frontiers of contemporary education issn 2690-3520 (print) issn 2690-3539 (online) vol. 4, no. 1, 2023 www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce 1 short paper feedback: a construct in search of contemporary investigation michael f. shaughnessy 1 1 eastern new mexico university, portales, new mexico received: december 5, 2022 accepted: december 13, 2022 online published: january 3, 2023 doi:10.22158/fce.v4n1p1 url: http://dx.doi.org/10.22158/fce.v4n1p1 abstract feedback is a construct that has been around for decades, but it’s utilization in online classes and in zoom has only been cursorily investigated. this paper briefly reviews the types of feedback and discusses the need for empirical examination of the construct. feedback is quite frequently given by some instructors, minimally given by others, and haphazardly administered by still others. while feedback is important, empiricists must examine its use and research conducted regarding its impact. 1. types of feedback 1) formal-in terms of grades. this is the most formal type of feedback-typically in terms of a grade (a, b, c, d, f) and in some instances numerical feedback. 2) formal in terms of statements regarding student writing, logic, reasoning, rationality and comprehensiveness of understanding. this type of feedback is neutral in naturebut attempts to provide some assistance regarding student writing and clarity, and student grasp of the material. 3) chats on zoomor email. a chat on zoom may be needed as some students are suffering from stress, health or medical problems that may be short term or long term in nature. feedback on zoom may be more emotive and evocative than a simple text message. further zoom provides an instantaneous response, whereas an e-mail could sit on a student’s box for a few hours or days. 4) formativeat the beginning of the course as the student may propose a research topic. formative evaluation and feedback also allows faculty to probe as to student readiness for a course. a faculty member can quite quickly grasp if a freshman is attempting a senior level class or has been poorly advised. 5) summativeat the end of the course as the instructor reviews student progress. in some instances, the instructor does notice a good deal of improvement and wants to provide some www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 4, no. 1, 2023 2 published by scholink inc. clear positive feedback as to growth and development. some students are not aware of the fact that they have in fact improvedand they need to receive some acknowledgement or recognition for their efforts. 6) student to student feedbackin some discussion boardsstudents provide each other with varying degrees of feedback. students typically are non-committal and make various vague, neutral comments and provide innocuous feedback. 7) supportive feedback“atta boy:” types of statements. this could be linked to positive praise, positive statements or simply positive remarks and this could be delivered by e-mail, comments on paper or zoom or even the old fashioned telephone. 8) constructive feedback-suggestions by the instructor regarding their writing, grammar, syntax, spelling, use of theory, and theorists. some universities have graduate students who will spend time reviewing sentence structure, run on sentences, verb usage, noun usage and other difficulties such as missing commas, parentheses and other small details. 9) positive feedback-specific to one concern or analysis. this could relate to the student using bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives. some students are able to follow bloom’s hierarchy, and others simply do not seem to grasp the nature of the question or have not read the question thoroughly or have misinterpreted what the question was asking! 10) symbolic feedback—smiley faces! these are easy to apply but lack the specificity of a written statement. 11) appreciation feedbackdo males and females differentially respond to different types of feedback? this is a question that needs empirical investigation or at least theorizing! we do need to know if students also respond to feedback initially or if feedback is administered later in the course, if it is rejected or seen as last minute criticism. 12) questioning feedback-asking for more in-depth analysis or clarification. often a student will minimally respond or reply to a question, and the instructor seeks additional information in order to provide an accurate assessment of the student’s work. this may be seen as “probing” or “prompting” for additional supplemental information. 13) providing guidance feedback-perhaps about statistics or methodology or an additional source. since instructors are generally well read, they can suggest a theorist or theory to help students grasp complex problems, or suggest a text to help with difficult statistical methods. 14) encouragement-asking students to probe more deeply into a topic or reflect or think more about it. students will often express an interest in a topicand this should be encouraged. faculty can support this interest and encourage them to read more about a topic or perhaps even do research into a topic or at the very least a literature review. 15) friendly feedback-perhaps seeking to solidify a relationship with a student. student engagement is part of learning and developing a rapport is essential. one way to do this is to provide some cordial congenial comment, so that the student feeds valued. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 4, no. 1, 2023 3 published by scholink inc. 16) timely feedback-providing feedback almost as immediately as possible. the writer understands that faculty often have other classes, other research projects, and a wide variety of committee obligations, duties and responsibilities. perhaps a “max time” could be set up in courses during the afternoon or evening hours so that students could receive almost immediate feedback. 17) on-going consistent feedbackon a daily or weekly basisso as to maintain contact. depending on the length of the course (4 weeks or 8 weeks or 16 weeks) instructors need to be aware of the time frame and the challenges these time frames presentfor both the instructor and the student and govern themselves accordingly and make a concerted effort to be available and provide consistent feedback. 18) verbal or written feedback-there are ways for instructors to leave brief verbal messages-perhaps for up to 2-3 minutes. the sound of an instructor’s voice can be very helpful and in some instances, therapeutic. it establishes some connectivity-if zoom or microsoft teams is not utilized. 19) feedback “sandwich” refers to praise—criticism—and then praise again. this varies the feedback and helps students cope with the criticism as some students have rarely received criticism in the past. this is a major problem because some students have received minimal feedback in the past, and they see it as harsh criticism and are unsure as to how to respond to the feedback. 20) group feedback-perhaps on a weekly basis-feedback can be provided to the entire group. this type of feedback is good if the entire class seems to be moving at about the same pace and doing one module or chapter at a time. this is global feedback and may be very effective, efficient and time efficient. 21) positive then-redirection to the goal of the course or the goal of the chapter or assignment. instructors can provide some preliminary feedbackthen re-direct the student to the over-arching goal and objective of the module or chapter assignment or task. 22) educative feedbackproviding a definition for a construct such as reliability or validity. often students will use words interchangeably or mistakenly and instructors will have to provide exact, specific, precise feedback and correction for them. 23) sensitive feedback-instructors can sometimes sense when a student is struggling with an assignment or is having difficulty “keeping up”. this could be inquisitive in nature, this could be substantive in nature or perhaps just requesting some information or feedback from a student as to how they are doing, progressing or coping. 24) progress feedback-as students go thru a coursesome improve quite extensively and this should be recognized. other students may appear mediocre at first and then continue with the same approach to the rest of the classand the instructor does not see any improvement or even an attempt to improve. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 4, no. 1, 2023 4 published by scholink inc. 25) compliment feedback-then corrective, then compliment again-either on effort or consistency or depth of elaboration. instructors can complement the effort that a student is trying to make or the use of other sources or even referring to another students comments on a topic in the discussion board. 26) multimedia feedback-instructors can provide a link to a you tube to help students learn about a theorist or a theory or a construct. there are many resources out there on the world wide web and teachers need to be able to share them with the students for assistance. 27) referral feedback-if there is a graduate student assigned to the classsome students may feel more comfortable asking for help from a peer than the instructor. thus a “referral” or a suggestion that the student may be amenable to some assistance from a writing center or other source on campus is a positive move. 28) evaluative feedback-grades provide some evaluation, yet do not always tell the entire story of a student’s learning. this could be referred to as “summative evaluation” and this could be done with a sentence or two or a paragraph or two if need be. 29) culturally sensitive feedback-not all races, ethnicities, cultural groups respond well to feedback and some see feedback as criticism. students may not have received much feedback in the past or teachers may have just provided superficial feedback (good, well done, good effort). 30) feedback reflecting difficulty-in the past few months, we have all been dealing with the corona virus and some students have lost loved ones. this has to be recognized. things have been difficult for all of us over the past few years and many are still recovering. 2. some research agendas 1) does voice feedback make an appreciable significant difference in student engagement and performance? 2) do students see feedback as an important part of the learning process? 3) do instructors see feedback as an important part of the learning process? 4) when instructors are evaluated-do evaluators look at the varying types of feedback that instructors provideand student response? 5) do student spend adequate time on feedback and do they take feedback seriously? 6) are students simply out for the highest grade for the least amount of work? 7) do students value feedback on the discussion board from peers? 8) would students prefer face to face feedback via zoom or microsoft teams? or perhaps even via cell phone? would text messages to students have an impact? 9) can we see any correlation between feedback and grade point average or student growth? 10) do graduates and undergraduates view feedback on-line differently than in person feedback? www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 4, no. 1, 2023 5 published by scholink inc. 3. summary this paper has cursorily attempted to provide a brief overview of the realm of feedback and has suggested some ideas for future research. in order to assist with student growth and development, particularly in online classes, instructors must be aware of the impact of feedback and student perception of the various types of feedback. frontiers of contemporary education issn 2690-3520 (print) issn 2690-3539 (online) vol. 1, no. 2, 2020 www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce 45 original paper the impact of literature in construction the people of modern culture hue hoang thi 1* , thao do phuong 2 & hang phan thuy 3 1 university of education, hue university, vietnam 2 central propaganda department of the central committee of the communist party of vietnam, vietnam 3 university of khanh hoa, nha trang, vietnam * hue hoang thi, university of education, hue university, vietnam received: november 9, 2020 accepted: november 20, 2020 online published: december 18, 2020 doi:10.22158/fce.v1n2p45 url: http://dx.doi.org/10.22158/fce.v1n2p45 abstract this study clearly shows the value of literature and arts in general, contemporary vietnamese poetry in particular, in the discovery and building of a modern, radical human model with vietnamese cultural identity, on the basis of foreign cultural quintessence screening and processing department. the results of the study confirm the urgent need to establish new cultural values, modern human cultural personality, consistent with the cultural traditions of each nation and humanity. keywords impact, cultural, identity, cultural values, personality 1. introduction vietnamese literature, since 1986 up to now, has achieved many achievements, reaching and catching up with world literature. the problem of pondering and becoming a prominent topic in contemporary poetry is still a human issue. discovering and building a modern, radical human model with vietnamese cultural identity, in the context of globalization, is the destination of literature and arts in general, poetry in particular. vietnamese society and other countries in the world are in the process of globalization—an important process that helps people in society who have not completed the modernization process can have their own experiences of the people in postmodern society. they will have the conditions to assert and promote their personal position, help people to be more confident about themselves, to be aware of their own worth when faced with the problems of contemporary society. they will know how to take advantage of the opportunity to get rich and beautiful for www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 1, no. 2, 2020 46 published by scholink inc. themselves and the community. the more modern the society, the more individual human beings develop. individuals have cultural capital, knowledge, understanding, and the higher ability to integrate and assert themselves. the change in the social model, the cultural life and the rapid development of science and technology affect the spiritual life, affecting the concept of human in contemporary life. the advantages and benefits brought about by globalization are quite large, but the opposite is not small. this change in cultural paradigms requires the establishment of new cultural values and a new cultural personality. therefore, learn, refine and adapt foreign cultural quintessence on the basis of inheriting traditional cultural quintessence to build a contemporary cultural human model that is both modern and ethnic. injury to the world is a requirement of many cultural and artistic branches. 2. content 2.1 the individual person has the imprint of traditional culture along with prose, contemporary vietnamese poetry on the journey of renewal and integration, associated with many names that are interested and appreciated by the public such as tran anh thai, nguyen quang thieu, mai van phan, inrasara, phan huyen thu, vi thuy linh ... with a noble mission to establish the relationship between symbols and language, poets set their own path to assert the position of their own poetry and national poetry in the globalization trend. contemporary poetry, in the journey of finding and discovering the essence, building up the model of a multi-dimensional contemporary cultural person has raised the individual into a center of philosophical expression. the concept of the individual only really came into being in the great industrial production, although it was born late, it went beyond traditional limits to reach universal. individuals become the key factors to assemble society—a union of individuals. in a modern society, the more developed the economy is, the greater the individual role, each individual is an independent entity, capable of outstanding labor to assert himself as a complete unit. the more outstanding the individual is, the greater the impact on society is. “individual culture in contemporary society manifests in responses to reality. more specifically, individual culture manifests in words, gestures, actions, costumes ... the immediate behavior of each person. the root of this cultural behavior is the philosophy of life and individual labor”. morality and talent are two important factors that make up the nature of cultural personality. therefore, contemporary poetry always aims to build a shining symbol of personality, full convergence of moral values combined with talent, intelligence, emotion-optimism, solidarity, love. wrap each other and be grateful for the roots of birth, the nurturing roots: “i leave in the morning the mud-covered angels of flesh and date and return to the place waiting waiting for the night” (the day is brillian opening-tran anh thai; trần anh thái, 2007, p. 18). the individual person in contemporary poetry always looks to the homeland as a source of nourishment to the spiritual life of the person-a source of boundless creative inspiration for the artist, the place to return when suffering and success or fail: “i sing a song of my native village/i sing through my navel cord/ which was buried there” (a song of my native www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 1, no. 2, 2020 47 published by scholink inc. village-nguyen quang thieu, 1997, p. 3; nguyen quang thieu, 1997, p. 3). drinking water, remember its source is also a good quality, modern people must know how to save: “the đáy river flows through my life/like my mother coming home through our gate/with heavy baskets on rice at the end of the day/i’ d rub my face on her sweat-soak back/as cool as the river at night” (the đáy river-nguyen quang thieu; nguyen quang thieu, 1997, p. 7). believing and grateful for the traditional cultural values of the nation, contemporary poets preserve and promote it in building human personality: “ancient tomb/path of memory/which path my ancestors have gone ...” (the day is brillian opening-tran anh thai) (trần anh thái, 2007, p. 17). the hard-working, industrious people, mothers, sisters, younger brothers ... early in the day “the light at the end of the day is dewy/my sister mixed into heaven and earth" (the day is brillian opening-tran anh thai; trần anh thái, 2007, p. 23). that figure is familiar, close and becomes flesh and blood in the mind of each person. the more modern and more busy life, the more people want to return to their rural roots, the peasants in themselves as a friendly place. “personal life with the joys and sorrows of privacy must go back into the hidden corner, hidden deep under the noble and sacred things of the people, the country of vietnam. it’s the difference, extraordinary of the war that also makes human life abnormal” (hue hoang thi, 2020, p. 2). the image of these women suffering and suffering exists as symbols of traditional cultural people in contemporary poetry. 2.2 the individual person has the imprint of contemporary culture in addition to building human models with traditional moral values, contemporary poetry focuses on portraying the individual person with new cultural colors. in the literature period 1930-1945, the model of the modern urban cultural man almost dominated the literature, then gave way to the community man, the ethnic people in the period 1945-1975. after 1986 , due to the domination of the culture of the doi moi period, literature focused on building the personal type of person, but developed at a higher level. issues about individual people, essence, others ... in the tendency to dialogue with oneself, dialogue with society, looking back at oneself from personal status, personal tragedy with insecurity and loneliness, confusion, dark spaces in the soul, problems of existence, happiness and suffering ... are conveyed by the poets in their compositions containing many reflections and contemplations. it is the type of person that reconciles traditional and modern cultural elements, postmodern, that is, individual person with changed internal structure, difficult to grasp and recognize, if from the criteria before. modern individuals, in dealing with themselves and around, they both express themselves and adjust themselves to adapt to the national culture and humanity. society needs the creativity of each individual, liberation for each individual is the basis for human liberation (“human history has seen two major personality sacrifices. in the first process the personality is sacrificed for authority, religious, political, or spiritual authority. mankind has liberated this corruption by bringing man back to himself” (karl marx, 2008, p. 131). a market economy with a desire to get rich, a pragmatic lifestyle also risks alienating personality. people will probably be sacrificed by economic power, great moral values, love, and vitality that will be squeezed out if the economy is unified. the modern individual person asserts www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 1, no. 2, 2020 48 published by scholink inc. himself not only in morality but also in talent and intellect. discovering, deepening the being, asserting himself as a different and unique entity, the poet considers art creation as a cultural act, an expression of labor force to be himself. an attempt to create yourself, writing first is to change yourself. poetic creation is a creation of language, a cultural creation, a journey of suffering, of solitude write to see yourself exist and truly exist. poetic creation, with the poet is a process of reconstructing a self, an individual in the journey of searching, looking deep into himself in the most sincere way. because in the artistic work, the individual artist reveals his own identity, the more individual has his own identity, promotes it into a creative driving force, and will create material and spiritual products with literary sound. generalization of the whole community and ethnic group. authentic and valuable artistic products will convey in it the common cultural mark of the nation and humanity. the effort to build consciousness, community identity through individual consciousness is the constant effort of the contemporary poet: “their toes are bony, with long black nails;/they spread like chicken feet./for five, fifteen, thirty years, i’ve watched/the women go down to the river for water” (the women carry the water-nguyen quang thieu; nguyen quang thieu, 1997, p. 21). modern human culture respects and upholds individual dignity and democratic thought. because the individual is an important factor that creates the strength of the community, but traditional eastern culture does not accept the individual. intellectuals and intuitions of each individual are important factors, but the person’s place in the endless life is even more important. due to “in the individual human being, nothing is eternal and permanent… we are not the owner of the life that flows into us, just as the light bulb is not the owner of the current that makes the light bulb shine”. it is the philosophical depth in the concept of the individual of the east that makes contemporary poets aware of the heavy responsibility of the art creator, the poetic language that contains the cultural journey of the nation, and creating national culture, so it is blood language, light language. the poet not only represents the individual artist, but deep down in the language, countless voices of the community resound. that way new poetry will last at the same time. desiring to create identity, personal identity in language, through language, the poets see artistic work as an act of creating and preserving culture through language. using language as its goal, the world and the people appearing in poetry are not as simple, monstrous as before, but sparkling in multiple dimensions. the intrinsic purpose of artistic labor is the main substance, in questioning the nature of the world and the people. the modern individual person is aware of individual rights but is also very aware of duties and responsibilities to the community, as a counterbalance for that individual to exist in balance. the modern individual man both tries his best to construct himself through the national “identity”, at the same time, at the same time, constantly affirms his individual identity, the other of each person compared to the community. because each individual is both similar and different from those around him, individual culture respects each other, but also values the common. the other helps to integrate culture without losing it, on the contrary, it is even brighter and more unique due to its distinctiveness and difference. but the other would not be accepted if it were not based on traditional culture, so that desire for renewal is always a permanent consciousness in poetry. it is the journey of www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 1, no. 2, 2020 49 published by scholink inc. discovering the depths of the human self, the differences between one individual and other individuals: “crouching on a chair/drawing the sky/no room for clouds” (mai van phan, 2017, p. 2). artwork requires both talent and diligence, the product created will bring that individual identity, as a way to carve a personal mark on the readers’ hearts. “culture gives people human qualities ... through the literature, people see the personality of its creator ... through human characteristics, people also understand their cultural personality” (thanh duy, 2004, p. 235). discovering and establishing a contemporary cultural person in poetry helps people to discover themselves more deeply and comprehensively, on the basis of comparison with traditional cultural values, in order to establish the right to life, freedom, democracy ... enrich the spiritual life of man. the spirit of democratization and social globalization create conditions for vietnamese poets to selectively absorb new human theories, combine knowledge, culture and personal experience to build human models contemporary culture, contributing to enriching vietnamese cultural capital in the trend of world integration. a contemporary individual person with the need to express himself, affirm ethics, talents and a sense of self-worth, expressed in poetry in many ways: in life, in love, in art … etc. all together aim to discover and build an individual human model with contemporary cultural colors in the era of globalization, integration and development. “in addition to economic and social challenges, vietnam also faces cultural challenges. the possibility of losing national cultural identity is a particular common threat for many developing countries. for every nation, cultural tradition is the most important and valuable thing, and literature is the expression and prod-ucts of culture. as a form of spiritual culture, literature is a place to store, preserve and create cultural identities of the nation. national cultural identity is the unique core of a cultural community in the history of existence and development, which can help to distinguish one ethnic group from another” (hue hoang thi, 2020, p. 63). it is a type of cultural person with a new value system: both inheriting the traditional values of the nation such as drinking water, remember its source, love, support, share, live for everyone ... and combine with other new values of the modern society such as individual autonomy, creativity, sense to rise to assert themselves… etc. 3. conclusion literature has reappeared, built and preserved many cultural human models bearing the characteristics of each cultural period from the early twentieth century to the present. contemporary vietnamese poetry also contributes to building people who put themselves in the middle of the work of society, are an organic part of society, catalyze from their position, their ability to the commune, society, creating values that promote social development. poets contribute to the treasure of artistic experience through their own voice, unique talent, and the artist creates specific cultural models that enrich people's spiritual life. that is the type of person who values the love of homeland, family, believes in life, desires to affirm dignity, personal talents, desires to live, loves to the end of life, ready to burn to the fullest in life, live and work in art to assert the being. the contemporary individual person in poetry, regardless of its expression, is always a cultural value that resonates with all that belongs to the human www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 1, no. 2, 2020 50 published by scholink inc. race, era and nation. because “the historical lesson that the american people learn is: a good life is more meaningful, larger than personal freedom and material fulfillment, a happy life also includes development. community relationships and taking care of social concerns”. acknowledgement * this article science was sponsored by ministry of education and training, vietnam. code project: b2020-dhh-04. references bill, c. (1997). between hope and history—the american confrontation with the challenges of the twenty-first century (p. 124). national political publishing house, hanoi. do, l. t. (2004). psychoanalysis and literary arts. hanoi culture publishing house, vietnam. hue, h. t. (2020). impact of globalization to the culture, society and literature in viet nam. international journal of innovation, creativity and change, 3(2). hue, h. t. (2020). traditional culture in contemporary viet-namese poetry: a perspective from nie zhenzhao’s ethical literary criticism. interdisciplinary studies of literature, 4(1). inrasara. (n.d.). thơ-dan-tộc-thiểu-số-từ-một-hướng-nhin-dộng. retrieved from http://inrasara.com/2008/01/15/thơ-dan-tộc-thiểu-số-từ-một-hướng-nhin-dộng-23/ mai, v. p. (2013). out of the dark. page addie press, australia. nguyen, d. b. (editor) (2008). the transformation of cultural values in the context of building a market economy today (p. 131). encyclopedia publishing house and cultural institute, hanoi. nguyen, q. t. (1997). the women carry river water. university of massachusetts press, usa. thanh, d. (2004). contributing to research on vietnamese culture under the light of ho chi minh’s thought (p. 235). national political publishing house, hanoi. trần, a. t. (2007). the day is brillian opening. writers association publishing house, hanoi, vietnam. frontiers of contemporary education issn 2690-3520 (print) issn 2690-3539 (online) vol. 6, no. 1, 2025 www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce 11 original paper law and financial education karina trejo sánchez 1 & carlos adolfo sanabria valdés 2 1 ph. d. in law, universidad autónoma metropolitana, campus cuajimalpa, mexico 2 ph. d. in law, universidad autónoma metropolitana, campus azcapotzalco, mexico received: july 10, 2025 accepted: july 18, 2025 online published: august 4, 2025 doi:10.22158/fce.v6n1p11 url: http://dx.doi.org/10.22158/fce.v6n1p11 abstract thera are many notions of law, one is a set of rules and principles so as to protect dignity of the humankind. in our modern western democratic societies everybody has the right to sell or buy, contract or offer services freely. law discipline may protect those acitivities because everyone has the right to free choise of employment. each personal can choise a way to earn money, this personal election is part of the nature of every human being. professors of law may use some group dynamics in order to teach financial education. these activities seem to produce good results in students life, such as saving, investing and increasing money. financial knowledge at universities tends to provide more intelectual resources so as to human beings manage assets in a better way. investing money intelligently by humankind seems to everyone could live a better live. people deserve to flourish because of everybody is worthy. keywords education, law, financial, wealth, students www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 6, no. 1, 2025 12 published by scholink inc. 1. introduction law is a set of rules and legal principles so as to protect dignity of the humankind. professors of law could teach financial knowledge to students so that everybody might have prosperity. wealth is part of the human dignity. the main goal of this article is to propose professors of law may apply some group dynamics in order to provide financial education to students. in the section “method”, we set out some notions of law and education in order to draw some connections between them, then we put forward some teaching techniques consernign to the topic financial education so that professors of law could teach law students. in the part of this article titled “results” we draw some strenghs of some groups dynamics. in the last section “discussion” we propose some arguments of applying those teaching techniques. 2. method we apply the deductive method in this work, that method means next gendre and some specific differences, then we argue general concepts of law and education, then we draw some connections between them so as to porpose some teaching techniques that these are specific differences. there are many notions of law, one is a set of rules and principles so as to protect dignity of the humankind. a second notion of law was stated by ronald dworkin who put forward: “law is an interpretive concept” (dworkin, 1986, p. 410). the interpretation of law is based on legal principles, “in the interpretive spirit, to lay principle over practice to show the best route to a better future, keeping the right faith with the past (dworkin, 1986, p. 413). law must be a fraternal attitude among human beings. “it is, finally, a fraternal attitude, an expression of how we are united in community though divided in proyect, interest, and www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 6, no. 1, 2025 13 published by scholink inc. conviction”. law tends to join individual and social human life projects. “that is, anyway, what law is for us: for the people we want to be and the community we aim to have” (dworkin, 1986, p. 413). if law protects dignity, then all subjects of law warrant it, such as trade law. the concept of trade law is: “a system of juridical rules that decide its application place through the meaning of commercials given to specifics acts, rule them and the profession whom dedicate those acts” (mantilla, 2001, p. 23). this sector of law rules to individual business human beings and any kind of business corporations. in our modern western democratic societies everybody has the right to sell or buy, contract or offer services freely. law discipline may protect those acitivities because everyone has the right to free choise of employment. each person can choise a way to earn money, this private election is part of the nature of every human being. people can interchange goods or services individually or associated with someone else. trade and business law rule those activities. “various forms of business organization that are available to those who trade. there are many forms that organizations can take, from sole traders, to working in partnerships with others” (marson, 2011, p. 491). if law discipline makes rules and juridical principles in order to protect the commercial activities of all humankind then everyone is going to have the right to work so that live a better life, that is the law are for. this academic discipline may protect everybody so that humankind might prosper. we shall propose some notions of education, then we will put foward an idea of financial education. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 6, no. 1, 2025 14 published by scholink inc. a notion of education is: “all those experiences of an individual who through them acquieres knowledge, enlightens the intellect and strengthens the will”. in a strict sense, the term education limits itself to a formal education consciously planned and applied systematically, directed by different social media of education, mostly the school” (reeden, 1963, p. 52). margarita pansza sets out two opposite concepts of education: firstly education means: “a simple reproduction of interests, values and knowledge of the people class in the power” (pansza, 2004, p. 24) also in the opposite way “is a change agent” (pansza, 2004, p. 24). education may provide students good ideas to flourish as humankind. financial education shows financial notions, concepts, activities and theories so as to everyone might have a wealthy life. working hard, applying western democratic societies values also respecting the freedom of everybody could be a correct way so that all humankind may have richness. when someone prospers everyone could help each other, for example a son tends to help to a family. if somebody helps anyone financially then human beings appear to have a better society. we shall draw some group dynamics so as to professors of law could provide students knowledge on financial education. we are going to put forward some group dynamics in order to professors of law might teach financial education and all of those could be applied jointly when students take subjects such as business law, commercial law, financial law, etc. each group dynamic states the study of one asset. there are many assets, such as real state, stocks, shares, bitcoin, gold, silver, treasury bills. the first group dynamic is symposium that means: “detailed exposure of one topic since different points of view, its scope is integrate the whole vision of that theme. when the experts of a subjetc end the exposure the topic must be developed as long as www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 6, no. 1, 2025 15 published by scholink inc. would be possible and separate logical parts so as to outline the thorough knowledge. the exposure is individual in a successive and coherent way. for example in the topic “the current youth” each expounder must present it with the next aspects: educational, biological, cultural, psychological, sociological, spiritual, etc. at the end they should make a synthesis and a pick up work of the current documentation about the topic if it would be posible. precise and logical presentations are keys in good symposiums” (andueza, 2007, p. 51). this group dynamic could be adapted by educators of law on the topic of finances, for example: a professor may organize a real estate symposium, then the educator might invite two or three experts. this teaching technique is only to study the asset real state. a few days later a professor is going to indicate students the accurate day to assist to the event scheduled for one and a half hour. when the symposium starts the professor could be the coordinator introducing experts, then each exponent might exposure by twenty minutes, the first specialist could speak on what a real state is, including a classification, taking in consideration the second exponent could show when invest in that assets. students could ask experts at the end of the event. the second group dynamic is round table technique, it means: “this technique is applied when someone wants to show the audience points of view divergent and contradictory from experts on a specific topic or issue. specialists on expose their opposite points of view in front of the audience in an alternative way. the round table follows an informal line of conversation or discusion” heard by the group www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 6, no. 1, 2025 16 published by scholink inc. managed by the moderator who watchs to the discussion follows the planned way. due to the level of knowledge does not require specialized studies, the divergent points produce a debate on them” (andueza, 2007, p. 51). this teaching technique could be applied on the topic stock markets. that pedagogical instrument would help students to know investing shares of the most importants companies in united states because of this is the first economy in the world, has rules and a rule of law that may protect people who invest some money. an example of applying that group dynamic could be when a professor of law coordinates the event, then invites to two experts who invest in different stocks also a moderator. each exponent may argue advanges or desadvanteges on investing in an asset, at any moment of the event students might speak arguments or ask questions to specialists because of the concept of this teaching technique states a kind of informal conversation, “the round table follows an informal line of conversation or discussion” (andueza, 2007, p. 51). the role of the moderator could be giving the turn everyone to speak. in this example students might know how the stocks market works, as result they are going to know the best way to invest money. the third group dynamic is panel technique, it means: “many people study a topic or a problem who speak freely among them. in this technique they expose a topic through a dialogue or an informal conversation in front of the audience, but “they do not expose as speakers” neither “they do not take the turn so as to speak” but there is an interaction among the group. talking arises spontaneously and dynamically, thus anyone can start the dialogue. nevertheless, the panel must follow a coordinated development so as to the audience has www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 6, no. 1, 2025 17 published by scholink inc. a whole vision about the topic. the experts communicate the topic to the group through the coordinator. the coordinator is a channeler who clears the argued points, asks and modarates the time. when the panel finishes, the topic could pass to the audience, managed by the coordinator. then the panel becomes a forum. personal or familiar topics seem the more suitable to be managed through the panel; for example, public services, parties, etc” (andueza, 2007, p. 61). this group dynamic could be applied by educators in the topic of government treasure bills. an example of using this teaching technique is when a professor of law invites three experts on that asset, then, the day of this academic event the coordinator presents exponents. one expert might start the topic speaking for five minutes. the next turn is for another speaker who could explain more aspects about the arguments explained by the first specialist, at this moment two exponents have argued different concepts and characteristics of the government treasure bills. a few minutes later a third expert appears to explain other different aspects about this topic. the coordinator could ask specialists clarify some explanatios, as result of this activity the audience could speak arguments “when the panel finishes, the topic could pass to the audience, managed by the coordinator. then the panel becomes a forum” (andueza, 2007, p. 61). www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 6, no. 1, 2025 18 published by scholink inc. 3. result we put forward some group dynamics such as symposium, round table technique also panel technique in order to professors of law might promote financial education and all of those could be applied jointly when students take subjects such as business law, commercial law, financial law, etc. the group dynamic symposium showed the topic of real estate that is one of the most important assets, it produces a significant amount of money in real life of the people. any one who has a house, a land or a building tends to earn a significant amount of money after years. educators of law could promote the value of investing in real estate because it is one of the most important assets in our life. the concept of real estate has some species such as houses, buildings, lands etc. which those are some parts of the right to a personal property that is a human right or a faculty, this protects the most deep inside of everyone, therefore law discipline must protect that human right. this argument is based on natural law, john locke proposed: “clearly show that god, how king david says (psalm 115,16) gave the land his children of men; gave it, that is, to humankind in common” (locke, p. 17). professors of law may use that group dynamic so that students could know the best way to buy houses, buildings, land, etc. when in any society people can buy those assets there are liberty, democracy, rule of law and respect to human rights because every body might have those faculties. the more students learn finances attending summits at the same time studying any major at universities the more seem to know how to save or invest money. the more students accomplish those activities the more they may have better finances. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 6, no. 1, 2025 19 published by scholink inc. students may have more economic resources when professors of law speak on financial education in the classrooms, summits, conferences or group dynamics. it is worth applying some of those group dynamics because some experts in finances teach knowledge on how saving, investign and growing money to students who may use those teaching tecniques so that could have an increase in finances, money also real state after conclude any major at universities. the more people know the nature of assets the more human beings might have a better quality of life. education may provide students good ideas to flourish as humankind. financial education shows financial notions, concepts, activities and theories so as to everyone might have a wealthy life. working hard, applying western democratic societies values also respecting the freedom of everybody could be a correct way so that all humankind may have richness. when someone prospers everyone could help each other, for example a son tends to help to a family. if somebody helps anyone financially then human beings appear to have a better society. professors of law might collaborate in the process of teaching financial education so as to students could have a better economy. it could be possible when educators apply some group dinamics on financial education at the same time students take classes of business law, commercial law, financial law or similar subjetcs. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 6, no. 1, 2025 20 published by scholink inc. 4. discussion professors of law may use some group dynamics in order to provide financial education. these activities seem to produce good results in students life, such as saving, investing and increasing money, etc. in addition, educators of law might create more rules and discover other legal principles so as to protect the right of free choise of employment, people who apply this human right may live a better life. there are some laws, rights, rules, acts, values and juridical principles state that human right such as the article twenty third number first of the universal declaration of human rights states: “everyone has the right to work, to free choise of employment to just and favorable conditions of work and to protection against unemployment”. furthermore there are constitutions that state that human right, such as the article fith of the constitution of united mexican states states: “nobody will be prevented to dedicate any profession, industry, trade or work that is convinient being lawful”. everybody has the right to free choise of employment. people apper to be happy working in the job that everyone choises free, that is the law is for. academic people may provide more ideas so that all governments, private big companies and non-governmental internation organizations must respect all human rights. financial knowledge at universities tends to provide more intelectual resources so as to human beings manage assets in a better way. investing money intelligently by humankind seems to everyone could live a better live. people deserve to flourish because of everybody is worthy. people have the right to prosper because wealth is part of the dignity of human beings. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 6, no. 1, 2025 21 published by scholink inc. references andueza, m. (2007). dinámica de grupos. trillas, mexico. constitution of united mexican states. (2025). dworkin, r. (1986). law’s empire. harvard university, united states of america. locke, j. (2018). ensayos sobre el gobierno civil. porrúa, mexico. mantilla molina, r. l. (2001). derecho mercantil. porrúa, mexico. marson, j. (2011). business law. oxford, united kingdom. pansza, m. (2004). fundamentación de la didáctica. gernika, mexico. reeden, j. (1963). pedagogía general y filosofía de la educación. morata, madrid. universal declaration of human rights. (1948). frontiers of contemporary education issn 2690-3520 (print) issn 2690-3539 (online) vol. 4, no. 3, 2023 www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce 12 original paper an integrated approach to esp teaching: a case study kassoum kone 1 1 english for specific purposes, université alassane ouattara, bouaké, côte d’ivoire received: may 5, 2023 accepted: may 19, 2023 online published: september 14, 2023 doi:10.22158/fce.v4n3p12 url: http://dx.doi.org/10.22158/fce.v4n3p12 abstract this article is about the relevance of the integrated approach in english for specific purposes (esp) teaching. the purpose was to show the extent to which that teaching approach is essential in meeting esp learners’ needs, as compared to a training based on grammar points and discrete items of the language. the study was grounded in the genre theory and it was made around main questions as follows: what is the appropriate approach to esp teaching-learning? should teaching esp be about discrete items, grammar, or an integrated approach? what does the adoption of the integrated approach entail? to address these concerns, we conducted a research with the target population (6 learners from two different companies), through a semi-structured interview guide. the findings revealed that the integrated approach gives to esp courses more meaning. the implementation of authentic activities is a means of giving the possibility to the students to build and acquire global knowledge in the language, which is far better than focusing on grammar points and isolated and floating terminologies. keywords approach, discrete items, esp, genre, integrated, needs 1. introduction the growing need to prepare individuals capable of operating in a variety of socio-professional contexts has given english for specific purposes [esp] a prominent place in the language classroom. with this new reality, researchers and practitioners in the field of esp are constantly engaged in a process that seeks to develop the best approaches for more effective learning. several approaches have thus emerged from this desire to make esp easier to learn. among these approaches, many practitioners tend to adopt the teaching of discrete items of the language. however, this approach has been extensively criticized for not giving enough space to communication. the integrated approach will thus come to the forefront because of the emphasis it places on both the needs of the learners and the communicative aspect of the language (koné, 2022). www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 4, no. 3, 2023 13 published by scholink inc. the researchers who defend this paradigm believe that the adoption of the integrated approach to esp teaching offers better prospects for improving the training conditions of learners so as to meet the objectives that led to the emergence of esp. based on the ongoing debate on the best practices to be adopted in the esp classroom, we are interested in the best approaches for the teaching of esp. therefore, what is the appropriate approach to esp teaching-learning? should teaching esp be about discrete items, grammar, or an integrated approach? what does the adoption of the integrated approach entail? the answer to these questions will lead the following work. 2. review of literature and theoretical framework 2.1 review of literature english for specific purposes (esp) has many definitions in the research community. indeed, in their quest to popularize the term, many scholars have tried to give their points about the meaning of the concept. robinson (1980) defines esp as teaching intended for learners who need english for specific needs and objectives. these objectives can be professional, academic, and so on. the definition provided above is in perfect harmony with the one given by the international organization for teacher education (iote, 2005). according to the tenants of this organization, the term esp refers to the teaching or learning of english for a specific profession (medicine, law, economics, etc.) or for business in general. hutchinson and waters (1992) maintain that the particularity of esp lies in the fact that learners are aware of their needs in the language. focusing on the different definitions, esp teaching-learning seems to show interest in a variety of domains. such a view is confirmed by crystal (1987, p. 378) in the following terms: there is no theoretical limit to the number of special purposes to which language can be put. as society develops new facets, so language is devised to express them. in recent times, whole new areas of expression have emerged, in relation to such domains as computing, broadcasting, commercial advertising, and popular music. over a longer time scale, special styles have developed associated with religion, law, politics, commerce, the press, medicine, and science. a detailed linguistic account of any one of these areas would itself require an encyclopedia, as the analysis of the language used would require an exposition of the conceptual system that gave rise to it. it, therefore, clearly appears that esp continues to evolve with a view to embracing new professional fields as they emerge. in order to do so, esp continually focuses on the learners’ needs. described by nunan (1988) as a “data collection process”, needs analysis plays a prominent role in esp to the extent that it helps the practitioner identify the elements to be included in his curriculum. in the words of hutchinson and waters (1987), needs analysis accounts for the “necessities, wants, and lacks” of the learners with a view to coming up with useful data regarding what they know and what to include in the www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 4, no. 3, 2023 14 published by scholink inc. teaching material. from the above, it stands out that esp is primarily both learner-centered and learning-centered (hutchinson & waters, op. cit.) as it places great emphasis on the learner. teaching esp usually appears as a difficult task for many teachers. such difficulties mainly rest in the approach used. indeed, while some teachers believe it should be the teaching of discrete items and grammar points to meet learners’ needs, some others apprehend the approach to the teaching of esp should be integrated. 2.2 the genre theory in communication, a genre is a system of choices available to the user of the language which allows him to achieve or express meaning in a given environment. swales (1990) is one of the first to apply genre theory to esp. he asserts that like genre, esp also stipulates that linguistics characteristics must be connected to the context of use. esp aims at offering learners the means of communication that will increase their knowledge in a given academic and/or professional community. swales (idem, p. 85) asserts that: “a genus comprises a class of communicative events, the members of which share a set of communicative objectives. these objectives are recognized by expert members of the parental discourse community”. halliday (1978) thinks that language, by its use, is a form of socialization, which allows various forms of the interpretation of social and socio-cultural relations. he explains that the contexts of language use are never isolated. they are likely to reappear in other situations; which he (halliday) calls the “types of situation”. this reproduction of usage situations allows users to develop, over time, types of semantic interaction in these contexts. this semantic development in a framework of use is, according to halliday (ibid), the language register. by linking a context of use to a semantic situation and a grammatico-lexical model, the register refers to the description of the domain of use of the language, and how the participants (the tenors) are mutually linked. the domain is the system of activities in a given environment that takes into account the participants, their practices, and the circumstances. the concept of “tenors” sheds light on the social relationship that exists between the participants involved and their interactions in the conversation. in other words, genre theory aims at helping learners make appropriate language choices that match their needs or social positions. the approach thus emphasizes the active involvement of the learner during the learning process. it is about the creation of a discursive community, that is to say, a community that shares the same linguistic discourse in a given domain in order to achieve their goals and meet their communicative needs. the analysis of this communicative need generally represents the starting point in an esp course. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 4, no. 3, 2023 15 published by scholink inc. furthermore, communicative events must be a matter of mutual understanding by professionals. to be more explicit, the establishment of a kind of language code is necessary in order to allow learners to reflect and realize private intentions in their field of specialty, thus accomplishing social activities through communicative purposes. from what precedes, it is clear that genre theory focuses on the process of language learning and acquisition. language skills and linguistics compounds are presented as a whole and not in separate elements (lexicon and grammar) because language is a whole set composed of structures, meanings, functions, and others. therefore, none of these components goes without the others in a language acquisition process. 3. methodological approach 3.1 context of the study as a language specialist, we have been teaching esp for years in several national and international companies. for instance, we taught english at the african development bank (adb) and the integrated management center (imc) for more than one year. through time, we had the opportunity to test various approaches to esp teaching. from this experience, we have come to the conclusion that the best approach to meet learners’ needs is the integrated approach. 3.2 population of the study our learners were mainly composed of managers in different companies. we had to equip them with the language they need to deal with their daily tasks in order to be effective in their domain. among many other tasks, they should be able to hold meetings, deal with conferences, read and understand emails and chat with their colleagues in english. 3.3 data collection procedures for the collection of data in this study, we have used semi-structured interviews in order to collect learners’ impressions of the teaching approach they have experienced. the purpose was to allow them to have opinions and say what they feel about it. in other words, they should be able to say whether the method helps meet their language need or not. in so doing, we did the interview with learners from two different companies. they were three from each company. we made the decision to make a synthesis of the opinions collected in company a, which allowed us to have a general view of the group, which we named group 1. we did the same with the other company, which we named group 2. the interview was conducted in french to allow the interviewees, express themselves freely and have much to say. using the english language could lead to speaking anxiety. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 4, no. 3, 2023 16 published by scholink inc. 4. presentation of the results and discussions 4.1 presentation of the results the question asked to our respondents was: what do you think about the teaching approaches you have experienced when learning english? the purpose was to have the respondents compare the teaching approaches they have experienced while learning english throughout their careers. during the interviews with group 1, the respondents found that there have been considerable evolution when comparing the former approach used to teach them and the new one we introduced. in other words, they considered that the integrated approach is “more useful” to the extent that they learn more aspects of the language. more specifically, they welcomed the fact that the integrated approach offers them more opportunities to learn english through “texts and videos that provide more information about their professional domain”. in a word, the respondents from group 1 found the integrated approach more interesting and better than the former approaches their teachers used to teach english in their company. as regards group 2, most respondents expressed a positive view about the integrated approach, which they described as “exciting”. in fact, they considered that the procedures brought in by the integrated approach were interesting because it “allows them to use information from their professional world to learn english and use it to communicate effectively”. nevertheless, some respondents from group 2 deplored the fact the integrated approach is much more demanding in terms of efforts from the learners. in their words, involving learners in completing such a variety of tasks, as is the case with the integrated approach, can be hindering for professionals learning english. such a view is mainly based on the rationale that workers are too busy with their professional activities, which does not let them much time to spare for completing demanding english tasks. despite their complaints, the respondents from group 2 agreed that the integrated approach is much more beneficial for them in terms of opportunities to learn english. a summary of respondents’ opinions is presented in table 1 below: www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 4, no. 3, 2023 17 published by scholink inc. table 1. summarized responses from respondents in the submitted language question group 1 group 2 what do you think about the teaching approach you experienced? we think it is an approach, from which we learn several things at once. it allows us to study texts and videos which provide us with knowledge about our field and we find this very interesting. as compared to what we used to see before, where everything focused on grammar and vocabulary points, we feel learning more with approach and actually, it is a good one it is an exciting approach, because it allows us to use information from our profession while learning and communicating in english. we watched videos related to our job. however, it remains a bit complex. we use too many things at once. meaning, we watch videos, study some texts and we have to make comments, exchange about all of those elements. we find that too demanding, because we are workers and we don’t have enough time. apart from that point, the approach can be among the best. 4.2 discussions genre theory states that the focus should be on the process of language learning and acquisition. language skills and linguistics compounds should be presented as a whole and not in separate elements (lexicon and grammar) because language is a whole set composed of structures, meanings, functions, and others. therefore, none of these components goes without the others in a language acquisition process. in this way, learning the language should allow learners to express meaning in various communication contexts they face, as argued by halliday (op.cit.), swales (op.cit.), and bathia (2004) esp students should therefore be equipped with means of communication that will increase their cultural background in the professional community. concretely, the language forms taught must be specific to their domain and must, therefore, be associated with linguistic knowledge. in other words, courses in esp should aim at developing learners’ communicative skills and strategies according to their needs. we have to carefully identify these skills and communicative strategies in order to effectively develop them. the four main language skills should not be addressed in isolation during learning activities. yet to be able to write or even speak a second or foreign language, it is not enough to claim to know it. instead, it necessarily requires good oral comprehension without which it is not possible to communicate effectively. when language skills are therefore not addressed in an integrated way, from a communicative perspective, students cannot make a social use of it. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 4, no. 3, 2023 18 published by scholink inc. our personal experience as a social learner-user of english edifies us on the possibility of fully and exclusively acquiring language skills. communication in real-life situations requires more than one language skill. therefore, teaching that integrates the four main language skills allows learners to acquire the four skills simultaneously. two approaches to language teaching generally make it possible to integrate language skills. these are content-based teaching and task-based teaching. the first emphasizes learning the language through content that interests them (a subject, a theme, a series, a character, etc.), while the second insists on the execution of tasks (solving situational problems) requiring the communicative use of language. in both approaches, peer and group work is used to increase learner interaction and collaboration. in other words, it is about developing tasks whose completion requires the holistic use of english to solve problems related to real-life communication. 5. conclusion in conclusion, rather than focusing on terminologies and isolated grammar points, esp teachers and practitioners must encourage the integrated approach to language teaching, especially esp. in this way, learners will be able to use language related to their field as a whole. in this case, the courses will give students the opportunity to analyze both the formal and functional aspects of the language in social and cultural contexts. they will then be more comfortable in their production of the language in their professional life. esp courses should have more meaning. the development of authentic activities (activities which reflect as faithfully as possible the use of english in the real life) is a means of giving the possibility to the students to build and acquire global knowledge of the language, and not essentially isolated and floating terminologies. as for the grammar rules, they will appear in contexts so that the learners can learn them implicitly during the learning process. these grammar rules and terminologies will no longer be the subject of decontextualized teaching. references bhatia, v. k. (2004). worlds of written discourse: a genre-based view. london: continuum. crystal, d. (1987). the cambridge encyclopedia of language. cambridge: cambridge university press. glmenze, j. (2000). email communication: some emerging tendencies in register. english for special purposes journal, 19(3). https://doi.org/10.1016/s0889-4906(98)00030-1 halliday, m. k. (1978). language as social semiotic: the social interpretation of language and meaning. london: edward arnold. hutchinson, t., & waters, a. (1987). english for specific purposes: a learner-centered approach. cambridge: cambridge university press. https://doi.org/10.1017/cbo9780511733031 https://doi.org/10.1016/s0889-4906(98)00030-1 https://doi.org/10.1017/cbo9780511733031 www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 4, no. 3, 2023 19 published by scholink inc. hutchinson, t., & waters, a. (1992). english for specific purposes: a learning-centered approach. cambridge: cambridge university press. hutchinson, t., & waters, a. (1994). english for specific purposes. glasgow: cambridge university press. kone, k. (2022). apprentissage par expérience et enseignement de l’anglais de spécialité (asp): les cas de l’ufr des sciences médicales, ufhb (doctoral dissertation). abidjan: felix houphouët boigny university. nunan, d. (1988). principles for designing language teaching materials. guidelines, 10, 1-24. singapore: seameo relc. robinson, p. (1980). esp. oxford: oxford pergamon press. swales, j. (1990). genre analysis: eng lish in academic and research settings. cambridge: cambridge university press. frontiers of contemporary education issn 2690-3520 (print) issn 2690-3539 (online) vol. 4, no. 4, 2023 www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce 13 original paper variables of self-regulated learning as predictors of academic achievement clara r. p. ajisuksmo 1,2 1 faculty of psychology, atma jaya catholic university of indonesia, jakarta, indonesia 2 centre for societal development studies, atma jaya catholic university of indonesia, jakarta, indonesia received: november 22, 2023 accepted: november 30, 2023 online published: december 8, 2023 doi:10.22158/fce.v4n4p13 url: http://dx.doi.org/10.22158/fce.v4n4p13 abstract this study examined the four variables of self-regulated learning, namely processing strategies, regulation strategies, mental models of learning, and learning orientations in predicting students’ academic achievement. the study constituents included 578 first year students [(female n=479; 82.9%); male n=99; 17.1%)] enrolled at faculty of psychology, in three universities in three big cities in indonesia, medan north sumatra (n=258; 44.6%), jakarta the capital city (n=209; 36.2%) and surabaya east java (n=111; 19.2%). the range of the participants’ age was from 17 to 23 years, and the mean age was 18.99 years. the indonesia version of vermunt’s inventory of learning styles (ils) was implemented to measure the four variables of self-regulated learning. the result of this study revealed that the four variables of self-regulated learning were significant predictors of students’ academic achievement. the study also showed the differences in the four variables of self-regulated learning in terms of gender and the university. keywords academic achievement, higher education, learning process, metacognition, self-regulation www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 4, no. 4, 2023 14 published by scholink inc. 1. introduction learning quality is used to determine the degree of implementation of learning activities and processes carried out by students and is always linked to achievement (ghufron & hardiyanto, 2017; i̇lçin, tomruk, yeşilyaprak, et al., 2018). ghufron and hardiyanto (2017) also stated that one of the important indicators that characterizes the quality of learning is the quality of students. according to lawson and kirby (in ali & masih, 2021) and i̇lçin, tomruk, yeşilyaprak, et al., (2018) one of the factors that influences the quality of learning is the learning process and approaches carried out by the learner along with the resulting knowledge structure which is stored in memory. various studies have reported that self-regulation plays important role in learning, for example learning the second language (khodarahmi & zarrinabadi, 2016; alzubaidi, aldridge & khine, 2016; huang, 2022; wijaya & setiawan, 2021), mathematical problems (perels, dignath & schmitz, 2009; labuhn, zimmerman & hasselhorn, 2010), science (li, zheng, liang, zhang & tsai, 2016), and medical education (siddaiah-subramanya, nyandowe & zubair, 2017). thus, self-regulation in learning will influence academic achievement (schapiro & livingston, 2000; de acedo lizarraga, ugarte, et al., 2003; vermunt, 2005; labuhn, zimmerman & hasselhorn, 2010), and professional career (endedijk, brekelmans, sleegers, et al., 2016). according to schunk (in schraw, crippen & hartley, 2006) and valle, núñez, cabanach, et al. (2009), self-regulation refers to the individuals’ ability to understand and monitor their learning by setting goals and strategies to achieve the goals, implementing the strategies in learning, and monitoring the progress in achieving the goals. de corte emphasized the importance of self-regulation in learning in higher education students by stated that successful learners and problem solvers can simultaneously perform two functions: executing a task, and organizing/evaluating (=self-regulating) the task-related activities by orienting oneself to the task, planning one’s approach to the task or problem, monitoring and evaluating the activities, and reflecting after a task has been performed (p. 266). self-regulation, therefore, is crucial competencies for success in learning (de corte, 2016; baez-estradas & alonso-tapia, 2017). the study of baez-estradas and tapia (2017), reported that students’ effort to learning will also depend on the way they regulate their learning when confronting the learning tasks. the more difficult the learning tasks are, the more negative emotions will arise that will affect the thinking process. vermunt and vermetten (2004) mentioned the interplay of cognitive processing strategies, metacognitive regulation strategies, conceptions of learning, and learning orientations as four important components of student learning. based on when and how many times the students took the test, mello (2016) analyzed students’ self-monitoring of their learning process. the study of mello (2016) indicated that more students used tests as self-assessment rather than as a way of monitoring their learning process. the study of mello (2016) also revealed that students of higher achievers used more self-directed learning than the low achievers. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 4, no. 4, 2023 15 published by scholink inc. referring to the previous explanations, then the issue to be raised in this study was what variables of self-regulated learning that support students’ academic achievement. thus, the aim of this study was to examine the correlations of four variables of self-regulated learning such as processing strategies, regulation strategies, study orientations and conceptions of learning. this study also examines the differences of four variables of self-regulated learning in terms of gender and the university. 2. method 2.1 sampling technique and sample size a non-random sampling technique applied in this study. in total 578 first year students [(female n=479; 82.9%); male n=99; 17.1%)] enrolled at faculty of psychology, in three universities in three big cities in indonesia, medan north sumatra (n=258; 44.6%), jakarta the capital city (n=209; 36.2%) and surabaya east java (n=111; 19.2%) participated in this study. the participants’ age was from 17 to 23 years, and the mean age was 18.99 years. the participation was voluntarily, and informed consent was signed. the indonesian version of vermunt’s inventory of learning style (ils) was administered in a group in a classroom. 2.2 research instrument the indonesian version of vermunt’s inventory of learning style (ils) consisted of 130 items and 4 subscales was used to measure four variables of learning, processing of learning (27 items), regulations of learning (28 items), orientation to study (35 items), and mental model of learning or conceptions of learning (40 items). processing of learning subscale has three components, deep processing, stepwise processing, and concrete processing. regulation of learning subscale has three components, self-regulated, externally regulated, and lack of regulation. study orientation subscale has five components, certificate directed, vocation directed, self-test directed, personally interested, and ambivalent. conception of learning subscale has five components, intake of knowledge, construction of knowledge, use of knowledge, stimulating education, and cooperation. a five-point likert scale is used to rate the items. in the processing of learning and regulation of learning subscales, from “never do” to “always do”. in the study orientations and conceptions of learning subscales, from “mostly disagree”, to “mostly agree”. the range internal consistency or the cronbach α of the subscales was 0.53-0.81, in which the lowest is the external regulation result and the highest is deep processing. students’ gpa scores were used as the measure of academic achievement. 2.3 data collection procedures and analysis appropriate heads of department in each university provided permission for students’ participation, and each student voluntarily participated in the research. students signed the informed consent. completion of the ils was anonymous, and confidentiality was assured. the ils was administered to the students in groups in the classrooms. prior to the administration of ils, the aim of the research was informed to the students. pearson correlation and multiple regression are used to determine the correlation between each scale, and the contribution of each scale to academic achievement. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 4, no. 4, 2023 16 published by scholink inc. 3. result 3.1 correlations among variables of self-regulated learning table 1 showed that deep processing has no significant correlations with lack of regulation, certificate directed, intake of knowledge, stimulating of education and cooperation. deep processing showed significant correlation with self-regulation in learning (r=.60; p<.01). deep processing has significant correlations with the other two components of cognitive processing, stepwise processing (r=.60; p<.01) and concrete processing (r=.59; p<01), and two components of regulation strategies, self-regulation (r=66; p<01) and external regulation (r=.42; p<.01). deep processing has also significant correlations with three component of study orientation, vocational directed (r=.23; p<.01), self-test (r=.24; p<.01), personally interested (r=.28; p<.01). deep processing has significant correlations with two components of conceptions of learning, construction of knowledge (r=.44; p<.01) and use of knowledge (r=.22; p<.01). deep processing has significant negative correlation with ambivalent (r=-.17; p<.01). self-regulation showed significant correlations with vocational directed (r=.28; p,.01), self-test (r=.31; p<.01), personally interested (r=.29; p<.01), and components of conceptions of learning, intake of knowledge (r=.15; p<.01), construction of knowledge (r=.53; p <.01), use of knowledge (r=.23; p<.01), stimulating education (r=.11; p<.01) and cooperation (r=.13; p<.01). self-regulation showed negative correlation with ambivalent (r=.12; p<.01). table 1. correlations among variables of self-regulated learning 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 deep 1 stepwise .60** 1 concrete .59** .45** 1 self-reg .66** .64** .53** 1 ext-reg .42** .63** .44** .53** 1 lack-reg -.05 -.03 .02 -.03 .03 1 certificate -.01 .10* .02 .07 .28** -.19** 1 vocational .23** .29** .31** .28** .39** -.01 .42** 1 self-test .24** .28** .24** .31** .38** 0.9* .43** .58** 1 personally .28** .20** .25** .29** .15** .05 .22** .45** .36** 1 ambivalent -.17** -.05 -.17** -.12** -.05 .50** .23** -.09* .07 .01 1 intake .02 .25** .14** .15** .43** .22** .46** .44** .44** .25** .24** 1 construction .44** .35** .38** .53** .27** -.11** .10* .35** .43** .45** -.05 .28** 1 use .22** .23** .42** .23** .31** .01 .19** .51** .41** .38** .01 .50** .47** 1 stimuli of .03 .15** .06 .11** .27** .23** .28** .29** .28** .28** .25** .69** .21** .30** 1 cooperation .03 .09* .10** .13** .20** .16** .19** .17** .25** .08** .21** .41** .20** .22** .33** 1 * p<.05. ** p<.01. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 4, no. 4, 2023 17 published by scholink inc. 3.2 four variables of self-regulated learning as predictors of academic achievement three components of cognitive processing strategies (deep processing r=.16, p<.01; stepwise processing (r=.24, p<.01; concrete processing (r=.17, p<.01), were significantly correlated to students’ academic achievement. multiple regression analysis was used to test if the three components of cognitive processing strategies significantly predicted students’ academic achievement. the results of the regression indicated that three components of cognitive processing strategies explained 6.1% of students’ academic achievement (r 2 =.061, f3,574=12.38, p<.01). of the three components of cognitive processing strategies, stepwise processing was significantly predicted academic achievement (β=.012, p<.01). the components of regulation strategies (self-regulation r=.14, p<.01; external regulation r=.19, p <.01; lack of regulation r=-.20, p<.01) were significantly correlated to students’ academic achievement. multiple regression analysis was used to test if the three components of regulation strategies significantly predicted students’ academic achievement. the results of the regression indicated that three components of regulations strategies explained 8.2% of academic achievement (r 2 =.082, f3,574=16.99, p<.01). of the three components of regulations strategies, external regulation was significantly predicted academic achievement (β=.018, p<.01), and lack of regulation was significantly negative in predicting academic achievement (β=-.207, p<.01), not all components of study orientation have correlations with students’ academic achievement. only certificate directed (r=-.069, p<.05) and ambivalent (r=-.169, p<.01) that were significantly correlated negatively to students’ academic achievement. thus, multiple regression was processed only for certificate directed and ambivalent. the results of the regression indicated that the certificate directed and ambivalent explained 3% of academic achievement (r 2 =.030, f3,574=8.752, p<.01). of the components of study orientation, ambivalent was negative predictor for academic achievement (β=-.162, p<.01), three components of conceptions of learning were significantly correlated to academic achievement (use of knowledge processing (r=.10, p<.01; stimulating education (r=-.11, p<.01; cooperation (r=-.21, p<.01). multiple regression analysis was used to test if the three components of conceptions of learning significantly predicted students’ academic achievement. the results of the regression indicated that three components of conceptions of learning explained 8.9% of academic achievement (r 2 =.089, f3,574=11.18, p<.01). of the three components of conceptions of learning, use of knowledge was significantly predicted academic achievement (β=.18, p<.05). meanwhile, stimulating education (β=-.100, p<.01), and cooperation (β=-.213, p<.01), were negatively in predicting academic achievement. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 4, no. 4, 2023 18 published by scholink inc. 3.3 gender differences on variables of self-regulated learning the scores of self-regulated learning variables measured in this study were not normally distributed, thus the mann-whitney u test was used to analyze gender differences on variables of self-regulated learning. a mann-whitney test indicated that female was greater than male in stepwise processing (u=19686.5, p=.008, r=.11), self-regulation (u=18730.5, p=.001, r=.14), external regulation (u=16609.5, p=.00, r=.20), certificate directed (u=18550.5, p=.001, r=.14), vocational directed (u=19322.5, p=.004, r=.12), self-test (u=19161.0, p=003, r=.13), intake of knowledge (u=18008.5, p=.00, r=.16), use of knowledge (u=19722.5, p=.008, r=.11), and stimulating education (u=20318.5, p=.025, r=.09). 3.4 university differences on variables of self-regulated learning the result of this study indicated that there were statistical differences on the variables of self-regulated learning among three universities. stepwise processing (χ 2 =15.44; p=.00) with a mean rank of 331.60 for jakarta, 314.29 for surabaya, and 269.83 for medan. concrete processing (χ 2 =7.72; p.021) with a mean rank of 332.44 for surabaya, 308.28 for jakarta, and 280.26 for medan. external regulation (χ 2 =18.66; p=.00) with a mean rank of 337.71 for jakarta, 307.47 for surabaya, and 268.08 for medan. certificate directed (χ 2 =10.97; p=.004) with a mean rank of 321.65 for jakarta, 303.36 for medan, and 260.37 for surabaya. vocational directed (χ 2 =10.28; p=.006) with a mean rank of 314.55 for medan, 309.06 for jakarta and 256.35 for surabaya. self-test (χ 2 =11.62; p=.003) with a mean rank of 326.92 for medan, 288.95 for jakarta, and 266.83 for surabaya. ambivalent (χ 2 =13.12; p=.001) with a mean rank of 317.95 for jakarta, 308.70 for medan, and 255.41 for surabaya. intake of knowledge (χ 2 =6.88; p=.032) with a mean rank of 320.90 for jakarta, 294.88 for medan, and 279.64 for surabaya. construction of knowledge (χ 2 =9.84; p=.00) with a mean rank of 324.32 for medan, 292.06 for jakarta, and 266.98 for surabaya. 4. conclusion and discussion the results of this study revealed that the interplay of four variables of self-regulated learning, namely cognitive processing strategies, regulations strategies, study orientations and conceptions of learning significantly correlated. the study also indicated that for cognitive processing strategies, students of the three universities applied more stepwise processing rather than deep processing and concrete processing. students at the university in jakarta used more stepwise processing than the other two universities. for the components of regulations strategies, the study indicated that external regulation was significant predictors of students’ academic achievement, while lack of regulation was a negative predictor of academic achievement. previous cross-cultural studies on the patterns or styles of learning reported that the perceptions of course requirements influenced students’ approach to learning and that the learning patterns are related to the local cultures. learning patterns of asian students different from the western students (volet & renshaw, 1996; wong, 2004; marambe, vermunt & boshuizen, 2012), and that also the case of indonesian students who showed as a “passive recipient in their cognitive www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 4, no. 4, 2023 19 published by scholink inc. strategies and regulations strategies of learning” (ajisuksmo, 1996; ajisuksmo & vermunt, 1999). the learning patterns of the indonesian are also related to the assessment systems that require students to remember and to reproduce their learning. analytical and critical thinking as a deep approach in learning are rarely emphasized in learning, though students’ centered learning is implemented. a further study on what factors influenced the cognitive strategies, regulations strategies, study orientation and conceptions of learning in higher education should be carried out, as well as method of delivering knowledge and skills which is appropriate in fostering deep and active processing of learning and selfregulations of learning. references ajisuksmo, c. r. p. 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(2009). academic goals and learning quality in higher education students. the spanish journal of psychology, 12(1), 96-105. https://doi.org/10.1017/s1138741600001517 vermunt, j. d. (2005). relations between student learning and personal and contextual factors and academic performance. higher education, 49, 205-234. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-004-6664-2 vermunt, j. d., & vermetten, y. j. (2004). patterns in student learning: relationships between learning strategies, conceptions of learning, and learning orientations. educational psychology review, 16(4). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-004-0005-y wijaya, k. f., & setiawan, n. a. (2021). graduate students’ motivation regulation strategies in facing academic writing amid covid-19 pandemic. llt journal: a journal on language and language teaching, 24(2), 597-613. https://doi.org/10.24071/llt.v24i2.3142 wong, j. k. k. (2004). are the learning styles of asian international students culturally or contextually based? international education journal, 4(4). https://doi.org/10.1017/s1138741600001517 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-004-6664-2 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-004-0005-y https://doi.org/10.24071/llt.v24i2.3142 frontiers of contemporary education issn 2690-3520 (print) issn 2690-3539 (online) vol. 4, no. 3, 2023 www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce 1 original paper differentiating instruction in a mathematics classroom: its effects on basic 7 learners’ academic performance and engagement in common fraction edward abatanie padmore 1 , joseph kafui letsa-agbozo 2 , gabina susuoroka 3* & dennis offei kwakye 4 1 nusrat jahan ahmadiyya college of education, department and mathematics and ict, wa, ghana 2 akatsi college of education, department of mathematics and ict education, akatsi, ghana 3 university business integrated development studies, department of business education, wa, ghana 4 fms, fairmont, nc, department of mathematics, usa * gabina susuoroka, university business integrated development studies, department of business education, wa, ghana received: august 6, 2023 accepted: august 23, 2023 online published: september 12, 2023 doi:10.22158/fce.v4n3p1 url: http://dx.doi.org/10.22158/fce.v4n3p1 abstract differentiated instruction is a method that can be utilised to help learners with different characteristics master mathematics in every area covered. in this paper, a pre-test and post-test quasi-experiment design was used. the participants in this study were 83 students chosen at random from basic 7. this includes 41 students in the experimental group and 42 students in the control group at st andrew’s junior high school in wa, ghana’s upper west region. the learners were thoroughly matched based on their learning styles and numerous intelligences. the pre-test was used to assess learners’ academic performance prior to the intervention, and the post-test was used to see if there was a difference in the effect of differentiated instruction versus non-differentiated instruction between the control and experimental groups. the study looked into common fractions, specifically converting improper fractions to common fractions, converting mixed fractions to improper fractions, and solving problems requiring fraction addition and subtraction. according to the findings of the study, learners in the experimental group had interactive, analytic, and introspective learning styles. the experimental group has (differentiated class) and the control group’s (non-differentiated class) pre-test mathematical achievement was comparable to “low”, however, their critical thinking skills were “unreflective”. post-test results, on the other hand, show that the experimental group (differentiated class) has “high” mathematics achievement and “developing” critical thinking skills, whereas the control group www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 4, no. 3, 2023 2 published by scholink inc. (non-differentiated class) has “average” post-test mathematics achievement and “developed” critical thinking skills. the experimental group outperformed the control group in terms of pre-test and post-test mean improvements in mathematics achievement and critical thinking skills. as a result, the article recommended that practitioners understand the components of differentiation in order to develop lessons that meet the requirements of all learners. mathematics facilitators must attend workshops and seminars on a regular basis to keep their knowledge and abilities in differentiated instruction up to date. keywords differentiated instruction, fractions, facilitators, learners experimental, control 1. introduction in this century, facilitators are urged to use diversified instruction approaches in the classroom to accommodate the varying requirements of all learners from various cultural and social backgrounds. differentiated instruction is a practice that focuses on learners and seeks to reduce inequities and discrepancies between individuals due to their diverse learning styles, abilities, and skills (chamberlin & powers, 2010). differentiated instruction is a teaching technique that implies each classroom has a diverse set of students who may be reached via a range of methods and activities. differentiated instruction detects individual students’ requirements and adjusts the classroom to fit those needs. no two students are alike because they learn at different rates. based on this notion, variable instruction is a teaching and learning strategy that gives students with a range of ways to absorb knowledge and make sense of topics. differentiated instruction is founded on the premise that educational approaches in the classroom should alter and adapt to the needs of individual and diverse students. instead of expecting students to adapt to the curriculum, differentiated instruction demands teachers to be flexible in their approach to teaching and to modify the curriculum and presentation of content to learners (tomlinson, 2013). the implementation of the basic curriculum in ghana to improve junior high school mathematics learning and the investigation by muthoni and mbugua (2014) on the effects of differentiated instruction on student’s achievement in mathematics revealed that differentiated instruction significantly improved students’ achievement in mathematics when compared to traditional instruction. differentiated instruction has existed for quite some time. facilitators have to think outside the box in order to satisfy the requirements of all learners, regardless of age or aptitude. differentiated instruction allows facilitators to draw on best practices to reach all learners. to improve learning in mixed-ability classrooms, this approach employs grouping strategies, brain-based learning methodologies, and current research on multiple intelligences. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 4, no. 3, 2023 3 published by scholink inc. facilitating fractions with differentiated instruction at the fundamental level can make a significant difference. some students struggle to understand fraction concepts such as equivalent fractions, comparing fractions, mixed numbers, and adding fractions. this could be due to a few inadequacies in their fundamental understanding of fractions in general. allow these students to study content from prior stages in order to get a better knowledge of fractions as parts of a whole and fractions as parts of a group. while the high-achieving students in class frequently complete third-grade fraction tasks quickly, they begin to show signs of boredom if they are not appropriately challenged. allow these types of learners to participate in lesson extension activities and study more complex fraction ideas to differentiate instruction. 1.1 problem statement several studies investigated differentiated mathematics instruction. numerous research has been conducted to evaluate the effects of differentiated education on academic achievement and other characteristics. significant disparities in outcomes were discovered (aranda & zamora, 2016; muthomi & mbugua, 2014; konstantinou-katzi et al., 2013; lewis, 2013; stager, 2007). the majority of studies discovered that modifying instruction based on learning needs, scaffolding, and flexible grouping resulted in improved performance among learners (williams, 2012; thorton, 2012; mcadamis, 2001). recent research has also demonstrated the effectiveness of using tailored instruction in the mathematics classroom. according to awofala and lawani (2020), differentiated instruction improves pupils’ maths achievement. differentiated instruction increases student motivation and involvement (hapsari, darhim & dahlan, 2018). professional development for teachers in differentiated instruction in the mathematics classroom improved students’ achievement (prast, van de weijer-bergsma, kroesbergen & van luit, 2018). ismajli and imami-morina (2018) demonstrated that differentiated education is successful when teachers use interactive tactics to suit the requirements of all pupils. despite the fact that the 2019 ghana curriculum embraced the use of differentiated instruction in the mathematics classroom to improve learning at the basic level, some studies pointed out barriers and constraints such as insufficient training, support, and resources to be overcome in order to provide opportunities for learners to have differentiated lessons (king, 2010; lange, 2009; grey, 2008; huss-keeler & brown, 2007). the curriculum aims to increase mathematics facilitation through spiral progression, in which learners are permitted to study topics and skills that are relevant to their own learning styles, resulting in good retention and mastery of mathematical content. this advancement is supposed to produce critical problem solvers, innovative, creative citizens, and educated decision-makers. improvement of learners’ low performance in common fractions remains a difficulty for facilitators at ancilla school, since students’ performance in that area remains very bad from their exercise, homework, assignment, and class test, as well as personal observation. facilitators must be equipped with a variety of facilitating tactics and approaches in order to improve learners’ learning outcomes and, as a result, increase their performance in mathematics (gaylo & dales, 2017). against this backdrop, the researcher undertook a study to further evaluate the impacts of tailored instruction on www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 4, no. 3, 2023 4 published by scholink inc. the performance of basic 7 learners in common fractions. the purpose of this study is to go deeper into the practical implementation of differentiated teaching and compare learners’ performance in understanding common fraction courses to the traditional technique. 1.2 research question what is the difference in mathematics achievement in learners who have received differentiated instruction in common fractions as compared to learners who received traditional instruction? 1.3 significance of the study the curriculum in schools has become standards-based, which means all learners are expected to achieve equally and meet high standards despite their varied abilities. educators are therefore challenged to meet the diverse needs of the learner populations. the only way to meet the objective of the standards-based curriculum is to personalize or differentiate the instruction. educators must face the challenges of changing from traditional lecture-style instruction to instructional methods that meet the diverse needs of their learners. differentiated instruction is believed to be an effective instructional strategy because it advocates beginning where individuals are rather than with a prescribed plan of action, that disregards learner readiness, interest, and learning profile. this study is significant and contributes to the existing research because it provides educational leaders with a comparative study of differentiated instruction and traditional instruction. society has become more diverse and complex, which is also represented in our classrooms. schools need to adopt learning strategies that enable all learners to meet high standards. 2. method 2.1 research design the study employed a quasi-experimental pre-test-post-test design. in the second term of the 2022/2023 academic year calendar, the design made use of the basic 7 classes of ancilla catholic school, namely basic 7a and basic 7b. the basic 7b class was randomly allocated as the experimental group to receive differentiated instruction. while the basic 7a class was the control group, it was taught using conventional instruction, not differentiated instruction. both classes were given a pre-test on fractions prior to the study’s implementation and a post-test after the study’s implementation in the convectional facilitating and differentiated instruction in facilitating fractions. both lessons focused on the subtopics of converting improper fractions to mixed fractions, converting mixed fractions to improper fractions, and solving problems involving common fraction addition and subtraction. based on the requirement assessment and the researcher’s observations, the topic of common fractions presented several obstacles to learners. a task analysis matrix (tam) created by the researcher supervised the preparation of differentiated lessons. based on the basic 7 curriculum, these included topics, concepts, instructional objectives, procedural activities for customised instruction, skills, assessment, and references. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 4, no. 3, 2023 5 published by scholink inc. 2.2 participants thirty-four (34) out of the thirty-five (35) of the learners in the convectional class were present and all the thirty-five learners in the experimental class were present. all learners were used for the study and were however considered in the analysis of data. the town classes were considered to be part of the study because they were those classes considered the poor performing classes in understanding the concept of fractions. for instance, the researcher happens to be a part-time teacher in the school and was teaching those classes. 2.3 data collection procedures the researchers contacted the headmistress of the ancilla school, wa to discuss with her all the details of the study and to seek permission to use the basic 7 class (a and b) for the study in the second term of the 2022/2023 academic year calendar. the study gathered the participants/ learners in each class and codes were assigned to each participant/learner to ensure confidentiality. the basic 7a participant/learners’ codes range from a01 to a43 while basic 7b codes range from b01 to b44. basic 7b class was assigned randomly as the experimental group using differentiated instruction method in teaching fractions while the basic 7a class was the control group taught using the traditional method of instruction. before the conduct of the study, both classes were given a pre-test on fractions and later a post-test after the implementation of the study in traditional teaching and differentiated instruction. after the pre-test and the post-test an interval of 10 weeks period between the administration of the test. the researchers recorded all test scores on a spreadsheet using the designated codes for the participants/learners. a pre-test and post-test were administered to determine learners’ abilities to solve problems involving fractions. both lessons were developed on the sub-topics of converting improper fractions to mixed fractions, changing mixed fractions to an improper fraction, and solving problems on addition and subtraction of common fractions. the test items were composed of 40 multiple choice and 4 theoretical questions based on the learning core competencies proposed by the basic 7 curriculum. the same test was administered to the experimental group and the control group. the preand post-tests identified learners’ strengths and weaknesses before and after the intervention. the post-test provided a measure of what the learners had learned. the materials for the study consisted of the basic 7 mathematics textbooks, mathematics curriculum, and the excellence series that were published in line with the standards of the ghanaian curriculum for the control group while the group receiving differentiated instruction also used the same mathematics textbooks, mathematics curriculum and the excellence series, manipulatives, laptops, games, and activities. 2.3.1 data analysis the data collected for this study was to determine if learners taught using differentiated instruction methods are different in terms of their mathematics achievement than learners taught using traditional methods of teaching. at the end of the intervention, the post-test that is similar to the pretest was conducted for both groups. the 40-item multiple choice researcher-made performance test is made up of every correct answer one (1) point making for a total of 40 marks and the 4 theory questions are www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 4, no. 3, 2023 6 published by scholink inc. made up of 15 makes each making a total of 60 marks. the total score for the entire test was 100 marks based on the standards of the new curriculum (national council for curriculum and assessment (nacca), 2019). the scores of the learners were presented using raw scores, percentages, and grades, which are in line with the standards as proposed by the basic 7 mathematics curriculum. 2.4 validity and reliability the learning styles of the learners were considered in the development of the lessons. after the development of the lesson experts in the area of mathematics and education (mathematics coordinator in the municipality, cisos, and some lecturers) validated the lesson before the conduct of the study. these were experts on content, pedagogy, and technicalities and evaluated the content and content accuracy, clarity, and appropriateness of the lessons. the research instruments utilized in the study were validated researcher-made performance tests. the academic performance test was crafted to assess the academic performance of learners in common fractions and was tried out for validity and reliability purposes. the test items were composed of 40 multiple choice and 4 theoretical questions based on the learning competencies proposed by the basic 7 curriculum. the same test was administered to the experimental group and the control group. 3. results 3.1 academic performance of learners in the pre-test table 1 below displayed the academic performance of learners based on the scores they obtained from the pre-test administered by the researcher on changing mixed fraction to improper fraction, changing improper fraction to mixed fraction, and addition and subtraction of common fraction. the table displayed scores, number of learners, and percentages of learners in both the experimental group and the control groups in the pre-test. the sample of the experimental group was 42 and that of the control group was 41. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 4, no. 3, 2023 7 published by scholink inc. table 1. pre-test scores of the experimental and the control groups experimental group control group performances grades score (100) no. of learners percentage no. of learners perc. (%) highest 1 90-100 0 0 0 0 higher 2 80-89 0 0 0 0 high 3 70-79 0 0 0 0 high average 4 60-69 1 2.4 2 4.8 average 5 55-60 5 11.9 4 9.8 low average 6 50-54 2 4.8 1 2.4 low 7 40-49 7 16.7 10 24.4 lower 8 35-39 13 31.0 12 29.3 lowest 9 0-34 14 33.3 11 26.8 total 42 100 41 100 source: scores of learners (2023). from table 1, the pre-test results show that the learners in both experimental and control groups had weak scores and were initially at par. it revealed further that learners in both groups did not meet established expectations with the topic considering the result displayed. for example, learners in both experimental and control groups could not score (90-100) the highest in the pre-test. also, no (0%) score (80-89) was higher in both classes. again no (0%) could score (70-79) high marks in both classes. while only 1 (2.4%) in the experimental class and 2 (4.8%) in the control class scored (60-69) high average. the score of (55-59) average saw a few 5 (11.9%) of the experimental group and a few 4 (9.8%) of the control group. again, the table indicated only 2 (4.8%) of the experimental group and 1 (2.4%) of the control score (50-54) low average in the test. the score of (40-49) low average saw 7 (16.7%) of the experiment group and 10 (24.4%) of the control group. while the score of (35-39) lower performance saw more 13 (31.0%) in the experimental group and 12 (29.3) in the control group and the score of (0-34) lowest saw many 14 (33.3%) of the experimental group and 11 (26.8%) of the control group. the results above indicated that before the intervention processes both the experimental group and the control group saw more than 70% of the learners scoring below average even though the scores of the learners in the experimental group were slightly different as compared with that of the control group in the pre-test results. the results indicated that both the experimental and control group were comparable in terms of performance before the intervention. the pre-test scores of the learners in the control group were almost the same. they weren’t a significant difference in the learner’s performance before that intervention. the results further indicated that learners never got good facilitating at the www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 4, no. 3, 2023 8 published by scholink inc. initial stage and this suggests that proper pedagogical strategies used could increase learners’ performance academically in mathematics. learners will continue to perform poorly in their studies if the right pedagogical strategies are not used in the mathematics classroom. 3.2 post-test scores of the experimental and the control groups table 2 below displayed the academic performance of learners based on the scores they obtained from the post-test administered by the researcher on changing mixed fraction to improper fraction, changing improper fraction to mixed fraction, and addition and subtraction of common fraction. the table displayed the frequency and percentages of learners’ scores in both the experimental group and the control groups in the pre-test. the participants of the experimental group were 40 out of 42 and that of the control group was 41 out of 41. table 2. post-test scores of the experimental and the control groups experimental group control group performances grades score (100) no. of learners percentage no. of learners percentage highest 1 90-100 3 7.5 0 0 higher 2 80-89 15 37.5 5 12.2 high 3 70-79 10 25 3 7.3 high average 4 60-69 7 17.5 4 9.8 average 5 55-60 3 7.5 12 29.3 low average 6 50-54 1 2.5 5 12.2 low 7 40-49 1 2.5 3 7.3 lower 8 35-39 0 0 2 4.9 lowest 9 0-34 0 0 5 12.2 total 42 100 41 100 source: scores of learners (2023). www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 4, no. 3, 2023 9 published by scholink inc. from table 2, the post-test score indicated that the score (90-100) highest score saw 3 (7.5%) of the experimental group and 0 (0%) of the control group obtaining that. also, many 15 (37.5%) of the experimental group and only 5 (12.2%) of the control group scored (80-89) higher in the post-test. again, more than 10 (25%) of the experimental group and only 3 (7.3%) of the control group scored (70-79) high in the post-test results. again, 7 (17.5%) of the experimental group and 4 (9.8%) of the control group scored (60-69) high average of the post-test results. also, the score (55-60) average saw only 1 (2.5%) of the experimental group and 12 (29.3%) of the control group, while 2 (5%) of the experimental group and 5 (12.2%) of the control group scored (50-54) low average in the test. again, only 1 (2.5%) of the experimental group and 3 (7.3%) of the control group scored (40-49) low on the test. also, only 1 (2.5%) of the experimental group and 2 (4.9%) of the control group scored (35-39) lower on the test and no 0 (0%) learners of the experimental group and few 5 (12.2%) of the learners in the control group scored (0-34) lowest in the post-test. 4. discussion of results from the post-test results, both groups showed an increase in their academic performance. however, the experimental group had greater improvement than the control group comparing the post-test scores of the two groups. based on the performance level, the experimental group had a much improvement than the control group. from the post-test results, there were learners in the experimental group who reached the highest score level while no learner in the control group reached that level. on average, more learners perform outstandingly in the experiment group than in the control group. the results confirmed that the use of differentiated instruction had increased learners’ performance significantly higher than the conventional method of facilitating. this finding confirms the study by aranda and zamora (2016) and konstantinou-katzi et al. (2013) that differentiated instruction had much improvements and positive impact on the academic performance of learners and muthomi and mbugua (2014) who investigated the effects of differentiated instruction on learners’ achievement in mathematics in secondary schools in meru county in kenya wherein a significant increase in the learner’s achievement was noted. likewise, the research of tambaoan and gaylo (2019) on differentiating instruction in a mathematics classroom: its effects on senior high school learners’ academic performance and engagement in basic calculus showed that learners performed better when differentiated instruction was used in the instructional process in the classroom. in the course of the intervention, it was realized that learners in the experimental group were very active, attentive in class, and participated fully. every learner there was seen doing something in the course of facilitating in the experimental class while the control group was not active, learners were seen only observing the facilitators facilitating and the class was not active and learners were not given the chance to express themselves this made the control class very bore leading to poor performance. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 4, no. 3, 2023 10 published by scholink inc. the class engagement was very good and all these gave learners a lot of opportunities to ask questions. from the results, it was viewed that most learners do not like mathematics because of the mode of facilitating the mathematics curriculum. 4.1 conclusion using differentiation in the mathematics classroom in facilitating common fractions at the basic 7 levels significantly increased the academic performance and participation of learners. it supported the improvement of the academic performance of learners and increased their participation. from the pre-test learners’ performance was very bad and their understanding of the topic was low. however, after the intervention using differentiated instruction in the classroom, most learners performed better in the experiment group than the conventional group in the post-test, meaning the use of differentiated instruction will help in solving the poor performance in the subject area because this method will give opportunities to all learners to participate in the classroom when facilitators incorporated it into their lessons. 4.2 recommendations since the use of differentiated instruction in mathematics classrooms aids in the general good performance of learners, supervisors like mathematics coordinators, cisos, heads, and facilitators, must ensure that facilitators use differentiated instruction in their classrooms. also, mathematics facilitators must use differentiated instruction in the facilitating and learning process in the classroom to help enhance learners’ full participation and help improve their academic performance. again, the ministry of education, ghana education service, and other organizations in education and child development must periodically organise workshops in-service training, and seminars in differentiated instruction to boost and equip facilitators with knowledge and skills as to the use of differentiated instruction in their lessons. mathematics facilitators must also research the area of differentiated instruction to gain knowledge and skills in the use of differentiated instruction. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 4, no. 3, 2023 11 published by scholink inc. references aranda, m., & zamora, j. (2016). using differentiated instruction in improving the academic performance of learners in filipino language. retrieved september 24, 2022 from http://www.national-u.edu.ph/wp-content/uploads/2016/08/jstar-4_aranda.pdf chamberlin, m., & powers, r. (2010). the promise of differentiated instruction for enhancing the mathematical understandings of college learners. facilitating mathematics and its applications, 29, 113-139. https://doi.org/10.1093/teamat/hrq006 gervasoni, a., roche, a., & downton, a. (2021). differentiating instruction for learners who fail to thrive in mathematics: the impact of a constructivist-based intervention approach. mathematics facilitators education and development, 23(3), 207-233 konstantinou-katzi, p., tsolaki, e., meletiou-mavrothesis, m., & koutselini, m. (2013). differentiation of facilitating and learning mathematics: an action research study in tertiary education. retrieved september 17, 2022, from http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/0020739x.2012.714491 koutselini, m. (2010). action research as an educational process of facilitatorss’ and learners’ development. e-journal action research, 1, 4-9. (in greek) mclaren, p. (2010). critical pedagogy: a review. in p. gounari, & grolios. critical pedagogic, a collection of texts. gutenberg. (in greek) muthomi, m., & mbugua, z. (2014). effectiveness of differentiated instruction on secondary school learners achievement in mathematics. international journal of applied science and technology. retrieved september 19, 2022, from http://www.ijastnet.com/journals/vol_4_no_1_january_2014/12.pdf national council for curriculum and assessment (nacca). (2019). mathematics curriculum for primary schools. accra: ghana: moe. tambaoan, r. s., & gaylo, d. n. (2019). on differentiating instruction in a mathematics classroom: its effects on senior high school learners’ academic performance and engagement in basic calculus. international journal of english and education, 8(2), 2278-4012. tomlinson, c. a. (2001). differentiated instruction in the regular classroom: what does it mean? how does it look? understanding our gifted, 14(1), 3-6. tomlinson, c. a. (2013). fulfilling the promise of the differentiated classroom: strategies and tools for responsive teaching. alexandria, va: association for supervision and curriculum development. https://doi.org/10.1093/teamat/hrq006 frontiers of contemporary education issn 2690-3520 (print) issn 2690-3539 (online) vol. 1, no. 1, 2020 www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce 53 original paper karma and yoga: transformative pedagogy and empowering communities through study abroad and service learning anita anantharam 1* 1 center for gender, sexualities, and women’s studies research, university of florida, gainesville, usa * anita anantharam, e-mail: aanita@ufl.edu received: may 11, 2020 accepted: may 25, 2020 online published: june 24, 2020 doi:10.22158/fce.v1n1p53 url: http://dx.doi.org/10.22158/fce.v1n1p53 abstract international education and global citizenship are keywords in our culture today and the success or failure of our attempts to be global citizens depends on the level of commitment we are able to make to cultures different than our own. the academic study of transnational feminism rests on the idea that cultural knowledge can be learned and appreciated. studying abroad is a small step towards fostering global citizenship and transnational solidarity. this essay illustrates some of the successes of and impediments to community formation and global awareness through study abroad programs and initiatives. service-learning assessment modules, non-traditional assignments, and stimulation of contemplative health are presented as pedagogical examples that make possible a mutually life-transforming experience for educators and students alike. keywords international education, study abroad, community, feminism, service-learning 1. introduction popular culture of recent decades has provided our national fetish for global citizenship with plenty of inspiration. movies, books, and blogs engender cultural exchange and knowledge even if some cultural forms of communication (like proverbs and humor) are practically untranslatable across cultures. international education and global citizenship are keywords in our culture today and the success or failure of our attempts to be global citizens depends on the level of commitment we are able to make to cultures different than our own. the academic study of transnational feminism rests on the idea that cultural knowledge can be learned and appreciated. studying abroad is a small step towards fostering global citizenship and transnational solidarity. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 1, no. 1, 2020 54 published by scholink inc. study abroad opportunities have also received much criticism: this essay will illustrate some of the successes of and impediments to community formation and global awareness through study abroad programs and initiatives. service-learning assessment modules, non-traditional assignments, and stimulation of contemplative health are presented as pedagogical examples that make possible a mutually life-transforming experience for educators and students alike. in the next three sections of this essay i will elaborate on specific ways in which study abroad fosters global community. the first part of this essay will focus on the politics and problematics of women’s studies abroad. here i will delve into how i tailored my course curriculum to mirror the efforts of our host organization in india so that my study abroad program could dovetail with some of the outreach activities that the indian non-governmental organization navdanya (9 seeds) was already engaged in and had already implemented at the grassroots level. the second part of this essay will highlight some of the complexities of “translating” gender paradigms in india for a group of college-aged american students. in this section i will briefly illustrate some of the tensions of teaching academic feminism in the us classroom context and teaching feminism in practice in the study abroad context. the final section of this essay will contextualize what is meant by transnational feminist pedagogy in order to illustrate how study-abroad environments are fruitful for thinking through questions about global citizenship and belonging. communities created through study abroad encourage all participants (teachers and students) to confront and address shared structures of experiences and feelings in contradistinction to and across national boundaries. in order to transgress the binaries of “us” versus “them”, teacher versus student, the privileged versus the disenfranchised, each of us had to sacrifice personal comforts and live with, alongside, and in cooperation with those very communities that we sought to understand and empower. indeed, cultures are for the claiming, but only if we have a commitment to those cultures—otherwise our claiming would be nothing but an exoticization of cultural practice. 1.1 introduction among the primary reasons i was drawn to the discipline of women’s studies were a sense of community, the opportunity therein to find a group of colleagues who would be mutually supportive, and because, more often than not, the discipline fosters safe spaces for the small, individual voices often left out of mainstream social discourse and interactions. in many ways then, one might argue that self-reflexivity and social empowerment are twin ideals at the very core of the discipline of women’s studies. given this incredible set of paradigms i enthusiastically set forth to northern india with twenty [university name] students to study at navdanya biodiversity and conservation farm in dehradun, india. dehradun is in the uttaranchal valley of the himalayan foothills, about ten hours north of new delhi. it is in close proximity to several important pilgrimage sites for hindus and buddhists, and it is an area with a great environmental diversity. the city of dehradun is one hour from the hill-station mussoorie (location of the famous woodstock school and the landaur language institute), 40 minutes from the famous transcendental meditation ashram in rishkesh (home of the beatles when they came to india) www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 1, no. 1, 2020 55 published by scholink inc. and 15 minutes from the mindrolling tibetan monastery and the wildlife institute of india. the indo-tibetan border is 3 hours north of dehradun and as such the city is also a strategic center for the indian military. the main campus of navdanya is situated on a lush 40 acres and consists of a small-scale model farm, two soil and water testing labs, a centralized dining facility, a small catering kitchen, ten dormitory-style rooms, and two thatched huts, which accommodate 4 guests each. there are four bathrooms with running water (cold only) and toilets that are shared among the dormitories. the huts have their own bathroom and one of the 10 dormitory rooms—designated as the research-scholar room, has its own bathroom. the campus also has a large lecture hall, a conference room and library, and a large gazebo where meditation, yoga, and other social activities are held. of the twenty students enrolled in my women’s studies course, only four had formal coursework in women’s studies prior to embarking on the study abroad program. most of them came from working class family backgrounds. none of them spoke indian languages nor had any formal training in south asian studies. however, they were all in better shape than me—nearly all of them were active hikers, and many of the female students had taken a yoga-for-fitness class. all of the students were interested in learning about veganism, environmental politics, and international development. in india these differences in political values or class backgrounds did not matter. as a group we were foreigners and treated like outsiders. once a week when we left the idyllic and quiet navdanya campus to go to dehradun city to do our shopping or to send emails to friends and family, we were met with public stares. i could tell that the students were growing increasingly uncomfortable with their power as americans, often at the expense of local men and women. yet, when they were sick, doctors made house calls and held their hands while they recovered. as americans we had access to historical monuments and sights that locals had to wait in long lines to see; we also had to pay ten times the local price. we became objectified and gawked at as we walked through the crowded bazaars and streets; everyone wanted photos with us. yet for those who did not speak the language, forming real personal connections with local people was nearly impossible. it was difficult to blend in and experience india as a resident “indian” would; yet we were not simply privileged outsiders either. this study abroad program was perhaps one of my most rewarding teaching experiences. it was rewarding because i got to experience the “light-bulb” moments of each and every student—that moment when connections between theory and practice are made through lived experience. lack of media (cellphones, email, television, internet, etc.) forced students to engage class material and generate dialogue with other members of the group whom they may have otherwise not engaged; communal living created opportunities for in-depth outside class discussions on a variety of topics; and finally, students learned first-hand lessons on personal and collective empowerment. as a result of this shared living-learning community setup, i found that students asked insightful questions about required readings for the course but also sound ways to interject their own life-struggles in dialogue with the theoretical models posed in the required readings. generally, they became more engaged in course materials than they might have otherwise been. many were also able to www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 1, no. 1, 2020 56 published by scholink inc. apply the work learned in class to their own lives, in many ways “women’s studies” abroad became a life-transforming experience. notwithstanding the clash of cultures, students were able to turn their personal experience into a paradigm of social change, beginning first with changing their own habits and lifestyle choices, and then expressing those choices in terms of future academic pursuits and career goals. students gave up personal comforts that they were accustomed to at home in order to have a true cultural immersion experience. in sum, the scenarios i have just described encapsulate a teacher’s dream situation and one that is rarely experienced en masse by the entire class in any given semester on the institution campus at home. these everyday victories motivate and inspire both instructor and student to be introspective and honest about their expectations and frustrations. if transformative pedagogy is about de-centering power relations in the classroom so that learning can happen more organically, or about “interactions between educators and students that foster the collaborative creation of power”, the study abroad context is ripe for this type of faculty-student cooperation and mutual learning (cummins). 