця, букшійка фасоля bean ботняк, кремéд буряк beet тирíжник, терижник картопля potato білюга редька radish морзуля, мерзуля цибуля onion кремíз, крéмез, морзник часник garlic орнóсноп мак poppy оксютина садовина fruit стеблюшниця вишня sour cherry рутáвка, стáвка, хтáвка, хрустáвка грушка pear степлига сливка plum тернáвка слива plum tree крáсінка, красíмка черешня cherry веслюко, віслюко яблуко apple віслюжниця, веслюшниця яблуня apple tree лóскотні горіхи nuts дулíби гарбузи pumpkins баглáйка, балáйка гриб mushroom баглаї гриби mushrooms лепуха, лопуха капуста cabbage крáсінка, красíмка, стéблюк ягода berry There are some words for non-edible plants and plant products and these include óксим, вошут ліс forest конóпалки, кадрó коноплі hemp óбрутки дрова lumber дуляс паливо fuel патéр папір paper лоскотира, лоскотирó полотно linen віхрó, вяхрó сіно hay цвáхта, махлярка січка chopped hay (fodder) веслюя, вислюга, мислюга солома straw A similar situation can be seen in the words for fauna. There are many words for animals that serve as food and also a relatively high number of terms for creatures found in everyday life. The groups include aquatic animals: лéшень, лéшні рак(и) crayfish псáлка, пцáлка риба fish алюшник оселедець herring and also amphibians: парнáта жаба frog звертíй гадюка, вуж snake There are words for birds: óбрутень, фíявень, фіянь, фíян голуб dove тарандíй горобець sparrow гáрбат гусак gander гарбут, арбутка, гарбатка гуска goose гарбатя гуся gosling плавутень індик turkey ворнáчка, сáпавка качка duck ворнáчка, варнáга, арнáчка курка hen арнáк півень rooster and for mammals: 40 мерхлíй баран ram мéрхля вівця sheep (singular) мерхлí, мéхлі вівці sheep (plural) швахт цап goat керх, кирха свиня pig кирхуня порося piglet вáлот, вáлта кінь horse волотиха, волотиця кобила mare волóт осел donkey гавлид, явлид бик, віл bull, ох гавлидка, авлида, гавлита корова cow гавлидя, явлидиня теля calf Household animals that do not serve as food can be isolated as a category which includes: мóтень, мóскотень кіт cat (male) мотниха кітка, кішка cat (female) мотня котя kitten скел, скіл, скіць, скіцяка пес dog скóлиха, скелиха, скилиця сука bitch скиля песя, щенюк puppy пáсінка миша mouse Words for wild animals are limited and only the set of words лиха, лиґа вовк wolf (male) лиджиха вовчиця wolf (female) is widely attested. The insects included in the lexicon are: цвіхлí бджоли bees цвіхлí муха fly циза, сиза воша louse кáлута блоха flea Here one can place substances of animal origin, namely мерхлячка вовна wool кидрó прядиво yarn сип’яженя сукно broadcloth Animal “products” such as балюжник, гнойóшник, осняк гній dung халó кал, лайно feces might be considered part of this category also. Food terminology, besides the aforementioned flora and fauna, includes the following: трíйка обід dinner кучéря, трíйка вечеря supper бóтень борщ borshch [beet soup] ставрéники вареники varenyky [stuffed dumplings] фíявні голибці holubtsi [cabbage rolls] букша кваша sour mash [a dish made from fermented rye flour and buckwheat grain] крихти крупи grits лéкша, ликша каша porridge шутня кулеша corn meal крíсó м’ясо meat FOLKLORICA 2004, Vol. IX No. 2 41 степурка печеня roast киршутина солонина fatback сíводне крíсо, сíверець студенець headcheese кíта, кита, кітó яйце egg ламáхи печиво baked goods бухтáвка, яшпурка булка roll мілясник медяник honey cake скрутинь обарінок pretzel пундíй, кондíй пиріг pie пундії курляні варені пироги boiled pies пундії стипурені печені пироги baked pies сухмóрники, сухмаї сухарі biscuits сумáк, сунéта, кумса, кунсо хліб bread трусьня, трузна мука flour ковíсто тісто dough свíсло, весло масло butter альмо, галíмо, гаїмо молоко milk тирин(ь), тириня сир cheese ковирхинá сметана sour cream муляс, мáляс, (г)омиляс мед honey лобзій олій oil гáлусть сіль salt гомиляс, омелясник, омиляс, солудкемне цукор sugar There are several words designating drinks, such as головчáк, вовчáк пиво beer бушнó вино wine (г)артиха, гериха горілка whiskey красімник арак arrack, raki