


































Food Science and Nutrition Studies 

ISSN 2573-1661 (Print) ISSN 2573-167X (Online) 

Vol. 2, No. 2, 2018 

www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fsns 

41 
 

Original Paper 

Aberration of Metals Competing for Iron on Exposure to 

Lambda Cyhalothrin and Aflatoxins in Dietary Fish from 

Selected Aquatic Sources in Kenya 

Faith Obegi Onyangore1*, Julius Ochuodho2, Odipo Osano2 & Cornell Akwiri Omondi3 

1 University of Kabianga, Kenya 

2 University of Eldoret, Eldoret, Kenya 

3 Kenya Water Towers Agency, South Rift Region-Narok, Narok, Kenya 

* Faith Obegi Onyangore, University of Kabianga, Kenya 

 

Received: September 10, 2018    Accepted: October 1, 2018    Online Published: October 12, 2018 

doi:10.22158/fsns.v2n2p41        URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.22158/fsns.v2n2p41 

 

Abstract 

Excess or deficiency of minerals may seriously disturb biochemical processes and upset internal 

homeostasis, leading to various diseases and disorders in fish species due to deficiency or excess of 

micro and macro elements caused by improper nutrition, avitaminosis or poisoning. The specific 

objectives of the study were to determine the iron levels and aberration of metals competing on 

exposure to lambda-cyhalothrin and aflatoxins in dietary fish from selected aquatic sources in Kenya. 

The concentration of elements cadmium, zinc, and iron in Oreochromis niloticus and Clarias 

gariepinus bred in Kenya Marine and Fisheries Research Institute at Sagana and obtained from River 

Nyando was measured using atomic absorption spectrophotometer. Iron availability was lower on 

treatment with Aflatoxin compared to Lambda-Cyhalothrin with a mean of 3.66 ± 0.84 mg/kg, but on 

subjection to zinc, competition was 3.82 mg/kg on consideration of zinc competition. The naturally 

occurring toxins cause micronutrient deprival and therefore relevant stakeholders be keen to prevent 

contamination from farm to fork. 

Keywords 

dietary, fish, aberration, metals, competing, aflatoxins, Lambda-cyhalothrin  

 

1. Introduction 

Fish is a vital source of food for people and a good source of heme iron (FAO, 2005). Iron, a mineral 

required by the body to produce red blood cells, occurs in two different forms in the diet heme and 



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non-heme. Heme iron derives from the hemoglobin in animal tissue whereas nonheme iron derives 

primarily from plant tissues, although a small amount of the iron in animal foods is nonheme iron. The 

body absorbs heme iron more efficiently than non-heme iron. Eating a wide variety of iron-rich foods, 

and combining foods that contain heme and non-heme iron will help prevent deficiencies. Sorption and 

co-precipitation of metals by Fe oxides decreased the bioavailability and toxicity of waterborne metals 

may increase the dietary supply of metals and lead to toxic effects along the food chain (Vuori, 1995). 

Heme iron, found in meat and fish, is more easily absorbed at approximately 15-40% as compared to 

1-15% nonheme and is only significantly inhibited by large quantities of dairy products, while fish and 

meat proteins enhance nonheme iron absorption (Onyangore et al.). The Food and Agricultural 

Organization (FAO) estimates that about one billion people worldwide rely on fish as their primary 

source of animal protein (FAO, 2000). It is man’s most important single source of high-quality protein, 

providing 16% of the animal protein consumed by the world’s population according to the Food and 

Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations (2000). It is a particularly important protein 

source in regions where livestock is relatively scarce fish supplies <10% of animal protein consumed in 

North America and Europe, but 17% in Africa, 26% in Asia and 22% in China (FAO, 2000). In Kenya, 

annual fish consumption levels in the country are at 3.7 kilograms per person (Omondi, 2012).  

Lambda-cyhalothrin is a synthetic pyrethroid insecticide widely used for pest management and public 

health applications to control insects. Lambda-cyhalothrin is categorized as a restricted use pesticide in 

Extension Toxicology Network for its toxicity to fish (Mound, 1998). But its usage for the control of 

major pest in agriculture is being continued in developing countries. The pesticide exposure causes 

severe alterations in the tissue biochemistry and histology of fishes (Saravanan et al., 2010; Susan et al., 

2010; Velisek et al., 2009). 

Aflatoxin is metabolic byproduct of molds Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus. It is a toxic 

compound and the cause of high mortality in livestock, poultry, fish and in some cases of human beings 

(Fotsis et al., 1995; Reed et al., 1987). Toxicogenic A. Flavus produces Aflatoxin B1 and B2 whereas A. 