2. research method 2.1 democracy in practice benjamin barber, the outspoken political theorist and professor, has argued that, “education is crucial to the life of our democracy [and that] anybody who has been thinking about democracy has to think about education” (london). as a professor who routinely teaches courses on feminism and international studies, i am acutely aware of the fundamental link between power and knowledge—between political enfranchisement and educational opportunities. i spend a great deal of time explaining to students in my courses the relationship between activism and feminism and why the discipline of women’s studies is not solely about the theoretical but equally invested in the practical. the discipline not only exposes the tragic, the painful, bitter realities of life but also makes possible the dreams and visions of alternate paradigms and strategies for survival. many students in my classes do not know that in the us women did not get the right to vote until the year 1920—which is 144 years after the american declaration of independence. countries like india and pakistan gave women the right to vote on the very day they were free from british colonialism (1947). fewer still are aware of the history of the discipline of women’s studies: that the establishment of women’s studies departments occurred in the wake of the movements for civil rights in the 1960s and 1970s. many are surprised to learn that it was not until the early 1980s that women’s contributions to history, education, politics, science, and art became subjects worthy of serious academic study and that degrees were granted for studying these subjects from a gender-sensitive lens. and because the establishment of women’s studies departments in colleges and universities across this country came as a result of women’s activism, the discipline of women’s studies has maintained an emphasis on knowledge gained from both activist and academic perspectives. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 1, no. 1, 2020 57 published by scholink inc. i say all of this because it was not simply fortuitous coincidence that my transnational feminist pedagogy mirrored navdanya’s mission to empower local communities—i picked navdanya as a site for hosting the study abroad program in india precisely because the curriculum i wanted to teach in the classroom mirrored the activism of navdanya. navdanya is a non-governmental organization that is heavily invested in the local communities in and around the city of dehradun—their educational outreach is vast and their work to empower the youth populations of surrounding communities is impressive and extensive. dr. vandana shiva, the world-renowned environmentalist, founded navdanya in 1987 in the wake of the union carbide plant bhopal disaster of 1984 because she wanted to teach the rural communities in the himalayan foothills about pesticide independence. shiva’s work on women, ecology, and development made groundbreaking contributions to the field of ecofeminism: linking explicitly the male desire to dominate over nature to patriarchy and women’s subjugation (shiva, 2010). navdanya’s field campus was a good place to teach ideas about gender and international development. secondly, this study abroad opportunity provided alternate paradigms and rich strategies for teasing out the historic gap between feminist organizing and academic feminism (hartman et al. 1992). by this i mean that students were able to engage in an experiential learning community that constantly challenged their assumptions about power and privilege. navdanya’s mission is mirrored on the work of m.k. gandhi (1869-1948)—the assertion that each person must be the agent of social change; that true freedom and equality can only be achieved through selfless labor and the discipline of action (karma-yoga). this pivot was crucial for teaching ideas about self-transformation and global consciousness. thirdly, students learnt to ask tough questions about the relationship between feminist pedagogy and internationalizing the curriculum initiatives that is all the rage in colleges and universities across the united states today. indeed, we are seeing more and more demand for internationalizing the curriculum and global consciousness. one needs to ask at this important historical moment if these new measures for international education are backed by a commitment to empowering those very communities that host our projects of internationalization. our students began to think about whom internationalizing the curriculum initiatives benefited and how they could work in tandem with local organizations that supported democratic values. as a teacher i was proud of the contributions my students made to the communities we visited in india—we did not just visit these places as tourists; rather, we engaged communities as if we were a part of them. as pipitone notes in her essay about the importance of “place” in pedagogy, “educators can adapt the intentions and practices of their programs to embrace the pedagogical potential of place to foster the renegotiation of representations and heightened relationality” (pipitone). but this is not easy especially if power and privilege hierarchies are not understood or internalized. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 1, no. 1, 2020 58 published by scholink inc. it is my sincere belief that our initiatives to internationalize the curriculum can indeed showcase americans abroad as exemplars of multiculturalism, generosity, and ambassadorship, but this can only happen if we are introspective about our own privileges and work consciously to not wield them—at least not intentionally. after all, if there is one thing that encompasses transnational feminist pedagogy and practice, it is to understand the relation between the local and the global and how one is contingent on and complicated by the other. the study abroad experience opened up a transformative living and working environment that touched and motivated every participant. in organizing, directing, and teaching in india for six weeks i learned several things about myself as an academic. indeed, this was one of the most difficult things i have ever done as a teacher: to manage twenty students in their late-teens and early-twenties as we traveled through a dozen communities in rural and urban north india. for many of the students who came to india this was their first time outside of the united states, for some, it was their first time outside of the state of [insert state name], and for two of them it was their first time on a plane! emotions ran high and low, and oftentimes students began to treat me more like a parent than a teacher. yet i am acutely aware of the fact that what i did was not unique because for many women and men across the globe, community organizing or community building is an integral part of their day-to-day life; something that they do because they were inspired; because it is done in the spirit of generosity and comradeship. 2.2 translating gender differences: “this is not summer camp” the most difficult part of taking a group of college students to a country like india was the noticeable gender differences between the way in which indian and american social life is organized. india is still very much a society where there are socially acceptable roles for women to play in the public sphere, and day-to-day life for men and women is organized along the axis of gender. this is particularly true in rural india where gender roles are discrete and segregated. while in urban centers like new delhi (india’s capital city), mumbai, chennai, bangalore, etc. these lines are blurred by corporate and cosmopolitan agendas, at navdanya and in dehradun that was not the case. an important slogan of the women’s movement, “the personal is the political”, took center stage in our lives while in india. oft misinterpreted, the slogan as coined and used during the second-wave feminist movement in the us, served as a battle hymn for women’s organizing. as carol hanisch—credited with coining the term—explains the term’s origin: “it came out of a movement (the women’s liberation movement) and a specific group within that movement (new york radical women) and a specific group of women within new york radical women” (hanisch). faced with the obvious gender differences in india, my feminist students struggled to understand that curbing one’s personal choices was not tantamount to political disenfranchisement. as a teacher i rarely have to deal with telling my students what they can and cannot do outside of the classroom; i never have to deal with what they wear to class or outside of class—it never comes up in a traditional classroom setting. yet, in india i was responsible for my students both in the classroom and outside it. i www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 1, no. 1, 2020 59 published by scholink inc. struggled to explain why women could not wander away from our group into the mountains by themselves; being able to go where one wants to go was not the sole marker of women’s liberation. i had to learn this for myself and it is after many years of travel to india that i am able to reconcile with this reality. some of the gender differences in indian culture and acceptable gender roles for men and women were often explained away by the students simply as a result of differences in “american” versus “indian” values and norms. yet, no one was completely satisfied with this kind of translation of gender experience. it was tough for american students to relate to gender segregation in social life, and to learn that having distinct roles for men and women did not automatically translate to gender oppression in and of itself. yet they were surprised to learn, for example, that the majority of farmers in india are women and that the majority of cooks in india—including on our farm—were men. rather than reducing gendered division of labor in the public and private spheres to women’s oppression, they learned that it is the way in which these gendered roles become loaded with value—paid labor versus unpaid labor; respectable work versus demeaning work, and so on—that marks oppression. ethnicity, religion, class, caste, and sexuality are other ways in which women’s and men’s labor gets marked in india. this was something that they learnt first-hand. women students also began to recognize the freedoms they enjoyed in india: for some it was their ability to let go of consumerist practices—of doing their hair every day in order to feel attractive; or feeling the need to wear make-up. male students became attuned to the subtleties of their gaze and what that might mean in an indian context. they realized that making eye contact with women they passed on the street suddenly made them feel self-conscious and embarrassed. these are experiences that the students were not able to process immediately and speak articulately about but i am sure, in time, they will be able to reflect on these moments as raising their global and gender consciousness a hundred-fold. if in-fact “yoga is action, not reaction” as our yoga teacher in india was fond of exclaiming, transformation happens through sustained contemplative practice, and yoga is one of the most salient example of it. we all became aware of the direct link between our personal choices and the consequences of those choices on our salubriousness. if the personal is political, as feminists believe they indeed are, “contemplative practice works on the human psyche to shape attention into a far suppler instrument, one that can appreciate a wide range of world-views and even sustain the paradoxes of life” (zajonc 2). karma yoga as a transformative practice for self-empowerment and social improvement should resonate well with transnational feminists, social-justice activists, and practitioners of contemplative sciences like yoga and meditation. for both my students and myself, waking up at 6:30am and doing yoga while the sun rose slowly across the himalayan foothills gave structure and new definition to our day. in the yoga classroom, i was also a student, no different (and in many cases less qualified) than the other students in class. i grunted and suffered alongside my students in trying to learn yoga, and it was experiences like this that www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 1, no. 1, 2020 60 published by scholink inc. cultivated mutual respect between teacher and student, and strengthened cross cultural and intergenerational bonding. 2.3 building communities at home and abroad in the final part of my essay i will briefly address the community building aspect of study abroad programs. aside from teaching gender differences in indian social life the second most trying aspect of the [university name] india study-abroad program was learning to live in a community—a true community where one eats together, lives together, plays together, and studies together. twenty-four hours a day/seven days a week was difficult not just for the students but for the teachers as well. the instructors on this program lived alongside our students, we ate meals with them, we did yoga together with the students, and even our down time activities like shopping, laundry, cleaning, and so forth were done together. it took us six weeks before we achieved a sustainable routine of living and learning together. and just when we had achieved our community, the program was over and our self-made community had to end. upon returning to the united states i began to think about the ways in which our students traveling abroad would be better served if they had had prior experience in communal living; if culture shock could be mitigated with a sense of community support. we began to wonder how we might enhance their educational and professional training overseas through intensive language training—indeed many of the students on the study abroad trip began to study hindi informally through teach-yourself hindi study guides and in conversations with local farm workers. if they had some sense of indian history, social life, religious life, and political life before venturing on the journey that would take them half way across the globe, away from their families and loved-ones, would they have been able to adapt more easily? while we held three to four orientation meetings prior to leaving for india, many of our pre-departure meetings were about the logistics of travel to a “distant” or “foreign” country and not about any of the other issues addressed above. 3. conclusion in conclusion, i wanted to address my most recent strategy for creating community in a traditional classroom context. following the study abroad experience, i had the privilege of developing a service-learning module in my home institution centered around the theme of food justice. the sixty students enrolled in the course were required to participate in a volunteering opportunity with a community organization of their choosing devoted to alleviating food insecurity, promoting social justice, or promoting sustainability. the only conditions were the number of required volunteer hours: forty hours over the course of the semester. while the students were overwhelmed at first about the logistics of getting to their volunteer site and finding their work rewarding, or whether they would even be able to finish the requisite hours by the end of the term, i found that each and every student managed to successfully navigate these stumbling blocks. and more, they did so with such positivity and optimism that it reaffirmed my own commitment to making civic engagement an explicit part of my www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 1, no. 1, 2020 61 published by scholink inc. transnational feminist pedagogy. community development and community organizing have been crucial aspects of the movements for women’s rights and social justice. it was clear that through engaging in this service-learning opportunity, students recognized this as well. this type of knowledge cannot be learned though theory, through books and lesson plans. it is imbibed and embraced through experience and practice. while this was not a study-abroad experience, it was an opportunity that took students outside of their comfort zones, and outside of the confines of the traditional university space into the community of which they are a vital part. building on the ideas of karma-yoga, (discipline of action) i facilitated opportunities for students to transgress assumptions of their power and privilege, and work side-by-side with community partners from whom they could also learn. i will end this essay with a quote from bell hooks’ teaching to transgress (1994). her words are offered her at the close of my essay without foreclosing the possibilities that they engender: … the academy is not paradise. but learning is a place where paradise can be created. the classroom, with all its limitations, remains a location of possibility. in that field of possibility we have the opportunity to labor for freedom, to demand of ourselves and our comrades, an openness of mind and heart that allows us to face reality even as we collectively imagine ways to move beyond boundaries, to transgress. this is education as the practice of freedom. (207) acknowledgement i am grateful to the university of florida for the opportunity to teach in a study abroad context and to the fellow students and teachers who made this experience an exercise in transformative learning. references cummins, j. (2019). biliteracy, empowerment, and transformative pedagogy. hanisch, c. (2006). the personal is political. retrieved april 15, 2020, from http://www.carolhanisch.org/chwritings/personalispol.pdf hartmann, h., bravo, e., bunch, c., hartsock, n., spalter-roth, r., williams, l., & blanco, m. (1996). bringing together feminist theory and practice: a collective interview. signs, 21(4), 917-951. https://doi.org/10.1086/495126 hooks, b. (1994). teaching to transgress: education as the practice of freedom. new york: routledge. london, s. (1992). the politics of education: an interview with benjamin barber. retrieved april 15, 2020, from http://www.scottlondon.com/interviews/barber.html pipitone, j. m. (2018). place as pedagogy: toward study abroad for social change. journal of experiential education, 41(1), 54-74. https://doi.org/10.1177/1053825917751509 shiva, v. (2010). staying alive: women, ecology, and development. south end press. shiva, v. (2012). “dialogue: making peace with the earth: leading a global movement to honor seed and soil.” organic processing, 9(2), 47-52. https://doi.org/10.1086/495126 https://doi.org/10.1177/1053825917751509 www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 1, no. 1, 2020 62 published by scholink inc. shiva, v. (2016). the violence of the green revolution: third world agriculture, ecology, and politics. university press of kentucky. swami, v. (n.d.). karma-yoga. in the complete works of swami vivekananda (vol. i. mayavati: prabuddha bharata office [1921], pp. 23-116). retrieved april 15, 2020, from http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/kyog/kyog00.htm zajonc, a. (2006). contemplative and transformative pedagogy. kosmos journal, v(1), 1-3. frontiers of contemporary education issn 2690-3520 (print) issn 2690-3539 (online) vol. 2, no. 2, 2021 www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce 42 original paper linking budgeting with computational thinking pedagogy: program theory, performance, and budgeting michael lindsay hall 1 1 roger williams university, bristol and providence, rhode island, united states received: august 10, 2021 accepted: august 19, 2021 online published: september 25, 2021 doi:10.22158/fce.v2n2p42 url: http://dx.doi.org/10.22158/fce.v2n2p42 abstract the pedagogy involved with preparing and delivering an analytically based course must contend with a number of important limitations or challenges. the challenges/limitations include needing a context for the use of the analytics being taught; others include where best to embed analytic courses in degree curriculum, determining content and delivery along with a number of additional limitations. a context can be created for these courses by establishing a base of usefulness of the course content and how it relates to other courses and to professional applications. however, one useful approach for a budgeting course is to put the analytics in a context of production and performance. these two significant elements of any problem-solving organization finance and budgeting process are significant features of teaching a course in budgeting. the article presented here is an illustration of a context-based approach along with features of pedagogy based in computational thinking which can be used to operationalize course elements while overcoming other salient limitations for analytic courses. the exemplar of a budgeting course is posed as an example. keywords computational thinking, budgeting, program theory, program design 1. introduction analytically based courses are, by their very nature, challenging to develop and deliver. courses requiring arithmetic and/or mathematical skills are the ones that offer particularly unique kinds of challenges. those challenges begin with contextual limitations. some of the limitations are presented by class participants. further limitations would be content for linking with other courses to provide a scaffolding for learning and for deploying analytics professionally. a pedagogical approach to deal with this kind of problem can begin by establishing a context of usefulness of the arithmetic or math applications being taught. courses such as production design, operations research, finance, accounting, www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 2, 2021 43 published by scholink inc. statistics, program evaluation, or budgeting which rely heavily on math would be the kind of courses to have the kinds of contextual limitations which potentially reduce the likelihood of maximum learning and intention to transfer to professional use. courses intended to build problem solving skills are found in mba, mpa, and health administration professional degree programs, among others. an example of the approach to create a context for mitigating context limitations follows using an mpa budgeting course as a point of reference for a way to overcome the challenges in analysis-based courses. 2. literature review the budgeting course in public administration degree programs is probably best understood as a pivotal course. it is pivotal because budgets exist for programs to function. programs are what mpas are being educated to manage. courses in such public administration curricula are also intended for nonprofit applications as well as health care organizations. there are such courses in mba degree programs for people interested in nonprofit management. so important is the program and budget linkage that, according to howard frank (2002, p. 147) a key component of the budget course he discusses is performance or simply put, how a government program works and needs to work. an apt analogy here might be one used by b. guy peters in his book american public policy, in which he refers to programs as engines of public policy. his book title, coincidentally, contains the subtitle “promise and performance” (peters, 2019). program performance is directly linked to budgets for those programs. operations research for manufacturing or even services would offer a similar academic footing. operations research is about production and performance which are at the heart of any service, program, or other organized, purposeful set of tasks intended to create an organizational result. however, traditional budgeting with its line items does not clearly offer a complete picture of production. thus, a budgeting course must navigate the limited information base of line items to get to performance as a topic. it is also not uncommon for the production process to be unconnected to the budgeting process, with little input to decisions other than “budget requests”. the result is students take course a course for which they have only limited individual context and, if they are “in service” learners, they ordinarily do not encounter performance and budgets actually linked in a meaningful way. the course structure and discussion which follows is one way to take on this teaching task of creating linkages in thinking to programs/production from the important context of the precursors to budgeting. 2.1 programs/production come first since the engine metaphor is so workable for the understanding of what drives government policy or nonprofit or healthcare programs, it is only appropriate to recognize that engine design is critical to performance and fuel usage. an engine can only perform the way it was designed to operate and its fuel usage is also dependent on the design; equally the case with programs. programs cannot create effects or results beyond their design. consequently, program design is no small consideration when developing budgets. attention to the “best that we know” for program design is essential for www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 2, 2021 44 published by scholink inc. performance and the budgets that fuel it. the same would be true for healthcare processes, nonprofits, as well as, for business and manufacturing. manufacturing would begin with product design followed by production design to make it. production design would not be guesswork. production would be based on sound engineering principles to optimize production. social services, human services, government operations, and healthcare programs should proceed on no less a foundation. program theory represents the best that we know about these kinds of programs or production processes and is, therefore, instrumental in the design of a program; or at least could or should be. nonetheless, the program must still be implemented based on some kind of thinking to achieve performance. fidelity is the term applied to how closely program design for the program conforms to program theory’s determination of what has been shown to work best. program theory, therefore, would be a logical starting point for finance and spending topics covered in a budget course. 2.2 program theory program theory is one of the younger theories. unlike astronomy, physics, chemistry or engineering which have long histories, program theory in building and evaluating public and nonprofit programs is relatively new dating from the late 1960s. the range of program theories has grown since then and can now be found in the literature of social science, public administration, psychology, criminal justice, education, and public health to name only a few. these disciplines have their individual disciplinary theories which their respective professionally degreed practitioners are expected to master. the practitioners are expected to apply those theories in therapy, social work outreach programs, policing, and teaching. schwandt (2014) says program theory and program management can and should be mutually reinforcing and be used to solve problems in program operations. debra rog, who references schwandt in her article “infusing theory into practice, practice into theory: small wins and big gains for evaluation”, supports schwandt but goes on to point out “there remains a lack of clarity, specification, and systemization for much of what we do” (rog, 2015, p. 224). even though she writes in an evaluation context, programs are the primary element in that context. both schwandt and rog are part of the teaching community of higher education. programs are what budgets are created to operate. what is most often used in budgeting pertaining to program design and implementation is “common knowledge” or as rog puts it, program design is approached with some kind of “technical” expertise built over time (rog, 2015). importantly, rog goes on to draw on bickman (2000) plus bickman, peterson (1990) and lipsey (1993), defining program theory as “an underlying logic or theory of change for (program) evaluation, typically a program or an intervention” (rog, 2015, p. 225). more simply put, program theory is the reasoning based on research of why a program can work. as rog shows, program theory is most often not considered when evaluating a program; it certainly is not considered when designing a program. many practitioners think program theory is for academics only. they, as a group, see no value in applying or even www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 2, 2021 45 published by scholink inc. searching out program theory. in service learners are likely enough to bring such a mindset to a budgeting class. as a result of the contextual limitations described above, it is even more unlikely program theory is linked to budgeting for the program. a traditional budget built on line items in no way represents program work; only what is allotted for spending on its operation. program design, let alone program theory, were not factors in creating budgetary assignment to a program’s appropriation; nor managing it nor evaluating it. accordingly, it is imperative that program theory be introduced in a public administration curriculum as soon as the first course. program theory should also be introduced early in other curricula for degrees in disciplines mentioned above. if not in an introductory course, then the budgeting course becomes the next best place since such a course would be open to the issue of performance. if program theory is reaffirmed as important in any program evaluation course, the foundation of content knowledge concerning program theory can become stronger. nonetheless, program theory should be the underlying source for understanding program performance since simply examining line items, the most common budget format, does not allow for any performance assessment. staying within spending limits of line items does not performance make. failure to introduce and use program theory in a budgeting course creates an imbalance in what students learn in order to apply “the best that we know”. students and teachers who guide them are in essence, victims of myopia about one of the key learning outcomes from an mpa or similar programs granting professional degrees. 2.3 performance and budgeting alfred tat-kei ho discusses performance budgeting theory in his article, “from performance budgeting to performance management” noting the importance of linking performance and budgeting. the perspective he offers shows that over many years of effort urging use of performance budgeting there is little to show for it (tat-kei, 2018). tat-kei traces over 100 years of history to survey efforts to add performance to budgeting. he points to schick’s “classic” theory of categorizing the control, management, and planning orientations as the first marker laid down toward a more systematic understanding of budgeting and performance. tat-kei also discusses a “more relaxed” form of performance budgeting theory which he terms “performance informed budgeting”. this approach to adding performance to budgeting requires, he says, some form of “dialog theory”. then there is “presentational performance budgeting” which shows decision makers performance information but tat-kei writes it is “rarely used” and is not even intended for decision makers during budget decision making. all of tat-kei’s points are valid and important. however, these approaches or theories are at least one step beyond the origination point of budgets (whether stated or not): the programs. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 2, 2021 46 published by scholink inc. programs are the first step to improved budgeting and budget decision makers. while it is unquestionably true, as tat-kei states, important precursors must exist for performance. those precursors include capability to think about performance; leadership for building consensus on its use; interest in performance in applying performance to budgeting; and a number of “layers” of challenges surrounding the budgeting task including staff competency about measurement information plus technology to use it. he does not discuss program theory as one of the precursors, but it must be considered in the list, perhaps even the primary precursor without which performance data may be off target more than it otherwise might be. certainly, the challenges to performance criteria and program theory’s use are significant. nonetheless, programs are at the base of budgeting. there would be no need for budgeting if programs did not exist. given this point of view, the work of campbell and lambright is an illustration of program theory informing program performance (campbell & lambright, 2016). they set out to examine nonprofit program performance and its origination point. they apply program theory called multiple constituency theory. before doing so, they review program theories which frame performance as accountability writing. they make it clear that such approaches are imposed by funders rather than being applied by decision makers in budgeting. while certainly valuable for funding originators and are not to be abandoned, campbell and lambright argue for an expanded consideration of program performance. their research points to the need for an enlarged definition of performance. which means, in turn, a change in program designs to match the expanded performance criteria. such a change would make program design from this perspective stronger. campbell and lambright offer yet another reason to include program theory is a graduate budgeting course. persuading budget decision makers about the importance, value, and improvements program theory can make, must be a “selling job” to decision makers. professional degree holders having taken budgeting and finance courses should be taught about the value of using program theory to inform performance, however. yet, trying to sell decision makers on performance becomes even more difficult if the performance of the program is not up to standards based on performance measurement. here it is important to emphasize measurement is not counting. measurement requires a scale; counting does not. this distinction must be made unequivocal to graduate students so that they do not fall into the trap of using counts as performance gauges. equally important for understanding measurement for performance is the situation in which program design was inadequate to the task to begin with and becomes based on counting, as in traditional rating performance. it is difficult to imagine production and performance so distant from the thinking of those charged with managing government programs, nonprofit enterprises, or healthcare. even more difficult to explain is having to be persuaded to apply theory or principles or even best practices. using the terms production, performance, and theory yielded almost 27,000 results from the author’s university library search engines. the results come from agriculture, water treatment, computer chip manufacturing, education, www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 2, 2021 47 published by scholink inc. education policy, public speaking, and government enterprise analysis, among others. it should be pointed out here these results are just from the years 2017 to 2020, making them recent as well as relevant. the point here is not to criticize tat-kei but instead to agree with him and illustrate how the task of persuading budget decision makers on the value of performance budgeting could be accomplished. program theory should precede performance budgeting not replace it. nor is the intention here to ignore the barriers and challenges in moving performance budgeting ahead through the “layers” of challenges. the intention, instead, is to build a strong foundation of program design, development, implementation, and evaluation to allow for performance measurement information to be valuable and therefore “sellable”. putting these elements of performance together in this sequence would build a learning pathway for students to take with them to employ on the job. 3. research methods a critical review of relevant conceptualizations found in the literature was undertaken to develop an exemplar course applying computational thinking bolstered by program theory, program performance, budgeting, and course pedagogy. the material found most relevant is considered below. 3.1 data sources and analysis program theory is not likely to be the first thing on the minds of decision makers, particularly the elected ones or funders in the nonprofit context. program theory, however, is in the purview of those trained as mpas or mbas. mpas are more apt to be at least familiar with the concept from their courses and seminars. o’brien (1987), as cited in clement and bigby (2011), emphasizes program theory as the basis of performance. without program theory they write “an organization is not able to assess how well they (sic) are implementing processes that are linked to expected outcomes”. measuring workload, time on task, number of clients served, and the like which are counts, makes it all but impossible to understand or to determine why or, even if, outcomes did occur (assuming such outcomes are the appropriate ones for the processes used). furthermore, if the appropriate outcomes did not occur, the counting numbers will not be the method of discovering why not. since budgeting should be based on performance, repeating, even a supposedly successful program, would be guesswork without knowing about the link between work and results. furthermore, not knowing what was to intended to work and did not, converts into no better than puzzlement. budget course learners must be aware of these concepts. 3.2 logic models another understanding of program theory and one which may be clearer to decision makers is logic modeling. a logic model is an illustration of work processes which, with careful attention, can be used as a diagram for viewing a program and its processes. logic models, in other words, allow visualization of work process for the program. visual representations offer the benefit of a way to see how the program processes are aligned and how those processes are supposed to link to results. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 2, 2021 48 published by scholink inc. logic model visuals are also important for seeing how a program’s work process is supposed to align. visuals provided an added benefit of becoming a “selling” mechanism to decision makers. an added value from such visuals would be the ability to determine the implementation fidelity with logic models and/or program theory. munter et al. (2014), show the way on this issue in their article “assessing fidelity of implementation unprescribed, diagnostic mathematics intervention”. following dusenbury et al. (2003), fidelity of implementation is implementing programs as intended. they also show examples of fidelity assessment criteria such as quality of program delivery, adherence, program participants’ responsiveness to the program, and program duration. munter, et al., also indicate the benefit of understanding the programs “mechanisms for change” can be better assessed for refining program theory and improving understanding why a program works or does not. in so doing, a form of program evaluation is being created. program evaluation can then become linked with budgeting for the program. the literature in public administration is replete with logic models. program evaluation literature is one of the key areas where logic models can be found. an mpa must become aware of such literature and the value of logic models. 3.3 program theory, logic models, and lean management douglas martin (2017) points to using lean management connected to decision making based on program processes illustrations. he points to the linkages of these elements for addressing the “layers” of decision making around budgets in his examination of the civil service in the british context. he concludes that lean management applied to social security reduced the complexity of what had become unnecessarily bureaucratic generating layers of rules and decision making for the eligibility of claimants. furthermore, lean generated “greater emphasis” on performance targets. it led to consolidation of what had been separate decision-making processes. martin reports further “lean was central to addressing more efficient and quicker ways of dealing with these areas of work” (martin, 2017, p. 155). lean thinking and management courses appear in mpa and mba curricula. the lessons from lean coursework can be transferred directly to budget course material to train mpas or mbas in the decision-making portions of a budget course project. value stream maps used in lean management represent both the present state of the process of program operations and its future state forming, in a real sense, a logic model also. the value stream may provide more detail in many cases, but the starting point and end point are the same as a logic model. an illustration of the use of value stream maps in this sense was research performed by hurley et al. (2017). in the study they designed, the research was intended to understand the best patient pathways in national patient care used in ireland. using value stream mapping, the researchers examined protocols or standard operating procedures to find patient care operations that “promote effective patient flow through the continuum of care from presentation at the emergency department through safe discharge home” (hurley et al., p. 2). the data from the study was to show the national irish agency in charge of quality of care how the lean processes can provide what is needed to make care better. in other words, www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 2, 2021 49 published by scholink inc. the value stream maps were to be used for decision making. the researchers even applied program theory to the approach they described. lean thinking and management are capacity building elements for budgeting purposes also. as can be seen from this discussion, program theory, lean thinking and management, logic models, and dollars and cents can be construed as intertwined. the nexus of these concepts is therefore directly linked to budgeting and as such can be a part of a budgeting course. the program theory-based budget course can be delivered in a measured fashion to build toward the final element of an actual budget creation exercise. the concept of computational thinking becomes extremely germane here as part of the program theory section. it is the foundational element for building a course using the concepts needing linkage with budgeting discussed above. uzumcu and bay (2021) discuss conceptual thinking as a concept in teaching students 21 st century problem solving; in other words, courses like budgeting combining program theory, performance, and lean management principles. they write that computational thinking is being applied to a “wide range” of curricula internationally (p. 567). citing wing from 2010, lee and malyn-smith, report that computational thinking is, in the first instance, reasoning in a way that formulates a problem and then devising its solution. these two steps allow “an information processing agent” to apply the solution to the problem (wing, 2010, p. 1; lee & malyn-smith, n.d., p. 9). such a description clearly fits anyone involved in program management and budgeting for that program. hadad et al. (2021), build on this premise and its consequences by drawing on zviel-girshin et al., writing “professionals in the knowledge society need digital skills suitable for coping with constantly evolving information and communication technologies (ict), digital tools, and applications (hadad et al., p. 764; zviel-girshin et al., 2020). the budgeting process would be well served by having educated personnel who have the first order element of these skills: computational thinking. 3.4 computational thinking computational thinking is also termed procedural thinking (papert, 1996; in cansu & cansu, 2019). for teaching budgeting procedural thinking might be less intimidating daunting for learners who think themselves less than proficient in mathematics or even arithmetic. procedural thinking is a stepwise construction which can create a logic model and, therefore, a visual toward algorithmic thinking. computational thinking overlaps with procedural thinking since both seek a logic toward finding a problem solution. equally important, logic modelling for computational/procedural thinking is a direct pedagogically, sensible way to introduce program theory as logic modelling. the pedagogical approach using logic models would be a form of creating a learning context as described by allen and heredia (2021). contexts can be limiting factors, as they explain them. naturally, then reducing the influence of learning limitations would be important to integrating program theory into a budget course or, any analytic course for that matter. one way to do so, would be what heredia and tan (2021) did in www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 2, 2021 50 published by scholink inc. working with a graduate course: create a context for learning using active learning or learning by doing. learning by doing is another way of saying learning by making as discussed below. since computational thinking or procedural thinking both involve seeking problem solutions, it is valid to apply them to budgeting and a budgeting course. existing budget numbers or expense numbers are most often defined as the problem rather than program theory or program design. dollars for line items representing a program forms the problem because of limitations of revenue, time, and the imperative to show spending as the important issue. papert writes, as cited in cansu and cansu, that procedural thinking can be interpreted as individual thinking about problem solving and involves “learning by making” (papert, 1991, p. 1; in cansu & cansu, p. 1). a budget course would provide just such learning by making with a budget creation assignment, but one that also included program theory and program design resulting from that theory. a number of elements of computational thinking or procedural thinking that are logically associated with learning by making and would be useful in a budget course are  formulating  analyzing and dividing problems into manageable constituent parts  organizing and modelling  efficiency  critical thinking and creativity  data analysis all these features of computational thinking would be needed in making a course budget project. the very important element tying all of these facets of computational thinking together is a set of systematic logical steps making a replicable solution, i.e., an algorithmic way of thinking which is a form of synthesis. in this sense it “is the process of constructing a scheme of ordered steps which may be followed to provide solutions to all constituent problems necessary to solve the original problem” (cansu & cansu, p. 4). the synthesis step is found in the program and performance-based budget activity. others of the list above are usually part of a budgeting course in one way or another. the pedagogical aim of using procedural learning in a budget course is putting these analytic processes in a logical order and using them to create a program and performance-based budget assignment. in their article on using computational thinking in an education setting, kang and lee (2020) call the approach described above as “project learning” and is found “in every discipline in schools for many years” (kang & lee, p. 5358). they add the approach has been “very popular”. they cite a large number of examples of successfully using computational or procedural thinking in courses (kang & lee, pp. 5360-5361). kang and lee also add that the approach of procedural or computation thinking has appeared in courses found in liberal arts (kang & lee, p. 5361). caldron provides analysis for a more traditional classroom exercise intended to have students work in role plays and problem-solving exercise aimed at computational thinking. this teaching approach is not project learning, but it is learning by doing. the pretest and posttest results reported by caldron showed www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 2, 2021 51 published by scholink inc. “a positive correlation between teaching abstraction and an enhancement in learner’s ability to engage in abstract thinking; and a positive correlation teaching algorithmic thinking and an enhancement in sequentiality” (caldron, pp. 1190-1191). the caldron role play results show formation of the two elemental features of computational thinking: abstract thinking and sequentiality. abstract thinking allows a person to recognize patterns, spot then eliminate irrelevant facets of a problem, followed by generating a framework for diagnosing similar problems (calderon, 2020). sequentiality involves using a step-by-step process in an unambiguous fashion. there is no pedagogical reason that project learning or role plays and problem solving could not be combined. in a budget course, for example, role plays of stakeholders in the budgeting process could be designed followed by a project such as preparing a budget using hypothetical budget numbers and programs. the assignment could be to find the least expensive supplier of a key expense such as an item of equipment. problem solving exercises in which the assignment is to work through a budget problem such as determine the best combination of resources for a hypothetical nonprofit theater deciding on how to balance marketing/outreach with the need to add new stage lighting. suitable variations could be made for a government operation or health care organization. such exercises in the language of teaching computational thinking are “unplugged”. that is to say, they do not necessarily need computer applications for calculations. in fact, there may be no actual mathematical work needed. an example of one such unplugged assignment was developed and evaluated for learning outcomes by mitri et al. (mitri et al., 2017). the authors describe their work using role plays as active learning devising role plays which encourage, they say, participation and engagement. this description sounds remarkably similar to that described by calderon et al. the similarities begin with the assignments being unplugged. another similarity is learning by doing. yet another similarity is following a sequence of steps. the desired learning outcomes involved “understanding” and “relating” information systems to strategy. while the term computational thinking is never used in the study, clearly the same kinds of cognitive skills would need to be applied as the calderon, et.al, research highlighted. furthermore, the role play exercises and learning outcomes included the subject of budgeting in the course they studied. 4. discussion while cognitive thinking emerged from computer science it need not be used exclusively for computer programming, as was its original purpose. a major use of computational thinking is problem solving based on mental steps to discern patterns, disassemble them, and then organize them for a solution to a problem. the need for analytic problem solvers is critical in many fields and disciplines. while computational thinking can yield an organized sequence of elements to solve a problem, not all problem solvers need to be able to algorithmic thinking. wing noted in her definition of the concept the end point would be www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 2, 2021 52 published by scholink inc. the information processing agent to make the solution operational. the information processing agent can be other than the problem solver. in any case, the solution must be applied to the problem by someone competent in the analytics found in computational thinking. mpas and mbas would be the target audience for such thinking. those information processing agents form the drivers of such fields as informatics and its full array of disciplines. informationalists in informatics are trained to use databases to extract information for examination and use by decision and/or policy makers. the education of these groups includes graduate degrees such as mpa, mba, health administration, and nonprofits. analytically oriented courses, such as budgeting or finance or program evaluation, in these degrees present the opportunities illuminate the importance of computational thinking drawing on program theory, logic modelling, value steam mapping, and performance. as a result, the future decision makers or policy makers would be up to date on what their professional future is likely to present as problems and the way to solve them. based on the research literature presented and reviewed here, the task of teaching the subject of computational thinking can be done for efficacy. while the focus here was a budgeting course, as was seen in the early sections above, the courses to which it can be applied are wide and diverse. references allen, c. d., & heredia, s. c. (2021). reframing organizational contexts from barriers to levers for teacher learning in science education reform. journal of science teacher education, 32(2), 148-166. https://doi.org/10.1080/1046560x.2020.1794292 bickman, l. (2000). summing up program theory in evaluation. new directions for program evaluation, 87, 103-112. https://doi.org/10.1002/ev.1186 bickman, l., & peterson, k. a. (1990). using program theory to describe and measure program. new directions for program evaluation, 47, 61-72. https://doi.org/10.1002/ev.1555 calderon, a. c., skillicorn, d., watt, a., & perham, n. (2020). a double dissociative study into the effectiveness of computational thinking. education and information technologies, 25(2), 1181-1192. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-019-09991-3 campbell, d. a., & lambright, k. t. (2016). program performance and multiple constituency theory. nonprofit and voluntary sector quarterly, 45(1), 150-157. https://doi.org/10.1177/0899764014564578 cansu, s. k., & cansu, f. k. (2019). an overview of computational thinking. international journal of computer science education in schools, 3(1), 1-11. https://doi.org/10.21585/ijcses.v3i1.53 clement, t., & bigby, c. (2011). the development and utility of a program theory: lessons from an evaluation of a reputed exemplary residential support service for adults with intellectual disability and severe challenging behaviour in victoria, australia. journal of applied research and intellectual disabilities, 24(6), 554-565. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-3148.2011.00634.x https://doi.org/10.1080/1046560x.2020.1794292 https://doi.org/10.1002/ev.1186 https://doi.org/10.1002/ev.1555 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-019-09991-3 https://doi.org/10.1177/0899764014564578 https://doi.org/10.21585/ijcses.v3i1.53 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-3148.2011.00634.x www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 2, 2021 53 published by scholink inc. dusenbury, l., brannigan, r., falco, m., & hansen, w. b. (2003). a review of research on fidelity of implementation: implications for drug abuse prevention in school settings. health education research, 18(2), 237-256. https://doi.org/10.1093/her/18.2.237 hadad, s., shamir-inbal, t., blau, i., & leykin, e. (2021). professional development of code and robotics teachers through small private online course (spoc): teacher centrality and pedagogical strategies for developing computational thinking of students. journal of educational computing research, 59(4), 763-791. https://doi.org/10.1177/0735633120973432 heredia, s. c., & tan, e. (2021). teaching and learning in makerspaces: equipping teachers to become justice-oriented maker-educators. journal of educational research, 114(2), 171-182. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220671.2020.1860871 howard, f. (2002). teaching performance measurement in a core mpa budgeting class. journal of public affairs education, 8(2), 141-150. https://doi.org/10.1080/15236803.2002.12023543 hurley, e. m., mchugh, s., carroll, a., & white, b. (2017). a protocol to evaluate the effectiveness of a nationwide acute medicine programme: examining what works, for whom, how, and in what circumstances. international journal of integrated care (ijic), 17(supplement), 1-2. https://doi.org/10.5334/ijic.3519 kang, y., & lee, k. (2020). designing technology entrepreneurship education using computational thinking. education and information technologies, 25(6), 5357-5377. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-020-10231-2 lee, i., & malyn-smith, j. (2020). computational thinking integration patterns along the framework defining computational thinking from a disciplinary perspective. journal of science education and technology, 29(1), 9-18. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10956-019-09802-x lipsey, m. w. (1993). theory as method. new directions in for program evaluation, 57, 5-38. https://doi.org/10.1002/ev.1637 martin, d. (2017). making tax and social security decisions: lean and deskilling in the uk civil service. new technology, work, & employment, 32(2), 146-159. https://doi.org/10.1111/ntwe.12092 millar, r., morton, a., bufali, m. v., engels, s., dabak, s. v., isaranuwatchai, w., chalkidou, k., & teeraawattananon, y. (2021). assessing the performance of health technology assessment (hta) agencies: developing a multi-country, multi-stakeholder, and multi-dimensional framework to explore mechanisms of impact. effectiveness & resource allocation, 19(1), 1-14. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12962-021-00290-8 mitri, m., cole, c., & atkins, l. (2017). teaching case: a systems analysis role-play exercise and assignment. journal of information systems education, 28(1), 1-9. munter, c., wilhelm, a. g., cobb, p., & corday, d. s. 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(1987). a guide to life-style planning: using the activities catalog to integrate services and natural support systems. in b. wilcox, & g. bellamy (eds.), the activities catalogue: an alternative curriculum for youth and adults with severe disabilities. brooks: baltimore. papert, s., & harel, i. (1991). situating constructionism. in s. papert, & i. harel (eds.), constructionism. new york: ablex publishing. peters, b. g. (2019). american public policy: promise and performance (11th ed.). thousand oaks: sage. pope, a. m., finney, s. j., & bare, a. k. (2019). the essential role of program theory: fostering theory-driven practice and high-quality outcomes assessment in student affairs. research & practice in assessment, 14, 5-17. rog, d. j. (2015). infusing theory into practice, practice into theory: small wins and big gains for evaluation. american journal of evaluation, 36(2), 223-238. https://doi.org/10.1177/1098214015573068 schwandt, t. a. (2014). on the mutually informing relationship between practice and theory in evaluation. american journal of evaluation, 35, 232-236. https://doi.org/10.1177/1098214013503703 tat-kei, a. (2018). from performance budgeting to performance budget management: theory and practice. public administration review, 78(5), 748-758. https://doi.org/10.1111/puar.12915 uzumcu, o., & bay, e. (2021). the effect of computational thinking skill program design developed according to interest driven creator theory on prospective teachers. education and information technologies, 26(1), 565-583. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-020-10268-3 wing, j. (2010). computational thinking: what and why? pittsburgh, pa: carnegie mellon university, school of computer science. wing, j. m. (2006). computational thinking. communications of the acm, 49(3), 33-35. https://doi.org/10.1145/1118178.1118215 zviel-girshin, r., luria, a., & shaham, c. (2020). robotics as a tool to enhance technological thinking in early childhood. journal of science education and technology, 29(2), 294-302. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10956-020-09815-x https://doi.org/10.1177/1098214015573068 https://doi.org/10.1177/1098214013503703 https://doi.org/10.1111/puar.12915 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-020-10268-3 https://doi.org/10.1145/1118178.1118215 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10956-020-09815-x microsoft word fce-v1n1-p1 frontiers of contemporary education issn 2690-3520 (print) issn 2690-3539 (online) vol. 1, no. 1, 2020 www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce 1 original paper teacher preparedness in the implementation of early childhood development education in kericho county, kenya joshua manduku1*, reginah cherop2 & zipporah muia3 1 university of kabianga, kericho, kenya 2 kamobo primary school, kapsabet, kenya 3 st patrick’s primary school, kericho, kenya * joshua manduku, university of kabianga, kericho, kenya received: april 9, 2020 accepted: april 23, 2020 online published: may 11, 2020 doi:10.22158/fce.v1n1p1 url: http://dx.doi.org/10.22158/fce.v1n1p1 abstract the purpose of this study was geared towards the analysis of the teacher’s preparedness and their attitudes towards the selection and use of the instructional resources in ecde centers in kericho county, kenya. the research was based on the ideas and concepts of curriculum theorists; gross et al. (1971), tyler (1949), fullan (1982) and shiundu and omulando (1992). a conceptual framework showing the relationship between the independent and dependent variables was also conceptualized. the study adopted a descriptive survey design and utilized a mixed methods methodology and was carried out in kericho municipality zone, kericho county. simple random and stratified sampling techniques were used to select respondents who comprised of a target population of 84 head teachers and 180 pre-school teachers to get the sample size of 25 head teachers and 54 pre-school teachers from the selected ecde centers. data was collected using questionnaires, observation checklists and an interview schedule. the instruments for data collection were piloted in the neighboring belgut zone to validate the tools and determine their reliability. data was analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics, this included frequencies and percentages and the hypotheses were tested using chi-square test of association. data was presented in the form of graphs, charts, and tables. the study provides useful information for the education policy makers to produce relevant learning resources and course books for the ecde teachers. the government of kenya (gok) can use the findings to consider funding the pre-school education and improve teacher preparedness and attitudes towards the use of instructional resources. teachers can use the findings to improve on their preparedness and attitudes towards the selection and use of instructional resources. the major findings of the study showed that teachers were prepared, and had a positive attitude towards the selection and use of www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 1, no. 1, 2020 2 published by scholink inc. instructional resources. however, the status of the available materials in the centers were either inadequate, obsolete, dilapidated or unsuitable for use. keywords teacher preparedness, attitude, selection, use of instructional resources, ecde centers 1. introduction the early childhood learning is an important system not only in kenya, but also in other countries of the world (young, 2012). according to the international encyclopedia of education (1985) it is referred to as a variety of types of provisions for young children designed to support and stimulate their intellectual development. a child receives a good start in life through the promotion of quality care, nurturing and safe environment (froebel, 1963). according to many scholars and psychologists, aspects of early childhood development and education (ecde) learning curriculum which acutely require instructional resources (ir) include the cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains. the study carried out in botswana (1993-1995) found out that children who had been in pre-schools under well prepared teachers in terms of training were mostly still in school and the dropout figures were lower. the results were also obtained in other countries like israel, ireland, colombia, jamaica, trinidad and even kenya (bernard van leer foundations, 2002). there is therefore need to carry out research in the analysis of teacher preparedness, attitude and use of instructional resources in the implementation of ecde curriculum in kenya. therefore, young children learn well by interacting with the real materials in their learning environment. the ecde learning becomes operational through the use of a variety of well selected, relevant learning resources, practical skills and abilities are well taught by the help of resources. truly, too much teacher talk is boring and ruinous to the pupils. from nacece report (2006), learners require a child friendly environment where a teacher sets the learning corners full of resources as per the theme or activity content. materials are changed or renewed from time to time as children explore and learn freely in indoor and outdoor activities. this can only be effective when teachers are well trained and prepared in the selection and use of appropriate variety of instructional resources (ongus, 2003). the main purpose of ecde learning in kenya is mainly to help the child to acquire language and communication skills; manipulative and numeric skills in concept handling, reading and writing skills. the child should also acquire positive attitudes towards education; grow physiologically, morally, spiritually and emotionally. if instructional resources are acquired and effectively utilized by well prepared teachers, pupils will be ready to smoothly move from the pre-school stage to the primary school level without difficulties. the belief that early learning begets later learning and success, just like early failure begets later failure, has been validated in both economic and educational research (k.i.e., 2002). during ecde learning, children enjoy non-serious play directed activities and it is the duty of the pre-school teacher to turn these non-serious selves into serious actors. this can only be achieved through the use of relevant www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 1, no. 1, 2020 3 published by scholink inc. instructional resources because psychologists have proved that optimum learning takes a multi-sensory approach (adeyanju, 2003). this is supported by kariuki (2002) who argues that teaching should fire the enthusiasm of the child, motivating it to desire to learn and be active. he further emphasizes this by arguing that to learn a thing in life through doing is much more developing, cultivating and strengthening than to learn it merely through the verbal communication of ideas. ecde requires a variety of instructional resources and highly trained and motivated teachers to prepare the tender children for class one. latest developments have seen a global endeavor to prioritize early childhood care and education as a foundation for later learning and development, as evidenced by the global guidelines for early childhood education and care in the 21st century (association for childhood education international/world organization for early childhood, 1999). such efforts are a response to a variety of complex social issues and economic trends. these forces, which are referred to here as “complex family stressors”, include, but are not limited to, societal changes due to industrialization, the increased number of women with young children entering the labor force, families with two working parents, a rise in the number of single parents, and the demise of traditional systems of child care and extended family support systems (cheruiyot & kosgei, 2008). 