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FACTORS INFLUENCING MARITIME VOCATIONAL 
STUDENTS’ DIFFICULTIES IN TRANSLATING ENGLISH 

VOCABULARY: A CASE STUDY AT SMK PELAYARAN 
LINTAS NUSANTARA BARRU  

 
Syamsinar1*, Murni Mahmud2, Maemuna Muhayyang3 
1,2,3 Universitas Negeri Makassar, Makassar, Indonesia 

 
syamsinaralam07@gmail.com 

 

ABSTRACT 

The ability to translate vocabulary is an important component in English language learning, 

especially for vocational school students who are preparing for international professional fields 

such as maritime studies. However, many students still face obstacles in translating both general 

and technical vocabulary. The purpose of this study is to analyze the factors related to students' 

difficulties in translating vocabulary at SMK Pelayaran Lintas Nusantara Barru and to identify the 

dominant factors that influence these difficulties. This research methoduses a quantitative 

descriptive approach involving 60 students from grades X, XI, and XII at SMK Pelayaran Lintas 

Nusantara Barru, which was collected through questionnaires and semi-structured interviews, then 

analyzed statistically and using Pearson's correlation test. The results showed that students' 

difficulties in translating vocabulary were very high, with an average score of 3.67. Both internal 

and external factors showed a positive and significant correlation with students' translation 

difficulties, with language ability (r = 0.68) and learning strategies (r = 0.63) being the most 

dominant factors. Meanwhile, the learning environment showed the weakest relationship (r = 

0.38). The results of this study indicate that students' difficulties in translating English vocabulary 

are mainly caused by low language proficiency and the use of ineffective learning strategies. This 

study concludes that improving vocabulary translation skills requires a comprehensive approach 

that includes the use of context-based teaching methods, consistent use of teaching materials 

relevant to the maritime world, and active synergy between language teachers and experts in 

related fields. To broaden understanding of this issue, further research is recommended in other 

vocational fields to formulate more comprehensive pedagogical strategies. 

Keywords: Language Ability, Language Proficiency, Learning Strategies, Translation 
Difficulties, Vocabulary Translation 

INTRODUCTION 

Proficiency in English has become increasingly important in today's globalized world, 
especially in sectors that demand international communication, such as maritime, aviation, 
and trade. English functions as a lingua franca, bridging communication gaps across nations, 
industries, and cultures(Jenkins & Panero, 2024; Pitzl, 2021). In the maritime sectors, 
effective English communication is vital not only for operational effectiveness but also 

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crucial for maintaining safety and avoiding accidents at sea. According to the International 
Maritime Organization (IMO), more than 80% of maritime accidents are caused by 
communication failures, many of which result from inadequate English language proficiency 
among crew members This situation emphasizes the urgent need for future seafarers to 
master Maritime English, a specialized form of English that includes technical vocabulary, 
standardized phraseology, and context-specific communication(Baloch et al., 2022; Cole & 
Trenkner, 2011).  

In Indonesia, this need is especially relevant in vocational education, particularly at 
maritime vocational high schools (Sekolah Menengah Kejuruan, or SMK), which are expected 
to produce internationally competitive graduates. Although English has been integrated 
across all vocational levels of the national curriculum, the evidence indicates that students 
frequently struggle to translate both general and technical English vocabulary into Bahasa 
Indonesia. These translation challenges impede students’ ability to comprehend 
instructional materials, interpret technical documents, and participate effectively in 
multilingual maritime operations (Suryani & Putra, 2023; Utami, 2022). 

Several empirical studies have confirmed the persistence of language difficulties 
among Indonesian vocational students, especially those enrolled in maritime-related 
programs. According to Laufer’s (1997) Vocabulary Threshold Hypothesis, a minimum 
vocabulary size is necessary for students to understand academic or technical texts 
effectively. However, maritime students often lack familiarity with technical terms used in 
real-world contexts. Adnyani and Putra (2022) found that many students failed to accurately 
translate core maritime terms such as "rudder," "anchor," "lifeboat," and "starboard," often 
resorting to literal, word-for-word translation that led to semantic errors. This indicates not 
only a superficial level of comprehension but also limited higher-order lexical inferencing 
abilities(Nation, 2020). Such linguistic struggles can negatively affect students’ confidence, 
motivation to learn, and understanding of the content, potentially leading to academic 
disengagement. 

