Frontiers in Education Technology 
Vol. 3, No.4, 2020 

www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fet 
ISSN 2576-1846 (Print) ISSN 2576-1854 (Online) 

Original Paper 

Investigating the Critical Reading Skills for Saudi EFL Learners 

through Graphic Organizers Instructional Program 
Majed Barashid1 

1 Technical College of Al-Jouf, Al- Jouf, Saudi Arabia 

 

Received: September 25, 2020   Accepted: October 9, 2020    Online Published: October 16, 2020 

doi:10.22158/fet.v3n4p30         URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.22158/fet.v3n4p30 

 

Abstract  

This study investigated the potential effect of a graphic organizers-based instructional program on 

Saudi EFL students’ critical reading skills. To this end, the researcher followed a quasi-experimental 

design. The sample of the study included 43 freshmen Saudi male students attending the Technology 

College of Al-Jouf. To carry out this study, the sample was divided into two groups. The first group, 

which consisted of 21 students, were assigned as the experimental group, while the second group, 

which consisted of 22 students, were assigned as the control group. The experimental group received 

treatment through a graphic organizers-based instructional program (i.e., Venn diagram, KWL chart, 

fishbone, concept mapping, and circle map) for eight weeks, whereas the control was taught using the 

more conventional method (i.e., using the teacher’s book). To collect the data, the researcher used a 

validated tool, viz. a pre- and post-tests which evaluate critical reading skills. The findings showed that 

the graphic organizers’ strategies contributed significantly towards the development of students’ 

critical reading skills. Based on these findings, the researchers recommended that EFL teachers should 

take graphic organizers into consideration when teaching reading skills. Further empirical studies on 

the effects that graphic organizers have on the critical reading skills of other levels of student in other 

regions of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia are advised.  

Keywords 

EFL students, graphic organizers, critical reading skills 

 

1. Introduction  

Reading has always been viewed as vital to academic success. Thus, teachers need to attend more to it 

in the language classroom. If taught properly, readers will be able to figure out the nuances of a reading 

passage and construct its meanings based on existing resources, in addition to their background 

knowledge (Hudson, 2007). During the reading process, readers constantly interact actively with 

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written passages, yet promoting the transfer of these written symbols into meaning(s) in the brain may 

be contingent upon effective instruction. An increase in knowledge, on the other hand, also necessitates 

a form of instruction which promotes students’ higher-order thinking skills in a professional manner 

(Bernhardt, 1991; Carrell, 1991; Urquhart & Weir, 1998; Grabe & Stoller, 2002). 

Therefore, reading is more than mere decoding; it involves maximizing students’ cognitive potentials. 

These include the skills of differentiation, anticipation, word knowledge, fluency, literal comprehension, 

critical insights, and flexibility (e.g., Baker, 1985; Grabe, 1991; Ross, 2003). This is why there is no 

one formal definition of reading since it depends on a variety of different meanings, as well as upon the 

context or setting in which it occurs (Smith, 2004). Additionally, sometimes reading skills are more of 

a puzzle due to their involving unfamiliar concepts from both the first and target languages (Shohamy, 

1984).  

Researchers (e.g., Smith, 1991; Fairbairn & Winch, 1996; Hudson, 2007) have highlighted that critical 

reading is one of the most important elements of reading comprehension. Through the critical reading 

process, readers do not only deal with the general ideas of the text but also go beyond it. At that level, 

the reader is capable of judging the author’s ideas, their writing ability and the quality of the language 

used based on both external and internal factors (Garp & Brewer, 1991). In this regard, Abd Kadir, 

Subki, Jamal, and Ismail (2014) have affirmed that readers should fully understand texts in order to be 

able to analyze, synthesize, and evaluate what is read. 

Graphic Organizers (henceforth GOs) are visual representations of knowledge that structure 

information by arranging important aspects of a topic into patterns using labels (Bromley, Devitis, & 

Modlo, 1995). They are also known as “visual illustrations of verbal statements” (Jones, Pierce, & 

Hunter, 1988, p. 20). Hence, using GOs as a tool for improving reading skills would help visual 

learners to enhance their learning process (Sam & Rajan, 2013). Holden (2004) stated that EFL learners 

will be more strategic readers by using GOs during their learning process because it helps them to 

create more organized patterns of thought. In this way, GOs allow readers to discover the world and 

equip them educationally, culturally, and emotionally.  

Explicitly, GOs have many functions which can help EFL learners, despite their ages or levels of 

reading comprehension. They can be used to clarify and organize information into categories, such as 

main idea, supporting details, topic sentence, cause and effect, etc. Moreover, they can assist learners to 

organize the required information in a paragraph for better comprehension. In addition, they can be 

used to construct the meaning of difficult words and sentences by dividing them into fragments. 

Furthermore, they facilitate learners to activate their prior knowledge through reading the text. Finally, 

they can aid learners to identify conceptual and perceptual errors that may occur in the reading 

passages (Sam & Rajan, 2013). 

EFL teachers employ GO strategies in the language classroom for a number of reasons. First, once EFL 

learners find out what the most important thing is to know about in a text, they will be more likely to 

understand and remember the content. Second, using GOs helps students decrease the semantic process 
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through reading. As a result, teachers can present the information in more organized ways to maximize 

the students’ comprehension. Finally, EFL learners will be more strategic readers due to the pattern of 

thinking they develop whilst using GOs throughout the reading process (Ellis, 2004). 

Consequently, GOs in the language classroom can help learners to develop their achievement in 

reading comprehension skills, as well as to advance their critical and thinking skills so that they may 

understand and construct meaning from a passage by dividing it into smaller, more understandable 

sentences (Sam & Rajan, 2013). They can also serve as a visual representation of ideas and thoughts so 

as to better help learners to apply their thinking skills in an organized manner (Miller, 2011). 

Additionally, GOs are classified according to their forms and representations, whether they be 

hierarchical or cyclical in structure); for example, semantic map, structure overview, web concept map, 

semantic organizer, story map, etc. GOs are organized into eight types based on the purpose of learning; 

e.g., What I Know, What I Want to Know, and What I Learned chart (KWL chart), history frames, 

word map, zooming in and zooming out-concepts, zooming in and zooming out-people, inquiry, Venn 

diagram and column notes (Ciascai, 2009). 

GOs have been commonly used in order to develop EFL readers’ comprehension skills and attitudes 

towards implementing these strategies by means of teaching reading skills. EFL teachers should follow 

systematic procedures to maximize the effectiveness of GOs in the language classroom. To illustrate 

that, several systematic steps have been suggested by Fly, Jean, and Hunter (1988). First, teachers 

should present a graphic outline. Then, they should show students how to construct the same outline. 

Afterwards, they should provide procedural knowledge. Finally, teachers should train the learners and 

allow them to practice these GOs independently by allowing them to create their own GOs by 

providing feedback about the vital part of the procedure.  

As a result, it seems that it is the responsibility of EFL teachers to train their students to develop their 

critical reading skills using new strategies. As a researcher, EFL teachers focus on improving reading 

comprehension by paying just a little amount of attention to the significance of training their students 

how to read critically. Based on literature (e.g., Lott, 1983; Robinson & Kiewra, 1995; Robinson, 1997; 

Alagözlü, 2011), graphic organizers have gained researchers’ attentions as being one of the most 

effective teaching tools that teachers utilize to develop their students’ learning abilities, especially their 

EFL/ESL reading skill.  

Recently, a number of researchers (e.g., Alshumaimeri, 2011; Nezami, 2012; Al Nooh & McPherson, 

2013; Almaahi, 2015; Al-Qhtani, 2016) have noticed that most Saudi EFL teachers do not utilize 

appropriate strategies in teaching reading skills. In addition to that, it has been noticed that Saudi EFL 

learners are incompetent when it comes to asking or generating questions related to written texts. 