баклун, матлáн тютюн tobacco мутлáха нюхальна табака snuff бéнник, матлíйка папіроска cigarette which can be placed in this category also. The mineral lexicon is limited to such substances as кувíзо залізо iron курíбло срібло silver пíтрус, пéтрос, кетряк камінь stone Physical surroundings are reflected in such words as шусто місто city хóро, хори село village and then хазá хата house шім, шом дім home along with such architectural details as пóхазь, світлоха, острокой кімната, покій room пóхазь світлиця parlor кутига комора chamber кувирх дах roof степур, стéпир, остепíр піч stove острокóмин, свистак комин chimney зікрó вікно window 42 ставéрка кватирка ventilator скрипотá, фíрта двері door закаплóнниця клямка doorknob Other household and farmstead structures and features include пóхазь господа homestead обрутяч пліт fence перелíскальник перелаз passage in a hedge брамóшниця брама gate скрипотá ворота gate хвірт, фíрта, похвíтря двір, подвр’я yard дéйниця, сужник, криниця spring сíвраниця, сíвирка колодязь well кулуйка, лопóтня стодола barn кирхушник, кулуйник, хлівóшник хлів stable обрутниця дривітня wood shed лопóтня, лопóтник тік threshing floor лопстирка толока common pasture land сíвгород, свіврóд горóд garden оксют сад orchard бзика, мілясниця пасіка apiary бзичник, мілясник вулик beehive кóтниця возівня coach house кирхушник свинюшник pigsty Words for village buildings, objects, and features outside the farmstead include: ковíзниця, жуклíйниця кузня smithy дергун, дергунниця млин mill лобзíйня олійниця oil press каня, капíлія, капéля, пóхазь корчма, шинок tavern as well as (в)óстрóка, востóрка, дорóга road рівóшник рів ditch дéлюшник, перевандзирник пором ferry The lexicon of personal objects is understandably fairly rich. Here we have, first of all, кугрá, курга, кудóнка ліра lira кугрáчка скрипка violin Such personal items as чихмóрник гребінь comb матлíйка люлька pipe бікутá, біштур(á), обрутóк, бікостур палиця, патик stick, staff маскóрник щітка brush шíнка, шéнька, захарбéла, захарбáник торба bag захарбут клунок sack seem to be important, as are eating utensils: кóвтур горщок pot кубанок дзбанок jar ковтúрниця кувшин ladle карабéлька, карáбля ложка spoon мéхир, нéхер, махлич ніж knife скáтéля, скітéльня миска, тарілка bowl, plate жуклíйка, шуфлíйка пляшка bottle FOLKLORICA 2004, Vol. IX No. 2 43 сáбасний курля самовар samovar жуклíйка, шуфлíйка, бутéльбух склянка tumbler жоклія, бутéльбух чарка glass There is a fairly large assortment of words for furniture and household items such as бурвéта верета coarse cover хвильник годинник clock пóклюжка, поклюжниця постіль bed linens закатлóха, закáтлонка, закаплóнниця скриня, сундук chest кулиґа лавка bench трéпез, трéбух стіл table Household implements seem to be important and are represented by words for: зіврó, токáрка, токáрник відро pail будáвка голка needle закаплóнник замóк lock закаплóнниця, матлóха колодка padlock капóшник, закаплóнник ключ key кулóпата лопата shovel замíнниця, маскóрник мітла broom захарбéля, захарбаник, захарбут, шінка, шенька мішок sack барлшиджник плуг plow троховило, трусник решето sieve махлишник, махличник різак cutter розкульниця, кулáшниця рушниця rifle кóтинь санки sled возмóнник, кóтинь віз wagon котило, крутилó колесо wheel махличка січкарня straw cutter маймура, товпига сокира axе лопóтник ціп flail лекшунниця ступа stamper свíсло весло oar сянка свічка candle сянко світло light батузник мотузка rope обрутник ремінь leather strap кудуні дзвіночки jingle bells стичник стіжок stack (of sheaves of grain) триховило, трусник сито sieve Religious terminology is fairly abundant and includes words for: Охвéс, Фез, Хвесь Бог God Ставéр Христос Christ Охвéсова Маниця Богомати Theotokos сяний святий saint клюса церква church (Orthodox) шандáл костел church (Catholic) клюснáрка каплиця chapel клюснáр цвинтар cemetery слугóмка служба service хáля похорон funeral рéпсальник парастас parastasis шумовина домовина coffin 44 духóмка душа soul крім гріх sin шáтер, шáтар, шатéрниця