Moreover, Fitriani and Nuraini (2021) argue that the absence of practical vocabulary- 
learning strategies such as inferencing, morphemic analysis, and mnemonic techniques, 
combined with limited exposure to authentic Maritime English materials, significantly 
contributes to poor translation skills. Hidayat (2019) further highlights the roles of low 
motivation, inadequate use of multimedia resources, and weak instructional design in 
worsening students’ vocabulary acquisition. Although national education reforms have 
promoted the integration of digital and task-based learning models in vocational education 
(Wulandari & Fahcruddin, 2020), the implementation of these innovations remains 
inconsistent, particularly in geographically remote and under-resourced regions like South 
Sulawesi. 

While the number of studies focusing on English language learning in vocational 
settings is growing, research exploring the interaction between internal (e.g., vocabulary 
knowledge, learning motivation, and strategies) and external factors (e.g., teaching practices, 
learning environment, and instructional resources) in Maritime English translation remains 
limited. Most existing literature focuses on general English skills or reading comprehension, 
leaving theoretical and empirical gaps in the domain of English for Specific Purposes (ESP), 

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especially in technical translation relevant to the maritime context. For instance, Ariyanti 
and Sari (2020) explore the benefits of contextual vocabulary teaching in vocational schools 
but do not evaluate how students’ cognitive and affective factors influence translation 
outcomes. Similarly, Sari & Sari (2020) conducted a needs analysis for Maritime English but 
failed to explore how pedagogical techniques interact with students’ background knowledge 
to shape translation competence. 

From a theoretical standpoint, Cognitive Load Theory (Sweller, 1988) suggests that 
students encounter greater challenges when processing complex technical vocabulary in the 
absence of well-developed schemata or structured instructional scaffolding. Furthermore, 
The BICS-CALP distinction by Cummins (Cummins, 1979; Suryanto, 2021) emphasizes the 
complexity of acquiring academic and technical vocabulary. It revealed that although 
students may grasp conversational English with relative ease, they tend to struggle with 
specialized, field-specific vocabulary essential for technical tasks, particularly in disciplines 
such as maritime operations. According to schema theory, understanding and translating 
language specific to a particular field will be difficult to achieve if learners do not first access 
background knowledge relevant to the topic (Alharthi, 2020; Erten & Razi, 2019). 

In the local context, SMK Pelayaran Lintas Nusantara Barru, a vocational maritime 
school in South Sulawesi, is one such institution tasked with preparing professional 
seafarers. The school’s curriculum emphasizes Maritime English as a core component of 
students’ vocational competence. However, based on preliminary observations and informal 
interviews with English teachers at the school, many students continue to face significant 
difficulties in translating vocabulary, both general and maritime-specific. These issues 
impair their comprehension of course content and limit their ability to communicate 
effectively in English. The challenges are multifaceted and may stem from several sources, 
including limited vocabulary knowledge, low motivation, suboptimal learning strategies, and 
an unsupportive learning environment. In addition, linguistic differences between English 
and Bahasa Indonesia, especially in grammatical structures, may lead students to adopt 
literal translation practices, which often yield inaccurate and misleading results. 

This condition reveals that vocabulary translation is not merely a standalone linguistic 
skill, but a complex process influenced by both internal and external factors. Therefore, it is 
imperative to investigate the underlying causes of vocabulary translation difficulties among 
maritime vocational students. By focusing on this issue at SMK Pelayaran Lintas Nusantara 
Barru, this study aims to explore the contributing factors, ranging from learners’ intrinsic 
competencies to extrinsic pedagogical conditions, that affect vocabulary translation 
outcomes. 

Specifically, this study aims to answer the following research questions: (1) What 
internal and external factors are associated with students’ difficulty in translating 
vocabulary at SMK Pelayaran Lintas Nusantara Barru? and (2) Which of these factors most 
significantly influence students’ translation performance? By applying the descriptive 
quantitative method, this study offers an original perspective by systematically analyzing 
how various factors influence vocabulary translation difficulties, aiming to pinpoint the most 
dominant contributing element. The results of this study are expected to provide valuable 
insights for developing pedagogical interventions tailored to ESP learners in maritime 

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education, and ultimately to support the advancement of English instruction in vocational 
settings in line with international maritime communication standards. 