Hopefully, using GO strategies would significantly contribute to the enhancement of Saudi EFL 

learners’ critical reading skills given that it was applied appropriately in the students’ language 

classroom, i.e., by providing them with practical programs which encourages them to participate 

effectively in such activities.  
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1.1 Statement of the Problem 

Throughout the researchers’ teaching experience in different Saudi schools, it has been brought to his 

attention that Saudi EFL learners have a considerable difficulty understanding and critically analyzing 

written texts. Such a nation- wide problem has been caused by Saudi teachers’ utilization of traditional 

methods in teaching English, such as using the Audio Lingual and Grammar Translation Methods 

(AlSeghayer, 2011).  

By following the views of Bromley, Devitis, and Modlo (1995), Hall and Strangman, (2002), and 

Almaahi (2015), the researchers have discovered beyond a reasonable doubt that GO strategies (i.e., 

KWL chart, concept mapping, Venn diagram, fishbone strategy, and circle map) can yield positive 

results in regard to learners’ critical reading skills if properly applied across a range of curriculum 

subject areas.  

1.2 The Purpose of the Study 

This study aimed at investigating the effect of GOs based on an instructional program focused on the 

critical reading skills of male EFL freshmen students at Al-Jouf College of Technology.  

1.3 Question of the Study 

This study aimed to answer the following question: 

Are there any statistically significant differences (at  = 0.05) on students’ critical reading skills 

which can be attributed to the teaching method (viz. Graphic Organizers vs. Conventional) which is 

implemented in the classroom?  

1.4 Significance of the Study  

This study tended to be significant seeing as it demonstrated the advantages of GO strategies in 

advancing participant students’ critical reading skills. The researcher hopes that, if these strategies 

prove their usefulness, then they can consequently be adopted by teachers in teaching reading skills so 

that students can attain better performance with relation to their reading skills. Furthermore, seeing as 

research I the Saudi context seems lacking, this study is significant as it fills that gap. 

This study is significant as it introduces teachers and curriculum designers to a step-by-step 

instructional program which includes a variety of reading activities. Of course, these activities are 

intended to be meaningful in that they should help students become inspired to read independently and 

critically at this stage. Thereby, students will be encouraged to be more positive and active during the 

learning process. The findings obtained in this study will lead to some pedagogical implications which 

are beneficial for teachers and learners. Different stakeholders in the field of EFL, such as curriculum 

and material developers, course and syllabus designers, learners, teachers and teacher trainers can gain 

positive advantages from the attained outcomes.  

1.5 Definition of Terms 

In the present study, the terms below have the following meanings: 

Instructional Program: contains several activities and techniques which are designed by the 

researcher with graphic organizer strategies in mind for the purpose of effectively improving students’ 
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critical reading skills. This program includes the Venn diagram, circle map, KWL chart, concept 

mapping, and fishbone diagram strategies. This instruction program will target the groups to be treated. 

It will account for the main components of the training program (theoretical orientation, objectives, 

rationale, type, population, content of the program, and assessment).  

Graphic organizers: are defined as “visual illustrations of verbal statements” (Jones, Pierce, & Hunter, 

1988, p. 20). In this study, GOs are used as part of a teaching strategy which incorporates the Venn 

diagram, multiple timeline, KWL chart, concept mapping, and fishbone diagram strategies in order to 

better develop students’ critical reading sub-skills.  

Concept mapping: is defined as “a graphical tool for organizing and representing knowledge” 

(Coutinho, 2014, p. 111). In this study, concept mapping is used as a teaching strategy which begins 

with a main idea and then expands outward to more in-depth sub-ideas.  

Venn diagram: is defined as “a graphic organizer that provides a visual comparison of similarities and 

differences between subjects” (Mcknight, 2010, p. 12). In this study, the Venn diagram is used as a 

strategy to help students compare and contrast between the topics, information, or ideas of a reading 

passage. 

Fishbone diagram: is defined as “a graphic organizer to analyze an event, object or issue by utilizing 

web diagram” (Kruse, 2010, p. 40). In this study, the fishbone diagram is used as a web-diagram for the 

purpose of developing students’ skills of identifying the possible causes of an effect or a problem.  

KWL chart: is defined as “a graphic organizer [which] can be used to help students understand [the] 

questions of what they know (K), what they want to know (W), how they will learn (H), and what they 

have learned (L) in relation to a specific topic” (Hong Kung Curriculum Development Institute, 2001, p. 

55). In this study, the KWL chart is used as a reading strategy for activating students’ background 

knowledge and developing the students’ interaction with the reading passages in terms of three 

columns:  what we know, what we want to know, and what we learned.  

Overlapping circle map: is defined as “a graphic organizer which can be used to help students 

develop skill in comparing and contrasting similarities and differences and it may consist of two or 

more circles” (Hong Kung Curriculum Development Institute, 2001, p. 74). In this study, the 

overlapping circle map is used as a reading strategy for the purpose of developing students’ skill of 

providing several synonyms and antonyms for the chosen words from the text and generating as many 

ideas as possible.  

Critical reading: is “the ability to make judgments and inferences, distinguish between fact and 

opinion, and recognize the author’s purpose or point of view” (Darch & Kameenui, 1987, p. 82). In the 

present study, the skill of critical reading refers to its four sub-skills, i.e., the ability to differentiate 

between fact and opinion (e.g., the student is asked to differentiate  sentences or phrases that show 

facts or opinions), to use references (e.g., the student is asked to choose the correct answer based on the 

type of sentence), to anticipate (e.g., the student is asked to read the topic of the text and decide what 

the topic will be about), and to show word knowledge (e.g., the student is asked to choose the correct 
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word based on the semantic level of the sentence). The students’ abilities with regards the skill of 

critical reading will be measured by means of a critical reading test which has been designed for that 

purpose. 

1.6 Limitations of the Study 

1) This study was carried out during one semester; a longer duration may have different results.  

2) This study was limited to the freshmen students of the Al-Jouf College of Technology in the 

Al-Jouf region of northern Saudi Arabia; thus, the results can be generalizable in similar 

educational settings.  

3) The participants in this study included only male students. A study which targets both male 

and female students may present more readily generalizable results.  

4) The experimental group was taught by the researcher himself, while the controlled group was 

taught by another EFL teacher.  

 

2. Related Literature  

2.1 Theoretical Research  

2.1.1 Critical Reading  

Various definitions of critical reading have been given by many researchers. For example, Darch and 

Kameenui (1987, p. 82) defined the skill of critical reading as “the ability to make judgment and 

inferences, distinguish between facts and opinions, and recognize the author’s purpose or point of 

view.” Carr (1988, p. 70), on the other hand, stated that critical reading is the skill of “learning to 

evaluate, draw inferences, and arrive at conclusions based on evidence.” Moreover, Freeley and 

Steinberg (2000, p. 2) determined that the critical reading skill as “the ability to analyze, criticize, and 

advocate ideas.”  

Critical reading is also an interactive process which allows the reader to use multiple levels of thinking 

simultaneously. Through analysis, it is expected that the reader can explain the information by 

highlighting key components of the text. The reader can also combine relevant parts to produce a 

coherent picture. Furthermore, it enables the reader to evaluate the written text by establishing 

standards and judging ideas to verify their rationality (Flynn, 1989). Abd Kadir, Subki, Jamal, and 

Ismail (2014) have also determined that the critical reading skill should be taught in order to better 

develop learners’ critical thinking skills.  

Based on the critical reading skill process, various critical skills were classified by many researchers. 

The main critical reading skills were determined to be higher-order thinking skills, i.e., analyzing, 

synthesizing and evaluation (Flynn, 1989). Whereas, Abdullah (1998) classified the critical reading 

sub-skills, from simplest to most difficult, as follows: identifying similarities and differences, 

evaluating inductive inferences, distinguishing between facts and opinions, evaluating generalization 

and strengths of arguments, identifying biased statements, author’s motive, and, finally, recognizing 

hidden assumptions. 
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There are many different types of text that critical reading skills can be applied to based on the type of 

the text, such as political essays, literature, advertisement brochures, or philosophical treatises. 