Parasiticus produces Aflatoxin G1 and G2. Aflatoxin B1 is classified as a group I carcinogen by 

international agency for research on cancer. Effect of aflatoxin on fishes and other animals have been 

reported by many workers. Nunez et al. (1991) reported hepatocellular adenoma and hepatocellular 

carcinoma in Rainbow trout when exposed to aflatoxin B1. Caguan et al. (2004) reported a loss of 

appetite, low survival percent and decreased mean total biomass in tilapia when fed with 

aflatoxin-contaminated feed.  

Since fishes are important sources of proteins, minerals and lipids for humans and domestic animals, so 

the health of fishes is very important for human beings. Excess or deficiency of minerals may seriously 

disturb biochemical processes and upset internal homeostasis, leading inconsequence to various 

diseases. Tacon (1992) reported that disorders occurred in organisms of various fish species due to 

deficiency or excess of micro and macro elements which were caused by improper nutrition, 

avitaminosis or poisoning. It is therefore important to monitor levels of macro and micro elements in 

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1084135/#kve236c8
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1084135/#kve236c6
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1084135/#kve236c6
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1084135/#kve236c8


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fish organisms (Brucka-Jastrzêbska et al., 2009). The poisoning is majorly caused by toxicants 

emanating from either feed or water pollution. Previous research work in Kenya has conducted studies 

on the effects of toxicants on the other aspects of health, but not taken a step further to conduct research 

on the influence of essential nutrients like iron. The natural and synthetic toxicants in fish may be 

causing significant changes in the iron levels due to metabolic disruption, and yet no research has 

specifically checked for the availability of iron. The knowledge gap on nutrient toxin interaction was 

addressed as findings from this study, therefore, linked toxicants and availability of iron in fish as a 

heme food source. Results from this study generalized and shared with food scientists, food 

toxicologists, medical personnel, agriculturalists and the community at large on the magnitude on iron 

availability in fish on exposure to natural and synthetic toxicants in fish a heme food sources. Previous 

studies have considered the implications of nutrient toxicant interactions but findings from this study 

encouraged nutritionists to consider the importance of environmental exposures to their study 

populations and their research questions. Furthermore, it encouraged the involvement of nutritionists in 

the design of high quality, rigorous studies of nutritional assessment and interventions in populations 

exposed to environmental chemicals. As a growing field, the intersection between nutritional science 

and toxicology benefited from the expertise of nutritionists.  

 

2. Materials and Methods 

2.1 Study Design, Species, Sample Size, and Setting 

For fish bred at Sagana Experimental study design was adopted where manipulation of independent 

variables to determine their effect on a dependent variable. A completely randomized block design was 

adopted. For Fish from River Nyando were collected at three different points (Appendix 31). A 

Cross-Sectional study design was also adopted where fish samples were collected from River Nyando 

for laboratory analysis. The independent variables were the treatments and the dependent variable 

being iron levels (Kothari, 2004). For fish bred at Sagana Identification of Oreochromis niloticus and 

Clarias gariepinus species was done by the Kenya Marine and Fisheries Research Institute (KMFRI) 

staff. Nine Hundred (900) fish, 450 of each species were bred in the lab between January-August 2015.  

Sample size calculation for fish bred at Sagana 

2 SD2 (Zt + Zx)2 / d2  

SD = Standard Deviation from Pilot Study 

Zt  = Z value from the Z table 

Zx  = type 1 error of 5% at 80% interval 

D = effect size, the difference in means (iron in mg) (Jaykaran & Kantharia, 2013). 

= 2(1)2 (1.96 + 0.842)2 / 3.5 

= 4.48 

= 5 fish per tank 

 

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=Charan%20J%5Bauth%5D
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=Kantharia%20ND%5Bauth%5D


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Fish from River Nyando 

2 SD2 (Zt + Zx)2 / d2  

= 2(1)2 (1.96 + 0.842)2 / 3.5 

= 2(1)2 (1.96 + 0.842)2 / 0.145 

= 108.29 

= 108 fishes 

2.2 Sampling Techniques  

For fish bred at Sagana, there are about thirty-five species of fish commonly consumed in Kenya were 

written down, and the two fish species were selected randomly. For the fish bred in an aquarium in the 

lab, all the fish sampled were used for the experiment. The fish species used were Oreochromis 

niloticus and Clarias gariepinus and were cultured in the lab for twelve weeks after demineralization of 

water. The samples were extracted immediately and analyzed for iron levels cadmium and zinc as 

metals competing with iron, This was after treatment with aflatoxins in feed prepared and 

