Frontiers in Business, Economics and Management ISSN: 2766-824X | Vol. 8, No. 3, 2023 96 Factors Affecting Women’s Participation in Leadership Position: The Case of Yeka Sub City, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia Dagne Tigist Hailemariam1, a, Yong Yang1, b Management Science and Engineering School of Economics and Management Tianjin University of Technology and Education, Tianjin 300222, P.R.China atigisthenu@gmail.com, byangyong1080@126.com Abstract: International, continental, and national policies and laws recognize the equality rights of women and take affirmative measures to fill the participation gaps between women and men. However, the actual practice remains untouched so there many factors hinder them from participating in decision-making on various issues concerning their interests in particular and national level at large. Accordingly, this study investigated Factors affecting Women’s Participation in Leadership Positions: The Case of Yeka Sub City, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. The study applied a qualitative research approach to collect and analyze data from primary and secondary sources. Purposely selected government officials were interviewed; focus group discussions were conducted. Furthermore, various secondary sources of information were referred to. And data were analyzed qualitatively. The findings show that though there are efforts to design legal and policy frameworks like FDRE Constitution and National Women Policy, there are still many factors like attitudes that undermine women’s leadership participation, women’s withdrawal from leadership assignments due to fear of geographical mobility, and separation from, family and patriarchal culture are the major factors that hinder women from participation in decision-making levels. Therefore, the concerned organs should work to make calculated interventions as required and to bring about practical and attitudinal changes to respect the equality rights of women in participation at decision-making levels. Keywords: Decision making, Participation, Cabinet, Leadership, Affirmative action. 1. Introduction While women’s constitute half of the world’s population and have contributed significantly to the well-being of human being, especially, women in many developing African countries occupied few positions of power in political leadership sphere of social life (Birikti G/Michael, 2014). That is why the current women's movement on equality with regard to leadership position has built on fuller understanding of the limits of previous deprivation of women’s situation and trends that pave the way to set women’s decision-making as a core agenda. Being both broader and more specific in its demand for equal rights, the women's movement of the last century promoted unprecedented female participation at all levels of public life such as increasing women’s participation in leadership positions, incorporating women’s on policy issues, and like. The call for gender equality has contributed the issue to being included as specific agendas for judicial and legislative actions. At the Fourth World Conference on Women in Beijing in 1995, countries/ governments emphasized that, “Women’ s equal participation in political leadership and decision- making is not only a demand for justice or democracy, but can also be seen as a necessary condition for women’ s interests to be taken into account” (WCR report, 1995). However, despite the widespread movement towards democratization, in most countries, what is puzzling is that the women entering into political sphere is still slow as per June 2008 report, women occupy only 18% of parliamentary seats around the world. Especially, the higher levels in ministerial and other executive bodies, they have made little progress in attaining political power in legislative bodies. Globally, women now hold only 10 per cent of the members of legislative bodies, which shows women’s representation in political and leadership affairs are still at infant stage (UNDESA & UNECA, 2007). In third world nations for instance, women have always played five key roles –mothers, producers (whether household or farm), home managers, community organizers and social cultural activist (Meaza, 2009). Despite their large number and crucial functions, the division of power between the male and female sexes as prescribed by most cultures assigns the subordinate position to women. As a consequence, women have for long suffered various forms of discrimination, inequality, exclusion and violence in third world nations. Especially, in African nations women are regularly exposed to various forms of physical, psychological, sexual and emotional violence. Ethiopia is one of the countries to be ratified International Conventions on women's political empowerment, even prior to that of Beijing, but still there is a lot to do on the promotion of women political participation and other gender related activities (Demstachen, 2012). While women in Ethiopia have constitutional rights of participation in political affairs, their involvement is limited at all levels. For instance, according to a report of National Electoral Board of Ethiopia, there were only 38% women parliamentarians in the House of People's Representative (National Electoral Board of Ethiopia, 2015). Nevertheless, disregarding equal participation of women in decision making, it will be less likely to achieve social, economic, cultural and political goals of Ethiopia. The above mentioned statistical evidences also indicate that Ethiopia finds itself among the lowest countries in Africa where it comes to raising the level of women representation 97 in various sectors which include political leadership (EWLA, 2000). Furthermore, the researcher used to live in Yeka Sub City, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia and got the necessary experiences regarding the low participation of women in decision making positions. This has inspired the researcher to study on factors that affect women’s participation on leadership position by taking a case study area. 2. Statement of The Problem As stated above, the majority of women in Ethiopia hold low status in the society. They have been denied of equal access to education, training and employment opportunities and their involvement in policy formulation and decision- making processes has been limited. Nevertheless, in