Wardeberg (1967) identified two main elements of critical reading. The first one is the habits of 

judging, valuing, categorizing, discriminating, and the awareness of the uniqueness of communicating, 

not only through printed texts, but also by means of other forms of media; for instance, television, 

conversation, or observation. The other element refers to giving the reader more options, judgments, 

and decisions regarding the written text during the process of reading.  

There are a number of benefits to reading a text critically. These advantages enable the critical reader to 

distinguish between facts and opinions, to read between the lines or look for a deeper meaning, to 

evaluate a written text, to analyze a text, to criticize, to compare different sources, to reflect, to review, 

to be flexible, and to think critically and objectively (Kottmeyer, 1944; Schnell, 1978; Taylor, 1983; 

Hudson, 2007; Abd Kadir, Subki, Jamal, & Ismail, 2014). 

2.2 Graphic Organizers 

GOs were originally known as advanced organizers and structured overviews in the past (Ausubel, 

1960). The roots of GOs were based on Ausubel’s cognitive theory of meaningful verbal learning. He 

claimed that students’ learning and retention of meaningful materials are enhanced with the help of 

advanced organizers. By means of advanced organizers, students would have the opportunity to 

activate their prior knowledge and to relate that knowledge to new knowledge in a more fashionable 

and meaningful way. Since then, Ausubel’s advanced organizers have gained the attention of 

researchers for the ultimate purpose of better developing students’ conceptual organization during the 

pre-reading process (Barron, 1969; Estes, Mills, & Barron, 1969).  

Besides Ausubel’s cognitive theory of meaningful learning, Anderson and Pearson (1984) claimed that 

the human mind consists of cognitive structures of knowledge. This knowledge is known as 

background knowledge (schemata). Schemata Theory entails that, when learners encounter a new piece 

of information, they try to accept and comprehend it in order to boost the learning process and the 

retention of that information. They also asserted that the learner must find a “mental home” for the new 

information given to them by a written text, seeing as learners can modify their existing knowledge to 

accommodate that new information. 

The benefits of utilizing GO strategies are reflected in readers’ ability to answer the following reading 

questions: identifying the main ideas, finding supporting ideas, dealing with vocabulary, differentiating 

facts from opinions, and making inferences (Sam & Rajan, 2013). Olszak (2014) also identified a 

number of advantages to applying GO strategies inside the language classroom. Through the reading 

process, GOs enable readers to differentiate between texts of fiction and nonfiction. They likewise 

provide readers with tools with which to examine and demonstrate relationships in any given passage. 

Finally, GOs help readers produce a well-organized summary paragraph.  

GO strategies can also enable students to comprehend different types of text, such as exposition. 

Triwanada and Appl (2016) identified the numerous advantages of utilizing GO strategies for teaching 
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expository texts: viz. they can help readers fully understand the content of a text they also can remind 

the readers of what they already know, or need to know, about the topic, and they can motivate readers 

to read reports. Hall and Strangman (2002) differentiated between the various GOs. Each model is 

designed to suit a particular type of information throughout the reading process. They explained each 

type as follow: 

1) A Descriptive or Thematic Map: “it works well for mapping generic information” 

(p. 2).  

2) A Network Tree: “it works for organizing a hierarchical set of information” (p. 2). 

3) A Spider Map: “it works when the information relating to a main idea or theme does 

not fit into a hierarchy” (p. 2). 

 

  

Figure 1. Descriptive or Thematic Map Figure 2. Network Tree    Figure 3. Spider Map 

4) A Problem and Solution Map: “it works when information contains cause and 

effect problems and solutions” (p. 3). 

5) A Problem-Solution Outline: “it helps students to compare different solutions to a 

problem” (p. 3).  

6) A Fishbone Map: “it is useful when cause-effect relationships are complex and 

non-redundant” (p. 3).  

 

  

 

Figure 4. Problem and Solution Map  Figure 5. Problem/Solution Outline        Figure 6. Fishbone Map 

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7) A Comparative and Contrastive Map: “it can help students to compare and 

contrast two concepts according to their features” (p. 4). 

8) A Compare-Contrast Matrix: “is responsible for comparing concepts’ attributes” (p. 

4).  

9) A Sequential Episodic Map: “is used for mapping cause and effect” (p. 4).  

 

 

 

 

Figure 7. Comparative and Contrastive Map Figure 8. Compare/Contrast Matrix Figure 9. Sequential Episodic Map 

 

10)  A Continuum Scale: “is effective for organizing information along a dimension 

such as less to more, low to high, and few to many” (p. 5).  

 

Figure 10. Continuum Scale 

11) A Series of Events Chain: “it can help students organize information according to 

various steps or stages” (p. 5).  

12) A Cycle Map: “it is useful for organizing information that is circular or cyclical, 

with no absolute beginning or ending” (p. 5). 

13) A Human Interaction Outline: “it is effective for organizing events in terms of a 

chain of action and reaction” (p. 5).  

 

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Figure 11. Series of Events Chain Figure 12. Cycle Map Figure 13. Human Interaction Outline 

 

Other types of GO were introduced by other researchers. For example, Gallavan and Kottler (2007) 

established eight types of GO according to their learning purposes; “assume and anticipate, position 

and pattern, group and organize, compare and contrast, relate and reason, identify and imagine, 

estimate and evaluate, and combine and create” (pp. 118-119). Each one of these has its own strengths 

for fitting different types of text. It is then the teacher’s role to look for new vocabulary in the text or 

during discussion and to add new words to the selected organizer.  

It seems that GOs are flexible strategies since teachers have the opportunity to utilize them in the 

language classroom in a way which maximizes their effectiveness. In order to accomplish that, the 

Hong Kong Curriculum Development Institute (2001) recommended a number of systematic steps for 

the implementation of such strategies. 

First, teachers should familiarize themselves with different types of graphic organizers. Second, 

teachers can describe to their students what the graphic organizer[s] are and their benefits in learning. 

Third, teachers can present the selected graphic organizer for the topic, and point out the topic and the 

organizational framework. Fourth, teachers should also use some examples to illustrate the use of some 

graphic organizers. Fifth, teachers can assign the suitable one for the language classroom. Finally, 

teachers then review students’ work and generate a discussion on the effective use of graphic 

organizers. (p. 9) 

Kabilan (2000) stated that critical thinking skills could play a big role in helping students to become 

proficient in acquiring a foreign language. Therefore, the researchers urge EFL teachers to pay 

attention to critical reading activities in their classrooms. They should also design or adapt proper 

reading activities that enable the learners to use their higher thinking skills. Moreover, it is necessary to 

thoroughly study the different ways of developing thinking skills so that English learners may better 

cope with the expansion of their knowledge so as to better develop their academic achievement. 

 

 

 

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2.3 Empirical Research 

This section reviews the empirical studies related to the current study. It thus includes studies on the 

effect of GOs on students’ reading comprehension skills, as well as studies which focus on critical 

reading skills in particular.  

2.4 Graphic Organizers and Reading Comprehension 

Chiang (2005) examined the effect of using GOs on the reading comprehension achievement of 

Taiwanese EFL college students and their attitudes towards reading in English. The sample consisted 

of 50 tertiary level freshmen from a medical college in South Taiwan. To gather their data, the 

researcher used pre- and post-reading comprehension tests, two attitudes questionnaires, and group 

interviews. The findings indicated that the use of GOs in teaching reading skills has a positive effect on 

both reading comprehension tests and attitudes towards EFL reading texts.  

Another study by Miranda (2011) investigated the effect of using GOs on the reading comprehension 

of English language learners with learning disabilities. The case study sample consisted of 3 students; 

one female EFL middle school student with learning disabilities and two male EFL public middle 

school students without learning disabilities. To collect the data, the researcher used pre- and 

post-reading comprehension achievement tests. The findings revealed that GO strategies not only have 

positive effects on the reading comprehension skills of EFL learners without learning disabilities but 

also on EFL learners with learning disabilities.  

