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Food and Environment Safety - Journal of Faculty of Food Engineering, Ştefan cel Mare University - Suceava
Year IX, No2 - 2010

A REVIEW ON THE EFFECT OF FUNGI ON THE WHEAT GRAIN UNDER POST

HARVEST STORAGE ECOLOGY

Mathew SHIJU1

1Ministry of Higher Education, Department of Natural Sciences, Aksum University, Ethiopia
Contact No.: (+251) 920126043; e-mail: shijumathew_biotech@yahoo.com

Abstract: The review paper is aimed to assess the effect of fungi on the wheat grain under the post
harvest storage system. It has been observed that very high percentage of wheat kernels has been lost
under post harvest storage. The grain quality greatly depends upon the storage conditions. The
storage requirement violation can result in grain deterioration. The biotic and abiotic factors
influence the various physical and chemical properties of wheat grains under post harvest storage.
The fungal ecology present in the stored grain has an important role in spoilage and the production of
mycotoxins. The mycoflora of stored wheat grains predominantly consisted of ubiquitous mould
genera Aspergillus, Alternaria, Cladosporium, Fusarium, Mucor, Rhizopus and Penicillium possibly
because of their omnipresence, capacity to grow on all possible substrates and a wide range of
temperature and humidity. The most frequent species observed on the stored wheat grains of
Aspergillus were A. niger, A. fumigatus, Alternaria alternata, Fusarium moniliformis, Rhizopus
arrhizus and a few Pencillium species. Among these almost all have the capacity to produce mycotoxin
which can contaminate and cause spoilage. The various physical, microbial and biochemical analyses
of post harvest storage wheat grain is an essential component to evaluate the grain quality in various
Indian wheat varieties and also important for facilitating the minimal post harvest food grain loss.

Keywords: loss, biotic factor, abiotic factor, mycotoxin, infestation.

1.1 Introduction

The grain production varies from year to
year and hence the grains should be stored
strategically from years of overproduction
for the use in year of under production.
Stored grains can have losses in both
quantity and quality. The wheat grain after
harvest is influenced by a wide variety of
biotic and abiotic factors and has been
studied as a stored grain ecosystem. Losses
occur when the grain is attacked by
microorganisms and particularly by fungi.
The grain losses in quantity and quality
can be under the form of depletion in seed
viability, hardness, colour, size and shape,
grain weight and various biochemical
parameters, protein, carbohydrate and
vitamins under post harvest storages. The
presence of mycotoxins in grains is

traditionally regarded as an indicator of
poor storage conditions. Mycotoxins may
already be present in grains coming into
storage or may be produced as a result of
poor storage only if there is sufficient
moisture. Conversely, not all moulds that
grow in stored commodities produce
mycotoxins. The metabolic activity of
these pioneer species raises the moisture
content of the grain, which may allow
growth of mycotoxigenic species and
ultimately, the formation of mycotoxins.
Alternaria, Aspergillus and Penicillium can
act as pre or post-harvest pathogens of
grain and may form mycotoxins.

1.1.1 The origin and classification of
wheat

Wheat belongs to the genus Triticum of the

Food and Environment Safety - Journal of Faculty of Food Engineering, Ştefan cel Mare University - Suceava
Year IX, No2 - 2010

grass family, Poaceae. This genus is
originated in the tropical South west Asia,
where it occurs in wild as well as in
cultivated forms. Wheat is well adapted to
harsh environments and is mostly grown
on wind swept areas that are too dry and
too cold for the more tropically inclined
rice and corn, which do best at
intermediate temperature levels. Wheat
was first grown in the United States in
1602 on an island of the Massachusetts
coast. Man has been dependant upon the
wheat plant for thousands of years. Wheat
genetics is more complicated than that of
most other domesticated species. Some
wheat species are diploid, with two sets of
chromosomes, but many are stable
polyploids, with four sets of chromosomes
(tetraploid) or six (hexaploid) set of

chromosomes [1-9]. Globally, wheat is the
most-produced food among the cereal
crops after rice. Table 1.1 shows the
taxonomic status of the genus Triticum .
The development of a modern
classification depended on the discovery,
in the 1918s, of the fact that wheat was
classified according to three ploidy levels
[10-16]. The classification of Van Slageren
(1994) is probably the most widely used
genetic-based classification at present.
Most species of wheat can be described in
Latin binomials, e.g., Triticum aestivum,
rather than the trinomials necessary in the
genetic system, e.g., Triticum aestivum
subsp. aestivum. Both approaches are
equally valid and both are widely used
[17].