Lambda-Cyhalothrin introduced in water and parameters measured when fish were at various ages. For 

fish from River Nyando, the sampling procedure for fish species collection was the same as in fish bred 

in Sagana. The fish were selected at three different sites along River Nyando. For each site fish were 

collected by means of gill net mesh size. The nets were deployed from early morning and checked two 

hourly until the required fish quotas were reached. This minimized the amount of time fish spent in the 

net in order to reduce an imposed stress. Only living fish size 10-60 g were selected, kept in a 100 L 

plastic tank and immediately transported to the laboratory for sample collection and necropsy analysis. 

A total of 105 fish specimens were collected from River Nyando. The samples were extracted 

immediately and analyzed for iron levels and cadmium and zinc as metals competing with iron. 

2.3 Laboratory Procedures for Heavy Metal Analysis 

For both fish samples collected from fish bred at Kenya Marine and Fisheries Industries (KMFRI) 

Sagana and from River Nyando, the laboratory sites and procedures were similar. At the laboratory, fish 

were kept in large holding tanks filled with water from each site to minimize stress.  

The heavy metal analysis was conducted at KIRDI (Kenya Industrial and Research Development 

Institute). The sampling containers, preparation and handling of fish samples for analysis, the 

procedure for the dissection of fish3, sample collection from different parts of the fish, sample 

collection from different parts of the fish was adopted as per previously published work (ICP Waters 

report, 105/2010). All glassware was washed in nitric acid solution and rinsed with distilled water. All 

reagents used during analysis were of analytical grade. This was digested using the procedure 

recommended by (Chen et al., 2008) as described. An acid mixture of two parts concentrated nitric acid 

and one part perchloric acid (2:1) was prepared. One gram (1.0 g) dried liver material was weighed and 

put in a 100 ml digestion tube. 5 ml of the acid mixture was added and the sample was placed on a hot 

plate. The samples were heated at 600C for 15 minutes. The heat was then increased to 1200C and 

digested for 75 minutes or until the sample cleared. The tube was removed from the hot plate when the 



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sample was clear. The sample was then cooled and sufficient distilled water added to bring the solution 

to 100ml and preserved in the cold room at 40C awaiting analysis by AAS. A blank comprising of the 

reagents in the proportion as for the samples but containing no sample material was prepared likewise. 

The concentration of elements (Fe Cd and Zn) in muscle and fish liver was measured using atomic 

absorption spectrophotometer (AAS) AAnalyst 800 (Parkin Elmer Instrument, 2USA) with an 

acetylene flame (Fe and Zn) and argon non-flame (Cd), after preparation of calibration standards. The 

overall recovery rates (Mean ± SD) for Cd, Zn were 103 ± 8.3 and 2.3 and 90 ± 3.5 respectively. The 

detection limit for Fe, Cd, and Zn was 0.04, 0.02 and 0.10 µg/g respectively. 

Detection of Lambda-Cyhalothrin was conducted in water from River Nyando. Sample analysis was 

done using Varian CP 3800 Gas Chromatograph equipped with an Electron Capture Detector. 

Separation was done using BPX 5 capillary column of dimensions 30 m x 0.25 mm x 0.25 μm film 

thickness. Confirmatory analysis was done using a BPX35 capillary column of dimensions 50 m x 0.25 

mm x 0.25 μm film thickness. A temperature program was used starting from 900C (withhold time of 3 

minutes), increased to 2150C at 80C/min (withhold time of 25 min), then increased to 2700C at 50C/min 

(withhold time of 5.37 min), and finally ramped to 2750C at 50C/min (withhold time of 18.63 min). The 

carrier gas was high purity helium (99.9995%) with white spot nitrogen as the makeup gas. 

Quantification followed external calibration method using high purity pesticide reference standards 

mixture obtained from Ultra Scientific USA. Quality control and Quality assurance were ensured by all 

sampling, extraction, and analysis being done in triplicate to allow verification detected PoPs residues. 

The samples were spiked with the insecticide during extraction and analysis to minimize errors due to 

detector fluctuations. Recovery tests were also carried out using the reference pesticide standards to 

determine the performance of the methodology. Quantification of LCH was carried out using high 

purity organic pollutants. Heavy metal assessments for fish both from bred in Sagana and River 

Nyando, the iron cutoffs were 20-80 mg/kg, the zinc ranges 20-55 mg/kg, the cadmium ranges 0.05-5 

mg/kg were as per the European Standards. 