молитва prayer ставрóчини, ставрóшини молитвини над новородком purification prayer service of a newborn рéпсник акафіст akathistos ставрóхи, ставрóки христини christening кувестіяне християни Christians клюсник, ставéр хрест cross вопарáт ризи vestments вопарáт, óбрут фелон phelonion фез, охвéс, хвесь ікона icon рéпсаня книга book кудóн(ник), кудóвник дзвін Bell корх піп priest корхилиця, корхиня попадя priest's wife корхиля, корхиня, корхиник попович priest's son пíдпсальний піддячий percentor псáльник, пцáйник дяк cantor лáбор збирач (пожертв на направу церков) collector (for church repairs) патерик свяхтá свято свята holy day holy days шатéрник проща, відпуст pilgrimage рéпсане кітó, рéпсанка писанка Easter egg спин, термих, хверть чорт devil (male) спиниця чортиця devil (female) Nouns and adverbs that convey temporal concepts have been recorded and can be considered a special category. They include the words for time: кучас, кузач час time киндик рік year снóпка весна spring снóпко літо summer сíвениця, сíверка зима winter кудень, кудинь день day кучéрба вчора yesterday куднісь сьогодні today кузавтра завтра tomorrow п’янджатка п’ятниця Friday сáбатка субота Saturday мéргуля неділя Sunday мéргульник понеділок Monday кувечер вечір evening кéміть, киміть ніч night хвильниця, хвильня година hour Quantitative-spatial nouns include: стáврá, ставéрка кварта quart кумáт кумáточок, куматок кусень, шмат кусок, шматочок piece лоптовина, шоловина половина half пікотá ріг corner Here one can add the word money and the names of various currencies: FOLKLORICA 2004, Vol. IX No. 2 45 хóбень хóбні, хóмні, ховби Гріш гроші money (sg.), coin money (pl.), coins галíнéць, курíбник, скітéльник, скітельнин карбованець karbovanets клімтур ґульден (ринський) gulden двеня хобні копійка kopeck хóбень крейцар kreuzer плíнка, шандрáчка, шмурка шістка piece-of-six охційóс сотка hundred Besides the aforementioned, there are nouns for such artistic concepts as псáльня пісня song скакóмка, скакóмник танець dance рéпсаня письмо writing The lexicon of emotions is limited to досадóмка досада chagrin пошутка лихо misfortune while the list of defects consists of дермóнка, дерóмка діра hole шмура пляма spot The list of nouns concludes with toponyms including: Дильман Дністер Dnister Шайлов Браїлів Braïliv Бучпіль Бучач Buchach Леґушани Оківці Okivtsi Дельмошник Птік Potik Пітрусянка Скала Skala Швахтинці Цапівці Tsapivtsi Калутинці Чернівці Chernivtsi Будавниця Ягольниця Yahol'nytsia and ethnonyms ґуд(лáй), гудзь, гец ґудлáйка, ґéциха, гудзівка ґудлáйик, гудзеня ґудзик єврей єврейка єврейченя єврейчик Jew (male) (female) (child) (endearing) шулінцí росіяни Russians бáтуз москаль Muscovite клімтур німець German лáнюс, мáґлит попляк Pole куган, шандрáк циган Roma Cardinal numerals go from one to forty and then jump to one hundred. Numerals from fifty to ninety can be reconstructed and might have been in use, but are not recorded in the dictionary. Of the ordinal numerals, only first through fourth, and seventh, eight and tenth are attested, although the others could be reconstructed (*) as well. № Cardinal Ordinal 1 іóн йóний, ютний 2 двіна, двеня, двіня двíний, двенéшний 3 шкірá, скерá, скирá шкíрий, скерéтній, скирáтний 4 цíсара, сíсара цíсарий 5 п’янджа, п’янтжа, пéнтза *п’янджий 6 шáндра *шáндрий 46 7 сéмптіна, сімптина, тíмара сéптіний 8 вісімптиня, вохкíмира, вітíмара, отíмера отíмерий 9 дíвера, дíвора *дíверий, *дíворий 10 дíкуна, дíкона дíконий 11 дíкона й іóн дíкона і йóний 12 дíкона й двéня *дíкона й двíний 13 дíкона й скерá *дíкона й шкíрий 14 дíкона й сíсара *дíкона й цíсарий 15 дíкона й пéнтза *дíкона й п’янджий 16 дíкона й шáндра *дíкона й шáндрий 17 дíкона й тíмара *дíкона й сéптіний 18 дíкона й вітíмара *дíкона й отíмерий 19 дíкона й дíвора *дíкона й дíворий 20 двеня дíкон, двіня дíкуна, двíна рáза дíкона *двеня дíконий 21 дíкона двеня й іóн *дíконя двеня й іóний 30 скерá дíкон, шкірá рáза дíкона 40 сíсара дíкон 50 *п’янджа дíкон 60 *шáндра дíкон 70 *тíмара дíкон 80 *вітíмара дíкон 