Table 1.1:

The Taxonomical status of Triticum
Kingdom Plantae Plants
Subkingdom Tracheobionta Vascular plants
Superdivision Spermatophyta Seed plants
Division Magnoliophyta Flowering plants
Class Liliopsida Monocotyledons
Subclass Commelinidae
Order Cyperales
Family Poaceae Grass family
Genus
Species

Triticum
aestivum

Wheat
Common wheat

Wheat (the Triticum spp.) is cultivated
worldwide. Globally, wheat is the most-
produced food among the cereal crops after
rice. Wheat grain is a staple food used to
make flour for leavened, flat and steamed
breads; cookies, cakes, breakfast cereal,
pasta, noodles; and for fermentation to
make beer, alcohol, vodka or even biofuel.
Durum is the most commonly used to
make pasta. The most common wheat is
the hexaploid wheat and includes spelt,
modern bread wheat and soft wheat used
for cookies and cakes. Wheat is grown to a
limited extent as a forage crop for
livestock, and the straw can be used as
fodder for livestock or as a construction

material for roofing thatch. Although

wheat supplies much of the world's dietary
protein and food supply, as many as one in
every 100 to 200 people suffers from
Coeliac disease, a condition which results
from an immune system response to a
protein found in wheat: gluten [18-20].
Grain fed to livestock whole or coarsely
ground. Starch is used for pastes and sizing
textiles. Straw is turned into mats, carpets,
baskets, and used for packing material,
cattle bedding, and paper manufacturing.
Some wheat is cut for hay. Wheat grown
for grain crop is also used for pasture
before the stems elongate and as a
temporary pasturage; it is nutritious and

Food and Environment Safety - Journal of Faculty of Food Engineering, Ştefan cel Mare University - Suceava
Year IX, No2 - 2010

palatable.

1.1.2 The effect of stored wheat grains
under post harvest storage

The spoilage of grain in storage is brought
about by two variables, the biotic and
abiotic [21]. Wheats are attacked by many
fungi and other organisms. Some cultivars
are resistant to the various rusts, smuts,
and virus diseases. The most important
fungal diseases of wheats are the extension
agents which are concerning diseases in an
area before growing wheat. Also cvs
should be selected for growing as resistant
to various diseases. The biotic variables are
different types of insects, mites, rodents,
birds and microorganisms, i.e., bacteria
and fungi. The abiotic variables include
temperature and moisture content of the
grains; the latter in grains increases due to
seepage of moisture from soil or from
cemented floor [22]. The micro flora of
cereal grains normally includes fungi,
bacteria and actinomycetes [23-25]. A
number of fungi have been reported to be
associated with cereal grains and their
milling fraction [26-27]. The majority of
mycotoxins are chemically tough, resistant
to temperature, conditions of storage and
processing technologies. Therefore,
detoxication is not always effective. Based
on the stages at which invasion and growth
occur, the fungi associated with grains can
conveniently be divided into two groups
i.e., Field fungi and Storage fungi [28].
Spoilage of stored grain by fungi is
determined by a range of factors which can
be classified into four main groups
including (a) intrinsic nutritional factors,
(b) extrinsic factors (c) processing factors
and (d) implicit microbial factors. The
factors produce fungal colonization within
the stored grains [29-30]. These reviews
examined some important mycotoxins and
the post-harvest control strategies which
have been developed for effective
management to minimize entry of

mycotoxins into the food chain. In some
cases, pre-harvest decisions can
significantly impact the capability for
subsequent post-harvest control. The
propagates of mould fungi, frequently
found in grain and its surroundings, start to
develop when favourable conditions
emerge. Temperature and substratum
moisture are the most significant factors
that determine the intensity of
micromycete development and grain
damage.