 

3. Data Management and Analysis 

3.1 Data Reporting 

For both fish obtained from Sagana and from River Nyando, data included iron levels, zinc levels, 

cadmium levels. For fish from River Nyando, Lambda Cyhalothrin and aflatoxin were recorded from 

the water samples (Kroglund et al., 2007; Rognerud et al., 2002).  

3.2 Data Analysis 

The independent variables were the treatments aflatoxins and lambda-cyhalothrin. The dependent 

variables were iron levels and metal levels competing for iron availability, the data was entered into a 

computer and analyzed using the excel spreadsheets as database and GENSTAT version 12 analysis for 

means, frequencies and cross-tabulations. For fish obtained from river Nyando, SPSS version 21 was 

used for data analysis. One way ANOVA was carried out to determine differences in means of iron 



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levels, zinc levels, and cadmium levels lambda-cyhalothrin, aflatoxins. Post hoc HSD (turkey) (was 

used for Post-hoc discrimination between means. The effects of aflatoxins and lambda-cyhalothrin 

were analyzed using linear regression analysis after performing an outlier analysis. 

The interaction between lambda-cyhalothrin, aflatoxins, iron levels, zinc and cadmium competing for 

iron was analyzed by ANCOVA. In all statistical tests, 5% significance level was applied. 

3.3 Ethical Considerations 

All experiments with fish were conducted in accordance with national and institutional guidelines for 

protection of animal welfare (Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act, Cap 360 of the Laws of Kenya). 

Authority to conduct research was sought from the Fisheries department of Kenya and from the various 

sites, KEMFRI Sagana, and KIRDI Nairobi. 

 

4. Results 

4.1 Determine Iron Levels 

4.1.1 Iron Levels in Oreochromis Niloticus and Clarias Gariepinus  

The mean Fe in both species was 5.0369 ± 1.443 mg/kg with a maximum level of 7.767 mg/kg. The 

level of iron of 5.22 mg/kg in Oreochromis niloticus was higher than that in Clarias gorgeous which 

was 4.86 mg/kg.  

 

Table 1. Comparison of Means of Iron on Treatment with Lambda-Cyhalothrin versus Aflatoxin 

in Clarias Gariepinus and Oreochromis Niloticus in Fish from Sagana River Nyando, Metal 

Concentrations in mg/g DW and n=54 

Environment Species1 SEM Species2 SEM P value 

1 Sagana 4.86 ± 1.49 0.29 5.22 ± 1.40 0.27 0.367 

2 River Nyando 17.11 ± 4.47 0.66 25.68 ± 3.52 0.44 0.000 

 

Results from Table 1 indicate that there were significant differences of treatments on iron levels 

between species Clarias gariepinus and Oreochromis niloticus P > 0.05 in fish bred in River Nyando 

and no significant differences in iron levels in species in fish bred in Sagana. Fish in River Nyando had 

higher iron levels with a mean of 17.11 ± 7.81 mg/kg and 25.68 mg/kg in Clarias gariepinus and 

Oreochromis niloticus respectively than in fish bred in River Nyando. 

Comparing means on iron levels on analysis of variance in Clarias gariepinus and Oreochromis 

niloticus on exposure to Aflatoxin and Lambda-Cyhalothrin in selected environments. 

 

 

 

 



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Table 2. Comparing Means on Iron Levels after Analysis of Variance in Clarias Gariepinus and 

Oreochromis Niloticus on Exposure to Aflatoxin versus Lambda-Cyhalothrin in Sagana and River 

Nyando  

Condition Lambda Cyhalothrin S.E.M Aflatoxin  S.E.M P value 

Sagana  4.78 ± 0.72 0.17 3.66 ± 0.84 0.200 0.01 

River Nyando 22.09 ± 7.81 0.59 ND ND 0.97 

 

Results from this study (Table 2) show that the type of treatment had a significant effect (p = 0.01) on 

iron availability (p < 0.05). However, treatment had no significant effect on iron availability from fish 

in River Nyando. Fish from River Nyando had higher iron levels than those bred in Sagana. 

4.2 The Significance of the Type of Treatment 

 

Table 3. Tukey Means Separation to Show the Significance of Types of Treatment on Aflatoxin 

and Lambda-Cyhalothrin on Clarias Gariepinus and Oreochromis Niloticus in Cultured Fish 

Treatment Mean( Sagana)  S.E.M P value 

Aflatoxin 3.66a 0.20 0.01 

Control 6.68c 0.13  

Lambda Cyhalothrin  4.78b 0.17  

 

Both of the treatments had lower iron levels as compared to the control and Lambda-Cyhalothrin 

treatment had higher iron levels as compared to aflatoxin treatment at 3.66 mg/kg (Table 3). The 

treatments influenced the tissues differently, i.e., the treatments were significantly different.  