90 *дíвора дíкон 100 дíкона рáза дíкона Personal pronouns are attested only in the nominative case and in the singular. The third person plural is the one exception to number. As for case, the first and third persons singular can also found in the dative case. 1st pers. 2nd pers. 3rd pers. masc. 3rd pers. fem. Nom. sing. манькó бíти, тапкó бíвін бíвона Dat. sing. манькóві not attested бíєму not attested Nom. plur. бíми, маньки тапки not attested not attested Possessive pronouns are given only in the first and second person singular, кумунíський, манéйський мій my бíтвій твій your and there are several lexemes for the interrogative pronoun: кóнто(ль), сконд, бішó що what бíяк як how The demonstrative pronoun is бíцей цей this The most common adjectives are the ones used to describe physical condition, for example: гальóмий, вéлий великий large гальóмий високий tall мéкрий, махій малий small мекрéнький маленький tiny духмóрний сильний strong трóняшний слабий weak сухмóрний сухий dry дулений, дулясний, загрівóшний теплий warm ціхморний тихий quiet FOLKLORICA 2004, Vol. IX No. 2 47 сíводний холодний cold цілíтний цілий whole кудоровий, нетрóняшний здоровий healthy кáліпний сліпий blind троняшний хворий sick буций, укираний п’яний drunk (though the last three words could possibly be viewed as nouns). Then we have: трепéлий молодий young йóрий, іóрий старий old новіний, новімний, новівний новий new цілíтний увесь all, whole босивний, босівний босий barefoot We have adjectives designating professions such as: лебíйський, лобурський лірницький lirnyk шуліцéйський, бікуцéльський поліцейський police and adjectives for social state: нестóдний убогий destitute Another adjective group might be the one for characteristics such as: клéвий, трепеéлий добрий good неклéвий злий, недобрий bad кливéнський ласкавий gracious сурáзний, сурáський, сяйний гарний beautiful козумний розумний smart укóрений учений learned шмурний дурний stupid крімíшний, крімовáтий грішний sinful чужівний, чужамóрний чужий alien сáбасний, сабаснíй сам alone Other types of adjectives include those describing taste, namely: (о)мілясний солодкий sweet гиркимний гіркий bitter буквасний квасний sour and those for colors: плíний білий white ґáлбин жовтий yellow красімний червоний red Verbs can be divided into several semantic fields. Perhaps the largest category is the one with verbs referring to various forms of work such as: клевóтити працювати work (с)клéвити (з)робити make правóшити поправляти repair, fix куграти, кургати грати play псáлити співати sing кумси зітáти жебрати beg кубрати, кумси зітáти прошакувати request alms слугóмити, слугóнити служити serve замíнчити, маскóрити замести, замітати sweep клéвити порядкувати tidy up будáвчити шити sew 48 курляти, круляти варити cook степурити пекти bake (п)лíнчити прати launder з’япéрувати збирати gather копуиити, махлувáти копати dig дергóмити молоти mill лопóтити молотити thresh барлýджити орати plough лопстирити, пасóрити пасти (худобу) herd cattle дулити, дулясити палити burn махличити, махлувáти, макувáти рубати chop сухмóрити сушити dry лікóрити, лíтрити, ліхтóрити лікувати heal Another important category of verbs concerns the body and clothing and what is done with them. This category includes verbs meaning: трóїти їсти eat кучéрити вечеряти sup покусьмóрити покушати taste, sample кус(ь)мóрити, кучмóрити кусати bite бен(н)ити, банити курити smoke хéзити плювати spit лохáтись, люфтáтися сміятися laugh чихмóритися чесатися comb (п)лíнчити мити wash (п)лíнчитися купатися bathe хизити, вхéзитися піти на сторону urinate/defecate застіжмóрити застібнути button, fasten зрутити скинути take off вклéвити, в’япéрити взути put footwear on роз’япéрити роззути take footwear off A group of verbs describes physical states, in the sense that they are actions performed by a human. These include: бéтляти єпіть, єпить Бути є be is нéміть немає is not зітóмити, кирдимити жити live окирдинитися ожити revive встичувати вставати arise пандікáти (на ходухи) ставати на коліна