1.1 statement of the problem early childhood development education policies stress the use of plenty of relevant instructional resources to develop the totality of the child (nacece, 2006). learning has been ineffective in most ecde centers with children having difficulties in mastering reading, manipulative, numeric and interpersonal skills despite the several studies on instructional resources (cheruiyot & kosgei, 2008). the ultimate goal of ecde learning is the holistic development of the child. although ecde learning has aroused a lot of interest in kenya, it still faces many problems in its implementation. most ecde teachers are of low academic qualifications (d+) and lack high professional training since most of them are mere form four school leavers who sometimes are demotivated by such conditions. most teachers do lack adequate knowledge and skills for providing stimulating learning experiences for the children. truly, teachers if well trained, determine the suitability of, select and utilize those instructional resources, which they believe will promote the achievement of the desired learning outcomes (nacece, 2006). in some centers, children learn in poor environment with pre-school teachers using the rote teaching method of “talk and chalk”. most ecde centers are managed by untrained school leavers. this makes it exceedingly difficult for them to interpret the objectives and apply relevant curriculum methodology apart from not effectively selecting and using instructional resources (cave & mulloy, 2010). research done also asserts that pre-school teachers’ lack high professional training and most of them only do attend workshops or seminars. the partnership ownership of ecde learning centers to some extend hinders the progress of the curriculum implementation. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 1, no. 1, 2020 4 published by scholink inc. cave and mulloy (2010) emphasized the importance of teacher preparedness in terms of professional records preparation, academic and professional training levels of the pre-school teachers for effective ecde implementation. concerns have been raised over the state of the ecde programs with regard to the negative teacher attitudes towards ecde learning, specifically in the selection and use of instructional resources due to low remuneration, lack of time and demotivation (dicece, 2013). if the situation is left to continue, the child’s holistic development cannot be guaranteed in the 21st. 1.2 purpose of the study the purpose of this study was to evaluate teacher preparedness in the implementation of early childhood development education in kericho municipality, kericho county, kenya. 1.3 objectives of the study the specific objectives of this study were to: i) assess teacher preparedness and its influence on the selection and use of instructional materials in ecde centers in kericho county. ii) explore the attitude of teachers and its influence on the selection and use of instructional resources in ecde centers in kericho county. 1.4 research hypothesis the study hypothesized that: ho1: there is no significant relationship between teacher preparedness and selection and use of instructional resources. ho2: there is no significant relationship between teacher attitudes’ and selection and use of instructional resources. 1.5 theoretical framework this study was based on the ideas and concepts of curriculum theorists; gross et al. (1971), tyler (1949), fullan (1982) and shiundu and omulando (1992). these curriculum theorists noted that the degree of success of a curriculum implementation depends on the scope to which several factors would be considered. the factors outlined by the curriculum theorists include the extent to which members of the school organization possess the capabilities and competencies needed to carry out the process of curriculum implementation, availability of resources, provision of management support and clarity and awareness of the objectives of the innovation, the attitudes of the implementers, recipients and other stakeholders. oluoch (1982) emphasizes the need to design educational program for teachers involved in the implementation of new curriculum. dalton (1988) contends that reforms can be good but their implementation may be inhibited by the way they are delivered. good performance of students in examinations requires proper implementation. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 1, no. 1, 2020 5 published by scholink inc. conceptual framework figure 1. relationship between teacher preparedness and teacher attitudes and the selection and use of instructional resources 2. method this study adopted a descriptive survey research design. the study was conducted in kericho municipality zone which is the headquarters of kericho county. it lies on the nairobi-kisumu highway, its geographical coordinates are 0o22’0” south, 35o17’0” east. it was chosen because of its nearness to the dicece where new methodologies on the selection and use of instructional resources on ecde learning were easily accessed. the study area has a sizeable number of pre-schools both public and private for easy assessment of teacher preparedness, attitudes and use of instructional resources in ecde curriculum implementation. the population of the study was 264 subjects. the target population was 84 ecde centers in kericho municipality zone of which 30 were public and 54 were private with 180 pre-school teachers (dicece kericho, 2013). the study targeted all the head teachers and pre-school teachers at the ecde centers in the zone. the sample size consisted of the following respondents: 25 head teachers and 54 pre-school teachers in kericho municipality zone that is 30% of the target population. samples were picked from the ecde centers using stratified and simple random sampling techniques. this was chosen to delimit the research and gather sufficient data within the cost and time restraints. questionnaires, interviews and observations were used as methods for the collection of data. piloting of instruments was done in the neighboring belgut zone. content validity was ascertained by giving the instruments to experts for validation. test-retest and split half reliability tests were conducted with the help of cronbach alpha coefficient and a coefficient of 0.70 was realized. the test-retest gave a reliability coefficient of 0.67 using the pearson product moment correlation. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 1, no. 1, 2020 6 published by scholink inc. based on the data evaluation instruments, quantitative and qualitative data analytical techniques were utilized. data from questionnaires was analyzed in frequencies, means and percentages using the statistical package for social science (spss). qualitative data from the questionnaires was analyzed in themes and categories identifying similarities and differences that emerged. the spss was used to generate frequency distribution tables. a descriptive statistical method was used and adopted to calculate the percentages and means. the researcher drew conclusions concerning teacher preparedness, attitude and use of instructional resources in teaching and learning in ecde centers, basing on the research objectives. 2.1 limitations the study made a causal conclusion on the association between the variable’s teacher preparedness and teacher attitudes and selection and use of instructional resources. however, there is a possibility that a third variable not mentioned in the study caused the two variables without there being a causal relationship between the two variables. therefore, alternative explanations cannot be ruled out. this, therefore, calls for future studies to focus on using different designs that would control the influence of confounding variables. this study was carried out on specific groups of people, certain situations, and only some of the possible conceptualizations of variables. thus, the findings of this study may not be generalized to other people, situations or conceptualizations of variables. this, therefore, calls for future research to focus on those groups of people, situations or conceptualizations of variables not studied. 3. discussion assess teacher preparedness in the use of the available instructional materials in ecde centers the first objective of this study was to find out whether teachers were prepared in the use of the available instructional materials in teaching and learning in ecde centers. to achieve this objective, the respondents were asked to respond on several items that the researcher considered important. they included; use of instructional resources, whether they had enough training on selection and use of instructional resources, make instructional resources for learners, plan for use of instructional resources, whether the use of instructional resources enables one to summarize voluminous concepts and learning contents, often use of teaching and learning resources, attended training and workshops on preparation and use of instructional resources. this was in an attempt to answer the first research question. “does the teacher preparedness influence the use of the available instructional resources in the teaching and learning in ecde centers?” the researcher used the 5-point likert scale, i.e., strongly agree (sa), agree (a), neutral (n), disagree (d) and strongly disagree (sd) but later collapsed them into 3 during analysis, i.e., agree (a), neutral (n) and disagree (d). table 1 gives a summary of the respondents’ information. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 1, no. 1, 2020 7 published by scholink inc. table 1. a table showing an assessment of teacher preparedness in the use of available instructional resources item agree neutral disagree total f % f % f % f % i am prepared when using instructional resources 75 94.9 4 5.1 79 100 have enough training on selection and use of ir 62 78.5 11 13.9 6 7.6 79 100 i make ir for my learners 69 87.3 11 13.9 6 7.6 79 100 plan for use of ir 65 81.2 6 7.6 8 11.2 79 100 use of ir enables summaries of volumes of concepts 70 88.6 9 11.4 79 100 often use teaching and learning resources 61 77.2 5 6.3 13 16.4 79 100 attended training on preparation and use of ir 47 59.5 1 1.3 31 39.3 79 100 have attended seminars and workshops on teaching and learning in ecde centers 43 54.4 1 1.3 35 44.3 79 100 from table 1 above, majority of the respondents, 75 (94.9%) agreed that they used the available ir in the teaching and learning in the ecde centers and those undecided were 4 (5.1%). a good number 62 (78.5%) agreed that they had enough training on the selection and use of ir, while 6 (7.6%) disagreed. data collected indicated that in ecde centers without sufficient ir, the teachers improvised as indicated by 69 (87.3%) and 11 (13.9%) were undecided. those who planned to use ir were 65 (81.2%). the respondents, 70 (88.6%) agreed that use of ir made it possible for them to cover several volumes of concepts. this shows that concepts were easily understood by children as argued by nacece (2006). it was vivid that 61 (77.2%) of the respondents agreed that they often used ir, while www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 1, no. 1, 2020 8 published by scholink inc. those who were undecided were 5 (6.3%) and 13 (16.4%) disagreed. the respondents 47 (59.5%) agreed that they had attended a training on preparation and use of ir while a good number 31 (39.3%) had not and only 1 (1.3%) was undecided. about half of the respondents 43 (54.4%) agreed to have attended seminars and workshops on the selection and use of ir in ecde centers, 1 (1.3%) was undecided while 35 (40.3%) disagreed. whaley (2005), noted that workshops and seminars are effective in improving the teacher preparedness, attitude and use of ir in the ecde curriculum implementation. table 2. availability of ir in the ecde centers item adequate inadequate not available total f % f % f % f % head teacher’s office 31 39.2 47 59.5 1 1.3 79 100 staffrooms 7 8.9 66 83.5 6 7.6 79 100 libraries 4 5.1 9 11.4 66 83.5 79 100 models 7 8.9 63 79.7 9 11.4 79 100 store 7 8.9 8 10.1 64 81.0 79 100 instructional resources 18 22.8 61 77.2 79 100 chalkboards 76 96.2 3 3.8 79 100 electronic media 2 2.5 3 3.8 74 93.7 79 100 outdoor play resources 11 13.9 61 77.2 7 8.9 79 100 appropriate furniture 75 94.9 4 5.1 79 100 syllabus copies 77 97.5 2 2.5 79 100 realia 6 7.6 66 83.5 7 8.9 79 100 spacious ground 28 35.5 43 54.4 8 10.1 79 100 www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 1, no. 1, 2020 9 published by scholink inc. the researcher wanted to establish whether ir were either adequate, insufficient or not available in ecde centers. the researcher further carried out an observation to find out the existence of ir facilities in ecde centers. table 2 above shows that the head teachers had offices except in one instance where there was none. they were however, not well placed at strategic positions for easy access. in terms of staff rooms, 7 (8.9%) had adequate, a big proportion 66 (83.5%) were inadequate, while 6 (17.6%) centers had none at all. this impacted negatively on the teachers’ preparation as argued by ongus (2003) who agrees that staffrooms are necessary facilities for teachers’ preparation sessions. it was observed that 4 (5.1%) had adequate libraries, while 9 (11.4%) had inadequate and in 66 (83.5%) ecde centers were not available. models were adequate only in 7 (8.9%) centers, while majority 63 (79.7%) had inadequate and a few 9 (11.4%) had none at all. centers with adequate stores were only 7 (8.9%), while 8 (10.1%) had inadequate and most of them 64 (81%) had no stores. in all centers it was observed that each had some instructional resources in one form or the other, though they were inadequate as reported by 61 (77%), while those with adequate were 18 (22.6%). this explains why children have had difficulties in mastering reading, manipulative, numeric and interpersonal skills due to lack of hands-on activities (epstein, 2009). availability of chalkboards was adequate in 76 (96.2%) and inadequate in only 3 (3.8%) of the ecde centers. almost all centers 74 (93.7%) had no computers or laptops, the few centers with the same, 5 (6.3%) were all private ecde centers. a few centers 11 (13.9%) had sufficient playgrounds, while 61 (77.2%) had inadequate playgrounds. the age of learners requires adequate playgrounds. almost all centers 75 (97.5%) had enough furniture for use by learners. only 4 (5.1%) had inadequate number of furniture. the findings were also similar to those of mwangi (2004) who asserted that learning is strengthened when there are enough ir. majority 77 (97.5%) of the centers had adequate copies of syllabus except 2 (2.5%) who had inadequate copies of syllabus. realia were only adequate in a few centers 6 (7.6%), but inadequate in 66 (83.5%) centers, while 7 (8.9%) centers had none at all. spacious grounds were adequate in 28 (35.5%), 43 (54.4%) were inadequate and unavailable in 8 (10.1%). an interview with the school head teachers (kericho primary school) revealed that most of the instructional resources were sufficient in private ecde centers unlike in the public ecde centers where they were insufficient as was also observed by batwini (2010). it was evident that the pre-school teachers used the available instructional resources in the teaching and learning in the ecde centers. majority of the head teachers agreed that the parents were not willing to finance the purchase of relevant ir as was also supported by ongus (2003). this summary is tabulated in the table below; www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 1, no. 1, 2020 10 published by scholink inc. 3.1 attitude of teachers and its influence on selection and use of instructional resources in ecde centers the second objective of this study was to explore the attitude of teachers and its influence on the selection and use of instructional resources in ecde centers. to achieve this objective, the respondents were asked to respond to several items; use of instructional resources is boring, have enough training, i make instructional resources for my learners, plan for use of instructional resources, use of instructional resources allow interaction of children, the use of instructional resources enable one to overcome classroom limitation and use of instructional resources make children enjoy their learning. this was in an endeavor to answer the second research question “what is the attitude of the teachers on the selection and use of instructional resources in ecde centers?” the results were presented in the table 3 below. table 3. attitude of teachers item agree neutral disagree total f % f % f % f % use of ir is boring 0 0 4 5.1 7.5 94.9 79 100 have enough training 62 78.5 11 13.9 6 7.6 79 100 i make ir for my learners 69 87.3 4 5.1 6 7.6 79 100 plan for use of ir 65 82.3 6 7.6 8 10.1 79 100 use of ir allow interaction of children 73 92.4 1 1.3 5 6.3 79 100 the use of ir enables one to overcome classroom limitation 76 96.2 1 1.3 2 2.5 79 100 use of ir make children enjoy learning 71 89.9 6 7.6 2 2.5 79 100 a good number of preschool teachers from table 3 above 75 (94.9%) disagreed with the assertion that use of ir was boring in the teaching and learning at their ecde centers. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 1, no. 1, 2020 11 published by scholink inc. it showed a strong desire to use ir as supported by ololube (2006). in terms of training, their perception on the use of ir improved as 62 (78.5%) agreed while only 6 (7.6%) felt it never contributed at all. it showed that those who made ir for their learners were 69 (87.3%), a clear sign of interest in providing ir for their children, those who never bothered to make ir were 6 (7.6%) which is negligible. this is a positive sign that teachers are willing to teach using ir. before teaching, those who planned to use ir were 65 (82.3%) while those who taught without were 8 (10.1%). effective teaching was achieved by making appropriate plans and using relevant ir (gok, 2006). sharing and interaction amongst learners was noticeable as shown by 73 (92.4%) respondents. this showed concern on the part of teachers that socialization was improved when ir were used as noted by lynch (2007). with use of ir by learners, a majority 76 (96.2%) respondents agreed that it made them easily use a classroom effectively, whether small or big. learners became quite involved on the task at hand. a total of 71 (89.9%) respondents said that ir made children enjoy coming to ecde centers and learn what was being offered through hands-on activities (cook, 2002). only 2 (2.5%) respondents saw no connection between ir and active attendance by learners. on the attitude of teachers and its influence on preparedness of the selection and use of instructional resources, 75 (94.9%) agreed that it has a life contribution. none disagreed with the assertion. for learners to enjoy all activities seventy-one (89.9%) respondents agreed that use of instructional resources was necessary while those who disagreed were 2(2.5%) while only 6 (7.6%) were undecided. the findings are in agreement with eduser (2009) who noted that teachers’ attitudes influence the selection and use of ir in a teaching and learning situation. this is reflected on table 3. cook (2002) supports the view that effective teaching and learning cannot take place without essential instructional resources. 3.2 hypothesis testing ho1: there is no significant relationship between teacher preparedness and selection and use of instructional resources. ho2: there is no significant relationship between teacher attitudes and selection and use of instructional resources. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 1, no. 1, 2020 12 published by scholink inc. table 4. chi-square results showing the relationship between teacher preparedness, and teacher attitudes and the selection and use of instructional resources teacher preparedness teachers attitude chi-square 493.455 354.545 df 4 4 asym. sig 0.000 0.000 a chi-square test was calculated comparing the frequency of teacher preparedness and selection and use of instructional resources. it was hypothesized that no significant relationship existed between teacher preparedness and selection and use of instructional resources. a significant relationship was found (2)=493.455, df 4, p=0.00, for teacher preparedness and 2=354.545, df 4, for teacher attitude as shown in table 4. the results show that in both cases the p value 0.000 was less than 0.05. therefore, there was a significant relationship between teacher preparedness and teacher attitudes and selection and use of instructional resources in public ecde centers in kericho county. the two attributes are therefore associated in reality and they are not as a result of some chance factor. 4. results 4.1 teacher preparedness in the use of available instructional materials in the teaching and learning in ecde centers the first objective of this study was to assess teacher preparedness in the use of available instructional materials in the teaching and learning in ecde centers in kericho county. according to musau (2004), an instructional material is an object or means of communication process that stores and distributes human experience or knowledge, therefore the totality of the information carrying devices. he continues to say that utilization of the instructional materials in teaching is associated with the function of the teacher as the manager of the instructional process. it is important for the teacher to arrange the mechanics of the presentation and also plan to make the materials meaningful to the learners. results presented in this study indicated that majority of the teachers agreed that they used the available ir in the teaching and learning in the ecde centers. this is in agreement with indire et al. (2000) who states that concrete and proper use of teaching/learning aids often gives concrete representation to most abstract ideas and thus makes their meanings clearer. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 1, no. 1, 2020 13 published by scholink inc. instructional resources and aids are therefore essential and useful tools because they promote understanding of concepts and principles, they enrich and enliven teaching, they concentrate interest and attention, they speed up communication and thereby make the teaching process more efficient and effective. they also make pupils remember more of what they learn. on the training and selection of ir, majority of the teachers are in agreement that they attained enough training in the selection of ir. bennars (2003) observed that instructional resources are very important in the teaching of any subject. teachers are trained to prepare and use instructional resources because they are essential ingredients in teaching and learning. developmental psychologists stressed the role of concrete operational experience for children. when instructional resources are well used, there is maximum learning achieved by each individual learner. today, much more improvement in the development and use of instructional resources has been done because of the advancement of technology. teachers select, plan and present their instructional materials basing on many factors that can help them realize their instructional objectives (berl, 2005). the findings showed that teachers improvised instructional materials, this is in agreement with berl (2005) who says that teachers ought to be resourceful and design materials which can allow their learners achieve in a lesson. the respondents also agreed that the use of ir made it possible for them to cover several volumes of concepts. in all schools visited, the most adequate ir were chalkboards, furniture and syllabus copies. while other materials like handouts, models, charts electric media, realia, play ground and other ir were inadequate in centers (table 2). libraries, store and electric media were not available as cited by the respondents. interviews conducted to head teachers confirmed the same. most of the head teachers agreed that they had sufficient chalkboards, charts, pictures, textbooks, models and realia, while toys, photographs, models and outdoor play resources were unavailable in quite a number of the centers. 4.2 attitude of teachers and its influence on the selection and use of instructional resources the findings of the study showed a good number of preschool teachers either enjoyed using ir or plan to use ir in their lessons. they agreed that they had enough training on the use of ir which is contrary to the findings of anyanwu (2005) who says that many of the school teachers are ignorant of using those instructional materials and induction courses, lectures, and seminars are not organized in the teaching profession as they are organized in the civil services to up-grade knowledge and to facilitate the use of sophisticated instructional materials. teachers also do not make maximum use of the few instructional materials at their disposal, because many of them do not have the knowledge of operating them. developmental psychologists stressed the role of concrete operational experiences for children. when instructional resources are well used, there is maximum learning achieved by each individual learner. today, much more improvement in the development and use of instructional resources has been done because of the advancement in technology. teachers select, plan and present their instructional materials basing on many factors that can help them realize their instructional objectives (berl, 2005). www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 1, no. 1, 2020 14 published by scholink inc. use of ir made pupils enjoy learning and increases attendance. the attitude of teachers towards teaching pupils was enhanced by use of ir. with enough training, using ir improves and incase they were not available, teachers improvised. it can be stated that the attitude of teachers and its influence on selection and use of ir contributed significantly to learning and teaching of pupils in ecde centers. 5. conclusions teachers reported that they were well prepared on the use of available ir in teaching in ecde centers in kericho municipality zone. they however, noted that the status of available instructional materials, equipment and facilities were inadequate, obsolete, dilapidated and unsuitable for use. the availability of instructional materials to a large extent is influenced by the teachers’ preparedness. there was a positive significant relationship between teachers’ attitudes and the selection and use of ir. majority of the teachers had positive attitudes about the selection and use of ir; however, some of them were concerned about the state and inadequacy of the ir in the ecde centers in the zone. the study findings in this research indicated that pre-school teachers did not maximize the use of instructional resources in teaching and learning in ecde centers. there was also a positive significant relationship between teachers attitudes and the selection and use of ir. 6. recommendations based on the findings from this study, the following are recommended: there is need for the government to fund ecde centers for the purchase of relevant ir. also the government should introduce capacity building courses which would improve the creative skills of pre-school teachers to develop ir for effective ecde curriculum implementation. based on the conclusions, the study recommends that ecde teachers be employed by the kenyan government, with a clear and effective scheme of service like other teachers at other levels. this will motivate and instill in them a positive attitude towards selection and use of ir in teaching and learning in ecde centers. references anyanwu, j. m. (2003). the effectiveness of instructional materials in social studies in selected schools in owen educational zone (s. imo, ed.). research project unpublished. bantwini, b. d. (2010). how teachers perceive the new curriculum reform. international journal of educational development, 30(1), 83-90. cape province south africa. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedudev.2009.06.002 bennars, g. a. (2003). theory and practice in education. nairobi: east africa publishers ltd. berl, p. s. (2005). developing early to mid-career teachers. exchange: the early childhood leaders’ magazine since 1978, na(162), 6-10. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 1, no. 1, 2020 15 published by scholink inc. bernard van leer foundations. (2002). following footsteps; ecd tracer studies early childhood matter, no. 100. netherlands. cave, a., & mulloy, m. (2010). a qualitative examination of teacher perceptive national forum of education. administration & supervision journal, 27(4). cheruiyot, k., & kosgei, n. (2008). child growth & development (conception-3 years). nairobi: enterprise publishers. cook, b. g. (2002). inclusive attitudes strengths and weakness of pre-service general educators enrolled in a curriculum infusion teacher preparation program in maria montessori, (1870-1952). in philosophical and sociological aspect of early childhood. italy: private press ltd. dalton, h. t. (1988). the challenge of curriculum innovation: a study of ideology and practice. london: the falmer press. eduser consultancy, service co. (2009). knowledge, attitude and practices. survey in pre-school education. nairobi: enterprise publishers. epstein, a. s. (2009). the high pre-school curriculum and dimension of pre-school decision making. dublin ireland: early childhood services. froebel, f. (1963). on the education of man. new york: appleton and co. fullan, m. (1982). the meaning of educational change. toronto: oise press. fullan, m. (1992). the new meaning of educational change. ontario: teachers college press. gok. (2006). early childhood development policy, framework. nairobi: government printers. gross, n., giacoluinta, b., & bernstein, m. (1971). implementing organization innovation. in a sociological analysis of planned change. new york: basic book inc. indire, g. w. (2002). resource organization and management in learning and teaching education. in media source. nairobi: k.i.e. k. i. e. (2002). early childhood care and education and education in kenya. in a report of an evaluation of unicef. kariuki, m. w. (2002). perception of teachers on the impact of early childhood education program. njoro: egerton university. musau, s. m. (2004). factors influencing pupils performance in k.c.p. e in central division, machakos district (unpublished m.ed thesis). university of nairobi. mwangi, i. (2004). selection and utilization of instructional resources by teachers of english in selected secondary schools in murang’a district kenya (unpublished m.ed thesis). nacece. (2006). guidelines for early childhood development in kenya. nairobi: k.i.e. ololube, n. p. (2006). teachers instructional material utilization competencies in secondary schools in sub-saharan africa. retrieved july 15, 2018, from https:// www.google.com/search oluoch, g. p. (1982). essentials of curriculum development. nairobi: elimu printers. ongus, v. (2003). the availability and use of learning resources—a case study of nandi, uasin gishu & transnzoia districts. eldoret: moi university. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 1, no. 1, 2020 16 published by scholink inc. republic of kenya. (2006b). early childhood development service stds. guidelines for kenya nairobi: government press. republic of kenya. (2007). the kenya vision 2030. nairobi: government printer. scotts, g., & fullan, m. (2009). turnaround leadership for higher education. san. franscisco: jossey-bass press publishing. shiundu, s. j., & omulando, j. s. (1992). curriculum theory and practice in kenya. nairobi: oxford university press. tyler, r. w. (1949). basic principles of curriculum and instruction. chicago: university of chicago press. frontiers of contemporary education issn 2690-3520 (print) issn 2690-3539 (online) vol. 3, no. 4, 2022 www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce 23 original paper teaching using a face protection mask: how students of 6-15 years old perceive their teachers’ expressing emotions during the teaching procedure maria bimpa 1 , ioannis fykaris 1 & vasileios zagkotas 1* 1 university of ioannina, greece, * vasileios i. zagkotas, university of ioannina, greece received: october 14, 2022 accepted: october 24, 2022 online published: november 22, 2022 doi:10.22158/fce.v3n4p23 url: http://dx.doi.org/10.22158/fce.v3n4p23 abstract one of the basic measures to prevent the covid-19 infection is the use of a face protection mask by students and teachers in school premises and, mainly, in teaching. a question, however, is whether the covered part of the face is a barrier to the recognition of the expressed emotions of the wearer, a fact that may affect communication and interaction in teaching. on this basis, this article attempts to investigate how 6-15 year olds perceive the emotions of persons wearing a face protection mask. the research was conducted using the case study method and an “emotion recognition sheet” in 1st, 3rd & 5th grade of greek primary school and in the first three grades of secondary school (gymnasium). the participant students were asked to observe photos of adult persons wearing a face mask and then to recognize the emotions of the presented adults. the research findings revealed a 62% failure of the students in recognizing emotions. this fact highlights the need to develop a teaching proposal to deal with this situation, in order to strengthen students’ communication ability, which is a key factor in achieving effective learning. keywords teaching, face protection mask, emotions, perception ability, learners www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 3, no. 4, 2022 24 published by scholink inc. 1. introduction: recognition of emotions in people using a face protection mask (fpm) since the start of the covid-19 pandemic, teaching has been adapted to the necessities of health protection measures. in this context, the face protection mask (fpm) was introduced as a basic protection measure (fykaris & kaldi, 2020). the use of fpm forms a special condition of non-verbal communication, by allowing a specifying code of communication signals. more generally, nonverbal communication is a universal language of coded signal recognition (frank, 2016, pp. 47-48), which includes the signals emitted by the facial muscles (allwood, 2002, p. 6), which are not visible when a person wears a fpm. particularly with regard to the emotions, facial expressions seem to play the most important role, because they introduce emotional signals that are captured quickly and directly (ekman, 2003, p. 58). at the same time, within the context of non-verbal communication, the role of head movements is equally important for the transmission of the message (marshall, 2001, p. 19, p. 72; simonds & cooper, 2013, p. 5; postic, 2001, pp. 143-145). the use of fpm depicts the expression of an emotion partially, as the fpm almost completely hides the lower part of the face. in this way, the learners may find it difficult to distinguish the real intention of the teacher’s expressing emotion. these deficiencies or misunderstandings may reduce the intended interaction between the participants in teaching procedure (barmaki, 2014, p. 441). this dimension may create confusion between “what it really is” and “what it appears to be”, a fact which may affect the way in which the learners perceive the processes of recognizing the emotions of others, but also the self-regulation of their behavior in relation to their emotions (fykaris & kaldi, 2020). the apparent contrast between the truth and the illusion which is created by the use of fpm, may lead to the following consequences: a) learners, who are relatively young, such as those who belong to the 6-15 age group, are led to uncertain emotional experiences, possibly with unpredictable consequences. in particular, the potential disruption of interpersonal communication between learners, but also between teacher and learners, may exacerbate issues of fear and anxiety or even lead to phobias (herbert, 2005, pp. 151-163; gottman, 2015, pp. 252-253; feldman, 2017, pp. 410-411). in addition, the distorted experience of reality in adolescents may increase emotional insecurity and a crucial effect on the formation of the individual's identity, since adolescents consider very seriously the information they receive from others in their tendency to adopt socially acceptable behavioral roles (feldman, 2017, p. 413). b) there is a risk of destabilizing the pedagogical relationship between the teacher and the learners. this relationship is based on the communicative process of interaction. in this interaction, the individual elements of the communication process are determined and controlled, in an attempt to define the content of the communication message (postic, 2001, pp. 152-153). in this context, the role of the visual communication is extremely important and may determine the outcome of the teaching, while the lack or the obstruction of the communication conditions may implicate on the effectiveness of its work (fykaris, 2010, pp. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 3, no. 4, 2022 25 published by scholink inc. 207-209). moreover, a non-effective nonverbal communication may cause confusion among the learners as to which behavior (and, subsequently, which corresponding reaction) is considered desirable (rosenthal, 2002, pp. 28-33). c) the regularity of the learner’s socialization process is affected. the learner forms an opinion about his classmates by observing their behavior and interacting with them. this interaction is based on communicative stimuli which he/she exchanges with them. a problematic non-verbal communication, as in the case of the use of fpm, may cause difficulties in social adaptation, but also phobic emotions (fykaris & kaldi, 2020), as well as difficulties in developing appropriate social relationship management skills (feldman, tomasian & coats, 1999, p. 238). d) given that teaching and learning are based on interactive communication (subandi, choirundin, mahmudi, nizaruddin & hermanita, 2018, p. 460) the use of fpm makes particularly difficult its smooth conduct and, consequently, the achievement of maximum possible learning results. the partial expression and recognition of emotions as a result of the use of fpm in teaching can affect the achievement of teaching objectives and, consequently, the learning outcomes (baylor & kim, 2008, p. 208). we think that the above arguments clarify that ensuring the effectiveness of communication in teaching is a key-point to the whole procedure. additionally, it seems that the use of fpm emerges as an obstacle to the communication between teacher and learners. teaching with the use of fpm is an unprecedented situation, which seems to hinder the expression of non-verbal messages with emotional content. for this reason, it is interesting to investigate the ability of the learners to recognize the emotions of their teachers who use a fpm. the present paper attempts this investigation through case-studies of 6-15 y.o. learners. the next section presents the results of this research. 2. research method 2.1 main objective of the research to investigate the perception ability of the students to recognize the emotions of fear, joy, anger, surprise, disgust, worry, jealousy, sadness and shame in adults who wear a face protection mask (fpm). 2.2 emotions selection criteria the nine (9) emotions of the research (fear, joy, anger, surprise, disgust, worry, jealousy, sadness and shame) are selected based on their timeliness and frequency of reference in the literature (ekman, 1992, pp. 172-174; izard, 1992, pp. 562-564; griffiths, 2003, pp. 5-7; saarimäki et al., 2015, pp. 2567-2568; cherry, 2021, pp. 1-10; ortony, 2021, pp. 6-8). 2.3 research hypothesis “the students of the reference age participating in the experimental group have the ability to recognize the emotions expressed by adult persons who wear a face protection mask”. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 3, no. 4, 2022 26 published by scholink inc. 2.4 research method individual case-studies, in order to identify the ability of learners to recognize emotions in persons wearing fpm in different geographical areas of greece. 2.5 type of sample convenient sample, based on the ease of access to schools by the researchers, given the current health protection conditions in schools during the period of the research. 2.6 sample size 303 male and female elementary and high school students, of which 51 are in 1st elementary school grade, 25 in 3rd elementary school grade, 80 in 5th elementary school grade, 54 in 1st secondary school grade, 40 in 2nd secondary school grade, and 53 in 3rd secondary school grade. 2.7 research tool “emotion recognition sheet”, a tool built by the researchers. the participants were given a sheet in which they would observe photos of a male and a female expressing a particular emotion wearing fpm. then, the participants should select from a sideway list the expressed emotion according their opinion. both the presented models (male and female) were photographed expressing the same 9 emotions and they each photo was arranged in the sheet randomly. therefore, in the “emotion recognition sheet” the participants had to complete a total of 18 questions, 9 per each presented model (male and female). www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 3, no. 4, 2022 27 published by scholink inc. figure 1. part of the “emotion recognition sheet” showing the 2 first questions given to the participating learners 2.8 data analysis tool spss 26 software 2.9 models of emotion representation a male and a female teacher 2.10 selection criterion of the models the models expressing emotions were selected on the basis that they are adults and in an age range of teachers or/and parents with whom learners come into contact in activities throughout adults wearing fpm. 2.11 timetable for conducting the survey december 20-23, 2021 www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 3, no. 4, 2022 28 published by scholink inc. 3. research general result initially, the emotion recognition sheet was administered to the control group. the processing of the extracted data revealed 60.86% success in the recognition of emotions by the students. the average of correct answers was 11 out of 18 questions in total. it is worth noting that there was no difference in the answers regarding the gender and class of the participating students. specifically, in terms of gender, the success rate was exactly the same (61%) for both sexes. in terms of grade, the range of correct answers extends from 10 correct answers (56% success rate for 3rd grade students) to 13 correct answers (72% for 1st grade students). however, the rates are different regarding the number of students’ siblings. students without siblings present a success rate of 66.7% (12/18 correct answers), students with 2 siblings present a success rate of 61%, students with 3 siblings present a success rate of 72.2% while the percentages of students with many siblings are lower (50% for students with 4 siblings and 39% for students with 5 siblings). however, the last two categories constitute only the 5.5% of the sample and, therefore, a small percentage to draw a safe conclusion about the specific categories. hence, we can say that, apart from the students with 4 and 5 siblings who show low rates of emotion recognition, the students of the control group recognize in a percentage of 60.86% and an average of 11/18 successes the emotions of the depicted figures who do not wear a face protection mask. afterwards, the emotion recognition sheet was given to the experimental group to fill out. regarding the gender of the research subjects, it is found that 51.8% of the participants are males and 47.9% are females. a 51.5% attend primary school and 49.5% attend secondary school. therefore, there is a data isomerization of the relevant variables, so that the conclusions drawn will have reliability and validity. the majority of the research subjects stated that they have at least one sibling, while 27.4% of the respondents stated that they have two (2) siblings, the majority of whom are of a different gender, while there is also a percentage of 15% who stated that they are only children. from the above data we can deduce that the subjects of the sample have persons of common reference and expression, such as siblings, from whom they can draw experiences, opinions and exchange thoughts and findings (thompson & o’neill grace, 2001, pp. 47-58; colapinto, 2019, p. 109), thus references compatible with the subject of this study. the survey data shows that the subjects of the sample recognized the represented emotion at a rate of 39.6%, which means that they failed to correctly recognize 2 out of 3 emotions of the questions (figure 2). www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 3, no. 4, 2022 29 published by scholink inc. figure 2. recognition of the requested emotion rates from the research data it also appears that there is no statistically significant difference in the recognition of the emotions expressed. in particular, when the presented model is a male the emotion is recognized by the 41.3% of the subjects, while when the presented model is a female the emotion is recognized by a 37.8% (figure 3). it is noted that the highest (76.9%) and lowest (1.7%) percentage of emotion recognition occurred in the male model (figure 4). from this data it is deduced that possibly in the male model the expression of the specific emotions -mainly through the movements of the eyebrowsis more intense, taking into account that the emotions of “anger” and “anxiety” require lowering or raising the eyebrows in order to better render the facial expression (christodoulou, 2019, pp. 41-42). figure 3. emotion recognition rate per presented model the data also show that the minimum of correct answers given is 0/18, while the maximum of successes is 14/18. the average of correct answers is 8/18. therefore, the data highlight a generalized difficulty of the sample subjects in recognizing emotions regardless of gender and age. this is certainly an interesting finding, which needs further investigation, in order to highlight the causes of this situation. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 3, no. 4, 2022 30 published by scholink inc. figure 4. percentage of emotion recognition success per presented model moreover, it follows that there is no significant difference to the level of the emotion recognition regarding the factor of the number of siblings. from this finding it is deduced that the factors, which make difficult for the research subjects to recognize the emotions of adults, who wear a face protection mask, are independent of the existence of other siblings. so, it can be said that their siblings also face similar difficulties in the ability to recognize emotions. table 1. successful answers in correlation to number of siblings number of siblings gender of siblings subtotals overall totals n % n % siblings: 0 7 38,9 7 38,9 siblings: 1 1 female 7 38,9 8 42,6 1 male 8 44,4 not stated 8 44,4 siblings: 2 2 females 7 38,9 7 37,0 2 males 6 33,3 female + male 7 38,9 siblings: 3 3 females 5 27,8 6 34,7 1 male + 2 females 6 33,3 2 males + 1 female 6 33,3 3 males 8 44,4 www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 3, no. 4, 2022 31 published by scholink inc. siblings: 4 2 male + 2 females 6 33,3 6 30,6 3 males + 1 female 5 27,8 siblings: 5 3 males + 2 females 6 33,3 6 33,3 4 males + 1 female 6 33,3 table 1, in addition, presents the successful answers of the participating learners by the number of their siblings. those who stated that they have 1 sibling (42.6%) show a little more success. those who have 2 or no siblings show m.o. 37% and 38.9% respectively with n = 7 correct answers. finally, guessers with 4 and 5 siblings showed a lowest average recognition (33.3% and 30.6%). no particular differences are observed in terms of family composition: the higher average of successful answers are shown by learners with 1 or 3 siblings, while the lower average of successful answers is presented by participants with three sisters. 4. further findings and discussion recognition of emotions expressed by the female model: regarding the individual emotions (see figure 2 and figure 4), when the presented model is a female, the results that emerge are as follows (without significant statistical differences depending on the gender or age of the research subjects): figure 5. facial expressions of the selected nine emotions by the female model www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 3, no. 4, 2022 32 published by scholink inc.  the emotion of “fear” is recognized at a rate of 28.7% and instead the greater majority of the subjects consider that the expressed emotion is “surprise”. the relatively small percentage of recognition may be due to the capture of a “partial expression” of the emotion, as the use of the fpm hides the twitches of the mouth and part of the cheeks (christodoulou, 2019, p. 81). to express the emotion of fear, a mouth opening along with an excessive eyes opening and raising of the eyebrows are required (see givens under the entry: “fear”: http://center-for-nonverbal studies.org/htdocs/fear.htm, retrieved and last accessed: 21.01.2022). similarly, the same twitches are required for the event of “surprise”, as “surprise” is an emotion related to “fear” (christodoulou, 2019, p. 82).  the emotion of “jealousy” is recognized in 47.9%, while the subjects who did not correctly recognize this emotion saw “anxiety” (22.4%) and “disgust” (12.2%). a similar confusion prevailed in the distinction of “anger”, which was recognized by only a 10.6% of the subjects. the expression of “anger” requires a lowering and furrowing of the eyebrows, a wild stare expression (ekman, 2007, pp. 126-127), where this particular expression is referred to as “glare”. the participants recognized this emotion at a low rate, confusing it mainly with “jealousy” (47.2%) where a partial eyebrow raise is required (ekman, 2007, p. 96). furthermore, subjects tended to confuse “jealousy” with “anxiety”, “disgust” and “anger”, a fact which can be considered relatively expected as the facial elements that make up the expression of “jealousy” can be detected to other emotions as well (bauminger, 2004, p. 157).  the emotion of “shame” is correctly recognized by a 28.7%, while the 76.6% of the research subjects who do not recognize the emotion of “shame” saw instead the emotions 13.9% of “anxiety” (13.9%), “sadness” (12.5%) and “anger” (10.9%). the expression of “shame” is expressed mainly by pursed lips, lowered gaze and slightly tilted head forward or to the side (keltner & buswell, 1996, p. 165). lowering the gaze to the partial expression of the emotion of “shame” possibly led the subjects to choose “sadness” or “anger” (ekman, 2003, p. 96).  the emotion of “anxiety” is correctly recognized at a rate of 21.1%. the expression of this emotion is characterized by a lowering of the head forward and a partial raising of the eyebrows (condliffe & maratos, 2020, p. 1397). subjects misidentified the partial expression of the emotion “shame”, “joy”, and “fear”, which require raised eyebrows for their expression.  the emotion of “surprise” is successfully recognized at a rate of 65.7%. this emotion was recognized by a relatively large percentage of subjects, as its main characteristic is the excessively raised eyebrows and an open mouth (ekman, 2007, p. 164). subjects who did not recognize the emotion of “surprise” distinguished “joy” and “fear”, the expression of which required eyebrows excessively raised and eyes wide-open (toohey, 2014, pp. 49-53).  the emotion of “sadness” is successfully recognized at a rate of 20.5%. the subjects in this case incorrectly recognized the emotion of “joy” (17.2%), “jealousy” (17.2%) and “shame” (16.5%). this confusion may be due to the fact that during the partial expression of the emotion of sadness www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 3, no. 4, 2022 33 published by scholink inc. there is a lifting of the cheeks, a lowering of the gaze and a partial raising of the eyebrows (ekman, 2003, p. 96). a raising of the eyebrows is also observed for the expression of the emotion of “joy” (christodoulou, 2019, p. 85).  the fact that a 71.3% of the research subjects recognize the feeling of “joy” is significant. the expression of the emotion of “joy” requires the formation of a smile. this emotion seems to be recognized by a large percentage of subjects during its partial expression due to the distinct movement of the eyelid muscles, as a consequence of smiling (christodoulou, 2019, p. 87; ekman, 2007, pp. 204-205).  in addition, the research subjects correctly recognize the emotion of “disgust” in a 45.8% of cases. the expression of “disgust” is captured by a raised upper lip, wrinkled nose, raised cheeks, lowered eyebrows and eyelids (ekman, 2007, pp. 183-187) and this appears to be prominently captured in the model’s partial expression of emotion. subjects who did not recognize the expression of “disgust” responded that they discerned “anxiety” or “shame”, possibly misled by the lowered eyebrows and eyelids. the above interpretations regarding the recognition of emotions in the female model highlight the important role of the “integrated expression” when expressing emotions. the “partial expression”, which is presented by the person wearing a fpm, allows the recipient of the non-verbal message to decode and interpret the expressions of the eyes, eyebrows, upper part of the cheeks, i.e., only the upper part of the head. in this way, as evidenced by the above findings, the receiver may misinterpret the communicative intent of the sender of the non-verbal message, resulting in failing at the communication's objective. at the same time, the above findings lead to the need to compensate for the apparent communicative and emotional deficit with other body movements (emphatic hand movements, body posture) or with further strengthening of the verbal delivery of the communicative message. finally, regarding the findings of the depictions of the female model, the hypothesis of the research that the subjects are expected to recognize the emotions represented, does not appear to be confirmed. recognition of emotions expressed by the male model: consequently, when the presented model is a male (figure 6), the results that emerge are as follows (without significant statistical differences depending on the gender or age of the research subjects): www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 3, no. 4, 2022 34 published by scholink inc. figure 6. facial expressions of the selected nine emotion by the male model  the emotion of “joy” is recognized by a 67.7% of the research subjects, a percentage corresponding to that of the female model. this percentage is due, as mentioned above, to the distinct movement of the eyelid muscles caused by the smile (christodoulou, 2019, p. 87; ekman, 2007, pp. 204-205).  the feeling of “worry” was recognized at a rate of 1.7%. this low percentage may be due to the fact that the representation of the emotion by the male model with a partial raising of the eyebrows and a lowering of the head (condliffe & maratos, 2020, p. 1397) is at the same time a characteristic of “anger” expression (bhushan, 2015, p. 271). this interpretation results from the fact that the subjects of the research distinguished “anger” at a rate of 88.8% in this specific question.  the emotion of “disgust” was successfully recognized at a rate of 36%. however, although as to the female model the subjects who did not distinguish “disgust”, stated that they did distinguish “anxiety” or “shame”, in the male model the incorrect responses focused on “anger” (24.1%) and “jealousy” (23.8%). the differentiation during the partial expression of the emotion may be due to the movements of the eyebrows; the intense contraction (which is not observed in the female model), is a characteristic of “anger”, while their partial elevation refers to the emotion of “jealousy” (ekman, 2007, p. 96, pp. 126-127).  the emotion of “fear” was recognized at a rate of 23.4% and instead of that, “shame” was incorrectly recognized at a rate of 28.4%. additionally, the participants stated that they distinguish “anxiety” (19.1%) and “surprise” (14.9%). this misinterpretation may be due to capturing the emotion with head tilted forward, -also a characteristic of “shame” and “anxiety”and with raised www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 3, no. 4, 2022 35 published by scholink inc. eyebrows, a characteristic of “surprise” (condliffe & maratos, 2020, p. 1397; christodoulou, 2019, p. 82; keltner & buswell, 1996, p. 165).  it is important to state that as to the male model, the emotion of “anger” is correctly recognized by the vast majority (76.9%) of the research subjects, possibly due to the intense gaze and the contraction of the eyebrows.  the emotion of “sadness” on the face of the male wearing a fpm is recognized by a 27.1% of the research subjects and instead of this emotion the research subjects incorrectly recognized the emotion of “fear” in a percentage of 22, 4%, “anxiety” at a rate of 16.2% and “shame” at a rate of 15.2%. each of the individual expression features of “sadness”, namely the raising of the cheeks, the lowering of the gaze and the partial raising of the eyebrows (ekman, 2003, p. 96) are also features of the other emotions.  the emotion of “shame” is recognized at a rate of 19.5% and instead the research subjects misidentify the emotion of “jealousy” (30%), the emotion of “anxiety” (16.2%) and the emotion of “anger” at a rate of 12.5%. during the partial expression of the emotion, the lowered gaze and the slightly forward head are partial features of the other emotions as well (ekman, 2007, p. 96, pp. 126-127). for the same reason, the emotion of “jealousy” is recognized by a 46.5% of the research subjects, while from the 53.5% of the research subjects, who do not recognize the correct emotion of “jealousy”, they incorrectly recognize at a rate of 19.1% the feeling of “anxiety” and the feeling of “shame” (10.2%).  finally, the emotion of “surprise” is recognized by the vast majority (73.3%) of the research subjects as to the male model, perhaps due to the presented strong raising of the eyebrows. from the interpretations of the individual emotions in relation to the male model, it is first established that there is no difference in the ability to recognize emotions depending on the presented model’s sex. furthermore, the effect of “partial expression” of emotions by covering the mouth, the jaw and the lower part of the cheeks seems to have the same effect in the male model, prompting the subjects to give incorrect answers. however, in cases where eyebrow movements and eye opening were strongly depicted (such as at the cases of “anger”, “surprise”, “joy”) the subjects’ responses as to the male model reached high percentages. this finding adds to the practices of compensating for the absence of the “complete expression” of emotion (hand movements, body posture, strengthening of verbal communication) the need for more emphatic expression of emotions by using the eyes, eyebrows or tilting the head. it is pointed out, finally, that regarding the male model, the hypothesis of the research that the subjects are expected to recognize the emotions represented cannot be confirmed. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 3, no. 4, 2022 36 published by scholink inc. 5. conclusions the demographic data extracted of the survey confirm the predominance of the nuclear family type, as a 64.3% of the respondents who participated in this survey stated that they have no siblings or that they have a brother or sister. the research subjects failed to recognize the projected emotions on the adults’ faces at a rate of 60.40%. this finding contrasts with the success rate of the control group (61%) and shows that for the present research it confirms its initial hypotheses. it appears that there are no differences in terms of the age of the learners and the successful answers, as the distribution of successes follows the distribution of the sample population. an important finding is that the average number of successful responses seems to decrease as the number of family members, increases. children with one sibling achieved an average of 8 successful responses, children with no or 2 siblings achieved an average of 7 successes, while the lowest average occurred in children with 3, 4 and 5 siblings. however, the difference in the specific averages is small enough to draw safe and generalizable conclusions. regarding the questions where the learners failed to identify the represented emotion, occurs a plurality of responses. furthermore, from the processing of the “emotion identification sheets” it emerged that the participants in several cases attributed the same emotion to a different expression. it also follows that depending on the reference models, the most recognizable emotion as to the female model is joy” while “anger” is the less recognizable. in the male model’s face, the feeling of “anger” has been recognized more and the feeling of “worry” less. the low success rates in recognizing some emotions appear to be due to their “partial expression” by the male and female models. capturing emotions only with eyes and/or head movements led the subjects to confusion of common features and to incorrect responses. this fact highlights the importance of the cooperation of all facial muscles in the clear expression of an emotion. at the same time, this unavoidable “partial expression” of emotions makes non-verbal communication incomplete and highlights the need to make up for the expressive deficit in other ways, such as hand movements and body posture, as well as strengthening verbal communication. based on the above research findings, with regard to the recognition of the expressed emotion by children-learners of the reference age groups of the present research-both for the female and the male model as well-the need for a relative teaching intervention in order to recognize the emotions of individuals who wear fpm. the teaching intervention is necessary, in order to avoid the risk of an emotional deficit, but also of the level of interpersonal communication between children-parents. on this basis, there is a need for designing interventions that will strengthen the teachers’ abilities of non-verbal communications features, as well the learners’ abilities to identify these expressions. these interventions should aim at (a) the teachers’ use of more intense expression of emotions (with verbal expression and body movements) and (b) practicing the students, during the teaching process, in recognizing the emotions of persons wearing a fpm. of course, we hope that the pandemic will reach www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 3, no. 4, 2022 37 published by scholink inc. is end at wearing a 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(2011). communication for the classroom teacher. london: pearson. https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1021369327584 https://doi.org/10.1037/14669-003 https://doi.org/10.1017/s1358246100007888 https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470773888 https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295x.99.3.561 https://doi.org/10.1080/026999396380312 https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691620985415 https://doi.org/10.3917/puf.post.2001.01 https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-012064455-1/50005-1 https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhv086 www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 3, no. 4, 2022 39 published by scholink inc. subandi, s., choirundin, c., mahmudi, m., nizaruddin, n., & hermanita, h. (2018). building interactive communication with google classroom. international journal of engineering & technology, 7(2.13), 460-463. https://doi.org/10.14419/ijet.v7i2.13.18141 thompson, m., & o’ neill, g. c. (2001). best friends, worst enemies. understanding the social lives of children. new york: ballantine books. toohey, p. (2014). jealousy. new haven & london: yale university press. https://doi.org/10.14419/ijet.v7i2.13.18141 frontiers of contemporary education issn 2690-3520 (print) issn 2690-3539 (online) vol. 4, no. 4, 2023 www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce 22 original paper the contribution of education to the formation of the democratic citizen anastasia dimitrakopoulou 1 1 hellenic open university, patra, greece received: december 3, 2023 accepted: december 8, 2023 online published: january 3, 2024 doi:10.22158/fce.v4n4p22 url: http://dx.doi.org/10.22158/fce.v4n4p22 abstract the purpose of this paper is twofold; firstly, we will attempt to highlight the contribution of education to the formation of the democratic citizen. however, the reason for our study was the ideas of the ancient greek thinkers regarding the relationship between education and the citizen. in the course of the work, we ascertain the topicality of their theories, as well as their influence on modern researchers, which will constitute the second purpose of our research. people have the same desire for glory, power and material wealth as the citizens of ancient greece, that’s why their texts acquired a timeless value. to support our proposal, we will invoke the proposal of t. parsons, who argues that western societies originate from the ancient greek ones (parsons, 1966). in the study at hand, we will also be concerned with the issue, if education still plays a primary role in the formation of the democratic citizen, given that there are now many educational institutions, such as the internet. in addition, we will deal with whether the concept of democracy has been differentiated in relation to the way it was understood by the ancient greek philosophers, who believed that the citizen should be active and participate in the commons. nowadays, do education systems promote political participation or passivity, serving the interests of the ruling class of states? keywords citizen, democracy, politics, globalization www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 4, no. 4, 2023 23 published by scholink inc. 1. introduction in ancient athens, for the first time, citizenship was combined with the law and a political theory of virtues and institutions, and is essentially linked to the state of democracy; because only in this particular state does the citizen actively participate in the political process (gosewinkel, 2001). all athenians participated in the democratic state, which held the status of citizen, which demonstrates the priority of the public sphere of life over the private. citizens, having the privilege of parsimony and defense (παππηζία και ιζηγοπία), were involved in the commons, as involvement in politics ensured their social position and entity in the political context (farrar, 1991). the democratic citizen over time acquires the qualifications required to support the state, primarily through education, which inculcates in the student the basic principles of the state. however, in recent years with the rise of liberalism, democratic work in schools has been undermined and tends to be sidelined due to the divergence of priorities dictated by the political and economic system of our time. in our opinion, it is necessary to redefine the terms of citizenship and education based on the new political, social and economic data. the impetus for this effort is given by the speech of the ancient greek thinkers, whose perceptions formed the basis of our reflection for the present study. therefore, the question is not whether the educational system promotes the concept of democratic citizenship, but what kind of democracy is promoted, that is, whether students are encouraged to become responsible citizens and participate in political life or not (westheimer & kahne, 2003). this is exactly the question that we will ask in this work, that is, what exactly are the principles that govern democracy in our time and in what way will the education system create the corresponding citizen, who will support the specific state. this question is important because we observe that the changes that are taking place in the educational programs of the various states, in several cases, do not promote the concept of the democratic citizen, who has a critical point of view, sharpness of mind, freedom of speech and imagination, but are based on providing sterile knowledge, which lends itself to the pattern of a well-qualified official who is a passive citizen with no interest in what is going on. 2. the role of the citizen and the importance of education in its politicization aristotle perceives the citizen as an organic member of the city-state, characteristically saying that man is: “θύζει πολιηικὸν ζῷον” (aristotle, politics, 1253 a 3), which means that man by nature is destined to live within the social and political context and participate in the electoral process. the citizen, according to the philosopher, always decides with a view to the common good, setting aside his personal benefit for the sake of the happiness of the city and the citizens, because he has realized that the same benefit depends on the well-being of the whole. the concept of citizen in stageritis is always defined in exclusively political terms and within the political context. the citizen, in other words, is contrasted with the concept of the stranger, who is “the non-citizen” and is excluded from the commons of the city (chourdakis, 2003). in this sense, the terms of the city and politics are set, as well as the system of organization that exists between citizens and the state, demonstrating the limits of www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 4, no. 4, 2023 24 published by scholink inc. coexistence, but also a given collective economic, political and social context (kalogiannakis, 2003). the role of education is important in the process of socialization and politicization of individuals, because it transmits the values, norms and perceptions of the specific society. the organized state, through education, teaches students citizenship, so that they can correctly and harmoniously fulfill their role as adult citizens. certainly, many claim that education serves the enforcement of the ruling class, reproducing the ideological system on which it is based (curle, 1964). education, however, must aim at individual and social development, which means that individuals need to be able to participate actively in public life, defend democracy and coexist harmoniously with their fellow citizens, develop individually and to defend human rights (ballias, 2008). in the ancient greek intellect, the citizen’s relationship with the city was structured through education, i.e., children were educated, through school, in dealing with the commons and the harmonious coexistence of future citizens within the social and political framework. the ultimate goal of education was the formation of the citizen’s personality based on the values that the city espoused in the political, social and economic fields. the ancient greeks had realized the importance of political education and set it as the fundamental purpose of human education. the citizen in ancient greece lived within the political society and was involved in politics throughout his life, as mentioned in the platonic work protagoras: “ἡ δέ παιδεία μέσπι ηῶν ἐνηλίκων διέηεινεν” and “ἐκ παίδων ζμικπῶν ἀπξάμενοι, μέσπι οὗπεπ ἂν ζῶζι, καὶ διδάζκοςζι καὶ νοςθεηοῦζιν” (plato, protagoras, 325 c-d). these views are accepted in our time as well, as the school is perceived as an institution that directly or indirectly shapes the pro-political attitudes and behaviors of students, although in our time there are many educational institutions, such as the internet and the mass media. the students in the classroom exchange opinions, disagree, discuss and generally find themselves in a process of expressing public discourse. in the days many definitions of the concept of citizen have been formulated, which often highlight a part of his status. for example, marshall referring to citizenship says that it is “a social status conferred on all who are full members of a community”, adding that all citizens have the same rights and the same obligations towards the state (marshall-τ. bottomore, 1997). this definition has received objections and has been characterized as passive, because “someone can have the status of a citizen and do nothing with it, except to fulfill the minimum legal requirements” (manville, 1990), as the concept of political participation is absent. we consider this observation to be correct, because citizenship is absolutely intertwined with political participation, at least in the democratic state; otherwise we are talking about other types of states. in our opinion, the following definition of d. gosewinkel (2001) more fully encompasses the work that the citizen is called upon to perform within the political framework, and therefore, we would say that the citizen is a member of a politico-legal regime, in which he participates on equal terms with the other members of the political community having the same rights and the same obligations. the concept of a citizen indicates his behavior towards the community and accordingly his attitude towards all citizens; he is characterized as a good and www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 4, no. 4, 2023 25 published by scholink inc. responsible citizen. the conduct of the citizen reflects “the ideal of political virtue as assumed by the prevailing social morality”. education must keep pace with citizen perception. that is why the state must decide the qualities necessary to govern the citizen. in the first year of the peloponnesian war pericles delivered the funeral oration in honor of the dead athenian warriors, in which he mentions the following sentence: “μόνοι γὰπ ηόν ηε μηδὲν ηῶνδε μεηέσονηα οὐκ ἀππάγμονα, ἀλλ᾽ ἀσπεῖον νομίζομεν” (thucydides, ii 40). the athenian politician aimed to extol the virtues of the democratic polity by pointing out the importance of political participation and the expression of public discourse by citizens. political socialization is not a feature of all societies and states, but is related to the political, educational, social, economic and ideological framework of society. it is, in other words, a multifaceted issue with many ramifications. the process of political socialization takes place throughout human life, but especially during childhood and adolescence, when “the reception of messages and the formation of attitudes and forms of behavior are usually carried out unconsciously, indirectly and often decisive for the individual’s subsequent development as a citizen” (kalogiannakis, 2003). at this age, the students’ experiences, which have a political character, are easier to turn into political stimuli or political orientations. nowadays, efforts are being made to inculcate students in political participation through the educational process. nowadays, however, due to the political and social changes brought about by globalization, it is necessary to develop, in addition to the national consciousness, the universal consciousness of the modern student. the student is called to become an active citizen, who will participate in the processes of the political society in which he lives and at the same time will demonstrate responsibility and sensitivity to national and universal values, as well as a critical spirit towards politics and social events. in this sense, political socialization takes on a broader meaning than in the past and “reduces to an essential question of establishing an important relationship: the relationship of the ego to the otherness of the other” (kalogiannakis, 2003). many question the school as an institution and blame it in relation to the role it performs, the dysfunctions it exhibits its relationship with the state and civil society. in addition, there is talk of educational and cognitive inadequacies, degradation of studies, authoritarianism and social discrimination. the education system is also going through periods of crisis, which do not exclusively concern the institution of the school itself, but are linked to the crisis of society, politics and moral values, because between these parameters there is an inseparable unity and therefore they are perceived together. undoubtedly, in our time, due to globalization, as we have already mentioned, citizenship acquires an expanded meaning, as it is shaped under a universal dimension. this new dimension is holistic and its extremes are the personal dimension and the universal dimension. they include: the family, the local community and the national community. another reason that dictates the differentiation of democratic citizenship and the acquisition of a global dimension is the existence of global problems, such as economic, environmental and international security issues (kymlicka, 2010). www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 4, no. 4, 2023 26 published by scholink inc. the issue of education is even more complex, because it is not only about the content of education or access to it for all students, but, due to multiculturalism, there is an urgent need for an education that recognizes the cultural elements of all children. this view contrasts with what young (2011) refers to as “cultural imperialism”, which is essentially the non-imposition of the standards of a particular culture. otherwise, we cannot speak of fair education, but of education that marginalizes a section of students. in human societies there is social stratification, i.e., societies are divided into social classes with a hierarchical distribution. education is the most important element for social stratification and “takes into account the knowledge, skills and attitudes learned at school for the maintenance and development of a society” (putnam, 1993). every person has a right to education, for this reason, teaching should not only involve an individualistic dimension, but also a social one, otherwise education becomes ineffective. under these conditions, the question arises regarding the meaning of education and the conditions under which it could become the purpose of human life. r. s. peters, defining the concept of education, criticizes the subordination of education to purposes external to it and suggests “a normative interpretation of the above concept as a set of criteria based on which specific educational processes can be evaluated and the result they aim at, which is the educated man” (peters, 1977). hutchins (1953) underlines the political dimension of education, as he considers that the purpose of education is to prepare citizens for participation in the democratic state. however, the fundamental task of education, as pavlidis (2008) points out, is the cultivation of the intellect and the development of consciousness: “consciousness consists in knowing and understanding the world and ourselves as an object and on the other hand in the conscious, in knowing and understanding ourselves as a subject as a carrier of consciousness, as well as in understanding the unity of the self-subject with the other people-subjects”. this means that the education of man lies primarily in the cultivation of consciousness and the formation of man as a personality. from the above, we understand that the need for change in the field of education is imperative, given the changes observed at the international level in the knowledge field and in the skills that one must possess in order to cope with the developments. various theories have been formulated on this, often conflicting, such as the neoliberal one, which focuses on the responsibility of the individual to be able to cope with the financial demands of his life. within this context, they extol “markets as a school of political virtue, where important virtues such as self-confidence, initiative, decorum and the full participation of all in society are promoted” (kymlicka, 2010). undoubtedly, markets teach the citizen to take initiative, but they do not automatically cultivate in him a sense of justice or social responsibility (kymlicka, 2010). on the other hand, communitarianism, which is opposed to liberalism, perceives the citizen moving “within expanded autonomy, both at the individual and community level, able to claim the substitution of existing power structures and the transformation of values in the perspective of redefining the of democracy against the ideology of the market” (petrou, 2010). the representatives of the communitarian view argue that “the culture of western modernity is doomed to www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 4, no. 4, 2023 27 published by scholink inc. failure, since the conditions do not allow the coexistence of two of its most basic goals: the autonomy of thought and the assumption of a social role on the part of citizens” (leontsini, 1999). in addition to these two views, there are others that have been formulated, such as the ideological trend of inclusive democracy and inclusive democracy, which pose as a central issue the re-meaning of the concept of the citizen (kymlicka, 2010). many studies refer to the research of lipset (1959), who stated that the maintenance of democracy depends on the provision of a high level of education. subsequently, several studies were conducted, which confirmed lipset’s views, such as barro, (1999) and glaeser et al., (2004). of course, there have been scholars who disagree or question lipse, as they do not accept that the increase in education is correlated with the increase in the level of democracy, as stated in a research by acemoglu et al. (2005) (castelló-climent, 2006). the sustainability of democracy depends, according to amparo castelló-climent (2006), not on increasing the average years of education, but what really matters for democracy is the improvement of the education acquired by the majority of society. this finding is consistent with lipset’s view (castelló-climent, 2006). democracy requires the participation of citizens in the affairs of the state. through educational strategies, students will be able to identify aspects of society that need improvement, be supportive of their peers, and develop the skills needed to effectively work for change (westheimer & kahne, 2003). almond and verba (1989, 1st ed. 1963) have highlighted the link between education and political participation, considering that limited education has a different weight in the formation of a person’s political identity compared to a person who has received a high level of education. there are many examples from the international political scene, which validate the above proposition and demonstrate the reaction of the educated to the decisions of their political leaders, such as the student protests that overthrew peron in argentina in 1955, peres jimenez in venezuela in 1958, the hungarian revolution in 1956, the prague spring in 1968 (westheimer & kahne, 2003) and of course, the student uprising in athens in 1973 against the dictators. it is necessary for schools to cultivate in students the idea that political participation is an important component of democracy and that this should not be limited to rhetorical effort but should also be cultivated through various educational methods. in this way, students will immerse themselves in the obligations of civic mindedness, participation in the electoral process, constant information on political issues and the expression of speech with pride on issues concerning collective issues. an important parameter in the education of the democratic citizen is the process of socialization, which is promoted through textbooks and is the pillar of curriculum design. the purpose is for students to develop cooperative relationships, self-regulate their behavior and strengthen the relationship with adults (glaeser, ponzetto & shleifer, 2006). e. glaeser, g. ponzetto, a. shleifer (2006) state that the relationship between education and democracy is clear, but the reason for the association is not. in their study they try to explain the correlation between the two parameters. they argue that education is linked to political engagement. schools aim at the socialization of young people and possibly political www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 4, no. 4, 2023 28 published by scholink inc. involvement is a form of socialization (glaeser, ponzetto & shleifer, 2006). the consolidation of democracy depends on the support of the vast majority of citizens and in this process the assistance of education is very important, because educated states preserve and protect democracy from interventions by factors that lead society to political deviation. 3. public and common education according to aristotle, the relationship between the city and the citizen is dialectical. the achievement of the virtue and well-being of the city depends on the morals of its citizens, in the formation of which the state contributes directly and decisively: “ζποςδαία γε πόλιρ ἐζηὶ ηῷ ηοὺρ πολίηαρ ηοὺρ μεηέσονηαρ ηῆρ πολιηείαρ εἶναι ζποςδαίοςρ” (aristotle, politics, 1332 a 33-34). the education of citizens needs to go hand in hand with the principles of the state, because the alignment of the principles of the state with the educational system is the distinguishing feature of the superior state: “γεῑ γάπ ππόρ ἐκάζηῳ παιδεύαιζθαι” (aristotle, politics, 1337 a 14 dimitrakopoulou, 2012). according to aristotle, education is a moral, political and social institution and has as its ultimate purpose the creation of virtuous and just citizens (aristotle, politics, 1332 a 30-b 10). therefore, it is required that it agrees with the state of the city and, of course, that it is public and common to all citizens and that it is not left to private initiative, because the purpose of the city is common and it is not possible for each of the citizens to the educates his children-the future citizens-with the values that he himself desires, given that the citizen primarily becomes the recipient of the values of the society in which he lives (aristotle, politics, 1337 a 21-26). democratic and public education develops in student’s political competence and a sense of community so that democracy is established. aristotle’s views on the importance of the public and the character of education have influenced modern education systems. modern education accepts the political and social role that aristotle gave to education, considering that the student, through the educational process, softens his egocentrism and acquires social consciousness. the social character of the modern school is made evident by the methods and practices it uses, as through cooperative forms of teaching and the observance of school rules, students are prepared to take on a political role. we must point out that stagiritis is opposed to the provision of vocational education, as it is considered that this type of education is contrary to the type of education that aims to build the healthy character of students. therefore, he wonders about the content of education: “πῶρ σπὴ παιδεύεζθαι” (aristotle, politics, 1324 a 5-7), that is, in which areas will the education system focus; on shaping the best life, on providing knowledge or on serving the daily needs of life? the answer is essential, because it is the foundation on which the moral, intellectual and spiritual education of citizens is built. aristotle rejects the utilitarian dimension of education as inappropriate for free people (aristotle, politics, 1338 b 2-4). the educated man acts as a universal being and not as an individual. aristotle characterizes manual workers as unfree, because they submit to purposes alien to themselves, while their work destroys them physically and mentally (aristotle, politics, 1337 b, 1338 a). commenting on aristotle’s view, h. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 4, no. 4, 2023 29 published by scholink inc. marcuse says that “in idealism a special historical form of the division of labor and the structuring of society into classes takes the eternal, metaphysical form of the relationship between necessity and beauty, between matter and idea” (marcuse, 1985). the question that concerns us is the following: if we assume that education is related to social inequalities, what are the particular processes with which it is associated? could it be that education is not only a derivative but also a producer of inequalities, which confirms the utopia that a truly equal education is only possible in an equal society? education, to the extent that it is an active activity in the creation of social reality, has the ability to turn towards the ideal of a different society and to fight for it. but what is the role of education in modern society? according to p. h. hirst, education aims at the “multifaceted development of the mind, the acquisition of knowledge and the cultivation of the ability to understand experience in a variety of ways”. education does not consist in imparting specialized knowledge but basic forms of knowledge, which are considered to contribute to the goals that have been set, such as the development of the mind and the pursuit of the good life or, using aristotle’s term, the happy life (hirst, 1973a). hirst accepts the passage from plato’s republic, according to which human beings know the nature of things through knowledge and thereby attain the happy life. like the myth of the cave, believing that people through the use of logic can escape the cave and ascend to the real world (hirst, 1973a). hirst referring to the modern era argues that liberal education has as its main purpose the development of people based on what our time perceives as valuable. education, however, should not be subject to the whims of politicians or other powerful groups in society (hirst, 1973a). this perception of the author is accepted because education must serve the purpose of each society and therefore it is necessary not to be subject to or serve the interests of the ruling class, perpetuating a certain social regime. education, of course, transmits the values of the specific society and the specific state, therefore, it is reasonable to respond to the social, moral and political requirements of the democratic state and not to the model of life that the economic agents want to shape with their assistants politicians and the representatives, mainly, of the social sciences. therefore, the purpose of education is to provide knowledge, which covers all levels of social life, aiming to create virtuous and just citizens. in support of the above, we refer to the proposal of r. pring, who, referring to the modern professional dimension of education, says that: “it serves the new class of managers perfectly, but it does not result from any analysis of what it means to be an educated person” (pring, 2002). hirst (1973a) worries about the utilitarian approach to education, because through the educational system, the acquisition of skills by students is sought, in order to respond to the ever-changing environment of the workplace. unfortunately in our time the economy sets the rules of politics and not the other way around, resulting in the widening of the gap between the rich and the poor. this tactic drives society into disequilibrium and disintegration, as conflicts arise between the poor and wealthy citizens. society must promote the well-being of all citizens, because in this way the occurrence of events that would cause social conflicts is prevented. this view was first formulated by plato and www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 4, no. 4, 2023 30 published by scholink inc. aristotle. in particular, in stagirite’s texts it is mentioned that there must be a reasonable relationship between wealth and poverty, because excessive wealth or excessive poverty undermines political stability (aristotle, politics, 1266 b 8-15). therefore, neither an individual nor a social class is allowed to acquire too much power. social balance and order is ensured by the existence of a strong middle class, which manages to offset the excessive claims of the extremes: “ἡ δε πενία ζηάζιν ἐμποιεί και κακοςπγίαν” (aristotle, politics, 1265 b). aristotle considered that the impoverishment of citizens is against democracy: “ηοῦηο γάπ αἴηιον ηοῦ μοσθηποῦ εἶναι ηήν δημοκπαηίαν” (aristotle, politics, 1320 a 34) and for this reason he considered the middle class as the condition of development and order within the city, which is accepted and nowadays. 4. the role of education in shaping the democratic citizen the school is recognized as the institution of socialization and politicization of young people, but at the same time criticisms are made against it, as it is considered to be the most important mechanism within which capitalist relations of production and social inequalities are reproduced. in addition, there are doubts whether the school is able to promote the virtues of the state better, at least than the church or the family. on the other hand, the school “can and must be (re)shaped, with the support of other social institutions, in order to become an effective nursery of state virtues, covering an important gap, since it is not self-evident that children are taught the full range of state virtues in the family or other social groups but certainly not in the market” (kymlicka, 2010). “the educational system consists in teaching the class education of the dominant social groups, traditionally maintaining the elements of individualism and competition, which are necessary for the adaptation of future adults to today’s structures”. even group forms of teaching, when proposed, do not aim to build a society based on human solidarity, but rather are used as a means to develop cooperative skills, which “are required by modern socio-economic conditions” (matsangouras, 2003). citizenship education is now a key parameter in modern education systems, which aim to develop the virtues appropriate to a democratic citizen and the development of active participation in political processes (papadopoulos, 2016). the school system transmits the dominant ideology through the pedagogical act, which “objectively is nothing more than a symbolic violence, understood as an imposition, on the part of an arbitrary power, a political arbitrariness” (bourdieu & passeron, 1970). for these reasons, the role of education needs to be redefined, because in our time, economic growth is emphasized, while the other aspects of the human condition are neglected. man needs to be treated as a whole and not in an isolated and fragmented way. according to m. nussbaum, internationally the situation is hopeless, in terms of civic education in primary and secondary education. the education system fails to assess critical thinking, imagination and empathy because there is no adequate way of assessment. thus, the student becomes passive and the teaching becomes routine, because creativity and individuality do not find room to develop (nussbaum, 2003). www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 4, no. 4, 2023 31 published by scholink inc. a democratic society requires changes in education in order to educate the kind of citizen that is needed to function properly and the traits that are considered necessary are critical thinking, dynamism, reflection, empathy and exchange of ideas based on mutual respect and mutual understanding with people belonging to different groups. the functioning of the democratic state is left to the forces of rationality and imagination. in today’s age, education systems produce useful people, who bring profit, but have limited imagination. results in democratic citizens falling into logical errors, acting sloppily, behaving selfishly and narrow-mindedly. “education primarily aimed at profits in the context of the world market magnifies these defects, producing greedy idleness and a technically cultivated gullibility that threaten the very survival of democracy and are sure to hinder the cultivation of universality” (nussbaum, 2003). education and democracy are inextricably linked and the relationship is broken only by human fault. althusser notes that no class can maintain state power without exercising its hegemony over and within ideological state apparatuses. the school, in other words, is an institution through which children acquire the ideology that suits the role they will fulfill in the future in class society. individuals are fashioned into subjects suited to the needs of capitalism (althusser, 1983). the school, in other words, is an institution through which children acquire the ideology that suits the role they will fulfill in the future in class society. individuals are fashioned into subjects suited to the needs of capitalism. in addition, in school children are taught “how” things happen but by methods that ensure submission to the dominant ideology. education does not seem to offer future workers the possibility of a “total understanding of the production process” (grollios, 2005). while the “development of any critical and creative thinking aims one-sidedly at the understanding of school knowledge”, as the discussion of social becoming has no place in a teaching act that aims, for example, to succeed in exams (liambas & kaskaris, 2007). in the book schooling in capitalist america, bowles & gintis argued that there is a strict correspondence between the type of social relations that develop in the school and the relations of the economic environment. education, in other words, is perceived as a purely passive reflection of the world of work. the effort to liberalize education and the democratization of economic life are inextricably linked. education is governed by interactions in relation to other parameters, social, political, economic and cultural, and should be approached in this way (bowles & gintis, 1976). www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 4, no. 4, 2023 32 published by scholink inc. 5. pedagogical love and democracy plato focuses on the way of teaching and on the relationship between the educator and the educated, with the ultimate goal that the encounter between the two persons should be fruitful. the philosopher refers to the dangers faced by the young, when he does not have the appropriate teachers: “σπῆ ἐπαζηη μᾶλλον ή μή επωνηι ἐκ ηῶν ὁμοίων σαπίεζθαι» (plato, protagoras, 318 e). the work of teachers is essential because it refers to the moral formation of young people, so great care is required in the selection of people who undertake the education of children. the wrong choice of the teacher undermines the future development of the young person as a citizen, as well as the achievement of the happy life (plato, protagoras, 313α-β). socrates, talking to the young people of the city, reveals to them the beauty of his soul and leads them to the development of their personality, while they themselves win him over with their physical qualities, combining at the same time their spiritual gifts (plato, symposium, 209 b). man, according to plato, is a deficient being and needs knowledge; otherwise he cannot survive in the world. however, this learning process is a difficult road, which a deficient existence, i.e., man, must travel, so that with effort and anxiety he can shape his life (plato, protagoras, 531 b-c, 522b). the educational process is the relationship of dominance of the adult over the minor, which is approved and validated by the holding social system. this situation is justified because the child is unable to act independently, without meaning that the children are the property of the parents or the teachers, anyway, if the education of the children is defective, the state intervenes. the child gradually joins the world of adults, which in his eyes appears inaccessible and elusive and because it is difficult to take part directly, the coming of age and maturity, as well as the learning that necessarily accompanies them, have become problematic (karakatsanis, 2015). a large part of children’s education takes place at school, so new problems arise regarding the relationship between school and life. however, many differences are observed in the upbringing and education of children, which are a consequence of the social and economic background of the students. first of all, the children of the higher social strata are familiar with the language code of the school, since their environment works with this code, and coming to school they do not change the language code, but continue with their environment, which means that they are familiar with the educational environment (karakatsanis, 2015). the purpose of learning is the independence of the child from parents and teachers and subsequently, the ability to create new autonomous relationships both with peers and with other people. the school develops the child’s abilities that correspond to each evolutionary field and must be promoted or they will fade. that is why every lesson taught is taught at the specific developmental fade; otherwise the smooth development of the child is harmed, as it results in compulsive learning (karakatsanis, 2015). choices in the area of education must be made based on the three concepts: maturity, participation and emancipation. this is necessary because democracy requires mature people and citizens. adorno notes: “every attempt to promote ideals from the outside that do not spring from the mature consciousness of www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 4, no. 4, 2023 33 published by scholink inc. the individual and do not express it, is a collectivist reaction” (adorno, 2006). the teacher is now perceived as a professional mediator between the student and the world, “connecting with reality and acquiring an entity with which every teacher could identify” (karakatsanis, 2015). children have no possibility of rejecting the agents of socialization and necessarily accept the existing conditions. from the above, the question arises in education regarding freedom, given that the parameters of “freedom, the participation of the students, their differentiation with the teachers, the selection of the necessary material and the use of the appropriate textbooks” are included. the educational system needs to be structured on the basis of regularity and freedom in the educational process without dogmatism and arbitrariness (karafillis, 2007). education differentiates and modifies human nature, leading man to the perfection and acquisition of his humanity, as menander said, the purpose of man is the fulfillment of his natural destiny and the highlighting of his essence, which make him graceful “ὡρ σαπίεν ἄνθπωπορ, ὅηαν ἄνθπωπορ ᾖ”. man is the being of nature “who manages to escape definitively from the shackles of nature, to escape from the center of the oppressive power of repetitive natural laws and thus to become the eccentric being, the essential being, the being differentiated from. it manages to position itself and acquire its uniqueness” (karafillis, 2007). in this difficult path of educating the young person, the role of the competent teacher is fundamental and essential. socrates as a teacher did not treat his students as knowledgeable, but his discourse was aimed at shaping the student’s “ethos” and developing the powers of his soul. modern teachers can learn from the athenian philosopher’s approach to young people. therefore, the socratic teacher exchanges arguments with his student and through the dialogue their correctness is checked, then new arguments are reformulated and created (kalfas, 2011). in this way, the philosophical discourse develops, i.e., with the exchange of discourses. of course, students during the educational process must be receptive to the teacher’s words, so that the discussion that will be held is constructive and fruitful (plato, phaedrus 277a). the souls of young people are always receptive and offer the fertile ground for sowing the teacher’s words and through creative dialogue, young people acquire the supplies they need to meet their duties as citizens (kalfas, 2011). the socratic teacher inspires the students and leads them to the virtuous life. but in modern times, most educational systems focus on highlighting technical and scientific skills and not on how to form the virtuous citizen, consequently stifling creativity and personality for the sake of success in school exams. our society is fixated on the pursuit of wealth and the aim of education is for future citizens to serve this process of profit and not to create thinking citizens. democracy does not need people who will submit to authority and the pressure of the social environment, but who will have the courage to express their individual dissent. we must mold children according to socratic values, so that they become “active, critical and inquisitive spirit, able to resist authority and environmental pressure” (nussbaum, 2013). www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 4, no. 4, 2023 34 published by scholink inc. 6. epilogue in the study at hand we dealt with the effect of education on the construction of the status of the democratic citizen of the modern society, however, we referred to previous manifestations of this status, as we referred to the intellect of the thinkers of ancient greece. the reason for the mention was compelling, because modern european citizenship is largely based on the characteristics of the citizen of the ancient athenian democracy and the theory of the ancient greek philosophers. athenian democracy promoted equality and freedom as the basic characteristics of the citizen. the ancient greek philosophers proclaimed the engagement of the citizen with the commons and the promotion of the common good of the city. in our opinion, these elements can be the foundation for the creation of a modern democracy, in which the leader will make decisions based on the interest of all citizens and not the social class that supported him for his election and themselves citizens will be active, deciding their own lives. references acemoglu, d. et al. 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(2001). citizenship, historical development of citizenship. in n. j. smelser, & p. b. bakes (eds.), international encyclopedia of the social and behavioral sciences (pp. 1852-1857). new york: elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/b0-08-043076-7/02682-6 grollios, g. (2005). paulo freire and the syllabus. thessaloniki: vanias. hirst, p. h. (1973a). liberal education and the nature of knowledge. in r. s. peters (ed.), the philosophy of education (pp. 87-111). oxford university press. hourdakis, a. (2003). hospitality city or foreign citizen? the stranger, the neighbor and the barbarian in greek antiquity. in a. kazamias (ed.), education and citizen: the education of the citizen of greece, europe and the world (pp. 78-96). athens: atrapos. hutchins, r. m. (1953). the conflict in education in a democratic society. n.y.: harper and row. kalfas, v. 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(2003). democracy and civic engagement reconnecting education to democracy: democratic dialogues (pp. 9-14). https://doi.org/10.1177/003172170308500105 young, a. (2011). la diversité linguistique à l’école: handicap ou ressource? in c. dorison, & n. lewi-dumont (eds.), la formation des tous les enseignants à la diversité, suresnes: ins-hea (pp. 93-109). https://doi.org/10.3917/nras.055.0093 https://doi.org/10.1177/003172170308500105 https://doi.org/10.3917/nras.055.0093 frontiers of contemporary education issn 2690-3520 (print) issn 2690-3539 (online) vol. 2, no. 2, 2021 www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce 1 original paper maintaining middle school students‟ engagement in virtual learning environments blanca ibarra 1 & pierre lu 1* 1 the university of texas rio grande valley, usa * pierre lu, e-mail: mingtsan.lu@utrgv.edu received: december 26, 2020 accepted: february 1, 2021 online published: august 31, 2021 doi:10.22158/fce.v2n2p1 url: http://dx.doi.org/10.22158/fce.v2n2p1 abstract the current covid-19 pandemic has created many challenges for teachers as they transition to teaching in virtual learning environments. virtual learning environments have forced educators to adapt teaching strategies and become creative and innovative to maintain student engagement (korkmaz & toraman, 2020). middle school social studies teachers have always dealt with a lack of student interest in learning history, and the current instructional setting is requiring a reimagined teacher craft to deliver high-quality instruction. the interaction between students and teachers often depends on the content, highly effective questioning, choice in response methods, technology tools, or learning platforms (czerkawski & lyman, 2016). a conceptual understanding of the types of engagement, including cognitive, affective, and behavioral (buric & franzel, 2020; raes, vanneste, pieters, windey, van den noortgate & depaepe, 2020; van uden, ritzen & pieters, 2013; ding, kim & orey, 2017) will help inform the types of instructional strategies that will be most effective at increasing and maintaining student engagement. the purpose of this phenomenological study was to describe the experiences and problems associated with engaging students in virtual learning environments for middle school social studies teachers in a border school district with over 40,000 students. the overarching theme that emerged from the data collected was that teachers play a significant role in creating a learning environment that supports students, encourages participation through interactive technology, and nurtures relationships to promote student engagement. findings suggest educators understand the challenges educators face to keep students engaged and motivated, and some of the best practices that can increase student engagement in virtual learning. keywords student engagement, cognitive engagement, affective engagement, behavioral engagement, virtual learning www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 2, 2021 2 published by scholink inc. 1. introduction the current covid-19 pandemic has created many challenges for teachers as they transition to teaching in virtual learning environments. student disengagement has made it difficult for teachers to gauge student mastery of content, differentiate instruction, provide feedback, form relationships with their students, and created an emotionally “distant” learning environment (korkmaz & toraman, 2020). there is insufficient research into best practices for maintaining student engagement in remote learning for middle school students. the covid-19 pandemic has created a need to research the challenges and difficulties educators face in keeping students engaged in virtual learning environments. virtual learning environments have forced educators to adapt teaching strategies and become creative and innovative to maintain student engagement (korkmaz & toraman, 2020). middle school social studies teachers have always dealt with a lack of student interest in learning history. the current instructional setting requires a reimagined teacher craft to deliver high-quality instruction while motivating disengaged students to become engaged in learning. the interaction between students and teachers often depends on the content, highly effective questioning, choice in response methods, technology tools, or learning platforms (czerkawaski & lyman, 2016). a conceptual understanding of the types of engagement, including cognitive, affective, and behavioral (buric & franzel, 2020; raes, vanneste, pieters, windey, van den noortgate & depaepe, 2020; van uden, ritzen & pieters, 2013; ding, kim & orey, 2017) will help inform the types of instructional strategies that can be most effective at increasing and maintaining student engagement. a qualitative research study grounded in a transcendental phenomenological perspective was conducted to identify the current challenges teachers face in engaging students, the levels and types of recent engagement in virtual learning, and the best practices that have been effective at cognitively, affectively, and behaviorally maintaining student engagement. the purpose of this phenomenological study was to describe the experiences and problems with engaging students in virtual learning environments for middle school social studies teachers in a border school district with over 40,000 students. this study also aimed to understand the virtual learning environment dynamics to identify challenges and practical strategies to maintain student engagement in virtual learning. the following questions guided the inquiry process: (1) what instructional strategies do educators currently use to assess mastery learning during online instructional delivery? (2) what programs or technology tools do educators use to allow for student input, feedback or collaboration during online instruction? (3) how do educators keep students engaged in the virtual learning environment? (4) how do educators motivate students to participate in the virtual learning environment? the research findings will help improve teaching in learning in virtual learning environments in the k-12 setting and help educators understand best practices that educators are currently using to keep students engaged and motivated to succeed academically. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 2, 2021 3 published by scholink inc. 2. literature review 2.1 types of student engagement student engagement is a multi-dimensional concept that has recently become the focus in virtual learning environments. according to trowler (2010), “student engagement is concerned with the interaction between the time, effort and other relevant resources invested by both students and their institutions intended to optimise the student experience and enhance the learning outcomes and development of students and the performance, and reputation of the institution” (p. 3). there are three general types of engagement: cognitive, affective, and behavioral (buric & franzel, 2020; raes, vanneste, pieters, windey, van den noortgate & depaepe, 2020; van uden, ritzen & pieters, 2013; ding, kim & orey, 2017). the type of engagement that a student exhibits will vary based on their abilities and determine the types of support they will require to show all three types of engagement. for example, borup, graham, west, archambault, and spring (2020) state that a student that is genuinely interested in a subject area demonstrates cognitive engagement and will not need support, but if they have a negative attitude towards school work, they will need support in order to demonstrate behavioral engagement and complete the classwork. behavioral engagement refers to the specific tasks the students must exhibit in class, such as logging in to the online platform, accessing and completing work on the lms (learning management system). ding, kim, and orey (2017) indicate that students can demonstrate behavioral engagement in online discussions by submitting comments or responses to peer responses in an online discussion forum. cognitive engagement, on the other hand, refers to specific actions displayed by students that indicate interaction with the content such as paying attention, seeking feedback, taking pride in work completed, asking questions, and submitting responses when the teacher checks for understanding (borup, graham, west, archambault & spring, 2020; buric & frenzel, 2020). raes, vanneste, pieters, windey, van den noortgate, and depaepe (2020), argue that teachers can cognitively engage students through online quizzes and polls during the lecture. also, students who are cognitively engaged will dedicate more effort to writing and submitting responses in online discussion (ding, kim & orey, 2017) because cognitive engagement “incorporates thoughtfulness and willingness to exert the effort necessary to comprehend complex ideas and master difficult skills” (fredericks, blumenfeld & paris, 2004, p. 60). emotional or affective engagement refers to how students react to a learning environment, including teachers and peers with positive dispositions such as excitement or lack of interest in completing work and boredom (fredericks, blumenfeld & paris, 2004). affective engagement is essential because if students feel welcomed and supported, they will tend to participate in online discussions with peers (ding, kim & orey, 2017), which can contribute to both behavioral and cognitive engagement (borup, graham, west, archambault & spring, 2020; buric & frenzel, 2020). www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 2, 2021 4 published by scholink inc. 2.2 teacher support in relation to student engagement fredericks, blumenfeld, and paris‟s (2004) review on student engagement revealed a strong correlation between teacher support and students‟ varying engagement levels in the classroom. teachers can support students‟ cognitive engagement by providing high-quality explicit instruction that incorporates opportunities to collaborate with peers and providing students with the necessary tools and resources to process the content (borup, graham, west, archambault & spring, 2020). buric and frenzel (2020) suggest that effective instruction requires that teachers use cognitive activation, which involves instructional strategies and activities that promote critical thinking, brainstorming, and activating prior knowledge. effective cognitive activation can contribute to cognitive engagement. behaviorally, teachers can support students by helping them navigate technology platforms to ensure they can access the resources needed, helping them manage their learning environment, and monitoring progress (borup, graham, west, archambault & spring, 2020) which teachers in virtual learning environments can do through the use of interactive learning platforms. borup, graham, west, archambault, and spring (2020) suggest that in order for teachers to support students‟ affective engagement, they need to make it easy for students to communicate with them, and they must invest time in getting to know their students. “to strengthen relationships while online, participants need to establish their social presence: „the ability of participants… to project their personal characteristics into the community, thereby presenting themselves to the other participants as „real people‟” (garrison et al., 2010, p. 89 as quoted in borup, graham, west, archambault & spring, 2020). dixon (2010) suggests that in order for students to be engaged in online learning, there needs to be collaboration among students and strong teacher presence because the level of interaction influences the students‟ level of engagement. 2.3 learner interactions and student engagement in online learning bollinger and martin (2018) suggest three types of interactions that contribute to student engagement in online learning: learner-to-learner interaction, learner-instructor interaction, and learner-content interaction. in learn-to-learner interaction, students collaborate on projects and assignments and engage in discussions by sharing their viewpoints and ideas. however, for this interaction to occur, teachers develop a learning environment where students feel like they belong and are comfortable sharing (bollinger & martin, 2018; fredericks, blumenfeld & paris, 2004). learner-instructor interaction involves educators establishing an online presence and communicating with students utilizing various methods such as email or chat features in video conferencing software (bollinger & martin, 2018). it also involves instructors designing appropriate instructional activities that promote active rather than passive learning. dixon (2010) suggests that active learning involves discussion forums, collaborative group projects, and critical thinking, whereas passive learning relies on a traditional lecture, videos, reading of a text, and assessments. learner-content interaction refers to the number of times students engage with instructional content such as videos, online games, interactive software platforms, class assignments, and class lectures (bollinger & martin, 2018). however, factors such as student characteristics and home and classroom environment affect the level of engagement. borup, graham, west, archambault, and www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 2, 2021 5 published by scholink inc. spring‟s (2020) academic communities of engagement (ace) framework advances the idea that students‟ characteristics, course environment, and unique environment contribute to student engagement in online courses. a student‟s interest in the subject matter, habits of mind, self-efficacy, and ability to control their behavior affect their engagement in a course. the class‟s design depends on teachers‟ pedagogical skills and knowledge of instructional strategies that contribute to student interest, such as using cooperative learning, project-based learning, or a particular delivery style (czerkawski & lyman, 2016). lastly, in terms of the personal environment, borup, graham, west, archambault, and spring (2020) suggest that the teachers can directly or indirectly influence the level of support students receive to contribute to their academic engagement. 3. method 3.1 researchers’ roles and overview of method we are educators and educational researchers. one author is currently a k-12 teacher in the united states and the other is a university professor in educational research. the literature review of student engagement revealed three forms of engagement: cognitive, affective, and behavioral. using this conceptual framework of student engagement, we chose to study middle school social studies teachers because one of the authors has direct contact with this group of teachers and we witness first-hand the lack of student engagement in virtual learning environments. with access to the teachers‟ google classrooms, the researchers could see behavioral engagement with the submission of individual student assignments. through informal virtual walkthroughs since the beginning of the school year, the researchers have witnessed varying levels of cognitive, affective, and behavioral engagement among students and seen some instructional strategies be more effective than others. through the observations, we came to formulate the questions of what specific strategies teachers were using to check for understanding and motivate and engage students. we wanted to understand the underlying factors that influenced the level of engagement in individual teacher‟s classrooms in middle schools. the initial survey for data collection gauged the types of engagement teachers self-reported and generated an understanding of best practices currently being used. survey results created a general understanding of what the average middle school social studies teacher was doing to engage students. formal observations of teachers and follow-up interviews helped validate survey results and gain a deeper understanding of teachers‟ experiences and challenges in keeping students engaged in virtual learning environments. 3.2 context, site, and participants one of the researchers is the social studies instructional coordinator for the border school district involved in this research study, and thus she has direct knowledge of the challenges and successes teachers face in the virtual learning environment obtained through informal observations since the beginning of the academic school year. for this research inquiry, we chose to collect data through an observer perspective from four middle school social studies teachers and interview the research participants. this sample of social studies teachers was selected using a purposive sampling method www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 2, 2021 6 published by scholink inc. based on use of technology, high student interaction, interactive learning platform, and active and positive student-teacher rapport observed during initial informal observations. selected teachers received an email asking them if they would be interested in participating in the research study and participate in an interview. the participants consisted of two female teachers and two male teachers, three of whom teach 6 th -grade social studies, and one teaches 7 th grade. all four teachers have experience teaching social studies from 1-7 years, all within the school district, and all are highly proactive. these teachers participated in a full-length 55-minute formal observation conducted through access to the google meet class session and participated in an interview to discuss their teaching and learning practices. the four teachers were individually interviewed after school for 45 minutes using a structured interview approach and asked the following questions: (1) what has been your biggest challenge in virtual learning? (2) what instructional strategies have you used to keep students engaged in learning and check for mastery? (3) what tech tools have you used to engage students? (4) how do your students show engagement in learning? (5) what strategies do you use to motivate students to learn? 