Ho There is no significant aberration of iron on exposure to Lambda-cyhalothrin versus Aflatoxins in 

dietary fish in selected environments in Kenya.The null hypothesis was rejected because the treatments 

influenced the iron levels differently. 

4.3 Assess Metals Competing for Iron Availability 

4.3.1 Zinc and Cadmium Availability 

 

Table 4. Summary Statistics of Zinc in Livers of Clarias Gariepinus and Oreochromis Niloticus 

on Treatment with Lambda-Cyhalothrin and Aflatoxin in Fish Bred in Sagana 

Size (n) Mean (mg/kg) Variance SD SEM 

54 19.85 11.58 3.403 0.4631 

 

The mean zinc levels were 19.85 ± 3.403 mg/kg (Table 4).  

4.3.2 Mean Comparisons of Zinc and Cadmium in Levels in the Selected Environments 

The zinc levels in fish from River Nyando were higher at 34.585mg/kg as opposed to the fish bred in 



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Sagana. Results from this study further showed that the type of treatment had a significant difference 

on zinc levels (p < 0.05) in fish bred in Sagana as opposed to from River Nyando. There was no 

significant effect of treatment on the cadmium levels in River Nyando (Table 5). 

 

Table 5. Comparison of Means on Analysis of Variance in Clarias Gariepinus and Oreochromis 

Niloticus on Zinc Levels on Treatment with Lambda-Cyhalothrin and Aflatoxin in Fish Bred in 

Sagana and River Nyando 

Condition Lambda-Cyhalothrin  S.E.M Aflatoxin S.E.M P value 

Sagana  16.60 ± 0.09 0.22 18.72 ± 0.14 0.33 0.01 

River Nyando 34.585 ± 14.66 1.411 ND ND 0.575 

Sagana(Cd) ND ND ND ND ND 

River Nyando  5.82 ± 1.42 0.136 ND ND 0.429 

 

4.3.3 Comparison of Means of Zinc and Cadmium on Exposure to Lambda-Cyhalothrin versus 

Aflatoxins 

 

Table 6. Comparison of Means on Exposure with Lambda-Cyhalothrin versus Aflatoxin in 

Clarias Gariepinus and Oreochromis Niloticus Bred in Sagana and from River Nyando 

Environment Species1 S.E.M Species2 SEM P value 

Sagana Zn 19.78 ± 3.54 0.68 19.91 0.94 ± 3.32 0.64 

River Nyando 32.76 ± 14.62 2.18 35.88 ± 14.67 1.85 0.278 

Sagana Cd ND  ND ND ND 

River Nyando 5.79 ± 1.36 0.20 5.84 ± 1.47 0.18 0.863 

 

There was no significant effect (p > 0.05) in the type of treatment among the species from both 

environments as presented in Table 6. Cadmium was not detected in fish that was bred in Sagana. 

 

Table 7. Tukey’s Comparison of Means of Zinc on Treatment with Lambda-Cyhalothrin and 

Aflatoxin in Clarias Gariepinus and Oreochromis Niloticus in Fish Bred at Sagana 

Treatment Means S.E.M P value 

L-cyhalothrin 16.60a 0.22 0.01 

Aflatoxin 18.72b 0.33  

Control 24.22c 0.18  

 

Results from this study show that the treatments affected the zinc levels differently. The control had the 

highest zinc level of 24.22 mg/kg. Lambda-Cyhalothrin had lower zinc levels compared to Aflatoxin of 



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18.72 mg/kg (Table 7).  

Ho There is no significant aberration of metals competing for iron bioavailability in 

Lambda-Cyhalothrin versus Aflatoxins compared in dietary fish in selected environments in Kenya 

The hypothesis was rejected because the treatments influenced the metals competing with iron levels 

significantly.  

4.3.4 Significance of Iron Availability on Coexistence with Zinc on Exposure to Aflatoxins and 

Lambda-Cyhalothrin  

On conducting an Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA), the type of treatment on the zinc and iron 

interaction was significant (p > 0.05).  