kneel поклюжитись покластися lie down (по)клюжити(сь), кімáрити лежати lie, recline кимати, кíмати, кімáрити спати sleep кимати, кíмати, кемітáти ночувати spend the night стичити, стóчити стояти stand кáчити сидіти sit слихтити чути hear слухáнити, слихтити слухати listen кéрити, кирити п’яничити carouse сíвернути, сівиріти мерзнути suffer cold трунути боліти ache (с)халíти, схаляти вмерти die FOLKLORICA 2004, Vol. IX No. 2 49 сянитися світитися shine дулясити, дулити горіти burn Some verbs describe changes of state: (на)чáнити, (з)чáнити, зчáнювати зли(ва)ти, (на)лити pour прокулати пробити pierce відкáпчити, відкап(л)óнити, одскрипотáти відімкнути open закáпчити, закаплóнити замкнути shut виюхтити вийняти take out одчипóрити відчепити detach грівóшити, дулити гріти heat сíверити студити chill дермóнити дерти tear забатузити зав’язати tie задулити запалити light ламусáти ламати break маскóрити мастити grease дермóнити рвати rip махличити, махлувáти, макувáти різати cut клюжити стелити spread трасóмити, тряхóмити, трихóмити трясти shake маскóрити чистити clean кéміти смеркати turn dark рахтить падає дощ rain Verbs of motion are well represented: бігурáти бігти run льиксáти лазити creep виляксати вилізти creep out пнáти (пнáю) йти go попнáти піти depart хандирити, ханджувáти ходити walk ханджувáти похожати walk about ярдувáти, гардувáти їхати ride скакóмити скакати jump скíтити, вскичувати тікати flee когóнити, кургóнити гонити drive викогóнити вигнати drive out докогóнити догнати catch up злобуськáти зловити catch пандíчити, пандікáти падати fall вандзóрити, вандзирити возити, нести, водити cart, carry, lead (ви/пере)вандзóрити, (ви/пере)вандзирити, (ви/пере)вандзирувати (ви/пере)везти transport (out) тагнити, тагáнити, тáнити нести carry клюжити класти put мáньчити минати pass There are verbs that refer to communicative acts: зітáти, кантити говорити speak (с)кантити, (с)казати tell зітáти мовити utter кльиксати, криксати кричати shout рáпсаня клéвити, рéпсати писати write рáпсати читати read 50 шмурити дурити fool авридити брехати lie A large group of verbs describes various relationships: приюхтити прийняти receive шлягáти зводити докупи bring together юничити, яничитись сватати(ся) woo юничитися женитися marry порутити покинути abandon (по)зікóрити (по)зичити borrow пулити, опулити, опульовати купувати buy пропулити, пропульовати продавати sell дякнути, дяхнити, дякáти, горáти, угурáти дати, давати give віддóнити, оддяхнити, віддякнути віддати return відóймити, (від’/на)япéрити, з’япéрити, в’япéрити (віді/на)брати, взяти take платóшити платити pay борщу запарити, козу звеселять фундувати випивку buy a round (of drinks) ханджоляти виводити гагілки dance hahilky кугратись гратися play A large number of these verbs refer to immoral or censured behavior and its consequences: лубунитися сваритися quarrel клíмати красти steal (по)кулати, кóпсати (по)бити beat кéрити, кирити пити, п’яничити drink (to excess) позвíнчувати позивати до суду sue утухмóрити, задухóмити задушити throttle закулати вбити kill вснопити втопити drown вдéльчитись втопитися drown oneself забатузитись, повіхтóмитися повіситися hang oneself Verbs that describe intellectual activities are relatively few: (на)вкóритись (на)вчитися learn сюрати, сíврати знати, розуміти know, understand скумáти уміти know how to лíтрити, ліхтóрити числити count помíнчити поминути recall забетляти(ся) забути(ся) forget Likewise, there are few verbs that express emotions: (ви)зітáти (ви)просити request волíти, вóлити, вóїти хотіти want кизітáти благати entreat кульбáти любити love халісáти цілувати kiss нюньчити пестити fondle пликсити, киксати плакати weep кльиксати, криксати плакати з криклом wail зшмурíти здуріти go mad хéзитись, скититися сказитися, встектися rage A verb that might be included in this category is стекляти, слякати, пастикляти ждати,підождати wait дослякатись діждатися wait to a conclusion FOLKLORICA 2004, Vol. IX No. 2 51 There remains a small group of abstract verbs: назікóритись називатися be