3.3 data collection and analysis a survey instrument to measure middle school social studies teachers‟ experiences with student engagement in the virtual learning environment guided the initial research inquiry. the survey was created utilizing google forms and consisted of seven questions, of which six were multiple response options, and one was open-ended. the survey was designed in this format to ensure participation and completion and guided by evidence collected during informal observations. the survey was sent via email to 80 middle school social studies teachers at the border school district with over 40,000 students on october 2, 2020, and remained open for two weeks. the survey closed on october 16, 2020. the response rate was 58.75%. the email explained to teachers that participation was strictly voluntary, no emails or identifying information were collected, so responses were confidential, and participation was anonymous. a coding schema guided the identification of emerging themes in participant observations and interviews. thematic analysis was conducted. examples of our interview coding are demonstrated in table 6. examples of participant observation coding are demonstrated in table 7 below. survey results were disaggregated and cross-referenced to identify students‟ types of engagement in respondents classrooms‟ by years of teaching experience. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 2, 2021 7 published by scholink inc. table 1. interview questions coding question answer relationships distractions technology what challenges are you currently experiencing with engaging students? students aren‟t coming into class don‟t know what the teacher is doing to making class engaging wi-fi at home most students get assignments done, but struggling students are facing issues both at home and at school yes yes students can be on cell phone or another website, and it is hard to know if they are engaged connection with students, rapport with students; likes to know them as people, not being able to know them yes yes visuals technology what strategies have you found to be effective in engaging students? activity ready at the beginning; students want to do bellringers; see-think-wonder (analyze images) visuals, props (koran), backdrops (islamic during the interview); quizziz, nearpod, google forms visuals for islam i showed them the koran; picture of an islamic center in town; quizziz quizziz (students think its fun, yes yes yes yes yes www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 2, 2021 8 published by scholink inc. and i gauge from there if they understood)-review of what they have learned yes behavioral affective cognitive how do your students show engagement in class? 90% submit responses and communicate through the chat feature, only about 10% unmute their microphones to say something; students raise had on camera when they have a question or to answer a question all three ways they ask questions, show interest, the next day they did their own research (king tut for egypt); looked up more laws about hammurabi‟s code they show neatness in their work; they will say that learning about history is fun if teachers just sit their students will participate 25%, 75% participate more with her helping them; all classes are different; give and take yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes humor/fun relevancy relationships www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 2, 2021 9 published by scholink inc. how do you motivate students to keep learning? having fun with them; not having a monotony in class; community building; buzzers when say something correct or “fire” buzzer when they are on a roll relevant lessons; connect to what they can see around them complementing them by saying “thank you,” “you‟re welcome”; students show off their work; see them-who they are; we have a genuine interest in what they are going to talk about storytime (lesson introduction); i left them on a cliffhanger about miguel hidalgo. i told them they chopped off his head on halloween; make it as fun as possible; entice with storytime; students will say “yay” when she says it is storytime yes yes yes yes technology interactive-ba sed game-based what tech tools have you used with your students? gimkit; classkick students have the ability to help each other out unlike peardeck and nearpod; likes the games; yes yes yes www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 2, 2021 10 published by scholink inc. edpuzzle, google slides, quizziz; students ask to play kahoot purpose games; try to work on tools that shows them that they are going to work on it; want to be able to monitor student progress gimkit; adapts google forms and types answers in chat only if they participate and then students turn in assignment yes yes yes yes yes yes note. emerging codes revealed by analyzing interview questions. table 2. participant observation coding results teacher a teacher b teacher c teacher d visuals/ support the teacher plays ancient egypt video and tells students to listen for three things they did not know about egypt. teacher displays graphic organizer and guides students by typing out responses in the organizer for them to see and add to their notes trailer video from disney‟s aladdin to introduce the middle east region introduces vocabulary terms by showing artifacts-oil barrel, gold pharaoh statute, and bible for religions; behind the teacher in her room is a backdrop of the taj mahal and an anchor chart with an outline of gandhi and the word civil disobedience displayed and the definition the teacher uses visuals (primary sources) and highlights words in red throughout the the teacher switches the slide to a political cartoon of the law of april 6, 1830, and tells the students, “i‟m going to explain what to with this political cartoon because i‟ve seen some students having a hard time.” www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 2, 2021 11 published by scholink inc. lesson (discrimination, south africa). technology the teacher puts a link to classkick in the chat teacher post‟s link to nearpod lesson in the chat the teacher tells students, “we are going to use nearpod” and places a link to nearpod in the chat the teacher then displays an assignment for students to complete drag and drop interactive matching activity on google slides on the texas revolution. teacher a teacher b teacher c teacher d engagement the teacher asks students, “can someone tell me what they learned about egypt.” one student responds, “egypt lasted for 300 years” another student responds, “pyramid was 220 x 220”. the teacher thanks students for contributions. behavioral engagement (students respond on nearpod) next question-“which area on the map shows you the country of egypt” (100% of students responded correctly) “good job, class.” teacher checks for understanding with a multiple choice question-what is non-violent refusal to obey laws and demands called?” 75% of students answer correctly the teacher asks, “if you saw something that wasn‟t right, would you speak up? would you try to change it” teacher monitors responses students are posting in nearpod the teacher displays her screen and tells students that only 6 of 22 have turned in their flipgrids that were assigned the previous day. she says, “there is no excuse for you not to turn it in. i want you to talk from 50 seconds to 1 minute and 20 seconds on the causes of the texas revolution. rapport/ teacher “it is okay if you do not know how to spell teacher smiling throughout the lesson the teacher reads aloud names of student asked in the chat, “is it okay if i eat www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 2, 2021 12 published by scholink inc. characteristics it; just type it as best as you can or pronounce as best as you can.” and says thank you to students that provide responses the teacher welcomes every student individually by name as they log in to the google meet as each student‟s name appears on the screen. students that have joined nearpod and (gives wait time and reposts link for late-arriving students) because i didn‟t get to finish my food.” the teacher responds, “listen first to what i am going to explain, and then you can finish eating. i know you don‟t have your camera on, and we cannot see you.” teacher a teacher b teacher c teacher d learning environment/ support teacher displays graphic organizer and guides students by typing out responses in the organizer for them to see and add to their notes teacher says, “nice, i like your answers”-teacher read and rephrased answers that students submitted and praised each student by mentioning their names; assignment-pictures for each category of the middle east, the teacher provided references for the assignment and embedded resources (video and map to label) the teacher displayed google form questions with gandhi reading and explained the directions for the independent assignment. the teacher displays google classroom on her screen to show students where the review for the test they will be taking on friday can be found. the teacher tells students, “i do not want you to feel embarrassed to put questions in the chat and do not put them in the google classroom stream because i may not see them, and i want your questions to be answered.” note. examples of participant behaviors witnessed during observations of emerging themes in the research study. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 2, 2021 13 published by scholink inc. 4. results 4.1 interactive learning platforms there were 47 respondents to the survey, of which 40.5% had, on average, between 0-10 years of teaching experience, and 59.5% had 11 or more years of teaching experience. in terms of interactive learning platforms, 78.7% responded they used smart learning suite, while 27.7% responded they used nearpod, and 21.3% use peardeck to engage learners. one teacher wrote, “with pear deck, students seem to be more engaged. some students who are usually shy and rarely participate are more receptive to the activities in this program”. in reference to nearpod, another teacher responded, “nearpod has been an outstanding technology tool for our students to stay engaged and teachers monitor their live participation whether it be a drawing activity to matching to quiz questions and use of staar strategies”. survey results indicate that teachers have employed the use of technology games to keep students engaged (see table 5). one respondent wrote, “my students love to play quizziz and show a lot of excitement when they find out they are going to play”. the theme from these survey results indicates that teachers are using interactive learning platforms and technology games to engage students in virtual learning. teacher a, a 6 th -grade social studies teacher, mentioned using gimkit, classkick, peardeck, and nearpod to engage students. he said, “i tell my students that gimkit is not free, and i am paying for it, and this encourages them to participate”. teacher c, a 6 th -grade social studies teacher, said she preferred to use games that allow for integration with google classroom to monitor and ensure students are working on the game and not doing something else. teacher b said, “we play quizziz, but my students ask to play kahoot”. 4.2 level of student engagement as for the level of engagement that teachers saw in the virtual classroom, 95.7% responded students posted responses in the chat to answer teacher questions, 85.1% said students asked questions in the chat, 85.1% said students unmuted their microphones to answer and ask questions, and only 31% reported using interactive platforms for students to submit responses. also, only 29.8% reported they allowed students to share their screens to present work or products completed to the class (see table 1). table 3. student engagement behaviors student behaviors % of respondents reporting students exhibited behavior posting responses in chat to teacher questions 95.7% asking questions in the chat 85.1% unmuting microphones to answer/ask questions 85.1% submitting responses through interactive platforms 31.0% student share screens to present products 29.8% students participate in breakout rooms 10.6% note. percentage of students exhibiting the engagement behavior in respondents‟ classrooms. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 2, 2021 14 published by scholink inc. 4.3 types of student engagement teacher responses to the question regarding types of engagement observed in class revealed that 53.2% were cognitively engaged as evidence by students asking higher-order thinking questions, 78.7% were emotionally engaged as evidenced by students displaying general interest, and 63.8% were behaviorally engaged as evidenced by students completing tasks and assignments (see table 2). table 4. types of engagement types of engagement % of respondents reporting indicated type of engagement students asked higher order thinking questions 53.2% students display general interest 78.7% students complete assigned tasks 63.8% note. percentage of respondents indicating the type of engagement of students in the class. 4.4 challenges in virtual learning environments survey responses suggest that students are showing varying levels of behavioral, cognitive, and affective engagement. on average, during the participants‟ observations, 50-75% of students had their cameras off during the class. the students who had cameras on had them facing the ceiling, a wall, a window, or too high only to see the student‟s forehead. the students who did have cameras on seemed to look focused, but it is difficult to tell if they are affectively engaged in the teacher‟s lesson or another website. participants expressed that some of their biggest challenges in virtual learning included attendance, access to wi-fi, distractions, and connections with students. teacher c, a 6 th -grade social studies teacher, mentioned that she sometimes sees students talking on the side during class or posting brb in the chat during class. she said, “one student told me that he had to go help his mom and another said he had to help his little sister because she fell and he left the microphone unmuted, so i could hear the kid crying in the background”. teacher d, a 7th-grade teacher, expressed that she “feels helpless” and says she misses having that connection and rapport with students and knowing them as people. she said, “i often tell my students i wish i could see you; i am learning with you; it is okay if you have questions. there is no such thing as dumb questions”. teacher a said that his biggest challenge is attendance because he feels that students think the class will be boring. after all, they do not know him, so he tries to do different activities every day and uses humor to make the class more engaging. however, it is not until students start logging in to the class that they become aware of the variety of tools and strategies he uses to teach. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 2, 2021 15 published by scholink inc. 4.5 affective engagement all participants stated that their students exhibited varying engagement levels, but they consistently mentioned affective engagement. teacher b stated that students post comments in the chat, such as “this is interesting, i enjoy it”, and he mentioned that students show interest by going and doing research on topics covered in class. for example, he stated that while learning about egypt and mesopotamia‟s ancient civilizations, a couple of students went and searched about king tut and the code of hammurabi and shared what they had learned with him in class the following day. teacher c commented that students took pride in their work by showing neatness in what they do, and they want to show it off. teacher d alluded to educators‟ vital role in securing student engagement, consistent with fredericks, blumenfeld, and paris‟s (2004) assertion that the level of teacher support in the classroom impacts student engagement. she stated that she is willing to help them and has noticed that she will have more student participation when she uses questions to check for understanding during the lesson on google forms than when she does not (behavioral engagement). she noticed 75% of her students participating when they contribute to the responses, and she then shares what they say in the chat so that they can then input the information on their end in the google form. she self-reflected during the interview and said: “i know that it seems like the students are not working, but they are, and it is a give and take, and i have noticed that their retention on scores on assignments and tests has increased since i started doing this”. 4.6 types of instructional strategies used as for the types of instructional strategies used, survey respondents indicated they used the following: breakout rooms (17%), collaborative group projects (40.4%), collaborative group activities (46.8%), game competitions (51.1%), and student oral presentations (34%) (see table 3). table 5. instructional strategies instructional strategies used % of respondents reporting using strategies breakout rooms 17% group collaborative projects 40.4% group collaborative activities 46.8% game competitions 51.1% student oral presentations 34% note. percentage of respondents indicating the use of instructional strategies. one teacher responded that the “best strategy to keep students engaged is to purposefully question them”. another survey respondent expanded on this same idea by writing, “constantly questioning-i feel this is important calling them out by name using incentives such as raffles allowing them to have discussions about open-ended questions and connecting it to today‟s society. trying to expose the content knowledge www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 2, 2021 16 published by scholink inc. through all the multiple intelligences and having high expectations regardless if it is virtual”. while teachers report using instructional strategies such as breakout rooms, collaborative projects/activities, and oral presentations, none of the strategies were observed in the participants‟ classrooms during formal observation and not mentioned during the participants‟ interviews. participants stressed that visuals and technology tools are what they feel has helped them keep students engaged in learning. teacher a said students like the bellringers he does, specifically the see-think-wonder, and fill in the blanks. he thinks students like these activities because he values their opinions: “i use post-its and write down what every student tells me, and i stick it onto the picture”. teacher b and c mentioned that visuals, scavenger hunts, props, and backdrops have helped engage students. during teacher b‟s class observation, he used props of a miniature gold pharaoh statue, an oil barrel for oil, and the bible for religions to introduce the middle east lesson‟s key vocabulary terms. he also used a movie trailer of the famous film aladdin and asked students to find evidence indicating the country was developed or developing. many students submitted responses in the chat, indicating their response. similarly, teacher c mentioned making relevant connections between a lesson on islam and showing students a mosque picture in their city. through class kick and nearpod, teacher a states he can monitor what students are doing and requires that students submit a response to questions he asks to assess understanding and ensure cognitive engagement. 4.7 summary a thematic analysis approach of the data collected revealed the main themes: teacher characteristics, relationships, interactive technology, and support. the overarching theme that emerged from this data was that teachers play a significant role in creating a learning environment that supports students, encourages participation through interactive technology, and nurtures relationships to promote student engagement. 5. discussion 5.1 student engagement survey findings the survey findings measuring student engagement in middle school social studies classrooms revealed that games and interactive learning platforms effectively contributed to cognitive, affective, and behavioral engagement. specifically, the results revealed that teachers who had 0-5 years of teaching experience and 11-15 years of experience reported having more than one type of engagement in the classroom. 38.5% of teachers who were relatively new to the profession reported that their students displayed cognitive, behavioral, and affective engagement, and 55.5% had students that exhibited at least two types of engagement (see table 4). www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 2, 2021 17 published by scholink inc. table 6. types of engagement by years of experience # of respondents years of experience all three forms of engagement cognitive engagement affective engagement behavioral engagement 13 0-5 38.0% 53.8% 100% 69.0% 6 6-10 33.3% 50.0% 66.7% 83.3% 9 11-15 55.5% 77.8% 77.8% 66.7% 12 16-20 25.0% 41.7% 25.0% 41.7% 7 20+ 28.6% 42.9% 85.7% 42.9% note. types of engagement in respondents classrooms by years of experience. these results can likely be because 92% of this same group of teachers reported that their students posted responses in the chat, asked questions in the chat, unmuted their microphones to respond, and used interactive platforms for teaching. 5.2 technology tools used in virtual learning environments 100% of the 0-5 years experience group of teachers use digital games such as kahoot, quizziz, purpose games, and quizlet live to engage their students and interactive platforms such as the smart learning suite, nearpod, and peardeck (see table 5). the most effective instructional strategies to maintain student engagement amongst this group of teachers included collaborative group projects and game competitions based on survey results. table 7. technology tools # of respondents years of experience quizziz kahoot purpose games quizlet live smart learning suite nearpod 13 0-5 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 6 6-10 83.3% 83.3% 66.7% 66.7% 83.3% 16.7% 9 11-15 88.9% 100% 0% 55.6% 88.9% 44.4% 12 16-20 58.3% 66.7% 66.7% 66.7% 83.3% 0% 7 20+ 42.8% 42.8% 42.8% 42.8% 85.6% 0% note. percentage of respondents indicating the use of interactive learning platforms or games. the participants in this research inquiry fell in the 0-5 years of teaching experience range and have medium to high affective, behavioral, and cognitive engagement levels. factors such as teacher characteristics, technology tools, and rapport affect the engagement level of students. during classroom observations, the teachers demonstrated the following behaviors towards students: they thanked them for submitting responses in the chat, recognized and provided feedback for correct responses, showed www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 2, 2021 18 published by scholink inc. genuine enthusiasm while teaching, and encouraged students to share their opinions. the one characteristic that defined these participants was passion-they all took great pride in what they were teaching and provided specific and vivid details to engage learners. all participants used technology tools to engage students and provide support, whether it was through google slides, google forms, or nearpod. exemplars, posting of questions, and essential details in the chat by the teacher helped students cognitively engage in the content. to facilitate access to resources, teachers modeled how to access needed materials and resources to complete assignments by sharing screens and modeling the steps on google classroom. teachers used intentional questioning to obtain student feedback, and an overwhelming majority of students submitted written responses through the chat or the interactive platform utilized. few students unmuted their microphones to volunteer responses on their own. even when teachers intentionally called on students, there was some wait time before a student unmuted the microphone to respond. it is evident that in the participants‟ virtual classrooms, teachers have created a supportive and caring environment that is conducive to learning and engagement. nevertheless, students still do not turn on their cameras, and few unmute their microphones to participate. thus, despite all of their dispositions, planning, and caring for students, they are still struggling with keeping students affectively, behaviorally, and cognitively engaged. 5.3 implications, limitations, and directions for future research the findings in this research study suggest that teachers play a significant role in shaping the learning environment, and the instructional decisions they make influence the types and levels of engagement that students display in the virtual classroom. the mediating factor is that even though students log in to the classes, everyday teachers still do not “know” their students and have not fully developed a relationship that typically develops in traditional classrooms. even though some teachers go above and beyond to create an inviting virtual background environment or use visuals, videos, and games, teachers can ask questions in a virtual room that will remain silent if possible for the entire class period because students will not respond. this study‟s limitations are that it focused only on middle school teachers in one subject area and on participants‟ responses selected through the same school district. therefore, generalizability may be limited. a broader research inquiry may reveal a better understanding of types of engagement exhibited in virtual learning environments over a prolonged time and a broader area with a larger sample size. an additional research area might be exploring how to incorporate social-emotional learning principles and activities in social studies classrooms to help teachers develop relationships with their students to increase student engagement. also, since teachers contribute to students‟ engagement, further inquiry into how teachers understand engagement affects student engagement is needed. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 2, 2021 19 published by scholink inc. 6. conclusion the upheaval brought to the education system by the covid-19 pandemic has created opportunities for educators to think outside of the box to provide high-quality instruction and meet state standards while struggling to maintain student engagement. the findings of this qualitative research inquiry revealed that teachers‟ daily struggles with behavioral student engagement include having students turn and keep their cameras on, having students unmute their microphones to respond when intentionally called on, and completing assignments and tasks. teachers that use interactive learning platforms such as pear deck and nearpod reported having greater student engagement during instruction. also, utilizing technology tools that encourage game competitions such as quizziz and kahoot motivated students and contributed to cognitive and emotional engagement. the majority of interaction between students and teachers during virtual learning is through the chat feature of google meet by where students post responses to teacher questions and ask questions. engagement is a triangular construct that encompasses the affective, cognitive, and behavioral domains. depending on individual abilities and general interest in the class (borup, graham, west, archambault & spring, 2020), students will exhibit behaviors at various engagement levels, but it requires teacher ingenuity, passion, and perseverance to ignite that passion for learning. fredericks, blumenfeld, and paris (2004) argue that “engagement, once established, builds on itself, thereby contributing to increased improvements in more distal outcomes of interest” (p. 61). thus, the implication is that teachers must continuously gauge students‟ level of engagement, adapt instructional strategies, get to know their students, and have a strong presence in the virtual learning environment to ensure continuous student engagement. references bolliger, d. u., & martin, f. (2018). instructor and student perceptions of online student engagement strategies. distance education, 39(4), 568-583. https://doi.org/10.1080/01587919.2018.1520041 borup, j., graham, c. r., west, r. e., archambault, l., & spring, k. j. (2020). academic communities of engagement: an expansive lens for examining support structures in blended and online learning. education tech research development, 68, 807-832. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11423-020-09744-x buric, i., & frenzel, a. c. (2020). teacher emotional labour, instructional strategies, and students‟ academic engagement: a multilevel analysis. teachers and teaching: theory and practice, 1-18. https://doi.org/10.1080/13540602.2020.1740194 czerkawski, b., & lyman, e. (2016). an instructional design framework for fostering student engagement in online learning environments. tech trends, 60(6), 532-539. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11528-016-0110-z ding, l., kim, c., & orey, m. (2017). studies of student engagement in gamified online discussion. computers & education, 115, 126-142. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2017.06.016 https://doi.org/10.1080/01587919.2018.1520041 https://doi.org/10.1007/s11423-020-09744-x https://doi.org/10.1080/13540602.2020.1740194 https://doi.org/10.1007/s11528-016-0110-z https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2017.06.016 www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 2, 2021 20 published by scholink inc. dixon, m. d. (2010). creating effective student engagement in online courses: what do students find engaging? journal of the scholarship of teaching and learning, 10(2), 1-13. fredericks, j. a., blumenfeld, p. c., & paris, h. a. (2004). school engagement: potential of the concept, state of evidence. review of educational research, 74(1), 59-109. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543074001059 korkmaz, g., & toraman, c. (2020). are we ready for the post-covid 19 educational practice? an investigation into what educators think as to online learning. international journal of technology in education and science, 4(4), 293-309. https://doi.org/10.46328/ijtes.v4i4.110 raes, a., vannesete, p., pieters, m., windey, i., van den noortgate, w., & depaepe, f. f. (2020). learning and instruction in the hybrid virtual classroom: an investigation of students‟ engagement and the effect of quizzes. computers & education, 143, 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2019.103682 trowler, v. (2010). student engagement literature review. the higher education academy: lancaster university. retrieved from https://www.heacademy.ac.uk/system/files/studentengagementliteraturereview_1.pdf van uden, j., ritzen, h., & pieters, j. m. (2013). i think i can engage my students. teachers‟ perceptions of student engagement and their beliefs about being a teacher. teacher and teacher education, 32, 43-54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2013.01.004 https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543074001059 https://doi.org/10.46328/ijtes.v4i4.110 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2019.103682 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2013.01.004 frontiers of contemporary education issn 2690-3520 (print) issn 2690-3539 (online) vol. 3, no. 4, 2022 www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce 1 original paper effectiveness of origami-based instructional model approach (obima) on secondary school students’ academic performance and interest in mensuration, enugu state, nigeria sochima stanislus unodiaku 1 1 department of mathematics and computer education, enugu state university of science & technology (esut), enugu state, nigeria received: september 23, 2022 accepted: october 13, 2022 online published: november 16, 2022 doi:10.22158/fce.v3n4p1 url: http://dx.doi.org/10.22158/fce.v3n4p1 abstract the study was conducted to determine the effectiveness of origami-based instructional model approach (obima) on secondary school students’ academic performance and interest in mensuration. the population of the study consisted of 2105 sss iii students in 15 government owned secondary schools in igbo-etiti local government area of enugu state, nigeria. the study was guided by five research questions and five null hypotheses. the hypotheses were tested at p  .05 level of significance. multi-stage sampling technique was used to randomly sample 153 students used for the study. two instruments were developed by the researcher and used for gathering data. one was mathematics achievement test (mat) instrument containing 15 essay items and the other was mathematics interest inventory questionnaire (miiq) which contains 9 items. the instruments were face validated by experts and their reliability estimates were determined using split-half method which yielded 0.80 and 0.88 for mat and miiq respectively. the data collected with the instruments were analyzed using mean and standard deviation (s.d) to answer the research questions while independents t-test statistic was used in testing the hypotheses (p  .05). findings of the study revealed that origami-based instructional model approach is effective in teaching mathematics, especially in sketching roots of mensuration theories. gender was found not to be a significant factor of variance in mathematics performance, particularly when origami is used in mathematics instruction, among other issues found in the study. it was recommended to teachers to adapt and adopt origami-based instructional model approach in mathematics instruction since the study has shown that the use of origami in mathematics instruction effectively enhances students’ interest in mathematics learning. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 3, no. 4, 2022 2 published by scholink inc. keywords mathematics, origami-based instruction, mensuration, interest and performance 1. introduction what mathematics is and its absolute importance are inexhaustible and cannot be overemphasized. mathematics is a dictionary of all other subjects from science subject to arts, because every subject area apply mathematical expressions and reasoning, to explain concepts, theories, principles, meanings and facts inherent in such area. mathematics is a phenomenon that has gone beyond explanation of quality, size, shape and order in the universe, to further explain relationships of qualities and number patterns and their applicability in our everyday activities. tali, mbwas and abe (2012) noted that mathematics is the bedrock of knowledge encompassing economic, technology, scientific and social development of any society. according to okafor (2016), mathematics is an instrument for scientific, economic, political and human development of all nations. obviously, mathematics by nature has inevitably attributes to all human activities as in socially, economically, scientifically and politically development of any nation in the world. ideally, mathematics is a precise tool that can be used by mankind to obtain a clear understanding of the physical world around them. mathematics is the opium of science that has made phenomental impacts that have enabled technological and scientific invention to be possible for man to function effectively in his immediate environment and even beyond. despite the numerous importance of mathematics to humanity, its teaching and learning are bedeviled by incessant reports on students’ poor performance on the subject. for instance, the west africa examination council (waec) and national examination council (neco) chief examiners’ reports of (2010-2015) and (2009-2017) respectively clearly indicated that students’ performance in mathematics has been persistently poor over the years. unodiaku (2018) observed that students’ achievement and performance in mathematics in both internal and external examinations are consistently reported to be below seventy percent (70%) of candidates who sat for mathematics examination in the west african secondary school certificate examination (wassce) during the 2013-2016 for failure to obtain credit level pass on the subject. these reports on students’ poor performance on mathematics is a clear indication that mathematics teaching approaches adopted by teachers were not effective. according to ebesine (2013), the instructional approach adopted by teachers could make learners to develop negative or positive interest towards the learning task. the present state of art is that mathematics teaching is deficient since teachers’ approaches to the teaching of the subject neither enhance the interest of the students on studying the subject nor their achievement on the subject. this is a clear indication of scarcity of teaching approach that can positively change the interest of the students towards learning the subject well for enhanced achievement. probably because of these consistent reports on students poor performance on mathematics that the national policy on education (npe) (f.r.n., 2013) demanded that teaching shall be practical and activity-based. this demand was earlier made by waec chief examiner (2012) who insisted that teachers should be www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 3, no. 4, 2022 3 published by scholink inc. encouraged to use instructional materials during lessons so as to re-enforce the learning of mathematics concepts. the use of origami-based instructional model approach (obima) which is activity-based becomes paramount in teaching mathematics concepts such as mensuration. according to pokhrel (2018), eriyagama (2018) and unodiaku (2018) all demanded that activity-based approach should be used in mathematics instruction, because it is capable of making mathematics teaching to be practically oriented, increase the interest of students and improved their academic performance on mathematics. more critically, making mathematics teaching to be activity-based, is another way of achieving the noble objective of the npe (frn, 2013) which demanded that teaching (mathematics) shall be practical, activity-based, experiential and it supported. activity-based learning method appears to be invoking in the recent time in science teaching especially in mathematics, probably because it is psycho-motor oriented. the philosophy of activity-based learning is based on the notion that learning can be best when it is initiated by the surrounding environment and motivated by providing optimum opportunities to learn (unodiaku, 2018). ideally, mathematics is among the core school subjects that it’s teaching and learning can be gainfully achieved through activity-based learning method. the psychological theory of information processing views learners as active investigators of the environment. mensuration is an aspect of mathematics that it’s teaching and learning is activity-based (enquiry-based), especially when origami-based approach is integrated into its instruction and learning. activity-based method gives learners opportunity to enquire about concepts, structures, algorithms and synthesis of mathematical formulae. according to da ponte (2007), enquiry-based (activity-based) learning improves the quality of mathematics learning by providing learners with multiple examples, receiving quick feedback, using multiple representations, and being involved in the modeling process. conventionally, teachers teach students areas, surface areas and volumes of solid shapes by writing down formulae for the students to memorize them and apply them in problem-solving. most of these memorized formulae are easily forgotten because teachers did not show students the structure of the formulae through activity-based learning that can help the student to remember the formulae. the need to use origami-based teaching approach is hereby exemplify to the students on how to arrive at the formulae inherent in mensuration theorems through paper folding and cutting activities thereby making it paramount for quick remembering and internalizing of the formulae as well as gaining interest on the subject. measuration is an aspect of mathematics that has been variously reported as being difficult to learn by students and teach by the teachers, probably because proofs of theories are involved in the topic. for instance, daguplo (2014) observed that the importance of proof was elusive to many students, making them less appreciative in proof-writing activities which increased their difficulties in constructing valid proofs. for many, proofs are just some esoteric, jargon-filled technical writing that only a professional mathematician would care about (copper, n.d.). it shows why students failed to appreciate writing proofs and continue to face various difficulties in writing proofs as a method of presenting mathematical truths (daguplp, 2014). poor performance in mathematics and problems-solving in www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 3, no. 4, 2022 4 published by scholink inc. proving mensuration theorems in particular can be halted through the teaching of mensuration with origami-based approach which is activity-based and practically oriented. origami is the ancient art of paper folding, and it can make an impact in today’s education. it is a mechanism of paper folding to transform a flat piece of paper unto mathematical models and sketching proofs of mathematical theorems (unodiaku, 2018). according to ainissa (2015), this art form engages students and neatly enhances their skills, including improved spatial perception, logical and sequential thinking. origami has been shown to be helpful in mathematics particularly for determining geometric construction, algebraic and mensuration formulas as well as increasing visualization abilities (edutopia, 2016). this is to say that transformation of a flat piece of paper into other origami figure is a unique exercise in spatial reasoning and can strengthen an understanding of mensuration and geometric concepts, formulas, and labels, making them come alive (edutopia, 2016). such skills enable students to comprehend, characterize and construct their own vernacular for the world around them (unodiaku, 2018). these assertions suggests that origami can be modeled to be used in proving mathematical theorems and facts, especially in geometry and mensuration. ideally, origami in some ways, is an untapped resource for supplementary construction, determining geometric, mensuration and algebraic formulas, and increasing manual dexterity along the way (ainissa, 2015). this suggests the need to adopt and adapt origami-based instructional model approach that can improve spatial visualization and psychomotor skills of the students using hands-on learning which can help them learn concepts of mensuration proofs that may otherwise be rather abstract. literature search concerning gender and academic performance in mathematics exist with varied views and findings. studies earlier conducted on issue of gender variability in mathematics achievement reported that boys achieved higher mean gain scores in mathematics than their female counterpart (anaduaka & olaoye, 2018; ehiwnrio, aghamie & azagbuekwue, 2018; asante, 2010). however, some literature search reported that female students exposed to mathematics tests with males, performed better than males exposed to the same mathematics tests (unodiaku, 2015; hyden & merzbm, 2009; agwagah, 1993). the other research findings on gender variability on mathematics test results reported no significant difference in mathematics performance between male and female students (alonye, 2018; rigas & valendies, 2001). these inconsistency reports concerning male and female students’ superiority in mathematics tests appear inconclusive. there is need to conduct this study to clarify this notion of inconsistency reports concerning male and female superiority in mathematics tests. it is against this background that the present study is conducted to determine the efficacy of origami-based instructional model approach for effective teaching of measuration to college students to bridge the disparity in performance between the duo. literature concerning interest as inhibiting factor to mathematics achievement among students exists with varied views and findings. interest is believed to be an important factor or variable in mathematics learning, because when one is interested in an activity, one is likely to be willingly or likely to partake in the activity. in that regard, the person in partaking in the activity will involve both his/her body and www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 3, no. 4, 2022 5 published by scholink inc. mind wholly, and can hardly be distracted while undertaking the activity. according to akpanya (2011), interest is an energizer of learning without which meaningful learning may not take place. moreso, chukwu (2001), noted that without interest and personal efforts in learning mathematics by the students, they can hardly achieve well in the subject. interest in learning (mathematics) can be expressed in different ways by the learner, either positively or negatively. in other words, students’ interest to learn (mathematics) can be willingness to learn the subject or dislike to learn it. it becomes pertinent therefore, to use appropriate instrument such as questionnaire that can validity determine the level of the students’ interest to participate in learning of the subject, particularly when origami-based instructional model approach is infused into teaching the subject. ebesine (2013) stated that the instructional approach adopts by teachers could make learners to develop negative or positive interest towards the learning tasks. obviously, interest is a factor of mathematics achievement’ and as such made the study worthwhile to determine the level of students’ interest in using origami-based instructional model approach in proving some mensuration theorems. 1.1 statement of the problem several methods/strategies/approaches have been applied by teachers in teaching mathematics (poly, 1977) problem-solving strategy; harbor-peters (1990) target task for problem-solving; unodiaku (2011) ethnomatematics teaching materials; unodiaku (2013) game-based instructional model approach, among others to halt the situation of poor performance of students on the subject. the persistent poor performance of students on mathematics suggests that the methods/strategies/approaches teachers used in the mathematics instruction are ineffective, leading to incessant reports of students’ poor performance on the subject. the problem of the study is, how can the origami-based instructional model approach be used for effective teaching of mathematics among college students in igbo-etiti local government area of enugu state, nigeria? this question posed is the thrust of the present study. 1.2 purpose of the study the main purpose of the study is to determine how possible origami-based instructional model approach can be applied in teaching measuration theorem proofs among senior secondary school students. specifically, the study sought to determine: 1) how the performance of the experimental group differ from that of the control group before intervention (treatment). 2) how the performance of the experimental group differ from that of the control group after treatment. 3) if there is any difference in the main performance of the gender within the experimental group after treatment. 4) whether there is any difference in the mean interest ratings of the gender within the experimental group before treatment. 5) how far the interest of the students’ change within the experimental group after the treatment (intervention). www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 3, no. 4, 2022 6 published by scholink inc. 1.3 research questions the study was guided by five research questions. these questions are posed as follows: 1) how does the performance of the experimental group differ from that of the control group before treatment? 2) how does the performance of the experimental group differ from that of the control group after treatment? 3) was there any difference in the mean performance of the gender within the experimental group after treatment? 4) was there any difference in the mean interest ratings of the gender within the experimental group before the treatment? 5) how far does the interest of the student change within the experimental group after the treatment (intervention)? 2. hypotheses the study was guided by five hypotheses. the hypotheses were tested at p .05 level of significance. they are stated as follows: ho1: there is no significant difference between the mean performance test scores of the experimental group and control group before treatment. ho2: there is no significant difference between the mean performance test scores of the experimental group and control group after treatment. ho3: there is no significant difference between the mean performance of male and female students in the experimental group before treatment. ho4: there is no significance difference between the mean interest ratings of the male and female students in the experimental group before the treatment. ho5: there is no significant difference in the mean interest ratings of the male and female students in the experimental group after the treatment. 3. research method quasi-experimental research design was adopted to carry out this study. specifically, it is pretest-post-test non-equivalent control group intact class design. the study was carried out in igbo-etiti local government area. the population of the study consisted of 2105 sss iii students in the 15 secondary schools in igbo-etiti lga of enugu state (ppsmb, nsukka zonal office, statistical unit, 2020). mutli-stage sampling technique was employed. first stage involving using simple random sampling technique to select 4 schools out of 15 schools in the area. the next stage involved using simple random sampling technique to select one intact class from each of the 4 sampled schools. in each of the 4 sampled schools, simple random sampling technique (balloting without replacement) was adopted to www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 3, no. 4, 2022 7 published by scholink inc. assign two classes each to experimental and control groups of 81 and 72 students respectively, bringing the total sample size of 153 students used for the study. the 153 students were composed of 44 males and 37 females in experimental group and 42 males and 30 females in control group. the research instrument used for data collection were mathematics achievement test (mat) and mathematics interest inventory questionnaire (miiq) developed by the researcher. the instruments were face validated by experts in mathematics education and measurement and evaluation areas. the mat contains 15 essay questions while the miiq contains 9 response items. thereafter, the instruments were trial tested using one intact class of sss iii students that did not form part of the main study. the reliabilities of the instruments were determined using test-retest method which yielded reliability coefficients of 0.8 and 0.87 for mat and miiq respectively. the data collected with the instruments were analyzed using descriptive statistics of mean and standard deviations in answering the research questions posed while research hypotheses were tested using independent t-test statistic at p  .05 level of significance. 3.1 materials and experimental procedure objectives of the study: required to use origami-based instructional models approach (obima) to verify mensuration theorems: 1) curved surface area of cone = rl 2) total surface area of a cone = rl + r 2 or experiment: using origami-based instructional model to verify the theorem that (i) the curved surface area of a cone = rl, and (ii) the total surface area of a cone = rl + r 2 or r 2 r previous knowledge required: circumference of a circle, features of a section of a circle, radii of a sector and arc length of a sector. 3.2 lesson plan lesson plan was used for teaching the experimental group. the lesson plan only was used for teaching the conventional group (control group) while both the lesson plan and the obima were used for teaching experimental group. 3.3 experimental procedure paper cutting and folding approach was adopted in the experiment. pre-existing differences in achievement between the two groups were accounted for through teaching and evaluation of the students. the mathematics achievement test (mat) was administered to both groups as a pre-test while miiq (section a) was administered to the experimental group before treatment, while miiq (section b) was administered to the experimental group after treatment. the results obtained were used as covariate measure. the teachers who taught both groups were trained by the researcher so as to control the teacher quality variable. the regular class teacher taught experimental group using origami-based instructional model approach (obima) and lesson plan. both experimental and control groups were taught the same units (verifying mensuration theorem proofs: (i) curved surface area of www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 3, no. 4, 2022 8 published by scholink inc. the cone = rl; (ii) total surface area of a cone = rl + r 2 or , based on national curriculum on mathematics for senior secondary schools (fme, 2015), for two weeks using two contacts of 2 ½ hrs each contact. the students in each group were allowed to be taught in their normal schools and classrooms so as to eliminate horn-thorn effect among the testees. experimental procedure was carried out taking the following steps: step 1: gathering materials used: a table, a pair of compass, ruler, pencil, a pair of scissors, cardboard sheets and paper tape step 2: spread a cardboard sheet on a table and hold it firmly by the sides with paper tape (see figure 1 below). figure 1. cutting out sector aob step 3: with sharp pencil fix firmly on pair of compass, draw a large circle (see figure 1), and mark say, o, at the centre of the circle. step 4: use ruler and pencil to draw two radii from the centre 0 to the circle, to produce a sector of a circle (sector aob) (see figure 1). let the radii meet the circle at point a and b (see figure 1) step 5: use ruler and a pair of scissors to cut-out the sector aob (see figure 2). figure 2. the sector aob cut out o a b cardboard sheet paper tape o a b www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 3, no. 4, 2022 9 published by scholink inc. step 6: fold the sector by joining to align with or vice versa to form a cone (see figure 3). join firmly with paper tape. figure 3. come formed with sector aob step 7: in figure 3, press two slant sides (l) and circular base to coincide to form a sector top (see figure 4), where p is now used to replace point ab of the cone. step 8: fold the sector top formed again, such that coincide with making a creed along (see figure 5). figure 4. folding sector aob from vertx o to the point making two symmetrical sectors figure 5. half of sector onpt (opn) is produced o l ab l o n pt p n l t l p(ab) o www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 3, no. 4, 2022 10 published by scholink inc. step 9: fold the sector top to form a creed along to produce a half of the sector (see figures 5 & 6). step 10: use the scissors and cut sector ontp along to produce two sectors ton and pon (see figure 7) figure 6. half of sector onpt step 11: open one of the sectors ton or pon, to see that it has formed four even numbers of equal smaller sectors (see figure 6). step 12: use a pair of compass to cut out the four sectors, numbered 1-4 (see figure 7). figure 7. the cut out of the four sectors numbered 1-4 step 13: turn 2 and 4 upside down and join them firmly with paper tape to get approximately a parallelogram abcd (see figure 8) such that // // . this shows that  of 2  area of a parallelogram = (  +  ) = ( rl) = = the curved surface area of the cone = rl. qed. o n p 1 2 3 4 www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 3, no. 4, 2022 11 published by scholink inc. figure 8. approximately parallelogram abcd is formed from the 4 sectors it can be deduced from the above proof that total surface area of cone = curved surface area + area of the circular base of the cone = rl + rl 2 or r (l + r). qed students observed that: 1) the curved surface area of a cone = rl 2) the base of the parallelogram is approximately half of the circumference of the base of the cone, i.e., ½ 2rl (see figures 8 and 9 above). 3) the height of the parallelogram is roughly the slant height (l) of the cone. 4) therefore, the curved surface area of the cone = area of the parallelogram = rl. 5) students observed that paper folding activities can turn a plane surface (sector of a circle) into a curved surface (of the cone) to be approximately rl. 6) total surface area of a cone = rl + r 2 or r (l + r). 4. results the findings of the study were presented in accordance with the posed research questions and the null hypotheses. research question one: how does the performance of the experimental group differ from that of the control group before intervention (treatment)? research question one was answered using table 1 below: research question two: how does the performance of the experimental group differ from that of the control group after treatment? research question two was also answered using table 1 below: 1 4 2 3 b c l d l a www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 3, no. 4, 2022 12 published by scholink inc. table 1. means and standard deviations (s.d) test-scores of subjects in experimental and control groups group n pre-test scores (before treatment) post-test scores (after treatment) mean s.d mean s.d experimental (obima) 81 5.71 0.51 3.86 0.49 control (conventional) 72 5.68 0.53 2.90 1.05 mean difference 153 0.03 0.96 result in table 1 revealed that students exposed to the obima in experimental group have a mean performance score of 5.71 with s.d. of 0.51 while those of the conventional method have a mean performance score of 5.68 with s.d. of 0.53 in pre-test (i.e., before treatment). in post-test, the experimental group have a mean performance score of 3.86 with s.d of 0.49 while those exposed to the conventional method have a mean performance score of 2.90 with s.d of 1.05. the mean difference between the experimental and control groups was 0.03 in the pre-test (before treatment was administered) while in the post-test (after treatment), the mean difference was 0.90 with s.d of 1.05. the mean difference between the experimental and control groups was 0.03 in the pre-test/before treatment was administered) while in the post-test (after treatment), the mean difference was 0.96. these mean differences in both before and after treatment were in favour of those exposed to experimental treatment. these differences in mean (0.03 in pre-test and 0.96 in post-test) were tested for statistically significant difference in the corresponding hypotheses 1 and 2 presented in table 2 and 3 below. hypothesis one: there is no significant difference between the mean performance test scores of the experimental group and control group before treatment. table 2. results of independent t-test on the performance of experimental and control groups before treatment (pre-test) group n mean sd df tcal. tcrit. p  .05 decision experimental (obima) 81 5.71 0.51 151 0.36 1.96 0.000 ns* control (conventional) 72 5.68 0.53 note. *ns = not significant at p  .05. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 3, no. 4, 2022 13 published by scholink inc. table 2 revealed the independent t-test statistic result of students in experimental and control groups who were pre-tested to partial out pre-existing cognitive differences amongst them. from the above table 2, the result showed that the t-calculated value was 0.36 while the t-critical value was found to be 1.96 (i.e., tcal. = 0.36 > tcrit. = 1.96). hence, the null hypothesis which stated that there is no significant difference between the mean performance test-scores of the experimental group and control group before treatment was not rejected. this implies that the initial mean difference in performance between the two groups was not statistically significant at p  .05. that shows, the two groups were sharing equal strength in mathematics performance before the experimental group was exposed to the treatment. hypothesis two: there is no significant difference between the mean performance test scores of the experimental group after treatment. table 3. results of the independent t-test on the performance of male and female students on the experimental and control group after treatment gender n mean s.d df tcal. tcrit. p  .05 decision male (experimental group) 44 21.01 1.021 79 0.164 2.01 0.96 ns* female (experimental group) 37 20.97 1.147 note. *ns = not significant at p  .05. table 3 shows that after treatment (post-test) among the male and female subjects in experimental group, the t-calculated value was 0.164 while at t-critical value was found to be 2.01 (i.e., tcal = 0.164 < t-crit = 2.01). hence, the null hypothesis which stated that there is no significant difference between the mean performance of male and female students in the experimental group after treatment was upheld. that means, the mean difference of 0.04 obtained between the two groups and tested, was not statistically significant at p 0.05. that means, male and female students in the experimental group shares equal mathematics experience after being exposed to the treatment. this means, obima is effective and capable of placing male and female students on equal pedestal in mathematics performance. research question four: was there any difference in the mean interest ratings of the gender within the experimental group before the treatment? www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 3, no. 4, 2022 14 published by scholink inc. table 4. response scale by experimental subjects before treatment miq section a s/n items description sa a d sd total rmk m f m f m f m f m f m f 1 i do not have interest in maths because maths teacher do not use alternative approach such as games or simulations except the usual method of applying formula 10 14 19 16 6 6 9 1 118 117 2.68 3.16 agreed 2 teacher do not reward me after solving maths problem correctly 12 15 20 17 8 3 10 2 134 119 3.05 3.22 agreed 3 i hat maths because i am required to prove maths theorem 13 12 17 18 9 4 5 3 126 113 2.86 3.05 agreed 4 maths teacher teaches me maths with variety of methods or strategies thereby making it interesting to me 6 3 10 12 15 15 16 7 110 85 2.27 2.30 disagre e 5 i hate maths because there is no practical aspect to help me remember so many formulas involved in the mathematics 10 8 15 22 9 5 10 2 113 110 2.57 2.97 agreed 6 i dislike maths because my maths teacher is not teaching me maths in laboratory like physics, biology and chemistry teacher do 7 9 23 20 7 5 13 3 124 109 2.82 2.95 agreed 7 i do not participate often in 15 10 11 20 9 5 9 2 120 112 2.73 3.03 agreed www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 3, no. 4, 2022 15 published by scholink inc. maths classes because my maths teacher do not take me out for field trip as physics, chemistry and biology teachers do 8 i do not have interest in maths because teachers do not make the subject an activity-based learning subject 12 13 14 18 8 2 10 4 116 114 2.64 3.08 agr 9 i do not have interest in maths because teachers do not give me assignments based on practical problem-solving 11 13 16 17 7 2 11 5 114 112 2.59 3.03 agreed. mean diff. = 0.29; m = 2.69; sm = 0.218l f = 2.98; sf = 0.268 the results of table 4 shows that the students in the experimental group, before they were exposed to the treatment, agreed that they do not have interest in mathematics, mostly because of teacher’s inability to approach the teaching of subject with practical activities thereby failure to make it activity-based learning. the table reveals that the respondents agreed that items 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9 are the reasons why they disliked and do not participate in mathematics classes. however, they disagreed that item 4 is the reason that can make them interesting in mathematics. all the items mean responses are equal to or greater than the criterion mean of 2.50, except item 4 which has low score mean values of 2.27 and 2.30 for males and females respectively. the mean responses of males and mean responses of females and mean difference of 0.29 in favour of females in mathematics before those in experimental group were exposed to the treatment. hypothesis four: there is significant difference between the mean interest ratings of the males and female students in the experimental group before the treatment. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 3, no. 4, 2022 16 published by scholink inc. table 5. results of the independent t-test on the mean interest ratings of male and female students in experimental group before treatment gender n mean s.d df tcal. tcrit, p  .05 decision male (experimental) 44 2.69 1.021 79 5.27 2.01 0.96 s* female (experimental) 37 2.98 1.147 note. *s = significant at p  .05. table 5 shows that before treatment (pre-test) among the male and female subjects in the experimental group, the t-calculated value was 5.27 while the t-critical value was found to be 2.01 (i.e., tcal. = 5.27 > tcrit. = 2.01). hence, the null hypothesis which states that there is no significant difference between the mean interest rating of the male and female students in the experimental group before treatment is rejected. that means, there is significant difference in the mean interest ratings of males and females in experimental group before they were exposed to the treatment. the mean difference of 0.29 obtained between the two groups and tested for significance was found statistically significant at p  .05. that means, there is variation in the mean responses of the two groups (males and females) on how far they are interested in mathematics learning. research question five: how far does this interest of the students vary within the experimental group after the treatment (intervention)? table 6. response scale by experimental subjects after treatment miq section b s/n items description sa a d sd total rmk m f m f m f m f m f m f 1 teachers use of obima arouses my interest in learning mensuration 18 15 20 14 2 0 4 8 140 110 3.1 8 2.5 agree d 2 teacher’s praise to me whenever i get any aspect of the proof correctly, motivates me to learn mensuration proof 15 10 21 19 3 6 5 2 134 117 3.0 5 2.6 6 agree d 3 the use of obima is proving mensuration theorems, improved my ability in proving theorems, thereby 12 13 24 15 0 5 8 4 128 111 2.9 1 2.5 2 agree d www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 3, no. 4, 2022 17 published by scholink inc. arousing my interest to learn more 4 the use of obima has not changed my negative attitude to the study of maths especially mensuration proves 4 4 6 1 11 12 23 20 79 59 1.8 1.3 4 disagr ee 5 i was motivated to lean maths whenever teacher rewards my good performance in mensuration proofs 13 10 16 18 10 7 5 2 125 110 2.8 4 2.5 agree d 6 obims make me to develop higher thinking in proving theorems through paper-cutting and folding 16 14 21 11 1 10 6 2 135 111 3.0 7 2.5 2 agree d 7 obima has made it possible for me to understand the structure of mensuration formulae, and so can now internalize and recall them easily 14 18 13 9 12 8 5 2 114 117 2.5 9 2.6 6 agree d 8 teaching me maths with obima make me to participate activity with great interest in maths class 16 17 11 9 10 6 7 5 124 112 2.8 2 2.5 5 agree d 9 teacher’s use of obima to teach me mensuration has made me to be interested in maths because it is activity-based or practically oriented 15 14 10 12 10 7 9 4 119 110 2.7 2.5 agree d. mean diff = 0.35 = 2.77; sm = 0.4095; = 2.42; sf = 0.4089 www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 3, no. 4, 2022 18 published by scholink inc. the result of table 8 shows that the students in the experimental group after they were exposed to the experimental treatment, agreed the items in the serial number 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9 are reasons why they developed positive attitude towards the study of mathematics. however, they disagreed on item number 4 as reason for their interest in mathematics after they were exposed to the treatment. all the items means responses are equal to or greater than the criterion mean of 2.50, except item 4 which has low means values of 1.8 and 1.34 for males and females respectively. the mean responses of males ( ) and mean responses of females ( ) and mean difference of 0.35 in favour of males were obtained. that means males are more interested in maths than females after they were exposed to the treatment. this means difference (0.35) was further tested for statistically significant difference (p  .05). table 9. results of the independent t-test on mean interest ratings of male and female students in experimental group after treatment gender n s.d df tcal. tcrit. p  .05 decision male 44 2.77 0.4095 79 1.81 2.01 0.000 ns* female 37 2.42 0.4089 note. *ns = not significant at p  .05. table 9 shows that after treatment (post-test) the male and female subjects in experimental group had t-calculated value of 1.81 while t-crit value was found to be 2.01 (tcal. = 1.81 < tcrit. = 2.01). hence, the null hypothesis which stated that there is no significant difference in the mean interest ratings of the male and female subjects in the experimental group after treatment was not rejected. that means the observed mean difference of 0.35 obtained between the males and females responses after experimental treatment was not statistically significant at p  .05 significant level. that means the subjects gained positive attitude (interest) in mathematics learning after being exposed to the new treatment (obima). that means obima is effective in bridging the gap in gender bias in mathematics learning and interest. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 3, no. 4, 2022 19 published by scholink inc. 5. discussion of results based on the findings of the study, it appears to suggest that the problem of poor performance in mathematics among secondary school students can be tackled through activities-based teaching approaches (frn, 2013). obviously, origami-based instructional model approach belongs to such approaches. for instance, this study has clearly demonstrated that the students taught using origami-based instructional model approach had higher mean gain score of 0.96 after treatment than their counterpart taught using conventional method. this finding is in agreement with earlier assertion of waec chief examiner (2012) that teachers should be encouraged to use instructional materials during lessons so as to re-enforce the learning of mathematical concepts. moreso, the result indicated that the interest of the students exposed to the treatment changed from negative (before treatment) to positive (after treatment), thereby making the students perform better on the subject after being exposed to the treatment. this finding is in consonance with earlier report of okafor (2011) that the use of appropriate teaching materials to teach mathematics concepts and principles, arouses students’ interest and increase the volume of learnt materials. the mean interest rating of male and female students in experimental group before being exposed to the treatment was significant but after being exposed to treatment there was no significant difference between the two groups (males and females) (p  .05). this clearly indicate that obima is effective in bridging the gap of gender variability in mathematics achievement tests. however, the origami-based instruction model approach favour males students more than their female counterpart as the result yielded mean difference of 0.35 in favour of male students. the mean difference of 0.35 was further tested and found not satistically significant (p  .05). this finding is in consonance with earlier reports that girls reached parity with boys in mathematics achievement tests (hydea & mertzb, 2009; aja & imoke, 2015). however, this finding contradicts earlier reports (olosunde & olaleye, 2010; unodiaku, 2013) that boys performed better than girls in mathematics tests. moreso, it contributes earlier reports (ozofor, 2001; unodiaku, 2015), who all reported that females performed better than males in mathematics achievement tests. these in consistency reports suggest the need for further enquiry to clarify gender superiority in mathematics achievement tests. 6. conclusion based on the findings of the study, it was concluded that origami-based instructional model approach is effective in teaching mensuration theorems proofs. the mean difference in achievement of male and female students was found to be in favour of males. however, the mean difference between both sexes was not statistically significant when origami-based model approach is used in teaching mathematics, especially in proving mensuration theorems. in other words, obima is capable of giving both sexes equal strength in mathematics achievement and interest in studying the subject. the result of the study indicates that obima is capable of bridging the existing gap in mathematics achievement between male and female students. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 3, no. 4, 2022 20 published by scholink inc. 7. recommendations 1) teachers of senior secondary schools students should adopt and adapt origami-based instructional model in teaching mensuration proofs. through this practical activities in mathematics learning, psycho-motor of the students and their interst in learning mathematics will be encouraged. hence, students’ performance on the subject will be enhanced. 2) examination bodies such as neco and waec should include questions on mensuration proofs based on the use of origami-based instructional model approach which is practically and activity based. 3) conferences, seminars and workshops should be organized by ministry of education and other stakeholders in education, for teachers on origami-based instruction and how to apply it in teaching mathematics, especially mensuration proofs. 4) stakeholders in secondary school mathematics curriculum planning and development and authors of secondary school mathematics textbooks should incorporate origami-based instructional model approach as inclusive approach to be adopted in teaching mathematics especially mensuration proofs, among secondary school students. acknowledgement the researcher, hereby most gratefully acknowledged the principals of premier secondary school, ukehe; community secondary school, ohebe-dim; community secondary school, ekwegbe; and community secondary school, ohodo, for their permissions to use their sample schools for the study. references agwagah, u. v. n. (1993). instruction in mathematics reading as a factor in students’ achievement and interest in word problem solving (unpublished ph.d. these). unn. ainissa, r. (2015). reasons origami is found useful in improving students’ learning skills in mathematics. in estem. retrieved from https://www.edutopia.org ajai, j. t., & imoko, i. i. (2015). gender differences in mathematics achievement and retention scores: a case of problem-based learning method. international journal of research in education and science (ijres), 1(1), 45-50. https://doi.org/10.21890/ijres.76785 alonge, s. (2018). the effect of project-based learning strategy on students’ academic achievement in mathematics. in proceedings of 55 th annual conference of mathematical association of nigeria (man) held on august 2018 (pp. 389-393). anaduaku, u. s., sunday, a. o., & olaoye, a. e. (2018). effect of think-pair-share comparative strategy of mathematics achievement of attention—deficient hyperativve students: in abacus. journal of mathematics association of nigeria, 43(1), 41-50. asante, k. o. (2010). sex differences in mathematics in ghana. retrieved from http://www/tags.org/periodica;=2-1-12/2187713381.html https://doi.org/10.21890/ijres.76785 www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 3, no. 4, 2022 21 published by scholink inc. chukwu, j. o. (2001). effect of selected local games on primary school pupils’ achievement and interest in subtraction operation (med thesis). unn. da ponte, j. p. (2007). investigations and explorations in the mathematics classrooms. zdm—the international journal of mathematics education, 39, 419-430. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11858-007-0054-z daguplo, m. s. (2014). the determination of students’ attitudes in proving geometrical propositions using exploratory factor analysis. journal of educational and human resources development, 2, 1-8. ebesine, s. s. (2013). assessment of level of understanding of nontechnical words in maths by senior secondary school students in warri south l.g.a. of delta state. in abacus. journal of the mathematical association of nigeria, 37(1), 10-18. edutopia. (2016). 5 reasons why origami improves students’ skills. george lucas educational foundation, usa. eriyagama. (2018). activity-based teaching methods for better living in primary maths classrooms, 2(2). retrieved from https://www.worldccess.org.article-3 federal republic of nigeria (frn). (2013). national policy on education. lagos: nerdc press. federal republic of nigeria (frn). (2013). national policy on education. lagos: nerdc press. harbor-peters, v. f. (1990). aspects of senior secondary school further mathematics student find difficult (unpublished paper). unn. hydea, j. s., & merzb, j. e. (2009). gender, culture and mathematics performance. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0901265106 okafor, c. (2016). the effect of improved geometric manipulative on senior secondary school students’ achievement in geometry. coou research journal of scientific educational and allied discipline, 1(1), 39-46. okafor, p. c. (2011). effects of cooperative and individualized system of instruction on the senior secondary school students’ achievement in mathematics (unpublished ph.d dissertation). nnamdi azikiwe university, awka. pokhrel, t. r. (2018). activity-based maths instruction: experiences in addressing the 21 st century skills. https://doi.org/10.26711/007577152790020 polya. (1977) mathematical methods in science (b. lean, ed.). maa washington dc. post primary schools management board (ppsmb). (2020). statistical unit, nsukka zonal office. rigas, p., & valandies, n. (2001). teaching biology with cooperative learning strategy. retrieved from http://www.org/coorperativelearningstrategy.htm tali, d. j., mbwas, l. c., & abe, a. s. (2012). the teaching of mathematics in secondary schools as tool for self-reliance and re-branding process in nigeria. educational research and reviews. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11858-007-0054-z https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0901265106 https://doi.org/10.26711/007577152790020 www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 3, no. 4, 2022 22 published by scholink inc. unodiaku, s. s. (2011). development and validation of simultaneous linear equations assessment instrument among junior secondary schools nigerian students. international journal of education and science, mathematics and environmental studies (ijemes), 3(1), 49-64. unodiaku, s. s. (2013). effect of game-based instructional model approach on the pupils’ achievement in arithmetic at upper primary schools level in igbo-etiti l.g.a., enugu state. international journal of education. michael okpara university of agriculture, umudike, abia state. unodiaku, s. s. (2015). comparative study of mathematics potentials of single-sex secondary schools in enugu state. international journal of education, michael okpara university of agriculture, umudike, 1(1), 121-128. unodiaku, s. s. (2018). teaching geometrical and mensuration proofs with origami-based instructional model approach among senior secondary schools’ students: in abacus. the journal of mathematical association of nigeria, 43(1), 14-24. waec chief examiner’s report. (2012). yaba, lagos state. frontiers of contemporary education issn 2690-3520 (print) issn 2690-3539 (online) vol. 1, no. 1, 2020 www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce 17 original paper determinants of student absenteeism/presenteeism in qatar: a path analysis abdel latif sellami 1* , rima charbaji el-kassem 1 , haneen b. k. alqassass 1 & ahmed al-emadi 2 1 social and economic survey research institute (sesri), qatar university, qatar 2 college of education, qatar university, qatar * abdel latif sellami, e-mail: asellami@qu.edu.qa received: april 30, 2020 accepted: may 14, 2020 online published: june 2, 2020 doi:10.22158/fce.v1n1p17 url: http://dx.doi.org/10.22158/fce.v1n1p17 abstract the current study sought to investigate the perceptions of school teachers regarding student absenteeism and presenteeism in the state of qatar. drawing on the existing relevant literature in the field and based on a survey research method, the study was carried out during the first term (fall semester) in 2015. the study involved preparatory (middle) and secondary (high) school teachers at both public (independent) and private (international) schools in qatar. to attain this goal, a causal model was used to examine the causes that shape teachers’ perceptions of absenteeism and presenteeism. the data required for the present research was collected from a sample of 495 teachers at independent and international schools. based on factor analysis, the findings concluded from the study indicated that seven valid dimensions were extracted. in addition, three determinant factors that influence the perceptions of preparatory and secondary school teachers with regard to students’ absentee and presentee behaviours were identified. these factors are: (a) reviewing curriculum content, (b) the teaching load, and (c) the expected rate of student graduations. the study concludes by offering some important recommendations for education practitioners and policy makers as well as some useful suggestions for future research and practice. keywords causal path analysis, teachers’ perceptions, student absenteeism, student presenteeism, qatar www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 1, no. 1, 2020 18 published by scholink inc. 1. introduction in today’s dynamic and highly competitive world, student engagement and motivation are key to success. many educational institutions are plagued with student idleness, non-attentiveness, unrest, and indiscipline that undermine the quality of education. international research shows that with many students turning into unmotivated and apathetic individuals, increased student absenteeism, lethargy, and boredom are a concern for schools and families alikeas more and more students fail to perform well at school. other research, however, confirms that student disengagement leads to absenteeism (archambault, janosz, fallu, & pagani, 2009). because attendance constitutes the first step toward students’ educational success, students, families, school practitioners, and the larger community all need to gain a better understanding and more appropriately address the challenges associated with absenteeism and presenteeism within schools in our communities. no two would disagree that attendance is a key indicator of successful school results, as well as productive life outcomes. students who frequently miss school classes are at a much greater risk of poor self-concept, poor school performance, retention, and dropping out (picklo & christenson, 2005). interest in the reasons that drive students to miss classes has prompted researchers to investigate their motivation and commitment at school. examining and understanding the factors influencing students’ desire to attend school and actively engage in their learning can be an arduous undertaking and a daunting task but will certainly aid in shedding important light on student absenteeism/presenteeism. 2. background realising major social and economic changes are required to transform their societies from reliance on hydrocarbon resources to knowledge-based economies, the six gulf cooperation council countries (bahrain, kuwait, oman, qatar, saudi arabia, the uae) introduced a wave of long-term strategic ―national vision‖ initiatives often drafted by foreign firms and consultants (al-kuwārī, 2012). in qatar, for example, the qatar national vision 2030 (qnv), which the leaders articulated in 2008, rests on four pillars: (a) human, (b) social, (c) economic, and (d) environmental development (abduljawad, 2015). central to qnv 2030 is the need to modernise the country’s education system. to achieve this goal, qatar commissioned the rand corporation, to overhaul its entire education system from elementary school to higher education (powell, 2012; rubin, 2012). the education reform, referred to as education for a new era, was initiated in 2002 to decentralise education and introduce the principles of autonomy, accountability, variety, and choice within the system (al-maadheed, 2017). this resulted in the creation of independent schools, which replaced government schools, and the establishment of new curriculum standards and teacher and leadership professional development (nasser, 2017). a visible consequence of these changes is increased pressure on teachers struggling to juggle many responsibilities, especially managing heavy workloads. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 1, no. 1, 2020 19 published by scholink inc. at the heart of the education reform in qatar is the call for enhancing student motivation and positive engagement in class and other academic environments (nasser, 2017; qgsdp, 2011). low student attendance rates and lack of student motivation were identified as real challenges in qatar (lee, 2016). both issues are persistent chronic problems characterising qatar’s school system (alfadala, 2015; badri & khaili, 2014). there is therefore a pressing need to develop students’ positive attitudes towards learning, and to deepen their appreciation of the importance of class attendance (clump, bauer, & whiteleather, 2003). 3. absenteeism/presenteeism defined defined as the failure to show up for work as required (johns, 2009), absenteeism entails missing ten per cent or more of total days missed in a school year (balfanz & byrnes, 2012). current research indicates consensus amongst scholars that absenteeism is an area for concern (hocking, 2008). with reference to the school environment, there is ample evidence of work done on the reasons and consequences of student absenteeism in particular, including studies proposing a myriad of factors that distract students from school and hence non-attendance. discussion of these causes and effects is beyond the scope of this paper. suffice it to say here that personal (bridgeland, diiulio, & morison, 2006), contextual (hartnett, 2007) and health (kearney & bensaheb, 2006) influences are prime reasons why students skip school. student underperformance remains a major consequence of absenteeism (gottfried, 2010). a concept related to absenteeism is presenteeism, a problem many researchers have investigated in organisational behaviour and human resources management fields. presenteeism is defined as the condition of being physically present at work but not fully functional, productive or engaged, due to health problems (gerich, 2016). according to johns (2009, p. 8), ―on a continuum, presenteeism stands between full work engagement and absenteeism‖. in this study, presenteeism refers to the behaviour or condition whereby students are physically present in class during scheduled class time but do not operate to their full potential, thus resulting in loss of productivity. 4. review of literature while research has documented absenteeism in academic settings (arulampalam, naylor, & smith, 2012; chen & lin, 2008; credé, roch, & kieszczynka, 2010; schmulian & coetzee, 2011), very little is known about presenteeism in educational contexts (macfarlane, 2012). admittedly, research on this subject is needed, especially regarding the factors that are likely to cause k–12 student presenteeism behaviour and its effect in hindering academic performance (law, 2007; macfarlane, 2015; schalge & soga, 2008). www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 1, no. 1, 2020 20 published by scholink inc. 4.1 presenteeism in the school context although the subject of presenteeism in the workplace is well-researched, only a handful of isolated research efforts have investigated presenteeism in educational settings. consequently, not enough work has been done to study this phenomenon in academic contexts, especially at k-12 levels. limited as it is, the recent expansion of presenteeism from its widely acknowledged use in the workplace to the realm of education has brought about a fresh perspective on this topic. viewing student presenteeism as a loss of academic performance due to illness, ferritto (2016) measured the concept based on five behavioural facets that normally support student academic achievement: (a) paying attention in class; (b) class participation; (c) class attendance; (d) arriving on time for classes; and (e) note-taking. pioneering work explicitly addressing the problem of presenteeism and academic performance loss among students—albeit very limited—has only recently begun to emerge (ferritto, 2016; ja úregui et al., 2009; macfarlane, 2012). scanty as they are, these studies on student presenteeism have concentrated exclusively on post-secondary (university) settings, including research undertaken in the us (hysenbegasi, hass, & rowland, 2005), hong kong (macfarlane, 2015, 2016, 2017) and japan (mikami et al., 2013). although these studies provide insights into presenteeism in academic environments, other aspects of presenteeism have received limited attention, including its impact on learners’ achievement and measures required to curb the problem. in a study involving university students in japan, matsushita et al. (2011) developed a presenteeism scale to assess the existence of presenteeism among participants. first-year students in four universities were given a survey on presenteeism and a questionnaire on mental health and eating behavior. the study revealed students with emotional problems had higher levels of presenteeism compared to those with other health problems and that student presenteeism was associated with health problems (allergy, back or neck pain, menstruation, chronic headaches, depression, and anxiety, etc.). in another study, ferritto (2016) designed the presenteeism and perceived academic performance scale to measure student presenteeism by employing a series of student behavioral traits shown to be supportive of academic performance, including paying attention and participation in class, class attendance, tardiness, and note taking. what prompted this study is lack of information on student absenteeism/presenteeism in qatar and the arab region. in trying to decipher teachers’ perceptions of student absenteeism/presenteeism in preparatory and secondary school levels in qatar, this study aims to bridge this gap and contribute to scholarly knowledge regarding absences and disengagement in pre-college education. additionally, whereas previous work has looked at students’ perspectives (lee, 2016; massingham & herrington, 2006), teachers’ viewpoints on the topic have been neglected. the present study explores how the latter perceive student absenteeism and presenteeism. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 1, no. 1, 2020 21 published by scholink inc. 4.2 research questions this study sought to examine the factors influencing preparatory (8 th and 9 th grades) and secondary (11 th and 12 th grades) school teachers’ perceptions of absenteeism/presenteeism in qatar. in so doing, we studied the relationship of three constructs to teachers’ perceptions: (a) reviewing curriculum content, (b) teaching load, and (c) student graduation rates. the purpose was to see if there are any significant relationships between reported teachers’ perceptions and those three variables. the overarching question this study addressed is: what factors shape teachers’ perceptions of student absenteeism/presenteeism in qatar? in particular specifically, answers were solicited to the following questions: – how do teachers perceive students’ absenteeism/presenteeism? – what are the factors that influence teachers’ perceptions of student absenteeism/presenteeism? – how are teachers’ perceptions associated with students’ absenteeism/presenteeism? 5. research method 5.1 research deign this research used a survey research method based on an instrument designed by the social and economic survey research institute (sesri), qatar university. the instrument consists of 98 statements measuring different dimensions related to teachers’ perception of student absenteeism/presenteeism and uses a five-point likert type scale ranging from 1 (strongly agree) to 5 (strongly disagree). 5.2 research sample this study involved teachers who teach in preparatory (middle) and secondary (high) school teachers at both government-funded (independent) and private (international) schools in qatar.1200 teachers from the selected schools were surveyed by sesri fieldworkers using computer-assisted personal interviewing. the data was collected by sesri during the fall of 2015, with a response rate of 41%. the study involved teachers (n=495) at preparatory (grades 8=31.1% and 9=20.6%) and secondary (grades 11=27.5% and 12=20.8%) independent and international schools (see table 1). overall, the age of participants was distributed with an average of approximately 42 years. of the 495 questionnaires that were returned, 410 were complete and valid for multivariate analysis. moreover, only 54 of the 495 teachers who responded are qatari (10.9%) and 279 are female teachers (56.4%). www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 1, no. 1, 2020 22 published by scholink inc. table 1. teachers’ distribution by nationality, gender and grade level subgroup frequency percentage gender male 216 43.6% female 279 56.4% gradelevel grade 8 154 31.1% grade 9 102 20.6 grade 11 136 27.5 grade 12 103 20.8 total 495 100% 5.3 research procedure after data collection was completed, responses were entered manually into blaise, a computer-assisted interviewing system and survey processing tool. the dataset was then cleaned, coded and saved in spss format. after weighting the final responses, the data were analysed using spss. the survey involved a two-stage probability school sample of teachers. the sampling frame was based on a comprehensive list of public and private schools provided by qatar’s ministry of education. the first stage sample was a proportionate sample of schools according to school size, school type (i.e., independent, international), gender (male, female or co-ed) and grade (8 th , 9 th , 11 th , or 12 th ). schools were randomly selected within each of these subgroups (type, gender, and grade) so that the school size selected from each strata was relative to its incidence in the entire sampling frame. in stage two, one class from each school grade was randomly selected and teachers of the classes selected were included in the survey. after getting relevant approvals from the ministry of education and qatar university’s internal review board, official letters requesting permission to implement the study were sent to the schools. teachers were informed in advance about the purpose of the research project and were told participation in the survey was voluntary and that their responses would be kept strictly confidential. 43 schools were sampled, with four refusing to participate, resulting in a 90.7% response rate at the school level. classrooms were randomly selected in 39 schools and teachers in selected classrooms participated in the survey. however, we do not have information on the actual class sizes to calculate a response rate at the classroom level. this design resulted in 495 teachers. teachers’ response rate was 82.8% and the maximum sampling error was calculated at +/–2 percentage points, showing this study’s instrument has internal reliability and construct validity. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 1, no. 1, 2020 23 published by scholink inc. 5.4 measures dependent variable teachers’ perception of student absenteeism presenteeism in qatar. in the teacher questionnaire, teachers were asked: ―to what extent is each of the following a problem in your classes?‖ and were instructed to check all that were applicable: (a) student tardiness is a problem in your classes; (b) student absenteeism is a problem in your class; (c) student apathy is a problem in your classes; and (d) student unpreparedness to learn is a problem in year class. in this study, absenteeism includes ―student absenteeism is a problem in your class‖ and presenteeism comprises ―student tardiness is a problem in your classes‖, ―student apathy is a problem in your classes‖, and ―student unpreparedness to learn is a problem in year class‖ as will be seen in the results section below. independent variables teaching load: teachers were also asked: ―currently, how many hours do you teach per week?‖ followed by the following options: ―i don’t know‖ and ―refused‖. reviewing curriculum content: teachers were also asked: ―in a typical term (semester), how often do you review curriculum content with (a) fellow teachers in your school and (b) subject coordinator in your school? would you say once a term (semester), twice a term (semester), three times a term (semester), more than three times a term (semester) or never?‖ graduation rate: teachers were asked: ―about what percentage of the students in your class do you expect to graduate?‖ construct validity and reliability factor analysis was conducted as a data reduction technique and a test of validity of the 98 statements in the questionnaire. two statistical tests were performed to determine the suitability of factor analysis. first, the kaisers-meyer-olkin (kmo) measure of sampling adequacy score of 0.679 was well above the recommended level of 0.50. second, the bartless test of sphericity was significant (chi square=2689.22, p<0.00), indicating there were adequate inter-correlations between the items which allow the use of factor analysis. moreover, principal axis factoring was utilised as an extraction method and oblique rotation was used as a rotation method. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 1, no. 1, 2020 24 published by scholink inc. 6. results 6.1 factor analysis factor analysis resulted in deleting eighty statements with factor loadings below 0.70. accordingly, eighteen valid five-point likert type scale statements yielded seven factors with eigen value greater than 1.0 and factor loadings higher than 0.7 (see table 2). the seven-factor solution accounted for 74.816 per cent of the total variance. table 2. structure matrix component 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 q95. student absenteeism is a problem in your classes .855 .008 .127 -.022 -.199 -.022 .039 q96. student apathy is a problem in your classes .842 -.014 .189 .144 -.167 .264 .063 q94. student tardiness is a problem in your classes .806 .065 .053 .006 -.148 -.039 .044 q97. student unprepared to learn is a problem in your classes .797 .043 .150 .140 -.132 .289 .049 q44. discuss using multimedia in class with fellow teachers .106 .903 -.144 .022 .203 .120 -.128 q46. discuss using multimedia in class with subject coordinator .037 .899 -.146 .021 .196 .051 -.093 q45. discuss using multimedia in class with school management -.032 .856 -.157 -.016 .076 -.001 -.054 q55. this school management respects teachers .163 -.163 .877 -.003 -.064 -.103 -.012 q52. teachers are treated well in this school .125 -.102 .853 .024 -.046 -.123 .012 q54. teachers and administration work as a team in this school .070 -.171 .833 .054 -.068 -.144 .083 q13. in a typical semester, how often do you consult or seek advice on teaching matt .013 -.012 .024 .866 .014 -.052 .109 q14. in a typical semester, how often do you consult or seek advice on teaching matt .087 .022 .029 .854 -.035 -.088 .154 q4. in a typical semester, how often do you review curriculum content with fellow teachers in your school -.147 .116 -.015 -.022 .894 -.075 -.068 q6. in a typical semester, how often do you review curriculum content with subject coordinator in your school -.195 .196 -.118 -.001 .881 -.028 -.097 q1. how satisfied are you with curriculum standards? -.161 -.097 .159 -.004 .062 -.870 .091 q3. how satisfied are you with the curriculum content for the subject you teach? -.035 -.026 .138 .153 .040 -.834 -.070 q19. how often do you use teaching materials prepared by yourself .067 -.114 .045 .066 -.085 .020 .846 q20. how often do you use teaching materials prepared by yourself with your fellow teachers in your school .035 -.050 .014 .188 -.073 -.022 .835 extraction method: principal component analysis. rotation method: oblimin with kaiser normalization. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 1, no. 1, 2020 25 published by scholink inc. the range of the cronbach’s alpha reliability coefficients for the factors was between 0.714 and 0.829 and these factors were labelled according to their factor loadings as follows: – factor 1: teachers’ perception of student absenteeism and presenteeism in qatar – factor 2: discussing how to use multimedia in class – factor 3: treating teachers as professionals – factor 4: school teacher-teacher consultation – factor 5: teachers’ satisfaction with the curriculum – factor 6: preparing teaching materials – factor 7: reviewing curriculum content based on factor analysis, it is clear that absenteeism/presenteeism were loaded under factor 1 and will be treated as one variable in the discussion of the results. testing the relative importance of the independent variables to the dependent variable in regressing factor one (teachers’ perception of student absenteeism/presenteeism in qatar) on the other six factors, alongside two other questions, namely (1) teaching load (i.e., currently, how many hours do you teach per week?) and (2) expected graduation rate (i.e., about what percentage of the students in your class do you expect to graduate?), only three are significant in explaining the variation (teaching load: 0.000; expected graduation rate: 0.023; reviewing curriculum content: 0.045) and hence in predicting teachers’ reported perception of student absenteeism/presenteeism in qatar (table 3). these variables were used in path analysis. table 3. coefficients model unstandardized coefficients standardized coefficients t sig. b std. error beta 1 (constant) -1.153 .207 -5.566 .000 discuss how to use multimedia in class .032 .047 .032 .679 .498 treating teachers as professionals .074 .048 .074 1.551 .122 school teacher–teacher consultation .055 .046 .055 1.208 .228 reviewing curriculum content -.095 .047 -.095 -2.008 .045 teachers' job satisfaction .061 .046 .061 1.306 .192 preparation of teaching materials .016 .046 .016 .343 .732 expected graduation rate (student success) .005 .002 .105 2.280 .023 teaching load .048 .008 .312 6.307 .000 note. a. dependent variable: teachers’ perceptions of student absenteeism and presenteeism in qatar. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 1, no. 1, 2020 26 published by scholink inc. conceptual framework regressing the dependent variable (teachers’ perception of student absenteeism/presenteeism) on the explanatory variables ―reviewing curriculum content‖, ―teaching load‖, and the ―expected graduation rate‖ and using a stepwise multiple regression equation produced a highly significant f value. path analysis results showed that the teaching load has the highest direct effect. reviewing curriculum content and the expected graduation rate received the second and third highest direct effects, respectively. figure 1 shows the conceptual causal framework for the selected factors that interact to influence teachers’ perception of student absenteeism/presenteeism in qatar. the true direct effect is shown between parentheses while the other numbers represent zero-order relations. figure 1. predictors of student absenteeism and presenteeism in qatar: a pathway analysis chart 7. discussion this study draws on previous research to identify contextual (school-related) variables likely to influence teachers’ perceptions regarding students’ absentee/presentee behavior. looked at from the perspectives of teachers, three variables were found to influence student absenteeism/presenteeism: teaching load, reviewing the content of the curriculum, and the expected rate of student graduation. the data analysis points to a positive causal relationship between teachers’ reported perceptions of student absenteeism/presenteeism and their teaching load. against our expectations, a path analysis revealed the heavier the teachers’ workload is, the more likely they are to report student www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 1, no. 1, 2020 27 published by scholink inc. absenteeism/presenteeim in school. this may be taken to mean that heavy or excessive teaching load affects student attendance, interest and engagement. these findings are in line with previous studies indicating that school-related factors influence the likelihood a student will skip or attend school regularly. more specifically, instructional and classroom factors are strong predictors of student attendance or absence (marks, 2000). for instance, workload is shown to affect students’ school engagement and their academic achievement (salmela-aro & upadyaya, 2014). evidence shows teachers’ workload (including instruction, assessment, materials development, tutoring, advising, etc.) influences student attitudes towards learning. for example, salley and shaw (2015) noted a heavy teaching load affects both teacher effectiveness and student learning outcomes. thus, students’ overall satisfaction with their course is significantly affected by how they perceive workload. demanding course loads can be a source of stress and may cause student burnout due to feelings of exhaustion and stress and student burnout can in turn trigger high levels of absenteeism, low motivation and engagement, and reduced productivity (meier & schmeck, 1985). however, evidence remains inconsistent since other research shows workload has little to do with burnout (jacobs & dodd, 2003). our results could also be interpreted in the context of easy access to information and the availability of alternative study materials, which may account for student absences (massingham & herrington, 2006). evidence shows technology and the internet have multiple benefits for education where it is being utilised as a convenient educational tool (dogruer, eyyam, & menevis, 2011). dissimilar to traditional classes, the internet is oftentimes employed by students as a convenient tool to complete homework assignments (cranmer, 2006). one could argue the internet in particular makes it possible for some students with extended absences to make up for their missed lectures. the results also yielded a negative relationship between teachers’ perceptions of student absenteeism/presenteeim and curriculum content reviewing. could this imply that the more the curriculum content is reviewed, the less likely teachers are to perceive student absentee/presentee behaviour? moreover, could this signify that reviewing the existing curriculum helps spark student interest, motivation and engagement? this study’s findings reinforce results from past research and emphasise the importance of curriculum revision in motivating students. the current study also shows reviewing curriculum content helps to lessen boredom and reduce absences from school. curriculum development and renewal are important components of any educational reform. research unveils a recent surge of interest in the impact of curriculum reforms on educational outcomes (allais, 2012; souto-otero, 2012). common to many reform initiatives is a growing interest in the influence of curriculum materials on classroom instruction (moyer, cai, wang, & nie, 2011). with the focus on outcomes as a force driving curriculum design and development, student attendance and engagement are viewed as critical for academic success (chang & romero, 2008). documented research consistently shows that curriculum review and revision aid in enhancing student engagement and academic performance (vander jagt, 2013). when curriculum practices (teaching materials, instruction and assessment) are revised, students tend to demonstrate successful learning and achievement. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 1, no. 1, 2020 28 published by scholink inc. these findings support the results of other studies by underscoring the role of the curriculum in enhancing student attendance and triggering active involvement in class (kousalya, ravindranath, & vizayakumar, 2006). the key role of the curriculum and curriculum revision in engaging students in learning is documented in a recent study by mills, krouse, rossi-schwartz, and klein (2017) and previous work by windham (2005). curriculum revision significantly influences student success and remains an option that can help to curtail absenteeism among students (kumar & giri, 2012). for schalge and soga (2008), dissatisfaction with the curriculum causes boredom and the structure of the curriculum, coupled with good teacher-student communication concerning curriculum content, is a key to curbing student absences. no doubt, an engaging pedagogy and an engaging curriculum instigate active student engagement (parsons & taylor, 2011). against our expectations, our results reveal a positive relationship between teachers’ perception of students’ absenteeism/presenteeism, and their expected graduation rate. surprisingly, the data suggest that the more teachers expect their students to graduate, the more likely they are to perceive student absenteeism/presenteeism. empirical evidence demonstrates that attendance does matter for students to graduate on time and that chronic absenteeism puts them off-track to graduation (allensworth, gwynne, moore, & de la torre, 2014). however, this contrasts with our results, which point to the opposite, indicating absentee/presentee behaviours tend to be associated with graduation from school, as reported by teachers. it needs to be noted that in the absence of attendance record data and data regarding graduation rates in qatar, it is difficult to clarify the likely effect of absence or attendance on student success and achievement. it is unfortunate that access to such valuable information is not readily made available to the public. a drop in attendance rates is a predictor of course failure, thus setting students off-track to graduation. prior research shows consistent links between student attendance and being on the path toward eventual graduation. hence, attendance is a predictor of whether students are on-track to graduation from school and absence from classes puts students at high risks of not graduating at all (allensworth, gwynne, moore, & de la torre, 2014; kieffer & marinell, 2012). in qatar, anecdotal reports increasingly point to a prevalent absenteeism/presenteeism epidemic amongst the student population at all levels of schooling. this situation has not improved despite multiple k=12 education reforms initiated over the past two decades (brewer et al., 2007). the public also has been largely unaware of the gravity of the problem of absenteeism/presenteeism. unfortunately, the difficulty of obtaining access to accurate and reliable empirical data on the scope and extent of this phenomenon in qatar makes it difficult to paint a clear picture of the scale and scope of student absentee and presentee behaviour. whereas we acknowledge the missing link between students’ absences and their graduation prospects in our study, previous documented research that shows associations between graduation and absenteeism is lacking. a tentative explanation for our observation above, and the paradox it alludes to, lies in contemplating the global expansion of private tutoring in recent years, with private lessons increasingly perceived as an alternative to regular schooling (bray & kwo, 2014). due to weak formal www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 1, no. 1, 2020 29 published by scholink inc. education, private tutoring is turning into a supplement, and even a substitute—to mainstream public schools (ali, 2013), as evidenced by findings from silova and bray’s research (2006). in qatar, the prevalence of tutoring for secondary, and even primary-level students is vivid and has turned into a convenient means of compensating for missed classes (stepney, 2016). 8. conclusion and recommendations absenteeism and presenteeism flourish when students realise the risk of being penalised for their behaviour is minimal or non-existent, eventually making absences and disengagement a gateway to dropping out of school altogether. since poor student attendance and presenteeism have far-reaching consequences on students, schools, and society, the solution to this problem requires a multidimensional approach involving the interaction and interplay between personal, scholastic and socio-cultural factors. as key players in children’s education, school leaders, teachers, families, and the community all have a share of responsibility in raising awareness of the importance of school attendance and active engagement starting at the pre-school level. in the interest of effective management of the problem, strategies for scaling down chronic absence/absenteeism should start within school sites. teachers and school officials need to understand and monitor attendance and disengagement behaviour. early identification of absenteeism/presenteeism patterns will provide opportunities for early intervention to engage students and families before these patterns become chronic. similarly, a strict school attendance policy must be adopted and maintained and an early-warning system implemented. stressing that regular attendance is a priority, along with continued recognition of and rewards to students with good and improved attendance records, is important. students and their families need to be aware of the positive impact of good attendance and active participation in class. motivation and positive engagement with the curriculum are critical requisites for them to be on-track to graduation. presenteeism is a relatively new field and very little is known about this phenomenon within school environments. lack of scholarship on this topic makes it hard to identify relevant characteristics that can easily be measured empirically. therefore, any attempt that seeks to quantify presenteeism is fraught with difficulty. investigating different factors that are at play in order to establish the validity of self-reports of class disengagement is useful to inform our understanding of the impact of presenteeism on the individual learner, the school and society at large. while this study focused on a few school-related variables affecting teachers’ perceptions of absenteeism/presenteeism, it would benefit from also looking at other important influences. by analysing personal variables (attitudes, beliefs, motivation, etc.) and contextual factors (demographic, social, cultural, etc.), research stands to gain fresh insights into the nature and impact of absenteeism and, more specifically, presenteeism. a limitation of this study lies in its use of a survey method confined to a sample of teachers. employing qualitative research methods that include the perspectives of teachers, students and school officials would help to explore, in depth, the levels of concern of these www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 1, no. 1, 2020 30 published by scholink inc. different groups, and the supports required to deal with student absences and disengagement. further research is required to expand participant recruitment to comprise other k-12 grade levels, including primary and preparatory levels of schooling. expanding the study would allow comparisons within and across different student groups and thus provide rich and robust data; it would also help to identify the grades at which absentee/presentee behaviour is more or less visible. we recognise problematic behaviours may alter with age and will vary from one school to another depending on different contextual factors. however, understanding the factors that shape absentee/presentee behaviours can be very useful in gaining deeper insights regarding this problematic behaviour and ways of support planning. acknowledgement this study was supported by the social and economic survey research institute, qatar university. the authors would like to thank all the students and teachers who took part in the 2015 qatar education study. the authors would also like to thank sesri’s research, survey operations, survey programming and development, and information technology projects teams for giving so generously of their time at various stages of the data collection and data entry. references abduljawad, h. 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(2012). learning outcomes: good, irrelevant, ban or none of the above? journal of education and work, 25(3), 249-258. https://doi.org/10.1080/13639080.2012.689648 stepney, e. (2016). shadow education: private tutoring and education reform. the social and economic survey research institute (sesri), policy brief no. 7. retrieved march 10, 2018, from http://www.qu.edu.qa/global/sesri/shadow-brief-eng-final.pdf vanderjagt, d. d. (2013). student thoughts and perceptions on curriculum reform (unpublished phd thesis). western michigan university. windham, c. (2005). the student’s perspective. in d. g. oblinger, & j. l. oblinger (eds.), educating the net generation (pp. 1-16). washington, dc: educause. retrieved november 21, 2018, from https://www.educause.edu/ir/library/pdf/pub7101e.pdf https://doi.org/10.1080/13639080.2012.689648 frontiers of contemporary education issn 2690-3520 (print) issn 2690-3539 (online) vol. 6, no. 1, 2025 www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce 22 original paper strategic personal branding in the ai era: enhancing career readiness through digital literacy katryna m. johnson 1* & suanne m. barthol 1 1 metropolitan state university, department of marketing, supply chain management and international business, minneapolis, u.s.a. * katryna m. johnson, e-mail: katryna.johnson@metrostate.edu received: september 10, 2025 accepted: september 17, 2025 online published: october 12, 2025 doi:10.22158/fce.v6n1p22 url: http://dx.doi.org/10.22158/fce.v6n1p22 abstract this paper explores the transformative relationship between personal branding and artificial intelligence (ai), positioning digital literacy as the foundation of this shift. it argues that personal branding remains essential in today’s digital era, enabling individuals to establish trust and cultivate distinct identities. the research examines how ai influences personal branding through customized content creation, interactive audience engagement, and data-driven strategies. drawing on current scholarship, the paper demonstrates how digital literacy enhances online visibility while highlighting ai tools that strengthen messaging. the paper argues that leveraging ai to showcase digital competence in personal branding strengthens career readiness and accelerates professional growth. the study demonstrates that the practical and ethical application of ai in personal branding necessitates a strong foundation in digital literacy to achieve authenticity, credibility, and sustained professional success. keywords personal branding, ai literacy, digital literacy, career 1. introduction personal branding involves intentional marketing efforts to promote an individual’s skills, abilities, and experiences, encompassing both verbal and visual elements (borden, 2024; chen et al., 2021; gehl, 2011; harris & rae, 2011; holiney, 2025; hearn, 2008; kusdinar et al., 2023; mcmillian, 2024; monarth, 2022; montoya & vandehey, 2008; pranada et al., 2025; vitberg, 2009; wheeler, 2024). with the rise of social media, personal branding has become increasingly important, as these platforms allow for the immediate sharing of professional achievements and skills (castrillon, 2019; idoko, 2023; www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 6, no. 1, 2025 23 published by scholink inc. mcmillian, 2024; wheeler, 2024). by strategically utilizing social media, individuals can establish strong personal brands that not only enhance their visibility but also open up career opportunities aligned with their professional goals (white, 2022). a strong personal brand highlights an individual’s unique abilities, experiences, and professional identity (heitland, 2023). today, artificial intelligence (ai) offers powerful tools to support this process, enabling users to craft compelling messages, produce written content, and design visuals that effectively communicate their accomplishments (manovich, 2021; russell, 2025). when these efforts are authentic and consistent, they help build trust and credibility with the target audience (henderson, 2024). in the modern digital environment, ai plays a critical role in refining and amplifying personal branding efforts. it can generate customized content, ensure consistent messaging, and adapt communication to specific audiences (arruda, 2024; borden, 2024; holiney, 2025; mcmillian, 2024; seddon, 2024). these capabilities are particularly valuable in today’s competitive and rapidly evolving job market, where adaptability and visibility are essential for professional success. by enhancing online presence, ai helps professionals stand out to potential employers and clients (corbett, 2025; khedher, 2019). for students, ai serves as both a creative and strategic resource, showcasing their work, communicating their value, and enabling proactive career planning that aligns with their long-term objectives. 1.1 purpose of the paper the goal of this study is to demonstrate how ai technology can help establish and enhance a personal brand. additionally, the authors will demonstrate that building a personal brand through ai demonstrates digital literacy to potential employers. the paper further examines how ai enhances students’ career readiness, providing them with a competitive edge in the marketplace and supporting their career advancement. 2. method the research examines how artificial intelligence supports the development of personal branding while enhancing digital literacy skills. the methodology consists of the following steps: 2.1 literature review the authors conducted iterative literature searches on ebscohost, google scholar, and microsoft edge using keywords and complex-based prompts related to personal branding, digital literacy, and artificial intelligence, producing 61 sources. to expand the research scope, ai tools—copilot, gemini, and chatgpt—were utilized with complex-based prompts to identify additional sources, resulting in the addition of 71 new sources. complex-based prompt example: please find research on the intersection of artificial intelligence and personal branding in academic journals. the sources should be from the last five years. include research on how personal branding and ai impact career readiness and potential employer perceptions should also be included. include doi or url. provide sources www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 6, no. 1, 2025 24 published by scholink inc. in alphabetical order in apa format. 2.2 verification of ai sources the authors verified the legitimacy of ai sources and then further verified that the information ai indicated was indeed present in the cited research. the authors needed to eliminate 13 sources that were either fabricated or lacked the information mentioned in the source, resulting in 119 sources examined for the study. 2.3 evidence hierarchy the authors employed a structured evidence approach, where the highest level of support occurred through the scholarly synthesis of existing literature and expert opinion. the paper establishes its arguments, conclusions, and conceptual frameworks regarding digital literacy, ai, and personal branding through a comprehensive literature review and thematic analysis, drawing on peer-reviewed academic sources. research materials were primarily drawn from academic databases and targeted scholarly searches, supplemented by industry data and professional reports that illustrate how ai currently operates and where it is heading. the proposed pedagogical applications benefit from additional practical knowledge provided by educational guides and marketing associations. the authors utilized copilot, gemini, and chatgpt to provide additional evidence and validate existing thoughts. the paper employs evidence layers to demonstrate a systematic research approach that aligns with its conceptual framework. 2.4 thematic analysis the literature content was analyzed using thematic analysis to determine patterns and themes. themes included how personal branding can be enhanced through ai and digital literacy, integrating ai into the curriculum to improve career readiness, and exploring specific ai tools to enhance personal branding. 2.5 editing and ethical considerations turnitin’s initial report showed 8% similarity, with ai detection unavailable. turnitin noted that ai detection scores below 20% may have a higher likelihood of false positives. the final turnitin score was 4%, with all quotations properly cited. grammarly initially reported 8% similarity and 12% ai presence; the final report showed 4% similarity and 21% ai. in both cases, most ai-flagged text was original work, underscoring that ai detectors can misclassify content (freeman, 2025; grammarly, 2025b; jung, 2025; saha & feizi, 2025). to maintain methodological rigor and transparency, grammarly and turnitin were utilized throughout the editing process, with explicit citation of ai tools when employed for refinement (google deepmind, 2025; microsoft, 2025; openai, 2025). copilot, chatgpt, and gemini were applied to identify redundancies and enhance clarity (burger, 2025). all ai-generated suggestions underwent critical evaluation, and only revisions that preserved the intended meaning, citation integrity, and academic tone were incorporated. subsequent conciseness-focused revisions resulted in a grammarly ai score of 20%. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 6, no. 1, 2025 25 published by scholink inc. 2.6 mitigating ai bias ai systems, such as gemini, chatgpt, and copilot, can reproduce social biases, resulting in discriminatory outputs. to reduce bias, the authors prioritized transparency and critically evaluated ai-generated results, verifying the credibility of sources and the limitations of content (allil, 2024). human oversight guided all decisions, and peer-reviewed research in education and marketing was primarily sourced from ebscohost, as ai tools yielded limited scholarly results. 3. personal branding education across disciplines personal branding education is most effective when integrated across disciplines. marketing courses teach social media strategy, brand analysis, and value proposition development (google deepmind, 2025; gorbatov et al., 2018; holiney, 2025; valdez et al., 2024; zmich & schetzsle, 2024). meanwhile, swot analysis and ethics training promote self-awareness (google deepmind, 2024). leadership and communication courses build authenticity through personality assessments, networking, and storytelling (jones & leverenz, 2017). technical programs, such as supply chain management, can pair branding with certifications to increase earning potential and thought leadership (association for supply chain management, 2023; stratman, 2011; tompkins, 2024). project management curricula can emphasize branding to quickly establish credibility with diverse stakeholders (norman, 2024; geardi, 2025). 