Özturk (2012) investigated the effect of GOs on the reading comprehension achievements of Turkish 

EFL university students. The sample of the study consisted of 50 students. It was divided into two 

equally numbered experimental and control groups. Pre- and post-tests were used on both groups to 

collect the data. The results revealed that the introduction of GO instruction contributed significantly to 

EFL learners’ comprehension of reading materials in English. 

Biria and Sharifi (2013) examined the effectiveness of GOs on Iranian EFL university students’ reading 

comprehension abilities as well. The sample of their study consisted of 60 students and was divided 

into equally numbered experimental and control groups. To collect their data, pre- and post-tests were 

utilized on both groups. The results revealed that the GOs contributed significantly toward the 

development of their reading comprehension abilities. 

Sam and Rajan (2013) studied the effect of using GOs on the reading comprehension skills of middle 

school ESL students. The sample of their study consisted of 35 ESL students. Their sample was divided 

into two equally numbered groups (experimental, control). The researchers used pre- and post-tests to 

collect the data. Their results showed that instruction with GOs contributed significantly to the 

experimental group’s reading comprehension achievements in terms of their ability to identify main 

ideas, find supporting details, deal effectively with new vocabulary, differentiate between fact and 

opinion, and making inferences.  

Likewise, Mahmood, Nikoo and Bonyadi (2013) explored the role of GOs and background activation 

on Iranian EFL learners’ reading comprehension achievement. The sample of the study consisted of 36 
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female EFL learners at intermediate level and was divided into three groups; the first group was taught 

reading by using GOs strategies; the second group was taught reading by activating background 

knowledge; and the third group was taught using the traditional method. To collect the data, the 

researchers conducted both pre- and post-tests. The results indicated that using GO strategies and the 

activation of schemata played a significant role in developing EFL learners’ reading comprehension 

abilities.  

In addition, Purwaningsih (2013) investigated the effect of GOs on students’ reading comprehension at 

State Junior High School 15 Yogyakarta. The sample of the study consisted of 80 students. In order to 

collect both quantitative and qualitative data, the researcher used observation guidelines, interviews, 

and pre- and post-reading comprehension tests. The results showed that GOs could develop students’ 

reading comprehension abilities.  

Toha (2013) examined the influence of using GOs on ESL students’ text comprehension. Their sample 

consisted of 30 students selected from SMK Gudang Rasau in Kuantan Pahang. These students were 

divided into two groups: an experimental and a controlled group. To collect the data, the researcher 

designed pre- and post-tests and an interview. The results showed that using GOs with the help of 

reading texts has improved students’ skills slightly and has had a positive influence on their reading 

comprehension abilities.  

Humbert (2014) investigated which type of GOs (Venn diagram VS concept map) was more effective 

for the purpose of enhancing the achievements made on reading comprehension tests. The sample 

included only two students. To collect the data, the researcher conducted a pre-test, as well as a 

post-test after four weeks of treatment. The results revealed that Venn diagrams and concept maps 

contributed significantly to the enhancement of students’ reading comprehension achievement test 

scores. 

Almaahi (2015) examined the effectiveness of using GOs on EFL students’ text structure awareness 

and reading comprehension. The sample of the study consisted of 235 English major students and were 

divided into experimental and controlled groups. To collect the data, the researcher used two tools: viz. 

a questionnaire to measure the experimental group members’ impression about GO instruction, as well 

as pre- and post-tests. The findings demonstrated that the students had a positive attitude towards GO 

instruction and contributed significantly to improving students’ reading abilities.  

Putranti (2016) investigated the effect of using GOs on the students’ reading comprehension at SMP 

Negeri 1 Berbah (i.e., a middle school in Indonesia). The study’s sample included all students of grade 

VIIID. To collect the data, the researcher used the following tools: classroom observations, student 

interviews, teacher interviews, a questionnaire, and pre- and post-tests. The findings revealed that GOs 

contributed dramatically to students’ reading comprehension abilities.  

Yusuf and Dzulkafly (2017) examined the effect that GOs have on facilitating reading comprehension 

amongst ESL students. The sample of the study consisted of 78 students from different academic 

backgrounds and proficiency levels. The same was divided into control and experimental groups. To 
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collect their data, both researchers used two research tools: viz. a pre- and post-teaching questionnaire, 

as well as pre- and post-reading comprehension tests. The results revealed that using GOs played a 

significant role in the development of ESL learners’ reading comprehension abilities.  

2.5 Studies on Critical Reading 

El-Maleh (2006) examined the effectiveness of administering a proposed Literature Circles (LC) 

program on developing the needed critical reading skills regarding the English short stories component 

of first year, secondary stage students. It also aimed to identify LC students’ satisfaction/dissatisfaction 

towards utilizing the proposed LC program. For the purpose of collecting the data for the study, the 

researchers administered four main tools: a critical reading skills questionnaire, pre- and post-critical 

reading skills tests, an LC student’s satisfaction/dissatisfaction questionnaire, a teacher’s guide 

questionnaire, and the proposed LC teacher’s guide itself. The sample of the study included 99 female 

students of the first year, secondary stage at El-Arish secondary school. The findings identified eight 

critical reading skills which were required for the first year, secondary stage. There were statistically 

significant effects in the post-administration of the critical reading skills test in general in favor of LC 

experimental group. Both groups showed satisfaction towards being taught the proposed LC program. 

Al-Oqaili (2007) evaluated the level of critical reading skills among undergraduate EFL Jordanian 

students. That study also investigated the effects of gender and year of study on students’ critical 

reading abilities. The sample of the study included 196 EFL undergraduate students at Yarmouk 

University. In addition, critical reading test was used to measure students’ critical reading abilities of 

annotating, previewing, outlining, taking inventory, summarizing and analyzing. The results showed 

that students’ performance on critical reading skills was low, with female students being ahead of male 

students and senior students being ahead of freshmen students. 

Belet and Dal (2010) studied primary education pre-service teachers’ opinions about the use of 

storytelling to develop primary school students’ critical reading skills. The sample of the study 

consisted of 53 pre-service Turkish teachers. The data was collected by means of an open-ended 

questionnaire. The findings showed that pre-service teachers had positive opinions towards the skills 

explained in the literature within the context of critical reading. 

Another study by Khodadady (2011) examined the effect of using concept mapping on EFL students’ 

critical thinking skills. The study’s sample consisted of 36 upper intermediate and advanced EFL 

learners, which were then divided into two groups: viz. experimental and controlled groups. To gather 

the data, the researcher designed a pre-/post-test which was then used on both groups. The findings 

indicated that using the concept mapping strategy contributed significantly towards the development 

EFL learners’ critical thinking skills.  

Fahim, Barjesteh and Vaseghi (2012) investigated the effect of critical thinking strategies training on 

the reading comprehension of Iranian EFL students. Their sample included 240 male and female 

Iranian EFL students. Reading comprehension and language proficiency tests were utilized. The 

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findings showed that critical thinking skills significantly affected EFL learners’ reading comprehension 

performance. 

Also, Alslaiti and Mgdadi (2012) investigated the effect of a functionally-based instructional program 

on improving tenth grade students’ critical reading skills. Both researchers designed a 

functionally-based instructional program. A test consisting of 12 multiple choice items measured the 

students’ critical reading levels. The sample of the study consisted of 56 students from Beit Yafa 

secondary school. The findings showed that there were statistically significant differences in the critical 

reading tests due to the method of instruction. They finally concluded in favor of the experimental 

group. 

Abdulrasoul (2014) examined the effect of using reading circles on developing preparatory students’ 

critical and social skills. The sample of the study was 44 students from a language school at preparatory 

level. To collect the data, the researcher utilized a critical reading test, a social skills questionnaire, and 

a student’s reflection log. The results revealed that the reading circles strategy improved students’ 

performance in critical reading skills.  