METHODS 

This study employs a quantitative descriptive method to examine how internal and 
external variables relate to the challenges students face in translating English vocabulary at 
SMK Pelayaran Lintas Nusantara Barru. The rationale for selecting this method lies in its 
ability to quantify relationships among variables in an objective and organized manner using 
statistical data (Yolifi et al., 2025). The descriptive framework aligns with the study’s 
intention to capture real-world student experiences through pre-established indicators, 
without applying experimental manipulation. The study took place at SMK Pelayaran Lintas 
Nusantara Barru, located in South Sulawesi, and was conducted over two months from 
August to September 2025. The target population comprised all students in grades X, XI, and 
XII who had completed at least 2 semesters of English lessons. A total of 60 participants were 
chosen through purposive sampling, proportionally representing each grade level. Data 
were gathered through structured questionnaires, classroom-based observations, and brief 
interviews with English teachers to enrich contextual insights. 

The survey instrument was constructed around seven main variables: linguistic 
competence (X1), students' learning motivation (X2), interest and learning strategies (X3), 
teaching practices (X4), the use of educational media (X5), the learning setting (X6), and 
vocabulary translation difficulties serving as the dependent variable (Y). To ensure the 
instrument's accuracy and consistency, Pearson's correlation coefficient and Cronbach's 
Alpha were used to assess validity and reliability. Analytical procedures involved computing 
descriptive statistics such as averages, standard deviations, and frequency distributions for 
each variable. Furthermore, Pearson's correlation was applied to assess the strength of the 
relationship between the variables, ranging from very weak to very strong. The significance 
of these relationships was evaluated using t-tests, and statistical analyses were conducted 
using SPSS. The analytical framework mirrors that of Arroyyani & Maryani (2025), who 
effectively examined the determinants of English learning obstacles among vocational high 
school students through a similar quantitative lens. 

In this study, the data were analyzed using descriptive and correlational analyses. The 
analysis process included the following steps: 

Descriptive Statistical Analysis 

This analysis aimed to describe the level of difficulty experienced by students and the 
average score for each factor studied. The average was obtained by dividing the total score 
by the number of respondents who participated. This process enabled researchers to 
summarize the general patterns of difficulty in translating vocabulary encountered by 
participants. 

 
 
 
 

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Pearson Correlation Analysis 

To assess how strongly and in what direction the independent variable (X) is related to 
the dependent variable (Y), which in this case is the level of difficulty in translating 
vocabulary, a correlation analysis was conducted. The resulting correlation coefficient was 
categorized based on a conventional interpretation scale, ranging from very weak to very 
strong. The t-test was used to verify the statistical significance of these relationships, 
confirming that the observed correlations were not solely due to random variation. 

RESULTS 

Descriptive Analysis  

Descriptive analysis was used to describe the level of difficulty students encountered 
when translating vocabulary, as well as the average scores of internal and external factors 
that influenced them. A 1-5 Likert-scale questionnaire was distributed to 60 students at SMK 
Pelayaran Lintas Nusantara Barru to collect data. 

Table 1. Average internal factor scores of students 

Internal Factors Mean (X̄) 
Standard 

Deviation ( SD ) 
Category 

English Language Ability 3.10 0.71 fair 
Learning Motivation 3.45 0.66 good 
Interest in English 3.25 0.69 fair 
Vocabulary Learning Strategy 2.95 0.64 poor 
Overall average 3.19 0.67 fair 

Based on Table 1 shows that students' challenges in translating vocabulary seem to be 
mainly caused by internal variables, with the lowest average score found in vocabulary 
learning strategies (M = 2.95, SD = 0.64), which places it in the “poor” category. Meanwhile, 
their English language proficiency (M = 3.10, SD = 0.71) and interest in the subject (M = 3.25, 
SD = 0.69) were rated as “fair.” Learning motivation, however, showed relatively better 
performance (M = 3.45, SD = 0.66), falling into the “good” category. When averaged overall, 
the internal factor score reached 3.19 (SD ≈ 0.67), indicating a moderate deficiency in basic 
skills and student engagement. 

Table 2. Average scores of external factors 

External Factors Mean (X̄) Standard Deviation ( SD ) Category 

Teaching Method 3.60 0.58 good 
Learning Media 3.45 0.60 good 
Learning Environment 3.50 0.62 good 
Rata-rata Keseluruhan 3.52 0.60 good 

Conversely, all external factors were rated as "good," with an overall average score of 
3.52 (SD ≈ 0.60). This suggests that the external conditions at SMK Pelayaran Lintas 

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Nusantara Barru already facilitate the English language learning process through methods, 
media, and the learning environment. 