Ethiopia women constitute about 50% of the population and contribute a significant role to subsistence production (Sosena & Tsehai, 2008). However, they are subject to gender discrimination in every aspect of their life than any other women in any part of the world in political, economic, social, cultural and legal aspects. They do have less access to schooling and employment (Sewunet, 2001).Though women play a vital role in the community by taking care of social activities, they do not enjoy the fruits of their labor and suffer from political, economic, social and cultural discrimination. The aforementioned problem, in turn, directly and indirectly hampers women’s participation in leadership position. Knowledge about factors that contribute to the low participation of women in social, cultural, economic and political spheres can help to increase women’s participation in decision making. As a part of the country, Yeka Sub City might suffer from the same injustices. Nevertheless, no research has investigated factors that might affect women participation in leadership in Yeka Sub City. Hence, there is little knowledge regarding the contributing factors in the study area. 3. Objective of The Study The general objective of this study is to investigate and assess factors that affect women’s participation in leadership positions in Yeka Sub City. The specific objectives are to: Assess the status and proportion of women leaders as compared to men in Yeka Sub City, Find out the bases used to assign women in leadership position in Yeka Sub City. Identify factors that affect women’s participation in leadership in Yeka Sub City. 4. Literature Review There are several literatures on theories of leadership. Those theories were developed completely at different time and settings. As a result, there are diverse classifications of leadership theories and a few of summarized leadership theories are taking after ways; 4.1. Trait Theory The traits theory accepts that successful leaders appear common traits or characteristics that cause them to act in certain ways (Gill, 2006). Those characteristics are Integrity, maturity and vitality, commerce insight, individual’s intuition, authoritative intuition, interest, mental capacity and worldwide attitude, predominant judgment and voracious craving for achievement and come about, inspiration to develop and change over learning into hone. It talks around the inside qualities that an individual is born with. The theory accepts that leaders are born not made. In expansion to this, the traits theory can be seen as defective within the sense that not all leaders carry on or have the same or common traits to conclusively grant reason that leaders need to have those traits to become the leading leaders (Crainer, 1998). 4.2. Contingency Theories Contingency theories is the one through which the leader competence is decided by the interaction between the leader’s personal characteristics and perspectives of the circumstance. Contingency theories are based on the assumption that leadership fashion depends on the winning organization circumstance (Cheng and Chan, 2002). It was pointed in contingency theory that there no best way for leaders to lead but it depend on the circumstance (Fiedler, 2009). The specific circumstance will decide the sort of leadership style that can lead to the positive anticipated comes about. One leadership style may fit to specific circumstance but may not result to wanted come about within the other particular circumstance. It was assist pointed out that victory of leader and representatives depends upon a great number of components, counting the leader’s preferred driving style, the capabilities and behaviors of the subordinates and situational characteristics (Cheng and chan, 2002). 4.3. Situational Theory Situational leadership theory varies from trait and behavioral theories in stating that no single way of driving works in all circumstances. Or maybe, fitting behavior depends on the circumstances at a given time. Successful managers analyze the circumstance, distinguish the leadership style or behavior that will be most successful, and after that determine whether they can actualize the specified style (Wagan 2008). Hence, Situational theories propose that leaders select the most excellent course of activity based upon certain circumstance (Botha, 2000). Distinctive styles of leadership may be more fitting for certain types of decision-making. In this theory rather than utilizing fair one style, fruitful leaders ought to utilize the sort of leadership basing on the development of the individuals and subtle elements of work portrayal. 4.4. Behavioral Theory This theory proposes that great leaders are trained instead of being born (Bass and Avolio (1993). There are the set of programs which give the abilities which are accepted to confer the great aptitudes to shape the great leaders. According to this theory, trained leaders are better than born leaders thus contradicting to trait theory which suggests that born leaders are better than trained leaders. In addition to this, As Wagne (2008) pointed out, behavioral theories of leadership are based upon the conviction that incredible leaders are made, not on metal qualities or inner states. Intrigued within the behavior off leaders has been invigorated by orderly comparison off despotic and statistic authority styles. It has been watched that groups under these sorts of leadership perform in an unexpected way. 4.5. Transactional Theory The leadership theories, by the late 1970s and early 1980s, enacted to diverge from the particular points of view of the leader, leadership setting and the follower and toward practices that concentrated encourage on the business 98 between the followers and leaders. As Wagan (2008) demonstrates, this theory is based on the idea that leader’s work is to form structure that make it liberally clear what is expected of his/her followers and also the consequences for assembly or not assembly these desires. Value-based leadership works well in a supply and- request circumstance of much business, coupled with the impacts of more profound needs, but it may be inadequately when the request for a expertise exceeds the supply. Transactional authority behavior is utilized to one degree or another by most leaders. 