Alyaseen (2016) investigated the effect of the K.W.L strategy on improving critical reading and 

creative writing skills among eighth grade female students in Jordan. The sample consisted of 53 

female students from two classes at Kiitm Secondary School. To collect the data, the researcher 

designed a pre-/post-critical reading test. The results showed that there are statistical differences 

between the means scores of the two groups in all critical reading skills. The post-test confirmed that 

teaching strategies have an effect on experimental groups.  

Furthermore, Al-Shabatat (2017) examined the effect of questioning strategies on Jordanian female 

ninth grade students’ critical reading skills. The sample was 85 female ninth-grade students at Al-Qaser 

Directorate schools. To collect their data, the researcher designed two tools: a critical reading test and a 

semi-structured interview. The results showed that there were statistically significant differences 

between the control and experimental groups in favor of the experimental group. 

2.6 Summary 

Previous research examined a variety of issues with regard to GO strategies’ effect on critical reading 

skills. All of the surveyed empirical research concluded GOs effectively contributed to the 

improvement of students’ reading skills (e.g., Chiang, 2005; Miranda, 2011; Ozturk, 2012; Biria & 

Sharifi, 2013; Sam & Rajan, 2013; Purwaningsih, 2013; Mahmood, Niko, & Bonyadi, 2013; Toha, 

2013; Humbert, 2014; Almaahi, 2015; Putrani, 2016; Yusuf & Dzulkafy, 2017). 

Furthermore, the studies which were conducted specifically on critical reading skills showed that 

instructional programs had a positive effect on students’ overall critical reading skills (e.g., Amro, 2004; 

El-Maleh, 2006, Al-Oqaili, 2007; Belet & Dal, 2010; Khodaday, 2011; Fahim, Barjesteh, & Vaseghi, 

2012; Abdulrasoul, 2014; Al-husband, 2017; Al-Shabatat, 2017; Alqatanani, 2017). 

The current study, on the other hand, investigated to what extent an instructional program centered 

around GOs affected the critical reading skills of male EFL students attending the Al-Jouf College of 
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Technology in Saudi Arabia. This study is different from previous studies in the sense that it focuses on 

the critical reading skills of EFL learners and localizes it in the Saudi context. Moreover, as according 

to the researcher’s best knowledge, no research like the present research has been carried out in the past 

for the purpose of examining how effective an instructional program based upon GO strategies is on 

critical reading skills in the context of EFL. Consequently, the researcher hopes that the current study 

will be significant in the TEFL field and will be the first of its kind, both locally and globally.  

 

3. Method and Procedures 

3.1 Design  

The current study followed a quasi-experimental design in terms of its using one experimental and one 

control group. In addition, the study has one independent variable (GO strategies) and one dependent 

variable (students’ performance in critical reading tests).  

3.2 Participants of the Study 

The participants of the study were chosen conveniently as feasible to the researcher. The participants 

consisted of 43 EFL freshmen students attending Al-Jouf Technology College. They were assigned into 

two groups, with twenty-two students comprising the experimental group and twenty-one students 

comprising the control group (See Table 1). Both groups were subjected to pre- and post-test for the 

purpose of assessing their critical reading skills. The experimental group was taught by the researcher 

himself by means of GO strategies. The controlled group, on the other hand, was taught by another 

EFL teacher based on the guidelines of the teacher’s book. 

 

Table 1. The Total Number of Participants in the Study 

Participants of the study N 

Experimental Group 22 

Control Group 21 

Total 43 

 

3.3 Equivalence of the Groups of the Study  

To ensure the equivalence of both the control and experimental groups, the means and standard 

deviations of the critical reading skills pre-test were calculated as shown in Table 2. 

 

 

 

 

 

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Table 2. Means and Standard Deviations of the Critical Reading Pre-Test for both the Control 

and Experimental Groups 

 Group N Mean 
Std. 

Deviation 
T sig 

Analysis pre Experimental Group 22 3.73 .550 3.721 0.001 

Control Group 21 2.71 1.146   

Problem-Solving pre Experimental Group 22 4.73 .985 3.948 0.000 

Control Group 21 3.14 1.590   

Evaluation pre Experimental Group 22 4.55 1.405 2.790 0.008 

Control Group 21 3.43 1.207   

Summarizing pre Experimental Group 22 3.45 .596 2.064 0.045 

Control Group 21 2.90 1.091   

Total of Critical Reading 

Pre-Test 

Experimental Group 22 16.45 1.969 5.144 0.000 

Control Group 21 12.19 3.326   

 

Table 2 shows observed differences between the mean scores of the control and the experimental 

groups on the four components of the critical reading skills pre-test. The total mean score of the pre-test 

for the experimental group was 16.45; while the total mean score of the pre-test for the control group 

was 12.19. Thus, the researcher used the ANCOVA and MANCOVA tests to ensure the equivalence of 

the two groups. 

3.4 The Instructional Material  

The instructional material used in this study was based on the reading texts from the student’s book and 

workbook of Flying High for Saudi Arabia 4, which were redesigned by the researcher. The texts were 

written by using different GO strategies (namely, Venn diagram, KWL chart, concept mapping, 

fishbone diagram, and circle map) for the purpose of better enabling students to read critically.  

3.5 The Instructional Program 

In order to achieve the purpose of the study, the researcher adapted the instructional program developed 

by Alqatanani (2017). The researcher also redesigned reading texts in a way to accommodate GO 

strategies. The program aimed at offering students a practical opportunity for utilizing GO strategies 

during reading lessons.  

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The program includes five GO diagrams: Venn diagram, KWL chart, concept mapping, fishbone 

diagram, and circle map. These GOs were distributed throughout an eight-week period to two classes 

per week. Each GO was designed for specific critical reading sub-skills. For example, concept mapping 

was used to differentiate between facts and opinions, while the circle map was used to write synonyms 

and antonyms for chosen words.  

3.6 Content Validity of the Instructional Program 

For the purpose of validating the instructional program, a jury of ten EFL university professors, English 

supervisors, and English Language teachers from Saudi Arabia were kindly requested to judge and 

determine whether the reading texts were suitable for the target students’ level and whether the critical 

reading skills to be tested were appropriate. They suggested that the program should be implemented in 

eight weeks instead of six. All of their comments and recommendations for the program were taken 

into account and were reflected in the final version.  

3.7 Objectives of the Program 

By the end of the program, the student will be able to:   

1). Utilize different types of GO, such as Venn diagram, circle map, KWL chart, concept 

mapping, and fishbone diagram, with different types of reading text; 

2). Develop their own GO to better understand the reading text in question;  

3). Read English passages critically, such as analyzing abstract concepts, differentiate between 

facts and opinions, skim for main ideas, distinguish main ideas from specific details, etc.  

3.8 Duration of the Program  

The training program lasted for 8 weeks and was given in 45-minute lesson frames for each group. 

3.9 Implementation of the Instructional Program 

Before implementing the program, the researcher explained the nature of the program and its outcomes 

to the students in Arabic. He then emphasized the significance of learning GO strategies since they may 

develop their critical reading skills and help them to obtain better achievement of the English language. 

The researcher asked some students about their past experiences in reading English and whether they 

used any GO strategies before. They explained that they used to have many problems which prevented 

them from answering and comprehending the reading text. To teach them GO strategies, the researcher 

followed these procedures: 

1) Introducing the strategy: The researcher defined it, mentioned its aims and uses.  

2) Modeling its use: The researcher modeled the strategies and explained to the students how 

to use them and draws the maps for them to imitate or by explaining graphic organizers 

strategies to show the students how to use them during the reading lesson.  

3) Practicing: The researcher requested from the students to use the graphic organizers 

strategy based on the assigned critical or creative reading skills to read and answer the given 

questions. 

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4) Providing feedback: the researcher helped students to find out the difficulties they face and 

provided them with the appropriate feedback. 