 

Table 8. Comparing the Significance of Iron Availability on Competition and without 

Competition with Zinc on Exposure to Aflatoxins and Lambda-Cyhalothrin Treatments in 

Clarias Gariepinus and Oreochromis Niloticus Cultured Fish 

Treatment Means (iron/zinc) Df P value Means ( Iron ) 

L-cyhalothrin 3.816a 2 0.140 3.659a 

Aflatoxin 5.222b   4.769b 

Control 6.070b   6.681c 

 

The means did not differ significantly on exposure when zinc and iron interacted on exposure to the 

two treatments. The means of iron without competition were (3.659 and 4.769) and got higher on 

exposure to treatments and on the competition with zinc (3.816, 5.222). However, in the control, the 

iron levels were higher on interaction with zinc 6.681 mg/g (Table 8). The treatment was not significant 

p < 0.05. 

 

5. Discussion 

Fish is a major dietary heme source in our diets and hence should be safe and contain uncompromised 

iron levels when consumed. Exposure of fish to contaminants through feed and environment is likely to 

cause compromised safety to humans and altered nutritional levels. Most insecticides have been known 

to be highly toxic to nontarget organisms that inhabit natural environments close to agricultural fields. 

Several studies reported that some surface waters and surrounding environments were contaminated 

with different insecticides (Arjmandi et al., 2010; Bagheri, 2007; Ghassempour et al., 2002; 

Rahiminejad et al., 2009; Tarahi Tabrizi, 2001). Findings from this study conform to the studies that 

insecticides like lambda-cyhalothrin were detected in river Nyando.  

Results from this study show that iron levels were higher in Oreochromis spp than in Clarias 

gariepinus when tests were conducted in the cultured fish. The same result was obtained from the fish 

collected from River Nyando showed that the Clarias gariepinus had lower levels of iron than 



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Oreochromis niloticus. Fish obtained fromRiver Nyando had higher levels of iron of 22.09 mg as 

compared to 5.04 mg in from river Nyando. Fish found in water bodies with high levels of metals 

accumulate higher amounts of metals than those found in uncontaminated water bodies because they 

absorb these metals from gills, skin oral consumption of water, food and non-food particles. It is 

expected that iron levels in C. gariepinus fish caught in the River Nyando should have higher values as 

fish absorbs metals from the sediment, polluted water, and food and thus leads to contamination of the 

food chain. The low iron levels contrary to other studies could be attributed to toxicity from pesticides 

in water. Metals are not easily biodegradable and consequently can be accumulated in human vital 

organs. This situation causes varying degrees of illness based on acute and chronic exposure 

(Demirezen et al., 2006; MATHENGE, 2013). The introduction of these elements into the food chain 

may affect human health as the excess of iron can cause toxicity (Coulate, 1992). Further, the iron 

levels measured by (Oyoo‐Okoth et al., 2010) in Rastrineobola argentea are more or less similar to the 

C.gariepinus of this study, but R.argentea is herbivorous and thus lower on the food chain than 

C.gariepinus. It can be expected that C.gariepinus from Lake Victoria investigated by (Oyoo‐Okoth et 

al., 2010), would have had greater levels, due to bio-magnification, as R.argentea are prey to 

C.gariepinus.  

The results presented suggest a greater effect of aflatoxin on iron levels in cultured fish livers as 

compared to lambda-cyhalothrin. Since fish is a vital source of proteins and lipids for humans and 

domestic animals, the health of fish is very important to human beings. Fish like other aquatic 

organisms may be exposed to a great range of insecticides during the course of their life cycle. In fish, 

different insecticides can be absorbed through gills, skin or alimentary ducts (Mahdi Banaee, 2012; M 

Banaee et al., 2011). Fishes are particularly sensitive to environmental contamination of water. Hence, 

pollutants such as insecticides may significantly damage certain physiological and biochemical 

processes when they enter into the organs of fishes (M Banaee et al., 2011). The differences in iron 

levels could be attributed to a greater physiological damage the aflatoxin causes as compared to the 

pyrethroid and hence the effects of aflatoxins on fishes are of great concern at its mode of action is 

hepatotoxicity.  

The concern of iron levels is of vital importance more so because fish might look apparently healthy 

despite accumulating metals to a concentration which substantially exceed maximum values considered 

safe for human consumption. Aflatoxicosis is a major problem related to aquaculture that leads to 

economic losses and health complications in fish. Aflatoxins are well recognized as a cause of liver 

cancer, but they have additional important toxic effects. In farm and laboratory animals, chronic 

exposure to aflatoxins compromises immunity and interferes with protein metabolism and multiple 

micronutrients that are critical to health. These effects have not been widely studied in humans, but the 

available information indicates that at least some of the effects observed in animals also occur in 

humans (Jonathans et al., 2004). Although aflatoxin is known to affect nutritional concentrations of iron 

in animals (Dhanasekaran, 2011) its potential effect on human iron concentrations is not known. 