4.6. Transformational Theory Transformational theories focus on the connections formed between leaders and followers. The transformational leaders raise the inspiration and profound quality of both the follower and the leader (Bass and Avolio, 1993).). It is considered that the transformational leaders engage in intuitive with followers based on common values, convictions and goals. This impacts the performance leading to the achievement of objective. As per Bass, transformational leader attempts to induce followers to reorder their needs by rising above self- interests and strive for higher arrange needs. Transformational leadership could be a course that changes and approach targets on convictions, values and states of mind that enlighten leaders practices and the capacity to lead change. 5. Conceptual Framework This study is guided by the conceptual framework of women’s empowerment and gender equality Longwe, (1991), which starts by recognizing that gender is a socially and culturally constructed attribute based on the roles that men and women play in their daily lives. These attributes, opportunities and relationships are inculcated through the process of socialization (Longwe, 1991). Consequently, it has become very difficult for women to hold/ participate in leadership and management positions in different institutions. As indicated in background of the study, due to the actual and attitudinal problems of women’s underestimation to hold leadership positions, sexual harassment, mistreating and enforcing women’s to work on hardship conditions and others are included under socio-cultural and political factors. That is why the main intent of this study is to investigate factors that facilitate and/or constrain women to participate in a leadership position by taking a case study on Yeka Sub City. Also, limitations in the implementation of policy measures on women empowerment, access to education, religious, cultural, attitudinal, social and political commitments, etc. are problems constrains women participation in leadership position. The figure below shows the basic facilitating and/or constraining factors of women’s leadership positions. This study will have a conceptual framework based on five variables that are presumed to influence the participation of women in decision making positions. These factors are assumed to be the major ones to affect the participation of women in decision-making. Hence, in the study it was conceptualized that the independent variables (economy, culture, politics, education, and social system) will influence the dependent variable: women participation in leadership position as indicated in Figure 1 below. Figure 1. Conceptual framework of the factors relating to women's participation in a leadership position 99 6. Research Methodology 6.1. Population and Sampling Design The study population will be the cabinet members, non- cabinet members, governmental health center leaders, governmental school directors, and Sub City-level process owners of various sectors in Yeka Sub City. Purposive sampling (also known as judgment, selective or subjective sampling) is a sampling technique in which researcher relies on his or her own judgment when choosing members of population to participate in the study (Saunders, M., Lewis, P. &Thorn hill, A, 2012). Therefore, this research employed purposive sampling because the relevant respondents were already known: leaders in government offices. The sample size was purposely determined to be 50 in order to make it more representative. Due to minimal number, all female leaders (41) were taken as respondents to fill the questionnaire. In fact, 9 male cabinet members were randomly selected using lottery method to fill questionnaire as cabinet members are decisive decision makers in assigning leaders at Sub City-level. Ten respondents were selected to participate in the interview session. Accordingly, 4 male cabinet members were randomly selected, and the only one female cabinet member was included for the interview. The remaining five interviewees were randomly selected from the female leaders using lottery method. As long as focus group discussion (FGD) is concerned, 7 purposively selected respondents were the participants. As there is only one female cabinet member, she will participate in the FGD. Three male cabinet members, one female cabinet leader, one female non-cabinet leader and two female Woreda level process owners were randomly selected to participate in the FGD in order to make the respondents more inclusive. 6.2. Data Collecton Technique The study employed both primary and secondary sources of data. Primary data: Primary data were collected using questionnaires, interviews,w, and FGD checklists. Interview guides were used to conduct in-depth interviews with respondents. Furthermore, the researcher conducted one focus group discussion to collect the necessary data. Secondary data: Secondary data were collected through document analysis. This was achieved through the review of women affair sector documents, publications, reports and researches on the subject. Furthermore, annual reports, strategic plans, national gender policy, Central Statistics Office and other relevant reports both published and unpublished were consulted, including the internet. 6.3. Method of Data Analysis Qualitative data like respondents’ views, attitudes, perceptions, and any qualitative responses were analyzed qualitatively. Accordingly, data collected through questionnaires, interviews, FGD, and the literature were analyzed, interpreted, and presented in relation to the research questions in narration, and responses from various participants were checked through triangulation. 7. Data Analysis To collect the data through a questionnaire, 50 sets of questionnaires were distributed in Yeka Sub-city and 50 questionnaires were returned back with completely filled, representing a 100 % response rate. In addition to questionnaires, interview and FGD was conducted with some selected political leader, and process owners. 7.1. Demographic Profile of Respondents Table 1. Demographic profile of respondents 1. Sex: Male (9) Female (41) 2. Age in years Below 25 (1) 25 – 30 (32) 31 – 40 (15) 40 – 45 (2) Above 45 (0) 3. Marital status Married (30) Single (20) Widowed (0) Separated (0) Divorced (0) 4. Educational background Grade 12 complete (0) Certificate (0) College Diploma (F=7) BA (F=33) Degree (M=3) Master and above (F=1)(M=6) As can be seen from Table 1, out of 50 respondents, 41, 9, 30, and 20 are females, males, married and single respectively. Regarding educational status, 7 respondents are female diploma holders out of which all are females. Thirty-six respondents are first-degree holders among which 33 (80.49%) are females. And 7 are master’s degree holders out of which only 1 is female. 