3.10 Tool of the Study 

To successfully achieve the aim of this study, the following tool was developed and employed:  

3.11 Critical Reading Test 

The researcher designed a pre-/post-critical reading test. The test measured the following critical 

reading sub-skills: namely, that of differentiating between fact and opinion; that of differentiating 

between main and supporting ideas; that of anticipating what will be read; and that of demonstrating 

knowledge of vocabulary. The test was constructed based on reviewing previous studies concerning 

critical reading tests (e.g., Abdulrasoul, 2104; Alqantanani, 2017; Al-Shabatat, 2017). The test included 

a passage which was adopted from the student’s book, Flying High for Saudi Arabia 4, followed by a 

number of multiple choice questions which tested the aforementioned critical reading sub-skills.  

3.12 Content Validity of the Pre- and Post-Critical Reading Skills Test  

To ensure the content validity of the critical reading test, it was given to a jury of ten EFL university 

professors, English supervisors, and English Language teachers from both Saudi Arabia and Jordan. 

The jury’s comments and feedback in terms of the number of questions given and the type of questions 

asked were all taken into consideration. For example, they suggested to rewrite the first behavioral 

indicators of the analysis skill (i.e., analyze the sentence that shows either facts or opinions from the 

reading text). They also recommended replacing behavioral indicators, such as analyzing the 

character’s traits of the passage, with extracting motives of characters in a text.  

3.13 Construct Validity of the Critical Reading Skills Test  

To ensure the construct validity of the critical reading skills test, the test was piloted randomly on a 

sample of 20 students who did not belong to the participants of the study. The difficulty and 

discrimination factors were calculated for the critical reading skills test so as to discover the items 

which were either too difficult or too easy for the students, along with items that students were not able 

to discriminate, as presented in Table 3:  

 

Table 3. Difficulty and Discrimination Factors for the Critical Reading Skills Test 

Item 

Number 

Difficulty 

Factor 

Discrimination 

Factor 

Item 

Number 

Difficulty 

Factor 

Discrimination 

Factor 

1 0.57 0.75 10 0.43 0.47 

2 0.63 0.38 11 0.33 0.50 

3 0.60 0.75 12 0.57 0.47 

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4 0.43 0.47 13 0.57 0.68 

5 0.47 0.53 14 0.57 0.75 

6 0.50 0.33 15 0.63 0.38 

7 0.47 0.40 16 0.60 0.75 

8 0.37 0.33 17 0.33 0.50 

9 0.40 0.40 18 0.57 0.47 

 

Table 3 shows that the item difficulty scores factor of the critical reading skills test ranges between 

0.33 and 0.60. No item score is higher than 0.85 or lower than 0.2, which reflects the students’ ability 

to answer all of the test items. In addition, the discrimination factor ranges between 0.33 and 0.75, 

which is higher than 0.2. This indicates that the critical reading skills test is neither easy nor difficult 

and that the students were able to discriminate the test items.  

3.14 Reliability of the Pre- and Post-Critical Reading Skills Test 

In order to ensure the reliability of the critical reading test, it was given to a pilot sample which 

included twenty students who had been excluded from the main study’s sample. To make sure of the 

reliability of the test, it was given to the same pilot study of twenty students two weeks after the 

pre-test was conducted according to its test and re-test procedures. The researcher used Cronbach’s 

Alpha and Person’s Correlation to obtain the reliability coefficient of the test. Its results are presented 

in Table 4. 

 

Table 4. Coefficients of Internal Consistency of the Critical Reading Skills 

Dependent Variable Cronbach’s Alpha Pearson’s Correlation 

Analysis  0.78 0.77 

Problem-Solving   0.82 0.80 

Evaluation   0.81 0.75 

Summarizing   0.86 0.79 

Total of Critical Reading Skill 0.88 0.86 

 

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Table 4 shows the total internal-consistency of the critical reading test for both the Cronbach’s Alpha 

and Pearson’s Correlation, with 0.88 and 0.86 respectively. It also shows the internal consistency of 

each component of the test using the same scales, ranging between 0.78-0.86 and 0.77-0.79, 

respectively. Therefore, the Cronbach’s Alpha and Pearson’s Correlation reliability coefficients for the 

critical reading skills test results were reasonable and reliable for the purpose of this study. 

3.15 Teaching the Experimental Group 

The teacher taught the treated participants the reading passages by using different GO strategies. For 

example, the teacher adopted five strategies: namely, Venn diagram, KWL chart, concept mapping, 

fishbone, and circle map. The circle map utilized is based on the Hong Kong Curriculum Development 

Institute’s Textbook (2001), the KWL chart used was based on Ogle (1986), the concept mapping 

strategy was based on Harris and Graham (1996), and the fishbone diagram was adopted from 

Dhandapani (2004). 

3.16 Teaching the Control Group 

In order to teach the controlled group, another teacher followed the procedures as described in the 

teacher’s guide for Flying High for Saudi Arabia 4 ( Brewster, Daveis, & Rogers, 2016). The steps of 

teaching reading skills are as follows: 

1) The teacher will start with a discussion related to the reading text’s topic to promote the 

students’ interests and to activate their background knowledge; 

2) The teacher will have the students read the passage;  

3) The teacher will direct the students’ attention to the questions and have them answer them 

based on their having read the text briefly; 

4) The teacher will have the students read the passage again for details in order to check their 

answers;  

5) The teacher will finally check the answers with the class.  

3.17 Data Analysis 

The data was analyzed quantitatively using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) to 

determine the potential effect of GO strategies on critical reading skills. The researcher used the 

following analysis procedures to answer the first question of the study: 

1) The Cronbach Alpha and Pearson Correlation formulas for the purpose of obtaining an 

internal-consistency in the critical reading skills test.  

2) Descriptive statistics to compare the means and standard deviations of the 

experimental and control groups. 

3) ANCOVA and MANCOVA to calculate the students’ performance by measuring the 

post-test after excluding the students’ scores on the pre-test; then, the adjusted means 

of the students’ performance will be used to measure the post-test, as well as the 

standard errors of the critical reading skills based on the instructional program. 

 
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4. Results 

4.1 Results Related to the First Question 

The first question of the study was “Are there any statistically significant differences (at  = 0.05) on 

students’ critical reading skills which can be attributed to the teaching method (viz. Graphic Organizers 

vs. Conventional) which is implemented in the classroom?” 

To answer this question, the researcher calculated the mean scores (M) and standard deviations (SD) of 

the pre- and post-critical reading skills tests for both the experimental and control groups. Table 5 

presents those results. 

 

Table 5. Means and Standard Deviations of Students’ Critical Reading Skills Performance in the 

Pre- and Post-Tests 

Group N 
Pre-Test Post-Test 

Mean Std. Deviation Mean Std. Deviation 

Experimental Group 22 16.45 1.969 31.59 3.26 

Control Group 21 12.19 3.326 22.00 4.24 

 

Table 5 shows the mean scores, standard deviations, and the estimate means of the experimental and 

control groups’ performance on the pre- and post-critical reading skills tests. Moreover, Table 5 reveals 

that the mean score of the post-test scores for the experimental group (M = 31.59) is higher than that of 

the control group (M = 22.00), with standard deviations of 3.26 and 4.24, respectively. Thus, there is a 

noticeable difference between the scores of the experimental group and the control group in favor of 

the experimental group. In order to determine whether this difference of means is significant, the 

researcher utilized a One-Way ANCOVA. Table 6 presents the results of that test.  

 

Table 6. Results of One-Way ANCOVA for Students’ Performance on the Critical Reading Skills 

Post-Test 

Source Sum of Squares Df Mean Square F Sig. Partial Eta Squared 

Pre-test 1.444 1 1.444 0.099 0.754 0.002 

Group 638.115 1 638.115 43.866 0.000 0.523 

Error 581.874 40 14.547    

Corrected Total 1571.628 42     

 

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Table 6 shows a statistically significant difference in students’ performance on the critical reading 

skills post-test (F = 43.866, df = 42, P = 0.000). In light of these scores, this study reports that GO 

strategies have had a significant difference on the performance of Saudi freshmen students with relation 

to their critical reading skills (at α ≤ 0.05). 