 Regarding learning media (mean = 3.45, SD = 0.60), respondents reported that 
teachers were beginning to use digital and interactive visual media, such as instructional 
films, PowerPoint presentations, and maritime simulations, to clarify technical terms. These 
media were chosen to help students better understand the context of maritime language 
more concretely and engagingly. 

Meanwhile, the learning environment (mean = 3.50, SD = 0.62) had positive results. 
Students felt supported in their English practice by their peers and teacher, both in class and 
through extracurricular activities such as the English Club. The school environment, which 
began incorporating basic English communication (for example, the use of simple maritime 
terms in conversation), enhanced students’ confidence in translating and comprehending 
technical vocabulary. 

Table 3. Average scores of translation difficulty level 

Aspect of Difficulty Mean (X̄) Standard Deviation ( SD ) Category 

Word meaning errors 3.80 0.50 High 
Difficulty in understanding context 3.55 0.53 High 
Technical Terms Errors 3.65 0.57 High 
Overall Average 3.67 0.54 High 

According to Table 3, students' level of difficulty in translating vocabulary remained 
high (mean = 3.67, SD = 0.54). This implies that, despite the outstanding media and learning 
environment support, students still struggled due to restricted vocabulary and inadequate 
learning practices. The biggest problem related to understanding the meaning of words (M 
= 3.80, SD = 0.50), followed by difficulties with technical terms (M = 3.65, SD = 0.57) and 
difficulty in understanding context (M = 3.55, SD = 0.53). The average total score for 
translation difficulties was 3.67 (SD = 0.54), indicating that even in a supportive external 
learning environment, students still face significant linguistic barriers. These findings 
highlight the urgent need to improve students' internal capabilities, particularly in 
developing structured vocabulary acquisition strategies, which are currently the least 
developed but have a significant impact on their performance. 

Pearson Analysis Correlation 

The Pearson product-moment correlation test was used to assess the relationship 
between internal and external factors and the difficulty of translating terminology. 

Table 4. Pearson correlation test 

Factor Correlation Value (r) Strength Relationship Significance (p) 

Language Ability (X1) 0.68 Strong 0.001 
Learning Motivation (X2) 0.59 Moderate 0.004 
Learning Interest (X3) 0.42 Moderate 0.012 
Learning Strategy (X4) 0.63 Strong 0.002 

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Teaching Method (X5) 0.47 Moderate 0.009 
Learning Media (X6) 0.52 Moderate–Strong 0.006 
Learning Environment 
(X7) 

0.49 Moderate 0.008 

The correlation test results indicated a positive and significant association between all 
parameters and translation difficulties (p < 0.05). The strongest indicators remain language 
ability (r = 0.68) and learning strategies (r = 0.63), demonstrating that linguistic skills and 
learning approaches are the most important predictors of translation effectiveness. 
However, the influence of learning media (r = 0.52) and learning environment (r = 0.49) both 
fell into the moderate-strong category, indicating good advancement in external support 
aspects of the learning process. 

The t-test indicates that all independent factors have a significant effect on the 
dependent variable at a 95% confidence level (p < 0.05). Thus, the research hypothesis is 
accepted: there is a positive and significant relationship between internal and external 
factors and students' difficulty in translating English vocabulary. 

DISCUSSION 

The results of this study indicate that students' difficulties in translating English 

vocabulary at SMK Pelayaran Lintas Nusantara Barru are influenced by internal and external 

factors. The overall level of difficulty is high (mean = 3.67), particularly in word-meaning 

errors and context understanding. This indicates that translation skills depend not only on 

vocabulary acquisition but also on grammar and comprehension of context. Sweller (1988), 

through his Cognitive Load Theory, suggests that when learners lack an adequate cognitive 

framework or prior knowledge, they tend to feel overwhelmed when faced with complex 

vocabulary especially in specialized disciplines such as maritime education. 