called єпіти коштувати cost мáньчити мати have (об)нáхтити, шукморити (об)шукати search (з)нáхтити (з)найти find As with nouns, there is a significant number of verbs dealing with religion: ставрóчитися христитися cross one’s self правóшити правити (службу) conduct a service кудóнити дзвонити ring bells кизітáти молитися pray шáтер зітáти мовити молитву recite a prayer The verbs kneel, read and ring might be included here for a second time because of their possible use in religious contexts. Many adverbs are derived from adjectives, but their number is limited: пóсо багато much мургóм, пургóм бігом on the run близімно, кублизько близько nearby кувíзно важко with difficulty бíвже вже already всéньки, всяцки все everything снóпно гаряче hot(ly) шалéко далеко far клéве, клéво добре well сíверно, сíводно холодно, зимно cold(ly) неклéво недобре badly снóпно парно steamy мéхенький помéклєнько помаленьку slowly сяно свято solemnly, holy пóсо чимало much мургóм, пургóм швидко rapidly As mentioned above, no prepositions, conjunctions, interjections or particles are attested in the corpus. Whether the purpose of the Lebian language was to hide secret activities or to serve as a way for minstrels to recognize one another, we can be assured that it was used only to discuss matters important in the lives of minstrels. This being the case, we see that the language mirrored minstrel life, the work that they did, and the surroundings in which they lived and worked. The language confirms that the center of minstrel life was the village. This is where most minstrel personal and professional activity took place and most Lebian words are those associated with village life. Minstrels, we know, did travel to towns and cities. Their activities there were similar to those in villages except for their interaction with civil authorities. The language shows us this by the fact that the only vocabulary specifically tied to urban areas is that for city and town officials and offices. Minstrels apparently ate reasonably well, or were at least familiar with quite a variety of dishes. The language shows us this in the fact that the list of dishes, especially if one includes edible plants and animals, is quite extensive. Again, this is the food of the Ukrainian village, but this is not everyday food and one can well 52 imagine that this was not the musicians' typical meal. We know that minstrels were asked to perform at various feasts, especially christenings and weddings, a fact that is again reflected in Lebian vocabulary. During a festival, especially a family event such as a wedding or a baptism, even a poor peasant would do his utmost to receive his guests, including the musicians, as best as he could. Thus, the food terminology includes or even privileges, dishes served as part of celebrations; it is not quotidian food vocabulary. The list of clothing is not remarkable in any way and we will not comment on it here except to point out that it, too, reflects village life in that it includes men’s and women’s garments typically found in a rural setting. The verbs attested in Lebian confirm the centrality of village life and give us some interesting additional information. The verbs that describe work are those that refer to the typical activities of peasants and village craftsmen. The number of verbs related to work might support Kononenko’s supposition that work was central to village life and that the blind minstrel’s inability to do the sort of work that defined a peasant weighed heavily on his conscience (3-15). The large number of verbs dealing with immoral or illicit behavior is quite striking. On the one hand, this might suggest that the conspiracy theory is correct and that minstrels did engage in activities that needed to be kept secret from others. On the other hand, it is just as likely musicians were the victims of illegal and immoral acts, not the perpetrators of them. Verbs also confirm that the church was an important institution in minstrel life. We know that the life of the