Accordingly, to determine in favor of which group that difference was to be found in, the researcher 

calculated the adjusted means scores and standard errors. Table 7 displays those results. 

 

Table 7. Results of the Adjusted Means and Standard Errors in the Post-Test for Both Groups 

Group Mean Std. Error 

Experimental Group 31.73 0.93 

Control Group 21.85 0.96 

 

Table 7 reveals that the adjusted mean of the experimental group is 31.73, which is higher than the 

adjusted mean of the control group (21.85). Thus, this result provides confirmatory evidence for there 

being a noticeable increase in the post-test means scores for the experimental group with relation to 

their attainment of critical reading skills.  

To examine the differences between the means of both groups in terms of the four critical reading 

sub-skills for the post-test (analysis, problem solving, evaluation, and summarizing), the researcher 

calculated the means and standard deviations of these sub-skills. These are presented in Table 8. 

 

Table 8. Means and Standard Deviations of the Critical Reading Skills Pre- and Post-Tests with 

Relation to the Four Components of the Critical Reading Skills Test 

Sub- Skills Groups N 
Pre-Test Post-Test 

Mean Std. Deviation Mean Std. Deviation 

Analysis 
Experimental Group 22 3.73 0.550 8.73 1.202 

Control Group 21 2.71 1.146 6.00 1.871 

Problem-solving 
Experimental Group 22 4.73 0.985 7.91 1.065 

Control Group 21 3.14 1.590 5.10 1.758 

Evaluation Experimental Group 22 4.55 1.405 7.50 1.535 

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Control Group 21 3.43 1.207 5.48 1.834 

Summarizing 
Experimental Group 22 3.45 0.596 7.45 1.765 

Control Group 21 2.90 1.091 5.43 1.326 

 

Table 8 shows that the mean scores of the post-test for the experimental group with relation to the four 

components are higher than those obtained by the control group. Thus, in order to find out whether 

these differences are statistically significant, a MANCOVA test was used on the critical reading skills 

scores of the post-test. Those results are illustrated in Table 9.  

 

Table 9. Results of MANCOVA Test on the Post-Test Scores with Relation to the Four Critical 

Reading Sub-Skills 

Source Dependent Variable 
Sum of 

Squares 
df 

Mean 

Square 
F Sig. 

Partial 

Eta 

Squared 

Wilks’ 

Lambda 

Analysis Pre 

Analysis post 0.301 1 0.301 0.123 0.728 0.003 

1.180 Problem-solving post 0.194 1 0.194 0.094 0.760 0.003 

Evaluation post 0.421 1 0.421 0.144 0.707 0.004 

Summarizing post 8.318 1 8.318 3.398 0.073 0.084 

Problem – 

solving Pre 

Analysis post 0.556 1 0.556 0.228 0.636 0.006 
 

0.822 
Problem-solving post 0.042 1 0.042 0.020 0.887 0.001 

Evaluation post 6.956 1 6.956 2.375 0.132 0.060 

Summarizing post 3.952 1 3.952 1.614 0.212 0.042 

Evaluation Pre 

Analysis post 7.723 1 7.723 3.166 0.083 0.079 

1.501 Problem-solving post 5.063 1 5.063 2.462 0.125 0.062 

Evaluation post 0.293 1 0.293 0.100 0.753 0.003 

Summarizing post 0.015 1 0.015 0.006 0.939 0.000 

Summarizing Pre 

Analysis post 0.008 1 0.008 0.003 0.955 0.000 

1.239 Problem-solving  post 5.657 1 5.657 2.750 0.106 0.069 

Evaluation post 2.073 1 2.073 0.708 0.406 0.019 

Summarizing post 2.472 1 2.472 1.010 0.322 0.027 

Group 

Analysis post 63.623 1 63.623 26.083 0.000 0.413 

12.542 Problem-solving post 50.646 1 50.646 24.622 0.000 0.400 

Evaluation post 17.313 1 17.313 5.911 0.020 0.138 

Summarizing post 33.647 1 33.647 13.742 0.001 0.271 

Error Analysis post 90.251 37 2.439     

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Problem-solving post 76.107 37 2.057     

Evaluation post 108.374 37 2.929     

Summarizing post 90.590 37 2.448     

Corrected Total 

Analysis post 180.279 42      

Problem-solving post 170.698 42      

Evaluation post 160.744 42      

Summarizing post 144.698 42      

 

It is clear that the calculated value of F (at = 0.05) for the teaching strategy (i.e., GOs) with relation to 

the four critical reading sub-skills shows that there are statistically significant differences between the 

two mean scores of the two groups with relation to the four critical reading sub-skills that can be 

attributed to the teaching strategy.  

Consequently, to determine in favor of which group had the most significant difference between their 

means scores, the researcher calculated the adjusted means scores and the standard errors. Table 10 

illustrates these results.  

 

Table 10. Results of the Adjusted Means and Standards Errors in the Post-Test with Relation to 

the Four Critical Reading Sub-Skills 

Critical Reading Sub-Skills Group Mean Std. Error 

Analysis post 
Experimental Group 8.94 0.39 

Control Group 5.77 0.40 

Problem-Solving post 
Experimental Group 7.92 0.35 

Control Group 5.09 0.36 

Evaluation post 
Experimental Group 7.32 0.42 

Control Group 5.66 0.44 

Summarizing post 
Experimental Group 7.59 0.39 

Control Group 5.28 0.40 

 

Table 10 shows that the adjusted means of the four critical reading sub-skills of the experimental group 

are higher than those of the control group. These results provide confirmatory evidence that a 

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noticeable increase occurred in the post-test’s means scores in favor of the experimental group with 

relation to their four critical reading sub-skills. 

 

5. Discussion  

This study asked to what extent a GO-based instructional program would have on the critical reading 

skills of male EFL freshmen students at Al-Jouf College of Technology. The scope of the discussion 

covered students’ achievements in the four critical reading sub-skills (i.e., analysis, problem-solving, 

evaluation, and summarization). The findings demonstrated that statistically significant differences (at 

 = 0.05) can be attributed to what teaching method is implemented in the classroom, with the results 

favoring the experimental group as opposed to the control group. This is in line with the conclusions 

made by the vast majority of the literature. The use of GOs as a means of instruction increases reading 

comprehension scores in general, let alone critical reading scores in particular. For instance, 

Khodadady (2011) and Alyaseen (2016) examined whether specific GOs, such as concept mapping and 

KWL charts, could positively affect critical reading scores specifically, finding that they did. With the 

present study, on the other hand, one can conclude, based on the evidence, that GOs in general increase 

critical reading skills and not only the GOs evaluated specifically by Khodadady and Alyaseen. 

Based on the statistical results of the questions of this study, it seems that the effect that the 

instructional program had on GO strategies on Saudi EFL students’ critical reading skills successfully 

increased the students’ achievement on their critical reading skills post-test. One possible contributor to 

the superiority of the GO group was that the instructional program of the current study was 

purposefully designed and cautiously applied in a classroom setting for the purpose of further 

developing one of the four main skills in the field of EFL: i.e., the reading skill. The instructional 

program also includes a variety of GOs (e.g., concept mapping, Venn diagram, fishbone diagram, KWL 

chart, and circle mapping)—all of which were carefully applied during reading lessons in order to 

motivate and encourage students to think critically. These GOs were presented in an easy and 

organized way, thereby making their applications meaningful and systematic inside the classroom 

setting. It was in this regard that Fly, Jean, and Hunter (1988) stated that GOs can be effective and 

maximize students’ reading comprehension as long as they are applied properly and systematically 

inside the classroom setting by EFL teachers.  