Internal factors, particularly language ability (r = 0.68) and learning strategies (r = 

0.63), were found to have the most decisive influence. This could be due to the fundamental 

role that linguistic competence plays in allowing pupils to decode, infer, and restate meaning 

across languages. Students with lower language ability tended to translate literally, 

confirming Duff's (1989) argument that structural and lexical differences are the main 

obstacles in translation. This study also supports Nation's (2020) claim that the depth of 

word knowledge is just as important as the breadth of vocabulary in terms of translation 

competence.  In contrast to Fitriani and Nuraini's (2021) research, which emphasized the 

importance of strategic approaches, this study demonstrates that without a strong basis in 

language abilities, strategic efforts alone may fall short of providing effective translation 

outputs. Although affective elements such as Learning motivation (r = 0.59) and interest (r 

= 0.42) contributed positively to student performance, the moderate correlation between 

the two indicates that emotional engagement alone cannot compensate for deficiencies in 

core language skills. This aligns with Gardner's (1985) view that motivation is a key factor 

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in language acquisition. In addition, Learning strategies have been proven to play an 

important role in the translation process, in line with the findings of Adnyani and Putra 

(2022). However, this study offers a more in-depth perspective by highlighting that many 

students lack sufficient metacognitive awareness in choosing or applying these strategies 

effectively. Most of them have never been introduced to technical approaches such as 

semantic mapping or morpheme analysis, which can actually significantly improve 

vocabulary comprehension. 

On the external factors, although teaching methods, learning media, and learning 

environments each make significant contributions, their influence was secondary. Although 

the integration of digital resources and contextual teaching has proven to be beneficial, 

neither is sufficient to replace the absence of systematic and individualized language 

teaching. This supports Nuraini's  (2021) finding that a media-rich environment can increase 

student engagement, but is not sufficient to ensure vocabulary mastery without a focused 

pedagogical approach. Interestingly, the relatively limited effects of the learning 

environment observed in this study contradicted the conclusions of Hidayat (2019), which 

showed that even a conducive atmosphere can be ineffective if learners do not have adequate 

internal preparation. 

Overall, these findings confirm that internal cognitive readiness particularly in terms 

of language proficiency and strategic awareness plays the most crucial role in determining 

translation success. External support remains important, but it will only be effective if 

learners already have the basic ability to understand and apply the meaning of vocabulary 

in context. Therefore, future learning approaches need to focus more on strengthening basic 

language skills combined with interactive and context-based methods, in order to bridge the 

gap between vocabulary recognition and its application in technical translation tasks. 

CONCLUSION 

This study identified that students at SMK Pelayaran Lintas Nusantara Barru faced 

considerable challenges in translating English vocabulary, particularly in understanding 

word meanings, mastering contextual usage, and handling specialized maritime 

terminology. The data showed that internal factors, namely students' English language 

proficiency and their use of learning strategies, played the most decisive role in these 

difficulties. Although external aspects such as teachers' teaching methods and available 

media also contributed, their influence was more complementary. The significant and 

positive relationship between these internal and external factors and students' translation 

difficulties reinforced the need to prioritize the development of language skills and strategic 

competencies in vocational English teaching. 

From a theoretical perspective, this study supports existing models that consider 

language proficiency a basic requirement for technical translation. Furthermore, it highlights 

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the need for metacognitive engagement in vocabulary learning, emphasizing that awareness 

of one's own learning processes is crucial for success. Practically, this study emphasized the 

importance of implementing teaching approaches rooted in real-world applications, such as 

contextual learning, simulations, and project-based tasks. At a broader level, these findings 

urge systemic support through better access to learning infrastructure and professional 

development for teachers in implementing strategic and technology-based pedagogy. 

For teachers and curriculum designers, these results emphasize the importance of 

integrating responsive and differentiated language teaching in a vocational context. 

Teachers must be equipped to facilitate active learning through real-world tasks that reflect 

maritime communication scenarios, while curriculum designers must ensure that 

vocabulary teaching is aligned with the specific demands of the industry. 

 Additionally, ongoing training is necessary to enable teachers to integrate 

metacognitive techniques and develop relevant and engaging teaching materials. One 

limitation of this study is its narrow focus, restricted to a single vocational institution and 

reliant on a quantitative framework, which may not fully reflect the personal experiences 

and nuances encountered by students in translation tasks. 

Therefore, it is recommended that future research adopt a mixed method design and 

involve multiple schools to generate broader insights. Such studies could also investigate the 

impact of targeted teaching strategies on improving students' technical vocabulary mastery, 

providing a deeper understanding of effective approaches in vocational language education. 

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