7.2. Status of Women’s Participation In Leadership in Comparison with Men Table 2. Status of Women’s Participation in Leadership in Comparision with Men Leadership type Male Female Total Sub City Cabinet Members 18 (94.74%) 1 (5.26%) 19 (100%) Non-cabinet leaders (in Sub City Level) 28 (80%) 7 (20%) 35 (100%) Governmental Health Center Leaders 3 (100%) - 3 (100%) Governmental School Directors 34 (91.89%) 3 (8.11%) 37 (100%) Sub City Level Process Owners 196 (86.73%) 30 (13.27%) 226 (100%) Total 279 (87.19%) 41 (12.81%) 320 (100%) 100 As it can be seen from Table 2, out of 320 leaders, 279 (87.19%) are men while 41 (12.81%) are women. More specifically, 18 (94.74%) and 1 (5.26%) are men and women Sub City Cabinet Members respectively. Furthermore, 28 (80%) and 7 (20%) are men and women Non-cabinet leaders respectively. In fact, all (3) Governmental Health Center Leaders are men. Regarding, school leaders, 34 (91.89%) are male directors while only 3 (8.11%) are female directors. Finally, out of 226 Sub City Level Process Owners, 196 (86.73%) are men while only 30 (13.27%) are women. The status of women in leadership participation compared with men insignificant. Generally speaking, women constitute half of the total population which means half of the leaders are expected to be women. Nevertheless, as it can be seen from Table 2, out of 320 leaders in Yeka Sub City, only 41 (12.81%) are females. This implies that majority of decisions (87.19%) are made from the perspectives of men. That is women are excluded from decision making to the status of the remaining 37.19%. In other words, the low status of women’s participation in decision making disregards the inclusion of their interests in various aspects: social, economic, politics, education, family affairs and the likes. 7.3. Factors Affecting Women’s Participation in Leadership Positions There is number of factors that influence women’s participation in leader ship position. The following are factors that constrain woman participation in leadership position in public organization. Some of them are social culture, individual problems institutional factors are summarized in descriptive statics and one sample test. 7.4. Economic Factors Table 3. Responses on the Economic Factors that affect Women’s Participation in Leadership No Description S tr o n g ly D is a g re e D is a g re e N eu tr a l A gr ee S tr o n g ly a g re e 1 The existence of less number of women than men in leadership 1 (2%) 3(6%) - 21(42%) 25(50%) 2 The contribution economic status of women for their participation in leadership 5 (10%) 10 (20%) - 24 (48%) 11 (22%) 3 The existence of direct relationship between economic status of women and women’s participation in political institutions 2 (4%) 7 (14%) - 29 (58%) 12 (24%) 4 The existence of direct influences of economic status of women on their participation of leadership 4 (8%) 9 (18%) 4 (8%) 25 (50%) 8 (16%) 5 The existence of lesser economic status of women than men. 3 (6%) 6 (12%) 1 (2%) 27(54%) 13 (26%) 6 Women who are in leadership position are economically in a better condition that other women 10 (20%) 22 (44%) 1 (2%) 14(28%) 3 (6%) As it can be seen from Table 3, in response to the statement ‘the number of women in leader ship position is not equal to men in Yeka Sub City,’ 25(50%) respondents strongly agreed, 21 (42%) agreed, 3 (6%) disagreed, 1 (2%) strongly disagreed. According to this table, 11 (22%) respondents strongly agreed, 24 (48%) agreed, 10 (20%) disagreed, 5(10%) strongly disagreed to the contribution of economic status of women for their leadership participation. It also shows that 12(24%) respondents strongly agreed, 29(58%) agreed, 7 (14%) disagreed, 2(4%) strongly disagreed with the direct contribution of economic status of women for their political participation. Table 3 further depicts that 18 (16%) respondents strongly agreed, 25 (50%) agreed, 4 (8%) were uncertain, 9 (18%), disagreed, 4 (8%) strongly disagreed on the direct contribution of economic status of women for their participation in leadership position. Furthermore, 13 (26%) respondents strongly agreed, 27 (54%) agreed, 1 (2%) were uncertain, 6 (12%), disagreed, 3 (6%) strongly disagreed to the equality of economic status of women with men. Finally, Table 3 indicates that 3 (6%) respondents strongly agreed, 14 (28%) agreed, 1 (2%) were uncertain, 22 (44%), disagreed, 10 (20%) strongly disagreed with the existence of better economic condition of women leaders compared with those who are not leaders. The results of this research show that there are economic factors that are hurdles for women to participate in leadership 101 position. As it can be deduced from Table 4, majority of the respondents 46 (92%) disclosed that the number of women in leadership position is not as equal as men because the socio- economic status of women is not as equal as the economic status of men. This is the replica of Shimelis Kassa’s study (2015) which investigated that women had experienced lower economic status when they were compared with men. Out of 50 respondents, 35 (70%) disclosed that economic status of women has its contribution for women’s participation in leadership position. It seems this is the replica of study by Amanda M. Bullough (2008, 251).The results also indicate that women who are in leadership position are economically in a better condition than other women. However, respondents of the interview disclosed that this is what should have been, not what actually the practice is. Moreover, there is no conclusive evidence to prove the existence of direct relationship: cause and effect relationship. That is, this does not prove whether the difference materializes due to assignment on leadership position or assignment is made based on economic status. Though 41 (82%) respondents described that the economic status of women has a direct relationship with women’s participation in decision making, interview participants were not sure about such causal relationship. Indeed, 33 (66%) respondents disclosed that this has a direct influence on their political participation. This indicates economic status of women and their participation in decision making are related to some extent. This might be due to the interest of women who are economically in a better status to participate in decision making. This might also be due to high payment of decision makers compared with non-decision makers. 