1.1.2.1 The effect of fungi on the odour
and discolouration of the stored wheat
grains
The fungal contamination of the grains is
responsible for emitting undesirable odours
[31] found that under high moisture
condition cereals gave a musty odour. The
dark colouration of germs of the wheat
grains are due to the damage caused by
fungi [32]. This is discoloration of the
germ end of the wheat grain. In the
commercial grading system, black point
involves the germ end only and not
extended into the grain crease. If more than
half the grain is damaged and well into the
crease, it is classified as smudge. It has
been also observed that if the wheat grains,
with moisture content of 13% or above is
kept long enough at a temperature of 350C
to 400C, the grains turn brown even in the
absence of storage fungi [33]. Grain itself
and the microbial contaminants respire
slowly when stored dry. However, if the
water availability is increased to 15-19%
moisture content (=0.75-0.85 water activity
(aw), wheat) spoilage fungi, particularly
Aspergillus and Penicillium species grow,
resulting in a significant increase in
respiratory activity [34]. This can result in
an increase in temperature and sometimes
spontaneous heating from the colonization
by a succession of fungi resulting in
colonization by thermophilic fungi and
actinomycetes [35-37].
The quantitative grain contamination with

Food and Environment Safety - Journal of Faculty of Food Engineering, Ştefan cel Mare University - Suceava
Year IX, No2 - 2010

micromycete propagules was established
by a number of methods given by various
scientists [38-44]. The grain colour
changes by some micromycetes produced
and contaminate it with poisonous
substances including mycotoxins [45-52].

1.1.3 The presence of micro flora
contaminating the stored wheat grains

Mould contamination of food and feed is a
constantly occurring phenomenon but the
attitude towards it has been far from
consistent [53]. It has been found that
fungal damage of grain is caused in
various ways. They reduce the grain
viability, produce odour, grain
discoloration and depletion in food added
value (FAV) by the increase in FAV and
also produce toxins injurious to the health
of consumers. The fungi are responsible
for emitting of undesirable odour from
stored grains [54]. A number of studies
have been reported the loss of dry matter
content and visible moulding of stored
wheat grains [55-62]. This could be
considered as a subjective index of the safe
storability of grain. There are problems
with the use of visible moulding as a
criterion of deterioration [63-66]. Wheat
quality loss has been measured and models
developed based on germination rates,
visible mould growth or respiration of
grain and microorganisms. The
microscopic growth may be a more
effective measurement of initial
colonization than visible moulding [67-70]
An extensive micro flora has been found to
be associated with stored wheat grains [71-
83]. Earlier in the laboratory a number of
cereals have been screened with respect to
micro flora associated in storage grains
[84-87].
The effect of microbial infestation on
decrease in the germination of grains is
now well known. It has been established in
other cereals and especially in wheat.
Discolouration of wheat is a common

occurrence. During the course of their
development breakdown and utilization of
the constituents of the seeds occur [88-89].
The dark germs of grains are known to be
due to damage by storage fungi [90-94].
The high moisture and temperature
conditions for cereals gave a musty odour
due to fungi, instead of bacteria [95].

1.1.4 Fungal infestation in post harvest
stored wheat grains

The wheat grains come in association with
the fungi from the time of grain maturity
and also at the time of storage. Some of
these fungi are in intimate association and
are present as dormant mycelium under the
pericarp or dormant spores on the surface
of the kernel. However, there is a number
of fungi which are only superficially
associated with stored grains. Mould
growth in grains may cause deleterious
changes in addition to the formation of
mycotoxins. Many spoilage
fungi cause loss of germination in seed
grains, discolouration and darkening of the
grains, reduction in protein content, musty
odours, and changes in fatty acid profiles
and other constituents of the grains. Mould
development may also encourage mite and
insect infestation. The association of fungi
with cereal grains starts from the field
itself. Shortly after the grain reaches to
maximum size, the lemma and palea
protecting it are pushed apart exposing the
grain to infection by fungi [96] and their
extensive studies have been carried out in
the laboratory on these aspects [97-99].
Poor post harvest management can lead to
rapid deterioration in grain quality,
severely decreasing the germinability and
nutritional value of stored grains. Fungal
activity can cause undesirable effects in
grains including discolouration, contribute
to heating and losses in nutritional value,
produce off-odours, losses in
germinability, deterioration in baking and
milling quality, and can result in

Food and Environment Safety - Journal of Faculty of Food Engineering, Ştefan cel Mare University - Suceava
Year IX, No2 - 2010

contamination by mycotoxins [100-102].
A number of studies have been reported on
the loss of dry matter content and visible
moulding of stored wheat grains [103-
110]. This could be considered as a
subjective index of the safe storability of
grain. There are problems with the use of
visible moulding as a criterion of
deterioration [111-114]. Fungi seldom
occur on grains in isolation, but usually as
a mixed consortium of bacteria, yeasts and
filamentous fungi. It is thus inevitable that
interspecific and intraspecific interactions
will occur depending on the nutritional
status of the grain and the prevailing
environmental conditions. Wheat quality
loss has been measured and models
developed based on germination rates,
visible mould growth or respiration of
grain and microorganisms [114-118] The
microscopic growth may be a more
effective measurement of initial
colonization than visible moulding. Some
attempts have also been made to relate dry
matter losses to actual calorific losses due
to the activity of mycotoxigenic moulds.