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It is, therefore, becoming a matter of concern to environmentalist since the presence of pollutants, 

particularly; essential metals apparently accumulate in the sediments. In a study that was conducted in 

Lake Kanyaboli, metal level in the liver of C.gariepinus was significantly associated with heavy metal 

concentration in lake sediment indicating that fish liver is an effective indicator of fish exposure to 

heavy metals (Akwiri et al.). 

In the fish obtained from River Nyando, the lambda-cyhalothrin levels were not significant to the iron 

levels both in the liver. The many available pesticides for use and elevated metals concentrations from 

effluent has caused an indirect association between pesticides use and iron levels. There was no 

aflatoxin association in the fish from the river. The iron levels generally on exposure to both 

lambda-cyhalothrin and aflatoxin were lower than iron levels in other studies. In a study conducted in 

Serbia to ascertain the levels of microelements in freshwater fish, the liver values ranged from 4.6-37.3 

mg/kg (Brucka-Jastrzêbska et al., 2009). In another study conducted in Bangladesh to determine iron 

levels in long-whiskered catfish, iron levels were higher than in the present study with ranges 54.93 ± 

4.33 mg/kg. This could be attributed to the interference of the toxicants with normal physiological 

processes involving iron synthesis.  

In this study the effects of lambda-cyhalothrin, a synthetic pyrethroid was compared to those of 

aflatoxin a naturally occurring toxicant on iron levels contained in fish.  

5.1 Effects of Aflatoxins and Lambda-Cyhalothrin on Levels of Metals Competing for Iron 

Bioavailability in Fish as a Food Source in Kenya  

Results from this study indicate that there were higher zinc levels in aflatoxin-exposed fish, a metal 

which competes with iron. In this study, the type of treatment had a significant difference in zinc levels. 

The treatments affected the zinc levels differently with the treatments having the lower zinc levels 

compared to the control lambda-cyhalothrin treatment which had a higher level of zinc as compared to 

aflatoxin treatment. Zinc is known to compete with iron during metabolism.  

Further, results from this study indicated that iron levels increased on the association to zinc availability. 

In the ideal, zinc competition could have seen lower iron levels in fish liver. Ewa in a study to 

determine micro and macro elements in fresh water reported higher and within normal physiological 

ranges of zinc than in the present study. This study also found out that zinc levels were affected and it is 

evident that zinc competition was insignificant in the presence of the treatments; this is probably due to 

the impairment of receptors by the respective treatments. Studies also revealed that co-administration 

of zinc with lambda-cyhalothrin to treat animals retained the level of GSH and the activity SOD and 

GPx at the normal values. Catalase, CAT, GST activity and LOP level were improved, and such 

alterations were still significant in zinc- LCH-treated rats. The observed normalization trend of GSH, 

SOD, and GPx following zinc treatment could possibly be due to dismutation of O-2 to H2O which is 

catalyzed by SOD. Zinc is known to induce the production of metallothionein, which is very rich in 

cysteine, and is an excellent scavenger of -OH. Also, the NADPH oxidases are a group of plasma 

membrane-associated enzymes, which catalyze the production of O-2 from oxygen by using NADPH as 



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the electron donor. Zinc is an inhibitor of this enzyme. Cytochrome P450 enzymes are essential for the 

metabolism and detoxification of many xenobiotics (e.g., pesticides). It has been reported that many 

chemicals (e.g., pesticides, drug) interactions are the result of an alteration of CYP450 metabolism, LCH 

decreased cytochrome P450 activity in LCH-treated rat. This may be due to the inhibition of heme 

synthesis and destruction of cytochrome P450. Previous studies showed that many pesticides have been 

reported to inhibit the activity and alteration in the expression of various cytochrome P450 isoforms (e.g., 

parathion, methomyl). These changes may increase the sensitivity of cells against reactive endogenous 

metabolites or other xenobiotics. Co-administration of zinc to LCH-treated animals improved the 

activity of cytochrome P450 compared to an LCH-treated rat. This change may due to the antioxidant 

role of zinc and alter the enzyme activities associated with antioxidant defense mechanisms (Abbasy et 

al., 2014). The same reaction is likely to occur in fish. 