musicians was often connected to the church and that their guilds were church-affiliated. Christenings, weddings, and funerals, of course, took place in the church and various churches and monasteries were the sites of festivals dedicated to their patron saints. At the times of such festivals, churches and monasteries were the sites of pilgrimages, attracting both minstrels and potential minstrel audiences (Kononenko, 133-52). If one adds to this the fact that kobzari and lirnyky, along with other members of the brotherhoods of the poor, often found refuge in church hospitals, then the large ecclesiastical vocabulary in Lebian should hardly be surprising. Our analysis of the Lebian language should also consider what it lacks. One interesting fact is that, while this language was an argot, a code which allowed free conversation on such otherwise taboo subjects as sex, it did not include a verb for sexual intercourse. Perhaps there was such a verb, but it has not been recorded. There is a rather rich vocabulary of ethnonyms, showing that minstrels dealt with many groups. Still, certain ethnic terms are lacking. The absence of words for Slovak, Hungarian, Czech, Romanian or Belarusian is not surprising because the musicians might not have had much to do with these peoples. But it is interesting that the word Ukrainian or even Rusyn are lacking. The reason for this may be that national consciousness was poorly developed in those times. The musicians seemed to know who they were not, but they did not know who they were. Only the most important items of clothing are named in Lebian, but there is no word for shirt. Perhaps the word for shirt is missing because this garment appears frequently in minstrel songs where, of course, it is named using the normal Ukrainian terminology. While a shirt was an everyday garment, it apparently had special meaning for minstrels. A number of begging songs sought to arouse the pity of listeners by referring to the minstrel’s nakedness and making a specific request for a shirt. (Kononenko 17-19) This would imply, and Lebian confirms, that shirt had a significance for minstrels beyond its function as a garment. Thus the special FOLKLORICA 2004, Vol. IX No. 2 53 meaning that a shirt held for minstrels would argue for its encoding. The fact that the incentive to encode seems outweighed by the appearance of “shirt” in songs might support the argument that Lebian was used to hide minstrel activities from ordinary folk. The lack of terms for internal organs may be surprising. By the same token, discussions of these parts of the body were probably more appropriate to a minstrel’s relationship with a healer or a physician, not to a conversation with other kobzari and lirnyky. Likewise, only two serious illnesses are named - typhus and cholera. Perhaps at the time the language was recorded these diseases posed a serious threat whereas others were less important. Also it is interesting that aside from blindness, no physical handicaps are named. There is no word for autumn in Lebian. Was this a season when nothing happened in the lives of the musicians? Very likely so: During this season the peasants who constituted a minstrel’s primary audience were too busy to have the time to listen to a performance (Kononenko 11). There are no words for morning, nor for the days from Tuesday to Thursday. This probably reflects the days that minstrels worked and the time of day that they did their begging. It has already been noted that church festivals constituted important occasions for minstrels. These likely occurred on weekends, not in the middle of the week. Similarly, a big secular occasion for minstrel activity, the village or town fair, was more commonly a weekend affair (Kononenko 13-14). As for the time of day, it either reflects begging times or the times that minstrels interacted with each other. In addition to fairs and festivals, minstrels also worked by going from house to house. When they did so, they likely waited until morning chores were done