7.5. Psychological Factors Table 4. Responses on psychological factors that affect women’s participation in leadership No Description S tr o n g ly D is a g re e D is a g re e N eu tr a l A gr ee S tr o n g ly a g re e 1 Women’s withdrawal from leadership participation due to fear of geographical mobility 4 (8%) 7 (14%) 2 (4%) 27 (54%) 10 (20%) 2 Women’s withdrawal from leadership participation due to fear of separation from family. 4 (8%) 7 (14%) 1 (2%) 28 (56%) 10 (20%) 3 Good female leaders are less effective as mothers and wives. 25 (50%) 20 (40%) - 3 (6%) 2 (4%) 4 The difficulty of women leaders to convince people 32 (64%) 15 (30%) 1 (2%) 1 (2%) 1 (2%) 5 Less participation of women in leadership due to the inability to express their opinion freely in public 27 (54%) 20 (40%) - 2 (4%) 1 (2%) 6 The fear of women raising their voices and speak out in public for fear of victimization 8 (16%) 8 (16%) - 22 (44%) 12 (24%) 7 Lack of women’s confidence to participate in leadership 8 (16%) 6 (12%) - 23 (46%) 13 (26%) Table 4, indicates that 10 (20%) respondents strongly agreed, 27(54%) agreed, 2 (4%) were neutral, 7 (14%) disagreed and 4 (8%) strongly disagreed to the withdrawal of women from leadership participation due to fear of geographical mobility. In fact, it shows that 10 (20%) respondents strongly agreed, 28 (56%) agreed, 1 (2%) were neutral, 7 (14%) disagreed and 4 (8%) strongly disagreed to the withdrawal of women from leadership participation due to fear of separation from family. Furthermore, Table 5 implies that 2 (4%) respondents strongly agreed, 3 (6%) agreed, 20 (40%) disagreed and 25 (50%) strongly disagreed to the statement ‘Good female leaders are less effective as mother and wives.’ As it can be seen from Table 5, out of 50 respondents, 1 (2%) strongly agreed, 1 (2%) agreed, 1 (2%) were neutral, 15 (30%) disagreed and 32 (64%) strongly disagreed that it is hard for women leaders to convince people. Furthermore, from the same respondents, 1(2%) strongly agreed, 2 (4%) agreed, 20 (40%) disagreed and 27(54%) strongly disagreed about withdrawal of women from leadership participation due to fear of expressing their opinion freely in public. Indeed, Table 5 shows that 12 (24%) respondents strongly agreed, 22 (44%) agreed, 8 (16%) disagreed and 8 (16%) strongly disagreed that women fear to raise their voices and speak out in public for fear of victimization. Finally, 13 (26%) respondents strongly agreed, 23 (46%) agreed, 6 (12%) disagreed and 8 (16%) strongly disagreed that women’s lack of confidence is an obstacle of their leadership participation. The results of this study show that there are psychological factors that restrict women’s desire to become effective leaders. These factors cannot only come from external sphere but also from women themselves. As it can be seen from Table 4, 37 (74%) and 38 (76%) respondents believed that women had withdrawn from 102 participation in leadership position due to fear of geographical mobility and separation from family respectively. FGD participants also raised practical instances that assigned women had rejected owing to separation from their families. This is the replica of the study by Chabaya, Rembe & Wadesango (2009, 240). As it can be deduced from Table 4, 34 (68%) respondents believed that women fear to raise their voices and speak out in public for fear of victimization. As indicated by interview and FGD participants, women are expected to remain silent in public. Furthermore, 36 (72%) respondents revealed that women are not confident so that they do not dear to participate in leadership position. Majority of respondents 45 (90%) did not believe that effective female leaders are less effective as mother and wives. Furthermore, 47 (94%) respondents disclosed that women may not participate in leadership position because they are unable to express their opinion freely in public. Nevertheless, the respondents of the interview and FGD participants did not agree with this position. Accordingly, they revealed that it is a cultural ban by the society: women leaders cannot be good wives and mothers, and they are expected to be calm and reserved in public issues. Though 47 (94%) respondents did not agree, the interview and FGD participants revealed that it is hard for women leaders to convince people. There is a misconception that successful women leaders are not effective in family affairs: as mothers, as wives and as workers of household chores. Though respondents of the questionnaire did not believe in this understanding, they believed that women would be blamed if they departed from the belief of the community. Interview and FGD participants further disclosed that women leaders could not effectively serve two masters: leadership and family. They also described that the external world would challenge women’s efficiency. 7.6. Socio-Cultural Factors Table 5. Responses on socio-cultural factors that affect women’s participation in leadership No Description S tr o n g ly D is a g re e D is a g re e N eu tr a l A gr ee S tr o n g ly a g re e 1 Patriarchal culture as a barrier to hinder women’s participation in leadership 6 (12%) 5 (10%) - 26 (52%) 13 (26%) 2 Culture as a prohibition of women’s speech in public or going to a public place 3(6%) 10 (20%) - 26 (52%) 11 (22%) 3 Less participation of women in leadership due to their inability to express themselves 16 (32%) 23 (46%) 2 (4%) 8 (16%) 1 (2%) 4 Less participation of women in leadership due to their responsibilities in household chores 7 (14%) 10 (20%) - 27(54%) 6(12%) 5 Religion as a hurdle for women’s participation in leadership 7 (14%) 10 (20%) 4 (8%) 20 (40%) 9 (18%) 6 The existence of negative attitudes of workers toward women leaders 3 (6%) 7 (14%) - 26 (52%) 14 (28%) 7 Absence of good women leaders due to their inferiority to men 38 (76%) 10 (20%) - 1 (2%) 1 (2%) Table 5, shows that 13(26%) respondents strongly agreed, 26(52%) agreed, 5(10%) disagreed and 6(12%) strongly disagreed that patriarchal culture is a barrier that hinders women’s from leadership position. It also shows