Fish from the river had higher zinc levels of 34.56 mg as compared to those bred in Sagana. Findings to 

this study suggested that species had no significant influence on metals competing with iron. Contrary 

to findings in this study is that zinc /iron competition is due to species composition and not due to the 

treatment. The study finding in Solomons and Jacob’s found that zinc from Atlantic oysters which are 

the most zinc-rich natural food items in the occidental diet, was impervious to the inhibitory effects of a 

2:1 ratio of iron to zinc, even when 54 mg of zinc (from oysters) and 100 mg of iron as ferrous sulfate 

(a total of 154 mg of the metals) were given. The absence of an inhibitory interaction may be explained 

by the chemical form of zinc in the oyster, a physical-chemical protection against the intrusion of iron 

or accelerated binding of the iron or oxidation of the iron to its ferric form by the oyster (Solomon et al., 

2013).  

Cadmium (cd) was not detected in fish under controlled conditions but was detected in the fish from 

the River Nyando. Concentrations of elements such Cd have been previously reported in water and fish 

(Birungi et al., 2007; Oyoo-Okoth et al., 2013; Wandiga et al., 2002). The findings from this study are 

consistent with studies conducted by Saeed and Shaker, 2008 who presented a report about 

concentrations of Fe, Zn, Cu, Mn, Cd, and Pb in O. niloticus (Tilapia ) fish tissues, water and sediments 

in northern Delta Lakes. They found that the edible part of O. niloticus from Lake Edku and Manzala 

contained the highest levels of Cd while fish from Manzala Lake contained the highest level of Pb. 

They reported that Nile tilapia caught from these two Lakes may pose health hazards for consumers. 

Furthermore, (Olowu et al., 2010) determined the concentrations of Zn, Ni, and Fe in tissues of two fish 

species, Tilapia and Catfish from two stations in Lagos, Nigeria. They concluded that both fish species 

may be considered safe for consumption, but the need for continuous monitoring to prevent 

bioaccumulation is necessary.  

Results from this study revealed that C garipenus had higher concentrations of zinc and cadmium as 

compared to zinc. This is consistent with findings from studies conducted in M. furnieri which gave the 

highest concentrations of Pb, Zn, and Cd by 0.552, 20.535 and 0.090 µg/g, respectively, also M. 

furnieri accumulated highest concentrations of Cd and Zn than other species in present study, this may 



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be interpreted by the living and feeding habits of M. furnieri (croaker) which is a bottom-dwelling 

marine species, found in muddy and sandy bottoms in coastal waters. It is considered as a benthic 

feeder, it feeds on benthic migratory crustaceans and sessile mollusks and occasionally preying on fish. 

(Romeo et al., 1999), reported that levels of metals found in tissues of benthic fish were always higher 

than those found in pelagic fish as in C. garipenus 

High concentration of both Zn and Cd in M. furnieri may be attributed to the relation between them 

which has been studied in terrestrial and marine mammals. The increase in Zn concentration was 

attributed to compensating the increase in Cd concentration due to pollution processes, and this 

mechanism probably includes the synthesis of metallothioneins (or metallothionein-like proteins), 

which would bind both Cd and Zn in a molar ratio of 1:1 (Marcovecho, 2004). 

Zinc (Zn) is an essential trace element, is relatively nontoxic and is integral to several key functions in 

human metabolism Not only has Zn been identified as a component of key enzymes and regulatory 

proteins, but it was also recently suggested that the preventive effects of zinc may partly be mediated 

through an increase in cytochrome P450 enzymes. 

 

6. Conclusion 

Stored iron in the liver is higher on treatment with lambda-cyhalothrin than with aflatoxin. The latter 

causes liver damage. The iron levels in both treatments are lower than in the control which signifies 

impaired iron metabolism. Further aflatoxins give a significantly higher level of zinc than 

lambda-cyhalothrin. On treatment aflatoxins with the facilitation of zinc to compete is better than with 

lambda-cyhalothrin. This is because aflatoxins disrupt the divalent binding receptors. The fish caught in 

the wild have the highest levels of toxic metals like cadmium and highest levels of essential elements 

as compared to cultured fish. Many processes and factors in the water body affect these levels. 

Lambda-cyhalothrin, in this particular study a synthetic insecticide has less severe effects on 

metabolism and iron availability than in the naturally occurring toxin aflatoxin. 

 

Acknowledgments 

I would like to acknowledge the University of Kabianga for giving time to allow me to conduct the 

research. I would further like to acknowledge my supervisors Prof Odipo Osano and Prof Julius 

Ochuodho for tirelessly inputting into this research work. I would also like to acknowledge Dr. Paul 

Orina of Kenya Marine, Fisheries and Research Institute for providing research facilities. Lastly all my 

research assistants and my colleagues for their support 

 

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