before approaching. And it is in the afternoon or evening, after a days work, that they were likely to gather amongst themselves, either for support and comfort on the road or to conduct guild activities. The system of numerals can be reconstructed up to one hundred. This may well indicate that the musicians' earnings were so meager that small numerals sufficed. Since minstrels were blind musicians they probably did not need words for color to discuss items and objects in their surroundings. Still, three color terms: white, yellow, and red have been recorded. These might well come from minstrel songs, specifically historical songs and epics (dumy) which depict fallen heroes, dying on the battle field, and speak of their white flesh, yellow bone, and red blood. But if colors appear in songs, like the word for shirt, why not omit encoding them, as the word for shirt is not encoded? Perhaps the three encoded colors had meanings beyond denoting hue. Perhaps they were designations of quality of which we are no longer aware. And does the existence of color terminology mean that minstrel poetry was composed by sighted bards? This question has been a topic of much scholarly debate and will not be addressed here. This analysis of the Lebian language shows that it is a powerful source of information about the lives of Ukrainian minstrels. Minstrels were an important part of Ukrainian culture, but information about them is scant. There are many reasons for this. As already noted, minstrels belonged to guilds which required apprenticeship and thus a certain degree of exclusion of those who had not be properly initiated. But even when minstrels were willing to talk to outsiders such as scholars, many would not listen, considering information about folk performers unimportant. Now that we know about oral composition and the role of minstrels as tradition bearers, gathering information about them is too late because the old system of guilds for the blind is gone. We 54 must draw on already collected sources and many of these are descriptions provided by scholars; they are not the words of the minstrels themselves. The dictionaries of the Lebian language compiled by Horbach and others are actual minstrel words. As such, they give us a more intimate glimpse of minstrel life, and it is reassuring that this glimpse confirms the descriptions that we do have available. Our look at the secret lexicon of minstrels confirms that their world revolved around the village and that the church and religious events were important. We even learn something about what they ate, if not on a regular basis, then on holidays. We see the days of the week that they probably worked and we can extrapolate information about their view of the body and clothing, including clothing items that might have carried a symbolic value. Lebian provides us a much more direct view into the lives of minstrels than we might hope to get through any other source. BIBLIOGRAPHY Hnatiuk, Volodymyr. “Lirnyky. Lirnyts'ki pisni, molytvy, slova, zvistky i t. p. pro lirnykiv povitu buchats'koho. Zibrav u veresni 1895 r. Volodymyr Hnatiuk” Etnografichnyi zbirnyk, 2 (1896): 1-73. Horbach, Oleksa. “Argo ukraïns'kykh lirnykiv.” Naukovi zapysky Ukraïns'koho vil'noho universytetu, 1 (1957): 7-44. Iemets', Vasyl'. Kobza i kobzari. Berlin: “Ukraïns'ke slovo,” 1923. Khotkevych, Hnat. “Vospominaniia o moikh vstrechakh so slepymi.” Tvory v dvokh tomakh. Kyïv: “Dnipro,” 1966. 1: 455-518. Kononenko, Natalie. Ukrainian Minstrels: And the Blind Shall Sing. Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1998. Malinka, Aleksandr. Kobzari i lirniki Terentii Parkhomenko, Nikifor Dudka i Aleksei Pobegailo. Chernihiv: “Zemskii sbornik Chernigovskoi gubernii,” 1903. Pravdiuk, Oleksandr. Romens'kyi kobzar Ievhen Adamtsevych. Kyïv: “Muzychna Ukraïna,” 1971: 34- 7. Studyns'kyi, Kyrylo. “Lirnyky. Studiia …” Zoria, 11: 257-61, 12: 284-6, 14: 324-6, 15: 345, 16: 365-6, 17: 385-7, 18: 425-6 (1894) and separate offprint. FOLKLORICA 2004, Vol. IX No. 2