1.1.5 Decrease in nutritional value as
due to myctoxin production in stored
wheat grains

During storage, the grains undergo some
biochemical changes like the increase in
fatty acids. The increase in fatty acid value
is chiefly due to storage fungi and not due
to the activity of seeds [119]. The stored
grain will have quantitative and qualitative
losses. Weight loss during storage (not due

to a loss of moisture) is a measure of food
loss but the latter may be proportionately
larger owing to selective feeding by the
pests. Rodents and moth larvae may
preferentially attack the germ of the grain
thus removing a large percentage of the
protein and vitamin content, whereas
weevils feeding mainly on the endosperm
will reduce the carbohydrate content.
Many pests may eat the bran of cereals
reducing vitamins such as thiamin [120-
123]
The quantity and quality of endosperm
proteins are the major factors responsible
for baking quality, and nutritional value of
wheat [140-142]. Various seed storage
proteins in wheat are classified upon their
solubility in different solvents, such as
water, saline solution, 70% aqueous
ethanol and diluted acid or alkali solutions
and are named as albumins, globulins,
gliadins, and glutenins, respectively [126-
128].
The other storage factors such as moisture
and fungal infection also lead to changes in
vitamin content. In beans in particular, loss
of protein is very important where there is
infestation, as up to 25% of the dry matter
may be raw protein. Fungi growth leads to
reduced nutritional and technical quality of
cereal grains [130-132]. Grain storage
conditions affect its quality due to high
percentage of mycotoxins [133-137].
Wheat grains are also rich in pantothenic
acid, riboflavin and some minerals, sugars
etc [138]. The composition of wheat grain
and flour is given in Table 1.2.

Table 1.2:

Composition of wheat grain and flour [139]
Parameter Grain (%) Flour (%)
Moisture 9 - 18 13 - 15.5

Starch 60-68 65-70
Protein 8-17 8-15

Cellulose 2-2.5 Trace
Fat 1.5-2 0.8-1.5

Sugars 2-3 1.5-2
Mineral matters 1.5-2 3-6

Food and Environment Safety - Journal of Faculty of Food Engineering, Ştefan cel Mare University - Suceava
Year IX, No2 - 2010

Storage temperature affects the keeping
quality of wheat. Increase in temperature
accelerates the rate of respiration until it is
limited by oxygen supply; build up of
carbon dioxide concentration, exhaustion
of substrate, and thermal inactivation of
essential enzymes. Heat damages the
gluten proteins and even discolours the
kernels of the stored hard red winter wheat
with moisture contents of 10.95% in sealed
half gallon glass jars at -10C and 240C for
two years [140-142]. The grain losses in
quantity and quality can be under the form
of depletion as mentioned above like that
of seed viability, hardness, colour, size and
shape, grain weight and various
biochemical parameters, protein,
carbohydrate and vitamins under post
harvest storages. The storage fungi damage
the grains in several ways; they reduce the
germinability, produce undesirable odour
and kernel discoloration, decrease the food
value and also produce toxins injurious to
the health of consumers.
The effect of mycotoxigenic fungi in post
harvested stored wheat grains must be
examined in the context of the ecology as a
whole in order to understand the
dominance of certain species of fungi
under certain environmental conditions.
Interactions between these fungi and other
contaminants are complex and are
significantly affected by the prevailing and
changing environmental factors. As a
conclusion the mycoflora of stored wheat
grains predominantly consisted of
ubiquitous mould genera Aspergillus,
Alternaria, Cladosporium, Fusarium,
Mucor, Rhizopus and Penicillium possibly
because of their omnipresence, capacity to
grow on all possible substrates and a wide
range of temperature and humidity. The
most frequent species observed in the
stored wheat grains of Aspergillus were A.
niger, A. fumigatus, Alternaria alternata,
Fusarium moniliformis, Rhizopus arrhizus
and a few Pencillium species and some of
the fungi have the capacity to produce

mycotoxin which can contaminate and
cause spoilage.

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