that 11(22%) respondents strongly agreed, 26(52%) agreed, 10(20%) disagreed and 3(6%) strongly disagreed that culture prohibits women from speaking in public or going to public place. Furthermore, out of 50 respondents, 1 (2%) strongly agreed, 8(16%) agreed, 2(4%) were neutral, 23 (46%) disagreed and 16(32%) strongly disagreed that women’s participation in leadership position is less because they are unable to express themselves. The same Table shows that 6 (12%) respondents strongly agreed, 27 (54%) agreed, 10 (20%) disagreed and 7 (14%) strongly disagreed that women’s participation in leadership position is less due to their responsibility in household chores. In fact, 9(18%) respondents strongly agreed, 20(40%) agreed, 4 (8%) were uncertain, 10 (20%) disagreed and 7(14%) strongly disagreed that religion does not motivate women to participate in leadership position. Also 14 (28%) respondents strongly agreed, 26 (52%) agreed, 7 (14%) disagreed and 3 (6%) strongly disagreed to the existence of negative attitude of workers towards women leaders. Last, from the same respondents, 1 (2%) strongly agreed, 1 (2%) agreed, 10 (20%) disagreed and 38 (76%) strongly disagreed to the statement that women cannot be good leaders because they are inferior to men. According to Endale Alemu (2011), patriarchal societies regard women inferior leaders. Interview and FGD participants also disclosed that Yeka Sub City society considers women as not effective leaders since they are inferior to men. This is because women are expected to become home managers (Roomi & Parrot, 2008), not human managers. As it can be seen from Table 6, 39 (78%) respondents disclosed that patriarchal culture is a barrier that 103 hinders women’s from participation of leadership position. In fact, FGD participants further described that majority of the leaders are men so that their decisions are in favor of themselves, not of women. This rimes with the study by (Calas & Smircich, 1990). Moreover, when women leaders are evaluated by a certain team, mistakes of women will be aggravated as compared to men. Furthermore, Table 5 shows that 37 (74%) respondents believe that culture prohibits women from speaking in public or going to a public place. This is contrary to what is expected from a leader who has to speak in public to convince followers (Mark, 2013).With regard to religious outlooks, respondents 29 (58%) described that religion does not motivate women to participate in leadership position. This leads to the conclusion that religion does not have a strong influence on women’s leadership participation in Yeka Sub City. As it can be seen from Table 5, many respondents 39 (78%) do not believe that women’s participation in leadership position is less due to their inability to express themselves. In this regard, Moore et al (2000) found that women were socially assumed to play subordinate roles in society. But 33 (66%) respondents disclosed that women’s participation in leadership is less due to their responsibility in household chores. A similar result was found by a study (Sosena & Tsehai, 200). Indeed, a study by Willis (1991) shows that African women are expected to take much time in doing household chores and family matters. Accordingly, women are expected to bear and nurture children, as well as manage the home. This contravenes with their effectiveness in leadership. According to Table 5, 40 (80%) respondents revealed that workers have negative attitude toward women leaders. This leads to the conclusion that such attitude does not motivate women to participate in leadership. This is the replica of studies by (Lodiaga & Mbevi, 1995) & Helgensen, 1990). Accordingly, negative attitude toward female decision makers comes from peers, parents, employees. Moreover, as interview and FGD participants disclosed such kind of attitude also comes from their husbands who are expected to stand by the side of their partners. According to Wills (1991), women are perceived to be good wives and mothers. This implies that they cannot be good leaders at the same time. This stems from the position that women are inferior to men (Schein 1989). According to Schein, this kind of sex role stereotyping is a curse to women and a blessing to men. In this regard, however, a big number, 48 (96%), of respondents of this study disagreed with the position that women cannot be good leaders because they inferior to men. This is as Alice H. Eagly & Steven J. Karau (2002, p.582) noted due to the common perception that women have less leadership ability. 7.7. Educational Factors Table 6. Responses on educational factors that affect women’s participation in leadership No Description S tr o n g ly D is a g re e D is a g re e N eu tr a l A gr ee S tr o n g ly a g re e 1 Assignment of persons on leadership position on the basis educational status 5 (10%) 18 (36%) 1 (2%) 20 (40%) 6 (12%) 2 Lack of education as a barrier to women’s participation in leadership 2 (4%) 16 (32%) - 30 (60%) 2 (4%) 3 Level of education as a barrier to women’s participation in leadership 4 (8%) 13 (26%) 2 (4%) 24 (48%) 7 (14%) 4 Inefficiency of women in leadership due to absence of education 12 (24%) 12 (24%) 1 (2%) 17 (34%) 8 (16%) 5 Better leadership participation of women whose parents are educated than others 1 (2%) 8 (16%) 2 (4%) 27 (54%) 12 (24%) 6 Educational background of women as a non-determinant factor on their participation in leadership 9 (18%) 27 (54%) 1 (2%) 10 (20%) 3 (6%) Table 6, indicates that 6 (12%) respondents strongly agreed, 20 (40%) agreed, 1 (2%) were uncertain, 18 (36%) disagreed and 5 (10%) strongly disagreed that assignment of persons on leadership position is made on the basis educational status. It further shows that 2(4%) respondents strongly agreed, 30(60%) agreed, 16(32%) disagreed and 2(4%) strongly disagreed that lack of education hinders women from participation in leadership position. Furthermore, 7(14%) respondents strongly agreed, 24(48%) agreed, 2 (4%) were neutral, 13 (26%) disagreed and 4(8%) strongly disagreed that women’s educational level hinders them from participation in leadership. Again, it shows that 8(16%) respondents strongly agreed, 17 (34%) agreed, 1 (2%) were neutral, 12(24%) disagreed and 12(24%) strongly disagreed that women are not effective leaders because they are not educated. Furthermore, 12(24%) respondents strongly agreed, 27(54%) agreed, 2(4%) were neutral, 8 (16%) disagreed and 1(2%) strongly disagreed that women whose parents are educated have better chance of participating in leadership position. Finally, 3(6%) respondents strongly agreed, 10(20%) agreed, 1 (2%) were neutral, 27(54%) disagreed and 9(18%) strongly disagreed that educational background of women cannot determine their participation in leadership. Needless to say that education plays an important role in 104 leadership issues. Still recently, lack of access to education is one of the hurdles that prevent women from assuming higher positions (Renuka Choudhary, 2018). With regard to the effects of personal education, the results of this study revealed that various educational issues affect women’s participation in leadership. As confirmed by 26 (52%) respondents, assignment on leadership position is made on the basis educational status. This is bad news to women as their educational status is lower than men leaders in Yeka Sub City (Table 2). Furthermore, according to Table 6, 32 (64%) respondents disclosed that lack and level of women education hinders women from participation in leadership. This is the replica of the study by Chabaya, Rembe & Wadesango (2009, 236). In fact, 31 (62%) respondents disclosed that the level of education hinders women from participation in leadership position. Only 13 (26%) respondents believed that educational background of women cannot determine their participation in leadership. The fact that assignment of person on leadership in made on the basis of educational background is self-explanatory that women can be disregarded. As it can be seen from Table 1, seven respondents are diploma holders of which all are females; thirty-six respondents are first degree holders among which 33 (80.49%) are females; and seven are master degree holders out of which only one is female. Taking the total respondents into account (41 females and 9 males), the results show that education favors males, and the effect is sever from lower professions to higher professions. That is 100% (7) of diploma holders are females and 14.28% (1) master’s degree holder in female. Though the actual justification is uncovered, parental education also seems to affect participation in leadership. This is because out of 50 respondents, 39 (78%) disclosed that women whose parents are educated have better chance of participating in leadership positions. But this should have been an irrelevant factor as the educational status of parents has nothing to do with the effectiveness of women as leaders. 7.8. Political Factors As it can be seen from Table 7, 13(26%) respondents strongly agreed, 22(44%) agreed, 8(16%) disagreed and 7(14%) strongly disagreed that women’s participation in political activities is lower than men’s participation. Table 8 further shows that 5(10%) respondents strongly agreed, 30 (60%) agreed, 2 (4%) were uncertain, 10(20%) disagreed and 3(6%) strongly disagreed that assignment on leadership position is made on the basis political participation. Indeed, out of 50 respondents, 1(2%) strongly agreed, 15(30%) agreed, 1(2%) was neutral, 17 (34%) disagreed and 16(32%) strongly disagreed that the number of women leaders is lower than men as they are less active in political activities. Furthermore, 2(4%) respondents strongly agreed, 13(26%) agreed, 2(4%) were neutral, 20(40%) disagreed and 13(26%) strongly disagreed that affirmative action is used to promote women. The same table shows that 13(26%) respondents strongly agreed, 17 (34%) agreed, 2 (4%) were neutral, 12 (24%) disagreed and 6(12%) strongly disagreed that women’s participation in leadership is less due to gender discrimination during promotion. Last, 12(32%) respondents strongly agreed, 27(54%) agreed, 5(10%) disagreed and 2(4%) strongly disagreed that lack of women role models in top political leadership influences new comers. Table 7. Responses on political factors that affect women’s participation in leadership No Description S tr o n g ly D is a g re e D is a g re e N eu tr a l A gr ee S tr o n g ly a g re e 1 The lesser leadership participation of women in political activities than men 7 (14%) 8 (16%) - 22 (44%) 13 (26%) 2 Assignment of persons on leadership on the basis political participation 3 (6%) 10 (20%) 2 (4%) 30 (60) 5 (10%) 3 Women’s passive political participation as a reducing factor of the number of women than men in leadership 16 (32%) 17 (34%) 1 (2%) 15 (30%) 1 (2%) 4 Existence of affirmative action to promote women 13 (26%) 20 (40%) 2 (4%) 13 (26%) 2 (4%) 5 Less participation of women in leadership due to gender discrimination in promoting to leadership 6 (12%) 12 (24%) 2 (4%) 17 (34%) 13 (26%) 6 Lack of women role model in top political leadership as a pushing factor for new comers 2 (4%) 5 (10%) - 27 (54%) 16 (32%) In Yeka Sub City, there are various political factors or practices that hinder women from participation in leadership. These include both internal (women themselves) and external (community members) political factors. On the one hand, out of 50 respondents, 45 (90%) respondents disclosed that women’s participation in political activities is lower than men’s participation. A study by Walters & Gwen, (1994) also found a similar pattern. On the other hand, 35 (70%) respondents confirmed that assignment on leadership position is made on the basis of political 105 participation. This screening mechanism disregards the non- participating section of the community: women. Furthermore, interview and FGD participants revealed that political leaders are mostly appointed or selected through voting and vetting by committee members with the domination of males. Accordingly, males are given the opportunity to determine the fate of women. Then, it is less likely to expect men to put themselves in the footings of women. Only 16 (32%) respondents described that the number of women in the leadership positions is lower than men because women are less active in political activities. Though this contradicts with women’s minimal political participation, the findings revealed that political leadership in Yeka Sub City is vested in the males. This was evident when 30 (60%) of the respondents opined that “women’s participation in a leadership position is less because there is gender discrimination regarding promotion in the leadership position.” In this regard, Tripp (2003), found that in 1996 Ugandan politically active women were