The researcher also took the individual differences of the students into consideration when applying 

this instructional program. Individual, pair, and group work were all implemented for the purpose of 

meeting students’ interests and needs. For example, in the first lesson (i.e., concept mapping organizer), 

the students were first asked to read the passage individually and highlight the factual and opinion 

sentences. Then, they were asked to work in pairs to check and discuss their answers. After that, they 

extended their discussions and answers in groups. Finally, they were asked to compare their answers 

with other groups in the classroom. Such procedures motivated the students to read and think both 

effectively and critically during the process of reading.  
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In the beginning, it seemed that the students were not familiar with GOs and that they did not know 

how to use them whilst reading. Once they listened to the instructions given to them as to how they 

were to best utilize the GOs, they were able to comprehend their implementation inside the classroom. 

Eventually, the students realized the importance and significance of using GOs in teaching reading 

skills, thereby enabling them to organize their thoughts and think critically. This claim mirrors what 

Sam and Rajan (2013) mentioned in their study about how GOs in the language classroom can help 

learners develop their reading comprehension skills, as well as developing their critical thinking skills 

so that they may better understand and construct meaning from the passages given them by dividing 

them into smaller, more understandable sentences. They can also serve as visual representations of 

ideas and thoughts by helping learners apply their thinking skills in an organized manner (Miller, 

2011). 

It can also be seen that the GOs created more relaxing learning environment. This means that the 

instructional program also increased the interaction between the teacher and his students. It motivates 

the students to participate as much as they can without worrying of committing mistakes which made 

them to work collaboratively on each reading task. Hence, this could be another positive factor which 

made the experimental group outperformed the control group. 

Another possible explanation for the outperformance of the GOs group relates to the implementation of 

the instructional program in facilitating the learning process of the students’ reading skills and 

interacting meaningfully with the context. This explanation is in line with the previous studies such as, 

Jiang and Grabe (2007), Hall and Strangman (2002), and Miller (2011) have employed GOs to 

facilitate reading comprehension and make the students to interact meaningfully and active with the 

text during the ESL reading process. 

Another privilege for the students in the experimental Group may be the characteristic features of some 

GOs such as, concept mapping, Venn diagram, and circle map. One of these features enables the 

readers to visualize the reading text explicitly (Toha, 2013). Thus, these GOs might help the readers to 

comprehend and understand the components of the text more deeply. 

Moreover, Cleveland (2014) stated that GOs could have a significant effect on enhancing the students’ 

critical thinking skills (e.g., evaluating, analyzing, synthesizing … etc.). To illustrate, as found in the 

present study, the students started to show a significant improvement in their critical thinking skills 

during the training program. The participants of the study were able to differentiate between the facts 

and opinions, identify the main and the supporting ideas from the reading texts. They also were able to 

state their opinions and view openly by making judgment on what they read. Thus, this revealed that 

GOs not only improved the learners’ higher critical thinking skills, but also their confidence when 

expressing their opinions and what they think about they read.  

Although the experimental group was not given any kind of questionnaire asking their attitudes towards 

the instructional program, the researcher who was the instructor observed that the students had positive 

attitude towards EFL reading skill. They started to gain more confidence while reading and get more 
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motivated to participate. They also know to identify the main and the supporting ideas of the reading 

text, and summarize the important ideas and put them in an organized manner. Such observations are in 

line with the results of previous studies such as (Chiang, 2005; Mede, 2010; Ozturk, 2012).  

It is worth mentioning that implementing GOs inside the classroom was not the only thing which 

created a positive learning environment, but also the fact that the researcher incorporated the use of 

collaborative work, authentic learning materials, data shows, visualizers and smart boards. The 

researcher also tried to reduce his teacher talk time during his reading lessons, focusing instead on 

increasing student talk time in order to give students more opportunities to critically discuss the 

passages together. These could be other possible factors which made the experimental group 

outperform the control group.  

Consequently, the results of this study are in line with some views of related lieterature and researcher 

findings concerning the effect of GOs on EFL reading comprehension skills. For example, chiang 

(2005), Miranda (2011), Ozturk (2012), Biria and Sharifi (2013), and Sam and Rajan (2013) concluded 

that the use of GOs in teaching reading comprehension had a positive effect on their experimental 

group, thereby enabling them to differentiate between facts and opinions, as well as to identify the main 

and supporting ideas from the reading passage given them. Mahmood, Nikoo and Bonyadi (2013) also 

proved that the role of GOs played a significant role in developing Iranian EFL learners’ reading 

comprehension abilities. Indeed, Purwaningsih (2013), Toha (2013), Humber (201), Almaahi (2015), 

Putrani (2016), Yusuf and Dzulkafly (2017), and Fraihat (2018) also recently reported that GOs had 

significantly contributed to the improvement of EFL students’ reading comprehension skills.  

Moreover, the findings of the following studies (i.e., mro, 2004; El-Maleh, 2006; Al- Oqaili, 2007; 

Belet & Dal, 2010; Khodaday, 2011; Fahim, Barjesteh, & Vaseghi, 2012; Abdulrasoul, 2014; 

Al-husband, 2017; Al-Shabatat, 2017; Alqatanani, 2017) showed a positive effect on the critical 

reading skills by utilizing different reading strategies. Therefore, based on these findings, critical 

reading skills could be positively affected by using proper GOs.  

 

6. Conclusion  

In the past, several studies were conducted with regards to how the use of GOs in the ELT classroom 

contributes to the performance of students on tests which assess their reading comprehension skills. In 

general, they find that GOs improve reading comprehension skills and they strongly encourage their 

use. There have also been a number of studies which examine how different teaching methodologies 

may enhance critical reading skills in particular. At least three of those studies evaluated how particular 

GOs affect the critical reading skills of students. Recognizing these trends in the literature, the 

researcher wished to test whether these conclusions could be generalizable to a number of different 

GOs vis-à-vis the examination of just one GO in particular. Thus, the researcher tested that hypothesis 

by developing a study which would evaluate to what extent GOs in general affected Saudi students’ 

performance on a critical reading skills test. In order to accomplish that goal, the researcher developed 
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the present study. This study’s sample consisted of 43 freshmen male Saudi students, all of whom 

attended the College of Technology of Al-Jouf. The sample was divided into a control and an 

experimental group, with 22 being assigned to the former and 21 being assigned to the latter. Whereas 

the control group was taught in the more traditional manner (i.e., based on the teacher’s book of the 

assigned textbook), the experimental group was treated with an instructional program which centered 

around graphic organizers (specifically, circle map, concept mapping, fishbone diagram, KWL chart, 

and Venn diagram). The study lasted for eight weeks and was evaluated using a pre-validated tool (i.e., 

pre- and post-tests developed for the purpose of evaluating critical reading skills). The discussed results 

of the current study showed that using GOs contributed significantly to the development of the critical 

reading skills of EFL Saudi students as compared to the more conventional methodologies as 

prescribed in teacher’s books. Thus, the researcher believes that applying GOs properly while inside 

the classroom had a positive effect on improving EFL students’ performance on the critical reading 

skills post-test.  

 

7. Recommendations of the Study 

Based on the findings of the study, the researcher presented a number of recommendations that should 

be taken into consideration: 

1) Researchers are recommended to conduct other studies to investigate the effect of GO 

strategies on developing other language skills over a longer period of time across a 

wider population of EFL students in Saudi Arabia and to compare their findings with 

the findings of the current study. 

2) A similar study should be conducted to investigate the effect of GO strategies on the 

critical reading skills demonstrated by others with different levels of English 

attainment in other parts of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. 

3) The current study has dealt with a sample of Saudi male students and proved that 

GOs developed students’ levels of critical reading skills. Future research, however, 

needs to investigate the effect of such strategies on the teaching of female students in 

Saudi Arabia.  

4) EFL teachers should not adhere 100% to their English textbooks whilst teaching their 

reading lessons. They should instead make use of other learning resources, such as 

GOs, so as to develop EFL students’ reading skills.  

 

 

 

 

 

 
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	Original Paper
	Investigating the Critical Reading Skills for Saudi EFL Learners through Graphic Organizers Instructional Program