intimidated, harassed and threatened to withdraw from their participation in election campaign. Moreover, interview and FGD participants disclosed that performance appraisals of leaders favor men as they are made by men domination due to minimal number of female leaders. Needless to say, women will be automatically out of political games if their participation is insignificant due to physical absence in decision making circumstances. In this regard, FGD participants revealed that there are fewer women leaders than men leaders. Though FDRE Constitution provides affirmative action to enable women to compete with men, only 15 (30%) respondents confirmed that affirmative action is used to bring women for leadership position. This, in turn, contributes to the failures of narrowing participation gaps between women and men. In fact, 43 (86%) respondents disclosed that lack of role model women in top political leadership position influences new comers. Interview and FGD participants also pointed out that when model omen appeared, they would be intentionally hammered by their higher leaders and peers. This is an additional hurdle that challenges women when they struggle for political leadership positions. 8. Summary of Finding The purpose of this research was to investigate factors that affect women from participation in leadership positions, especially in Yeka Sub City, Addis Ababa. According to FDRE Constitution (Article 35), “The historical legacy of inequality and discrimination suffered by women in Ethiopia taken into account, women, in order to remedy this legacy, are entitled to affirmative measures. The purpose of such measures shall be to provide special attention to women so as to enable them to compete and participate in political, social, and economic life.” In this regard, the key findings of this study are summarized below. 1) The level of women’s participation in leadership compared with men is very lower. That is, out of 320 Yeka Sub City, only 41 (12.81%) are women. 2) The number of women leaders is lesser than the number of men leaders due to the low economic status of the former. Furthermore, the results show that the economic status of women has a relationship with and influences women’s participation in decision-making. That is, women who participate in leadership are in a better economic position than women who do not participate in leadership. Nevertheless, there is no conclusive evidence that proves the existence of a direct and strong relationship between the two: a causal relationship. 3) The results of this study show that women withdraw from participation in leadership positions due to fear of geographical mobility and separation from family. Furthermore, women fear to raise their voices and speak out in public for fear of victimization. Indeed, they do not actively participate in a leadership position; they are unable to express their opinion freely in public due to the common perception that women lack ability in leadership; and they are culturally expected to be calm and reserved in public issues. The community of Yeka Sub City considers women to be effective house managers, not human managers. The results of this study also show that women would be blamed if they departed from the belief of the community. 4) The socio-cultural, traditional, and religious values consider women as housemasters, not human leaders. Therefore, they do not motivate them to aspire or show their efforts of leadership outside the home. They are pushing, not pulling factors for women’s participation in leadership. 5) On the one hand, there are more educated men than women. On the other hand, the assignment of individuals to leadership positions is made based on the educational status of candidates. Furthermore, the educational status of parents affects women’s participation in leadership. Accordingly, education has its own effect on bringing women to a leadership positions. 6) On the one hand, the political participation of women is minimal; on the other hand, the assignment of leadership is made based on such participation. Furthermore, practical affirmative measures are not taken to motivate women. In other words, political practices hinder women from participating in leadership positions. 9. Conclusions Based on the major findings of this study, the following conclusion can be drawn: 1) The status of women’s participation is compared with men in lower (12.81%) as 37.19% of women decision-makers are excluded and replaced by men. 2) The results of this research show that there is a certain relationship between the economic status of women and their participation in leadership in Yeka Sub City. However, it needs further research to find out the cause-and-effect relationship between the two. 3) While the fear of geographical mobility and separation from family, fear of raising women’s voices, fear of speaking out in public due to victimization, and inability to express their opinion freely in public are internal psychological factors, the cultural expectation to be calm and reserved in public issues, home managers rather than human managers are external factors that push women from participation in decision-making positions. 4) The socio-cultural, traditional, and religious values do not motivate women to aspire or show their efforts of leadership outside the home. These values are pushing, not pulling factors of women’s participation in leadership. Furthermore, harmful traditional practices like ‘If you empower a woman economically and politically, you are empowering her to be disobedient to her husband, parents, and the culture and women are considered weak, untrustworthy and incompetent to making important decisions’ are responsible for dismal participation of women 106 in leadership. 5) On the one hand, education status is considered to assign decision makers. On the other hand, the educational level of both women and their parents affects women’s participation in leadership. Hence, education becomes a pushing factor for the participation of women in decision-making. 6) Political situation in Yeka Sub City is not conducive for women to participate in leadership due to the pushing factors of women’s participation in decision-making circumstances. That is, as women are less likely to participate while political decisions are made, their interests will be less represented. 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