3.1 strategic personal branding for career advancement career growth requires maintaining and adapting one’s brand to align with evolving goals (barnhart, 2023; laker, 2024). employers routinely review candidates’ digital footprints, making a consistent, professional online presence critical (barker, 2025; homegardner, 2023; smith & cheng-cimini, 2023; top stack, 2025). positive engagement builds credibility, while unprofessional content limits opportunities (homegardner, 2023; top stack, 2025). 3.2 ai in recruitment and career services ai is embedded in recruitment, from automated video interviews to resume optimization and linkedin profile enhancement (castrillon, 2025; fennell, 2025; jones & hickman, 2023; team digitaldefynd, 2025). career services can help students articulate professional identity, craft coherent narratives, and refine brand communication (reardon et al., 2025). 3.3 leveraging ai for visibility and growth ai tools measure audience preferences, guide strategy, and produce value-driven communications (cook, 2025; de freitas & ofek, 2024; henderson, 2024; microsoft, 2025; openai, 2025). interpreting analytics requires digital literacy (ameen et al., 2021). ai also identifies job trends, enhances resumes, and optimizes linkedin profiles (castrillon, 2025; fennell, 2025; team digitaldefynd, 2025). professionals can leverage ai for networking, content creation, and search engine optimization (seo) strategies that increase discoverability (arruda, 2025; lee et al., 2024; marr, 2025). in a competitive market, a consistent personal brand—amplified by ai—fosters www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 6, no. 1, 2025 26 published by scholink inc. credibility, thought leadership, and long-term growth (arruda, 2025; no worker left behind inc., 2024). 3.4 components of a personal brand a successful personal brand demonstrates authenticity, self-awareness, and professionalism. furthermore, individuals must be aware of and manage security and privacy practices, develop a strong narrative, and adopt a lifelong learning approach (nugroho et al., 2025). 1. authenticity and self-awareness. authenticity and self-awareness are crucial to personal branding, as they require an accurate representation of abilities, skills, and experiences to maintain trust and credibility (wheeler, 2024; borden, 2024; allison et al., 2020; holiney, 2025; nugroho et al., 2025). these qualities are reinforced by using ai as a supportive tool, rather than the sole creator, by integrating human creativity, critical judgment, and ai literacy into technical, ethical, and critical thinking skills (mcmillian, 2023; mills et al., 2024; arruda, 2025c). this balanced approach enables students to demonstrate knowledge, showcase skills, and convey authentic character (allison et al., 2020; harris & rae, 2011; hearn, 2008; holiney, 2025; johnson, 2017, 2021; march, 2025; rampersad, 2009; seddon, 2024; shepherd, 2005). instructors can support this development through self-assessments and values-affirmation exercises that align students’ skills and values with career goals (malatesta, 2024). 2. strategic storytelling. students should learn to use storytelling to communicate and connect with their audience (macarthur, 2024; seddon, 2024). jones and leverenz (2017) indicate that a good personal story enables individuals to differentiate themselves from their peers. 3. professional online presence. students need to understand the importance of professional communication in person and online. research has shown that unprofessional behavior, such as disparaging an employer or displaying offensive behavior, can hurt a person’s career (homegardner, 2023; nugroho et al., 2025; stack, 2025). this professionalism should be maintained on all social media sites, whether the site is a dedicated professional platform like linkedin or a blog or instagram (barker, 2025; nugroho et al., 2025). 4. effective networking. instructors should educate students on the importance of establishing professional relationships, as they are a key factor in career progression (gorbatov et al., 2018; johnson, 2017; kusdinar et al., 2023). educators need to instruct students on how to network online through sites such as linkedin or in person by joining industry specific associations like the american marketing association (ama) and attending networking events (kusdinar, 2023; moore, 2024). 5. digital security and privacy. instructors should integrate digital security and privacy information into their discussions about personal branding. students who build their online presence need to learn about security threats and protection methods for their personal www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 6, no. 1, 2025 27 published by scholink inc. information. students should understand the importance of password management, privacy settings, and phishing recognition, as these skills will help build a positive digital reputation (barker, 2025; microsoft, 2025). 6. continuous learning and adaptation. the ever-changing nature of the professional environment necessitates a focus on ongoing learning and adaptation to modern trends and technological advancements through personal branding education (arruda, 2024). students must understand how to use social media platforms professionally while maintaining a consistent online profile across all platforms (barker, 2025). 3.5 reputation management the process of personal branding and reputation management requires purposeful actions to shape how others perceive an individual across both digital and physical environments (gorbatov et al., 2018). individuals who actively manage their brands create a favorable impression by presenting their fundamental values, unique characteristics, and professional competencies (vitberg, 2010). a personal brand will develop into a strong, trustworthy entity when one manages their online presence carefully and maintains authentic audience engagement and professional conduct in all interactions (labrecque et al., 2011). to maintain a positive reputation, individuals must continuously monitor their online presence, responding to communications from others and updating profiles to align with their desired image (rampersad, 2008). the following are some key elements of reputation management in personal branding: 1. consistency. one’s messaging, behavior, and online presence should always align with the brand. the narrative should be consistent across all social media platforms, professional networks, and even in-person interactions (cote, 2024; holiney, 2025; nugroho et al., 2025). 2. engagement. the audience can be reached through feedback comments, question answers, and helpful information postings. a positive reputation develops through engagement, which typically results in fan participation (march, 2025). 3. monitoring. students need to regularly check their online media to detect any unfavorable comments or false information that may affect themselves or their brand. according to status labs (2025), google alerts and social media listening and monitoring can be valuable tools in this situation. 4. adaptability. students must remain flexible as they transform their brand and navigate life’s challenges while advancing their professional careers. students should regularly update their brand as they learn new skills and acquire new experiences (cote, 2024). applying these elements enables individuals to manage their reputation and build a stronger, more enduring brand (rodela, 2024). reputation management platforms such as brand24, birdeye, reputation.com, and vista social help ensure that preferred content, including instagram and linkedin profiles, appears prominently in search results. these tools can also track visitors, provide résumé-writing support, and integrate blogs, videos, and photos (bender, 2024). www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 6, no. 1, 2025 28 published by scholink inc. 4. application: ai tools to enhance personal branding ai platforms facilitate online brand creation and promotion through content development, social media management, design capabilities, and seo optimization. as these tools evolve, they offer increasingly sophisticated features that streamline personal branding. such advancements enable individuals to establish, maintain, and enhance a consistent and engaging online presence. table 1 shows several ai tools that enhance personal branding across different domains. a summary of the tools and their primary use follow the table. table 1. categories of ai tools (microsoft, 2025) 1. ai tools for content creation & writing  article forge – generates full-length articles based on keywords.  copy.ai – ai-powered tool for generating marketing copy, website bios, and linkedin posts.  feedly – helps curate relevant content from various sources using ai to identify key topics and trends.  jasper ai – ai writing assistant for brand storytelling, blog writing, and social media content.  marketmuse – optimizes content for search engines and builds topical authority.  medium's ai tools – ai-powered tools for content idea generation, editing, and image creation.  notion ai – generates blog outlines, social media posts, and marketing strategies. 2. ai tools for social media management & engagement  hootsuite – manages social media accounts, schedules posts, and analyzes engagement.  later, ai suggests optimal posting times and content strategies for social media.  socialpilot ai – ai-powered content suggestions and analytics for social media management.  tweet hunter – helps generate tweets, find viral content, and grow a twitter following. 3. ai tools for visual branding & design  brandmark.io – ai-driven logo and brand identity generator.  canva – a graphic design platform for creating social media posts, presentations, and marketing materials.  canva ai – ai-powered design assistance for professional-quality branding.  looka – ai-powered design tool for logos, color schemes, and brand assets.  runway ml – ai-powered video and image editing with advanced features like style transfer. 4. ai tools for video and audio creation  adobe podcast ai – enhances audio quality through ai-powered noise reduction. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 6, no. 1, 2025 29 published by scholink inc.  dall·e – ai image generation tool for unique and artistic visuals.  descript – ai-powered video and audio editing with transcription features.  heygen – ai-driven video avatar creator for personalized video messages.  lumen5 – converts blog posts and text into engaging videos.  magisto an ai-powered video editing tool that enables the creation of professional-quality videos.  peech – automates video editing and transcription for branded video content.  synthesia ai – creates videos from text using ai avatars. 5. ai tools for seo and online presence optimization  google analytics 4 (ga4) with ai – predictive analytics and audience insights.  semrush – ai-powered tool for seo optimization, keyword analysis, and competitor research. 6. ai tools for communication & networking  crystal knows – analyzes personality traits for effective communication and networking.  grammarly ai – ai-powered writing suggestions, tone adjustments, and style enhancements.  lavender ai – ai-powered email writing tool for improving response rates.  replika – ai chatbot for refining communication style and personal messaging strategies. 7. ai tools for automation & productivity  clickup an all-in-one productivity tool that excels in task automation, allowing users to streamline operations and manage projects efficiently (clickup, 2025).  motion helps manage packed schedules and to-do lists by automating task prioritization and time management (motion, 2025).  jasper an ai-powered writing assistant that helps create content, making it easier to generate marketing copy and other written materials (jasper, 2025).  drift automates sales processes, including lead generation and customer engagement, to improve sales efficiency (salesloft, 2025).  zapier – connects different apps and automates workflows, enabling users to create custom automation without coding (rebello, 2025). 8. ai tools for transcription and note-taking  otter.ai – ai-powered transcription service for converting speech into text in real time.  fireflies.ai records, transcribes, and summarizes meetings, integrating them with various conferencing tools (peng, 2024).  circleback provides excellent summarization and speaker recognition, seamlessly integrating with work calendars and platforms such as slack and notion (peng, 2024).  krisp captures detailed notes and summaries using data from a computer’s speakers and www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 6, no. 1, 2025 30 published by scholink inc. microphone (peng, 2024).  bubbles “provides automatic recording, transcription, and actionable summaries, supporting asynchronous collaboration” (moffat, 2025, para. 2). 9. ai tools for social listening and brand reputation  awario – uses ai-driven analytics to track brand mentions, identify influencers, and measure audience sentiment (openai, 2025).  brand24 – ai-powered social listening tool for monitoring online mentions and sentiment (openai, 2025).  mention – tracks online mentions across social media, blogs, and news sites, offering real-time alerts and sentiment analysis.  meltwater – provides ai-driven media monitoring, pr analytics, and sentiment analysis to track how a brand is perceived.  reputology monitors and analyzes online reviews on platforms like google, yelp, and facebook.  sprout social (listening feature) – includes ai-powered social listening to track conversations, sentiment, and audience engagement.  talkwalker – offers advanced social listening, sentiment tracking, and ai-powered analytics to understand brand reputation.  youscan – utilizes visual ai to track brand mentions in images, enabling the analysis of brand perception beyond text-based searches. 4.1 ai tools for creation and writing ai platforms and tools have allowed individuals to produce high-quality content effectively and efficiently. aiplatforms like copy.ai and jasper ai utilize natural language processing (nlp) to craft contextually fitting content for different mediums (digital scholar, 2025; openai, 2025). article forge utilizes keywords to rapidly generate high-quality content that considers tone and readability (article forge, 2024). marketmuse is a tool that can be used for strategic content planning to connect more effectively with one’s audience and increase engagement (market muse, 2025). ai collaboration platforms, such as clickup, ideanote, miro, notion, and taskade, help users generate ideas, organize thoughts, and facilitate collaborative efforts (cook, 2024; microsoft, 2024). individuals can also stay aware of key topics and trends through tools such as feedly or newsblur. feedly is a news aggregator that compiles content from various online sources (feedly, 2025). newsblur learns an individual’s preference for online information and hides or presents information based on one’s reading habits (newsblur, 2025). leveraging these tools will enable individuals to accelerate their production of professional branding content. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 6, no. 1, 2025 31 published by scholink inc. 4.2 ai tools for social media management & engagement social media platforms and ai tools play an important role in shaping personal brands. platforms like hootsuite and socialpilot ai enable users to plan posts, schedule them, and analyze how their audience interacts with the content in real-time (openai, 2025; sarkhedi, 2024; team digitaldefynd, 2025). additionally, “ai technology can provide users with insights through analytics to help them determine the optimal times to post and recommend effective content strategies for greater outreach and engagement” (sarkhedi, 2024, para. 2). twitter’s tweet hunter is a tool that helps users identify relevant topics and craft engaging tweets to enhance their presence in specific markets (tweet hunter report, 2024). ai tools for social media automation enable users to maintain their online presence while focusing on developing their brand. 4.3 ai tools for visual branding and design a clear visual identity is a crucial in building a personal brand. ai-created software enables one to craft professional-quality graphics with ease, allowing technology-unsavvy graphic designers to create images of the same quality (cook, 2024). individuals can utilize sites such as canva ai, dalle-3, and looka to create engaging visuals. brandmark.io offers ai-generated ideas that encompass color schemes and fonts, enabling a consistent brand identity across multiple platforms (openai, 2025). runway ml enhances the creation of images and videos with ai-powered features, including style transformation and automated editing (openai, 2025; runway ml, 2025). these resources enable individuals to create a professional visual identity that is essential for gaining visibility in competitive markets. 4.4 ai tools: video and audio creation video and audio content are now players in building brands as ai technologies make creating and enhancing them effortless. adobe podcast ai and descript utilize ai to enhance quality and streamline recording and editing – a must-have tool for podcasters and creators (adobe, 2023). the video editing process becomes streamlined through lumen 5 and magisto because these tools transform text content into engaging videos. synthesia ai and heygens ai avatars enable users to generate customized video communications in multiple languages, extending their reach. these tools enable professionals to create high-quality multimedia content without requiring specialized technical expertise. 4.5 ai tools for seo & online presence optimization ai tools for seo serve as fundamental resources for individuals seeking to establish their brand presence through branding initiatives (google deepmind, 2025). the tool offers keyword patterns, competitor analysis, and backlink acquisition methods to enhance content and improve search engine visibility (cook, 2024). google analytics 4 (ga4) leverages ai technologies and machine learning algorithms to deliver audience insights, enabling users to refine their marketing strategies (google deepmind, 2023). these tools help them achieve better search engine visibility and website traffic while creating content that resonates with their target audience (team digitaldefynd, 2025). with the help of ai-driven seo tools www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 6, no. 1, 2025 32 published by scholink inc. and analytics tools, individuals can leverage data to make choices that enhance their image. 4.6 ai tools for communication and networking the foundation of a personal brand surrounds being able to communicate effectively. ai technology provides insights and automated support to enhance our connections with others on a deeper level. crystal knows evaluates personality characteristics, from behavior to offering customized tips for communication and networking (crystal knows, 2024). grammarly offers recommendations for grammar, style, and ai detection (grammarly release, 2024). lavender ai can help users create engaging emails to increase response rates (lavender update, 2024). replika is an ai chatbot that helps individuals refine their communication strategies to foster engaging conversations. it enables professionals to forge connections and bolster credibility within their areas of expertise (microsoft, 2025). these tools assist individuals in strengthening their personal brand communication interactions. 4.7 ai tools for automation and productivity automation tools powered by ai simplify tasks by enabling individuals to effectively concentrate on the strategic elements of building their brand (microsoft, 2025). zapier facilitates the integration of apps and streamlines processes by automating tasks, such as scheduling social media posts and managing email campaigns (team digitaldefynd, 2025). tools like clickup, motion, and ai assistants like jasper and drift boost productivity. these tools automate tasks and manage schedules while facilitating real-time interactions with customers. they also help brands function effectively and maintain uniformity in communication and marketing strategies. automation tools help organizations save time while improving accuracy and scalability, according to cook (2024). professionals gain better control of their personal brand presence by automating routine tasks and maintaining consistency. 4.8 ai tools for transcription and note-taking ai-driven transcription services have revolutionized how individuals take notes by making the process of recording and reusing information more efficient. otter.ai provides transcription capabilities that enable individuals to accurately document discussions in real-time (bekkedam, 2024). tools like fireflies, circleback, krisp, and bubbles leverage ai technology to record meetings and conversations, summarize points, and facilitate detailed note-taking, all while seamlessly integrating with various video conferencing platforms to support collaborative work at different times (moffat, 2025; peng, 2024). these transcriptions can then be utilized to produce articles, blogs, or posts for media channels and other branded content, ensuring consistency and broadening access to content generation procedures. ai transcription software allows individuals to record information effectively and efficiently, converting speech into text (cook et al., 2024). 4.9 ai tolls for social listening and brand reputation individuals must be aware of how others perceive their brand and reputation. social listening tools powered by ai offer insights into customer perceptions. for instance, brand24 monitors mentions and analyzes sentiment to provide individuals with a clear picture of how their brand is perceived on various digital platforms (brand24, 2024). this information enables personal brands to engage with their www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 6, no. 1, 2025 33 published by scholink inc. audience proactively, addressing issues thoughtfully and shaping their image effectively. experts can stay updated with industry discussions using ai-powered social listening tools to track trends and customer opinions online. the brand should ensure that it maintains a positive reputation and remains in touch with current sentiments. 5. limitations this study offers meaningful insights into the evolving relationship between personal branding and artificial intelligence; however, it has limitations. the primary limitation is the rapid evolution of ai tools. the paper is not intended to recommend or promote any particular ai tool but to demonstrate the breadth and depth of the categories of ai tools that support personal branding. while the tools may change in the future, the support categories of domains are anticipated to remain unchanged. secondly, this paper builds upon the work of existing researchers. the methodological approach in identifying pertinent research was defined, but there is still the potential for bias and misinterpreted contextual information. 6. future research this paper can stimulate a few different paths for future research. first, there are multiple vantage points that researchers could empirically test. for instance, research could examine the career readiness level using ai-embedded tools in personal branding and curriculum design. similarly, researchers could empirically test for career advancement with individuals actively seeking or soliciting new opportunities. secondly, while digital literacy is considered foundational to this work, research could investigate the differences in personal branding when an individual is regarded as a digital native. lastly, the paper is based on the benefits from the individual's perspective. future research could examine the organizational effects of individual personal branding and its impact on organizational outcomes and commitment. building on this foundation of personal branding and professional identity, ai-powered tools streamline essential functions, including content creation, social media management, graphic design, and search engine optimization. these tools streamline essential functions, including content creation, social media management, graphic design, and search engine optimization. when applied strategically, ai enables individuals to produce high-quality content, engage their audiences effectively, and maintain a clear and consistent brand identity. as ai technology advances, these capabilities will continue to expand, making proficiency with such tools increasingly valuable. developing and sustaining a strong personal brand in today’s digital environment requires familiarity with ai tools that align with specific goals and branding strategies. students and professionals can use these resources to enhance written, visual, and interactive content in competitive markets. however, effective use depends on digital literacy—the ability to interpret ai outputs, identify potential biases, and apply tools ethically. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 6, no. 1, 2025 34 published by scholink inc. as emphasized throughout this paper, cultivating information, media, and technological literacy is essential for navigating ai-driven branding environments. together, these competencies and ai technologies will be crucial for ensuring that personal brands remain relevant, credible, and adaptable in an ever-evolving digital landscape. references adobe. 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(2024, november). integrating ai into introductory sales courses with examples you can use today. society for marketing advances proceedings, 379-382. business source premier. frontiers of contemporary education issn 2690-3520 (print) issn 2690-3539 (online) vol. 1, no. 2, 2020 www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce 23 original paper the effect of distance teaching on academic achievement in the online course of introduction to computers science ying-sheng kuo 1 1 general education center, open university of kaohsiung, kaohsiung city, taiwan (r.o.c.) received: september 18, 2020 accepted: october 6, 2020 online published: october 22, 2020 doi:10.22158/fce.v1n2p23 url: http://dx.doi.org/10.22158/fce.v1n2p23 abstract for distance teaching, if the teacher can obtain the predicted scores that students may obtain in the final exam at this time, the students whose predicted scores do not meet the standard can be found. teachers can strengthen the teaching of this type of students in the teaching process, which will greatly improve the overall teaching efficiency of teachers. the target of this research is the students of the course of the “introduction to computers science” at open university of kaohsiung. this course is a distance teaching based on online teaching, and the questionnaire and final test are also completed on line. a total of 95 students filled out the questionnaire online, accounting for 77.24% of the electives. this study aims to assess the measurement of students’ pre-learning computer experience, software operation ability, learning motivation, and computer attitude, and analyze their relationship with the performance of subsequent distance teaching on the course of the “introduction to computers science”, and find a multiple regression model to predict student performance. it was found that a multiple linear regression model combining 7 independent variables was statistically significantly related to the final test scores. keywords pre-learning computer experience, learning motivation, online teaching, computer attitude, distance teaching, introduction to computers science 1. introduction the open university of kaohsiung (ouk) is an adult education university that provides lifelong learning. it provides a dreaming opportunity for people who drop out of school early and fail to receive higher education, so that people who want to obtain a university diploma do not need to pass any exams, and there are no admission qualification restrictions. as long as the people of taiwan who are over 18 years old can register for school, the school play a very important role in solving the www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 1, no. 2, 2020 24 published by scholink inc. knowledge gap of the relatively vulnerable people in taiwan. with the advancement of the times, and taiwan’s gradual entry into an advanced society, lifelong learning is a must for everyone today. the idea of living to old age and learning has prompted many people to study new knowledge instead of obtaining a university diploma. many seniors who have retired in the workplace have chosen course at ouk. the ouk has made great contributions to improving people’s life knowledge and providing opportunities and places for lifelong learning for taiwanese people. students who take the course of the “introduction to computers science” at ouk have different computer experience, motivation and basic background (age, education, social experience), and the course is online teaching, plus students are free to elective without age, education and grade restrictions, students’ computer knowledge background is very scattered (kuo, 2020). in this course, the content of distance teaching is designed by teachers according to their own profession, and teachers have insufficient knowledge of students’ knowledge background and learning motivation. however, a good teaching will not be perfect if it cannot match the students’ starting behavior and learning motivation. it will have an impact on students’ learning effectiveness. generally speaking, at the beginning of distance learning, teachers are almost completely unfamiliar with students. if the teacher can obtain the predicted scores that students may obtain in the final exam at this time, the students whose predicted scores do not meet the standard can be found. teachers can strengthen the teaching of this type of students in the teaching process, which will greatly improve the overall teaching efficiency of teachers. this is a 3-credit course per semester and is conducted through distance learning. teachers use multimedia systems to apply information and communication technology (ict) applications to provide course content in the form of digital audiovisual materials. the teaching content of 54 lectures was produced and placed on a digital teaching platform for students to learn online. in addition, there are online discussion areas and four back-to-school teaching activities. the online discussion area allows students to discuss teaching content and teachers can also participate. the four back-to-school face-to-face teaching activities (once a month, 100 minutes each time) are mainly used to supplement and guide the teaching content of distance learning. finally, an online final quiz will be conducted. this research mainly explores the understanding of the computer experience, computer attitude and learning motivation of students in the “introduction to computers science” course based on distance teaching. combined with the final test scores, the paper discusses the relationship between the student’s computer experience before learning and the relationship between learning motivation and test scores. the research results are handed over to the curriculum planning decision-makers as a reference for planning advanced course, and hope to find a set of multivariate variables that are significantly related to the test scores, establish a prediction model, and help teachers predict the students’ learning achievements, as early as possible to strengthen the teaching of students with possible low grades. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 1, no. 2, 2020 25 published by scholink inc. kim and peterson (1992) believe that the computer introduction course plays a vital role in introducing basic computer concepts and skills to college students. the improvement of students’ computer abilities is based on the introduction of computers. they have solid computer basic knowledge, and they are competent for the use and discussion of computer-related equipment in the future. ideally, students who complete such course should have sufficient computer literacy and the ability to acquire more complex computer skills in subsequent course or workplaces (kim & keith, 1994). to ensure that all students have a similar understanding of basic computer skills and concepts, introductory course usually assume that students have little relevant computer experience (brock, thomsen, & kohl, 1999). therefore, the introduction to computers can construct students' basic knowledge of computers. the students at ouk are all social people, and most of them have smartphones. thus, they could browse, search for information, chat, leave messages, take photos, go to websites, and use mobile payment applications. they might even have used all the functions of ict in smartphones. however, they may not understand the basic operations of traditional computers and the knowledge related to application software and computers (kuo, 2020). due to the diversified sources of the students in this course, teachers’ knowledge of students’ knowledge background, computer experience before class, computer attitude and learning motivation are quite weak. therefore, it is necessary to study the background, computer attitude and motivation of students in the course of the “introduction to computers science” based on distance teaching. 2. literature review 2.1 computer experience before learning smith, caputi, crittenden, jayasuriya, and rawstorne (1999) divided the previous computer experience into subjective and objective categories. subjective refers to the feeling of like or dislike of the computer, that is, computer anxiety and computer attitude. objective previous experience refers to externally observable variables that interact with computers including computer usage, usage opportunities, and usage diversity. varma and marler (2013) believe that previous computer experience has two dimensions: computer proficiency and computer frequency. brock et al. (1999) found that almost any type of computer experience, especially video game experience, has improved the computer literacy level of freshmen to a certain extent. but, surprisingly, it was found that exposure to computer information systems at the high school or community college level had almost no significant impact on students’ computer literacy (rex & roth, 1998). before students participate in the course, first evaluate the measurement of computer experience and computer self-efficacy, and analyze its relationship with the performance of subsequent course. explore the relationship between the total years of computer experience, the current average computer hours per week, and the number of computer course completed before and the performance of subsequent course. it is found that none of these three measures can be directly used as an important predictor of subsequent course performance. they recommended to further understand the relationship between previous computer experience and www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 1, no. 2, 2020 26 published by scholink inc. computer literacy and performance. this study will use the frequency of computer use, the number of computer course ever studied, the most familiar computer skills and other factors to explore the relationship between the students’ pre-learning computer experience and the learning performance of the course of the “introduction to computers science” based on distance teaching. 2.2 learning motivation according to human development professionals, there are two types of learning motivation, namely extrinsic motivation and intrinsic motivation. external motivation refers to the use of external things to induce students to engage in learning activities; internal motivation refers to the motivation caused by people's interest in learning itself. when a person likes to engage in a certain learning activity because he feels that this learning activity has “interest”, “like”, “happy”, “need”, “target”, and no other external reasons, this potential internal force is “intrinsic motivation”. lepper (1988) pointed out that external motivation refers to obtaining some kind of reward or avoiding some kind of punishment external to the activity itself, such as reward or teacher’s approval; internal motivation is for its own sake, and regards internal motivation as what it is the enjoyment provided, the learning allowed or the sense of accomplishment inspired. afzal, ali, khan, and hamid (2010) believe that students with intrinsic motivation prefer to use strategies that require more effort and make them process information more extremely, while students with external motivation tend to pay the least effort to obtain the maximum return. stipek, feiler, daniels, and milburn (1995) believe that learning motivation is a student’s motivation for achievement in learning, a psychological need for individual pursuit of success, and one of the main factors affecting academic achievement. the study found that learning motivation has a strong relationship with students' academic performance, and it is concluded that students with intrinsic motivation are academically better than students with extrinsic motivation (afzal et al., 2010). the students of this course are all adults. adult motivation is reflected in setting goals, maintaining attention in certain activities, and exerting effort and perseverance to achieve goals. according to the conclusion drawn by the institute of educational psychology, it is pointed out that in the learning of adults, high positive motivation can play a compensatory role, especially when a person’s ability is low or knowledge reserves are insufficient (lukianova, 2016). and what is the inner learning motivation of adults? according to m. bryn and s. mann, the inner motivation of adult learners is caused by the constant desire to learn, which can be characterized as an attitude: “i really want to do” instead of “because i want to do it, so i do”, or “i need” (lukianova, 2016). therefore, before teaching this course of the “introduction to computers science” based on distance teaching, it is necessary for adult students from all directions to thoroughly understand their learning motivations, determine their needs, interests and tendencies, because these usually have a significant impact on learning outcomes. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 1, no. 2, 2020 27 published by scholink inc. 2.3 learning attitude and performance students’ learning attitudes have a considerable impact on academic performance, and most educational scholars and teachers agree that a positive learning attitude can improve students’ academic performance. kiekkas et al. (2015) assessed the impact of biostatistics course on the statistical attitudes of nursing students, and explored the relationship between these attitudes and their performance in course examinations. the study found that the correlation between the overall scale score and examination performance was positive and significant, but weak; and previous research on medical students has reported that the relationship between the two is moderately related (beurze, donders, zielhuis, de vegt, & verbeek, 2013; zhang et al., 2012). however, bidegain and mujika (2020) explore the relationship between scientific attitudes and pisa (the program for international student assessment) scientific performance. from a broader perspective (e.g., across countries and regions), the relationship between all attitude variables and science achievement using aggregated pisa scores was found to be negative. hignite and echternacht (1992) believed that computer attitude cannot be used to predict the existence of corresponding levels of computer literacy. but, klein, knupfer and crooks (1993) evaluated the students’ attitudes towards computer learning, and checked the students’ computer knowledge and computer skills performance after attending the course, and found that students with positive learning attitudes had significantly better performance assessments. shen, wu and lee (2014) proposed a case study to discuss the impact of their proposed system on college students’ attitudes towards computer science, and found that students’ attitudes towards computer science improved, and previous studies have shown that positive attitudes toward course tend to produce better results on achievement measures. gopu (2016) focused on to explore the introduction of student’s attitude towards computer science. it was found that there was a strong correlation between students’ academic performance and their personal perceptions of competence during the course (gomes, santos, & mendes, 2012); and there was a significant positive correlation between students’ attitudes and their achievements in programming (baer, 2013). most of the above studies on the relationship between learning attitudes and achievements are aimed at general students, and there is relatively little research on the relationship between computer learning attitudes and academic performance of adults who participate in distance teaching like ouk, so they are also included in this study. 3. methodology the main purpose of this research is to evaluate the measurement of students’ computer experience, software operation ability, learning motivation, and computer attitude before taking the course of the “introduction to computers science” based on distance teaching, and analyze its relationship with subsequent course performance. find a multiple regression model to predict student achievement in computer literacy course. the content of the course is that teachers use general computer content to conduct online teaching (kuo, 2020). based on the content of the lecture, 100 questions are given, 1 www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 1, no. 2, 2020 28 published by scholink inc. point for each question, and a final online test is taken, which is regarded as the score obtained by the students after taking the course. this research offers the following contributions to the literature: 1) understand the relationship between demographic variables and final test scores. 2) analyze the relationship between students' pre-learning computer experience, clerical software operation ability, learning motivation and computer attitudes and the final test. 3) identify a set of multivariate variables that have a significant relationship with the final test scores to build a predictive model. to verify the research questions, the following null hypothesis are assessed: 1) there are no statistically significant differences at the level of (0.05) between final test scores and demographic variables. 2) there are no statistically significant correlations at the level of (0.05) between final test scores and pre-learning computer experience. 3) there are no statistically significant correlations at the level of (0.05) between final test scores and learning motivation. 4) there are no statistically significant correlations at the level of (0.05) between final test scores and computer use experience. 5) there are no statistically significant correlations at the level of (0.05) between final test scores and computer attitudes. 6) there are no statistically significant correlations at the level of (0.05) between final test scores and clerical software operation ability. 3.1 design of research experiment and evaluation questionnaires this research questionnaire mainly includes four groups: demographic variables, computer learning experience, computer use experience, personal feelings and opinions, and includes a computer attitude scale and a clerical software operation ability scale. demographic variables include five items including gender, age, education, ouk time already enrolled, and whether you have a personal computer. there are two questions for computer learning experience and personal feelings and opinions, and three questions for computer use experience. in addition to the two scales, there are 12 items in the questionnaire. the content of the questionnaire was modified from lin (2007). the instrument of clerical software operation ability scale is the author's own proposition based on teaching experience. the above content is slightly modified by expert opinions. the computer attitude scale uses the scale used by kuo (2020). the contents of the 12-items questionnaire are shown in table 1. the clerical software operation capability scale is shown in table 2. these two scales were measured by a likert scale from 1 strongly disagree to 5 strongly agree. after analysis, the cronbach α of the computer attitude scale for this study was.949, the clerical software operation ability scale was .937. the cronbach α of these two scales is >.9 in this study, which is an excellent reliability level according to the rules of george and mallery (2003). www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 1, no. 2, 2020 29 published by scholink inc. 3.2 participant and data analysis this research is aimed at students who take the course of the “introduction to computers science” based on distance teaching. students are notified and voluntarily encouraged to fill out the questionnaire online before the course begins. it takes approximately 15 minutes to complete the questionnaire. after the course is completed, take the final exam online. the total number of students taking this course is 123, and there are 110 students who took the final exam at the end. 95 of the students who took the final exam filled out the questionnaire. these 95 participants are the sample of this study. the sample size is about 77.2% of the original electives and about 86.4% of the students taking the final exam. the average score of 110 students who participated in the final exam was 83.9 points, while the average score of 95 sample students who participated in the questionnaire was 83.76 points, which is quite close. the computer statistics software spss for windows (version 20.0) is used for the data analysis, and reliability analysis, person correlation test, regression analysis, and analysis of variance are applied to test various hypotheses. table 1. questionnaire content category item demographic variables gender age education ouk time already enrolled do you have a dedicated computer? computer learning experience have you ever taken any computer-related course? what is your main motivation for learning computers? computer use experience how long have you been using a computer? on average, how long do you spend on computer-related equipment (including smartphones) every day? what is your purpose of using computer-related equipment most often? personal feelings and opinions what computer skills are you most familiar with? do you think the technical skills you possess are sufficient? www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 1, no. 2, 2020 30 published by scholink inc. table 2. clerical software operation ability scale questions 1. i can use clerical software to modify the font, size and color of the text in the document. 2. i can use the page border of the clerical software as the cover of the report. 3. i can use the drop caps function. 4. i can insert a page number for the document. 5. i can use bullets and numbers to input data. 6. when aligning the data between line and line, i can use the tab key at keyboard. 7. i can set the positions of tabs in a paragraph. 8. i can use preview printing before printing the document. 9. i can use the function of align center. 10. i can use the indent function to set the paragraph format. 4. discussion 4.1 demographic analysis 4.1.1 gender males have higher academic performance than females, as shown in table 3. further analysis of the anova test results in f=.469, p=.495, and the null hypothesis 1 cannot be rejected. it indicates that there is no obvious gender difference in the final grades of the students. table 3. gender and final test scores gender number percentage average score standard deviation male 47 49.47% 84.9 13.64 female 48 50.53% 82.6 18.53 4.1.2 age because there is no age limit for the selection of course for the ouk students. the age distribution of students who choose to take this course is very wide as shown in table 4. it is found from table 4 that the average scores of the 36-45, 46-55, and >56 age groups are 86.1, 93, and 87.7 points respectively, which are higher than the average score of the whole class, while the youngest 18-25 age group has the lowest average score of 79.1. as a result, it is clear that older students are not inferior to young students in the study of the course toward the “introduction to computers science”. this is different from the current belief that young people’s acceptance of computer literacy is higher than that of older people. this also shows that older students are more serious in their studies than younger students. after the anova test results in f=6.661, p=.012, because the p value was <0.05, null hypothesis 1 can be rejected. it shows that there is obvious age difference in the students’ final grades. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 1, no. 2, 2020 31 published by scholink inc. table 4. age and final test scores age number percentage average score standard deviation 18-25 25 26.32% 79.1 18.9 26-35 33 34.74% 82.0 17.4 36-45 22 23.16% 86.1 12.3 46-55 12 12.63% 93.0 7.6 >56 3 3.16% 87.7 20.5 4.1.3 education since the ouk has no restrictions on students’ qualifications for taking this course, the qualifications of students taking this course are also scattered. table 5 shows the distribution of educational level and final test scores of students who choose course. the results show that the average final grades of secondary school and high school students are 96.3 and 84.8, respectively, which are higher than the average of the whole class. while the scores of college and university students are 79.6 and 78.8, respectively, which are lower than the average of the whole class. and found that academic qualifications and final test scores are inversely proportional, which shows that students with lower academic qualifications are more serious. because ouk adopts registration for admission, as long as citizens who are 18 years old or older can enroll, provide an opportunity for early dropouts to receive higher education, and play the role of lifelong learning, fostering knowledge disadvantaged groups and people enrich knowledge. this one as a result, ouk did achieve this goal. after the anova test results in f=3.538, p=.063, and null hypothesis 1 cannot be rejected. although the p value is greater than 0.05, it is close to 0.05, so it is still one of the important factors affecting the test score. table 5. education and final test scores education number percentage average score standard deviation secondary school 4 4.21% 96.3 3 high school 64 67.37% 84.8 14.7 college 21 22.11% 79.6 21.7 university 6 6.32% 78.8 10.9 4.1.4 ouk time already enrolled ouk has no restrictions on school years. students choose subject arbitrarily by themselves and record their learning status by accumulating credits. there is no grade system like general school, so we use the ouk time already enrolled as the equivalent of general school grades. discuss the relevance of ouk time already enrolled and final test scores. it can be seen from table 6 that the average scores of the two groups of students studying at ouk for one year and three years are 87.8 and 84.7, respectively, www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 1, no. 2, 2020 32 published by scholink inc. which is higher than the class average. it indicates that the students of these two groups are most used to and familiar with the school’s on-line teaching model and learning method. it can also indicate that students in these two groups are studying more seriously. the average score of freshmen is 78 which is the lowest and much lower than the average of the whole class. it may be caused by freshmen who are not used to online learning. this part provides teachers with more attention to freshmen to improve their learning effect. after the anova test results in f=1.456, p=.231, and null hypothesis 1 cannot be rejected. it shows that there is no obvious difference in the ouk time already enrolled for students’ final grades. table 6. ouk time already enrolled and final test scores years number percentage average score standard deviation new student 32 33.68% 78.0 18.6 1 45 47.37% 87.8 14.7 2-3 15 15.79% 84.7 13.7 4-5 2 2.11% 79.5 7.8 >5 1 1.05% 79.0 4.1.5 do you have a dedicated computer? it is found from table 7 that most of the students at ouk have personal computers. this is because ouk is a school mainly based on distance teaching. students usually go online for distance learning. it can be seen from table 7 that the performance of students who do not have a dedicated computer in the course of the “introduction to computers science” is not lower than the students who have a dedicated computer. this is because the content of the course and the quizzes are not actually operated by the computer, but mainly the knowledge content of computer literacy. after the anova test results in f=.429, p=.514, and null hypothesis1 cannot be rejected. it shows that there is no obvious difference in dedicated computers for students’ final grades. table 7. dedicated computers and final test scores dedicated computers number percentage average score standard deviation yes 76 80.00% 83.2 15.7 no 19 20.00% 85.9 18.5 www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 1, no. 2, 2020 33 published by scholink inc. 4.2 descriptive statistics analysis 4.2.1 computer learning experience the discussion of students’ computer learning experience mainly investigates two questions. one is whether students have ever taken any computer-related course? the other is what are the main motivations for students to learn computers? we will discuss in order. 4.2.1.1 have taken in computer-related course have you ever taken any computer-related course? this project is a multiple-choice question. the student can indicate that he has taken computer-related course. whether the student has taken any computer-related course and the final test scores are shown in table 8. it is found from table 8 that the average score of students who have taken computer-related course before class is 84.61, and the average score of students who have not taken is 83.96. these scores are very close to the average score of 83.9 for the whole class. this shows that there is no big difference in whether the final test scores have taken computer-related course before the class. for students who answered that they have taken any computer-related course, further investigate their learning status. the problem of computer-related course that i have taken is multiple choice (a total of 8 options), the results of multiple choices are not helpful for regression analysis. therefore, we need to establish a single score to represent the measurement of a single student in the computer-related course that have been studied before we can perform subsequent regression analysis. the survey results are shown in table 9, where the percentage is the ratio of the number of students who selected this option to the number of students who participated in the questionnaire, and the average score is the average score of the students who selected this option. the selected percentage represents the relative importance of this option. the higher the percentage, the more representative this option is, and the average score of students who choose this option is also an important indicator, so we will multiply the average score and the percentage. the result obtained by multiplication is used as the intensity index of the computer-related course that have been taken. this intensity index is called “pre-learned scores”. the sum of the scores of all computer-related course ever taken by a single student is the student’s score on this question. we call this score “course”. the student’s final grade and “course” were subjected to person correlation test analysis to obtain a correlation coefficient of 0.113. regression analysis was performed to obtain r-square=.013, f-statistics=1.2, p=.276, and null hypothesis 2 could not be rejected. table 8. have you ever taken any computer-related course and final test scores ever taken? number percentage average score standard deviation no 49 51.58% 82.96 17.73 yes 46 48.42% 84.61 14.66 www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 1, no. 2, 2020 34 published by scholink inc. table 9. taken computer course and final test scores taken computer course number percentage average score pre-learned scores basic introduction to computer 24 25.26% 88.1 22.3 clerical processing 31 32.63% 84.4 27.5 briefing design and production 13 13.68% 88.5 12.1 spreadsheet 5 5.26% 94.8 5.0 drawing software 11 11.58% 85.9 9.9 computer animation 3 3.16% 84.7 2.7 programming 1 1.05% 99.0 1.0 other __________ 1 1.05% 50.0 0.5 4.2.1.2 main motivation for learning computers what are your main motivations for learning computers? this question is a multiple-choice question with a total of 9 motivation options. each student’s learning motivation may have many items. the relationship between the main motivation for learning computers and the final test scores is shown in table 10. from table 10, it is found that the main motivation for students to learn computers is “strengthen the ability to organize or handle life affairs” for 73.68% of the sample and “to browse and use the internet function” to account for 54.74%. since this project is a multiple-choice question, most students have many learning motivations, and it is found that the average score of students with multiple learning motivations is higher than the average score of the whole class, but the difference is not significant. in order to perform regression analysis, according to the method of dealing with any computer-related course that have been taken in, we established a motivation option intensity indicator called “motivation scores”. the sum of all the scores of multiple motivations selected by a single student is the student's score on this question. we call this score “motivation”. the student’s final score and “motivation” were analyzed by person correlation test to obtain a correlation coefficient of 0.104. regression analysis was performed to obtain r-square=.008, f-statistics=.780, p=.379. unable to reject null hypothesis 3. it shows that students’ learning motivation has no significant relationship with final test scores. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 1, no. 2, 2020 35 published by scholink inc. table 10. main motivations and final test scores main motivations number percentage average score motivation scores can keep up with the trend and avoid falling behind. 31 32.63% 85.0 27.7 can understand the world where (grandchildren) children live. 9 9.47% 89.0 8.4 it’s an interesting thing to try new things. 47 49.47% 85.0 42.1 strengthen the ability to organize or handle life affairs. 70 73.68% 85.6 63.1 to browse and use the internet function. 52 54.74% 84.2 46.1 want to try the computer’s entertainment features (e.g., computer games). 26 27.37% 85.2 23.3 can connect with people more quickly and conveniently. 39 41.05% 84.3 34.6 go to a community website (e.g., facebook). 30 31.58% 83.3 26.3 other_________. 2 2.11% 69.5 1.5 4.2.2 computer use experience for the discussion of students’ computer use experience, it mainly investigates three questions. one is how long the students have used computers? another is how long do students spend on computer-related equipment (including smartphones) on average every day? the other is what is the purpose of using computer-related equipment most often? we will discuss in order. 4.2.2.1 how long have you been using the computer? it is found from table 11 that 76.84% of the students have used computers for more than five years, and students who have used computers for more than three years have higher average scores for the final test than the class average. it seems that students who have been using computers for longer will have better grades at the end of the course of the “introduction to computers science”. after the anova test results in f=.519, p=.473, and null hypothesis 2 cannot be rejected. it shows that the time that the computer has been used before the class has no obvious difference on the students’ final grades. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 1, no. 2, 2020 36 published by scholink inc. table 11. how long have you been using computer and final test scores years number percentage average score standard deviation <1 6 6.32% 79.2 16.2 <3 11 11.58% 82.4 18.7 <5 5 5.26% 85.2 23.4 >5 73 76.84% 84.3 15.7 4.2.2.2 on average, how long do you spend on computer-related equipment every day table 12 shows the average daily time students spend on computer-related equipment (including smartphones) and final test scores. the answer to this question includes the time spent using smartphones. from table 12, it is found that 25.26% of students spend more than 7 hours a day on computer-related equipment, 42.1% spend more than 5 hours, 74.73% spend more than 3 hours, and 25.26% of the students spent less than 3 hour. observing from the final test scores, the test scores of students did not increase with the use of computer-related equipment. after the anova test results in f=.043, p=.837, and null hypothesis 2 cannot be rejected. it shows that the time spent in using computer-related equipment every day which before the course begins has no significant difference on the students’ final grades. table 12. average daily time students spend on computer-related equipment (including smartphones) and final test scores hours number percentage average score standard deviation <3 24 25.26% 84.1 17.1 <5 31 32.63% 81.4 17.2 <7 16 16.84% 88.1 13.9 >7 24 25.26% 83.5 15.9 4.2.2.3 purpose of using computer related equipment the purpose of students using computer-related equipment and the final test results are shown in table 13. this question is a multiple-choice question. from table 13, 73.68% of the students answered “watch the ouk online teaching”, followed by 56.84% of the students answered “searching information, watching news” and “listening to music or watching videos online”, 51.58% of the answers to the “e-mail”, 42.11% of the answers to the “go to a community website” and 41.05% of the answers to “use software such as clerical processing, briefing design and production, spreadsheet, and drawings”. only 27.37% of the students answered “play online games”, and 22.11% of the students answered “go to the chat room or discussion forum”. observed from the final test scores, the purpose of the students’ use of the computer has no obvious relationship with the final test scores. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 1, no. 2, 2020 37 published by scholink inc. refer to the previous way to deal with multi-option problems, and create a computer-used purpose option score called “purpose scores”. the sum of all the scores of multiple items selected by a single student is the student's score on this question. we call this score “purpose”. the student’s final grade and “purpose” were analyzed by person correlation test, and the correlation coefficient of -0.138 was obtained. regression analysis was performed to obtain r-square=.019, f-statistics=1.799, p=.183, and null hypothesis 4 could not be rejected. explain that the students’ learning purpose has no significant relationship with the final test scores. table 13. the purpose of students using computer-related equipment and final test scores the purpose of using computer-related equipment number percentage average score purpose scores send and receive e-mail. 49 51.58% 84.8 43.7 watch the ouk online teaching. 70 73.68% 83.3 61.4 go to the chat room or discussion forum. 21 22.11% 83.9 18.5 play online games. 26 27.37% 84.5 23.1 search information, watch news. 54 56.84% 83.8 47.6 listen to music or watch videos online. 54 56.84% 85.2 48.4 online shopping. 36 37.89% 82.2 31.2 go to a community website (such as facebook). 40 42.11% 85.0 35.8 use software such as clerical processing, briefing design and production, spreadsheet, and drawings. 39 41.05% 81.8 33.6 other____________. 28 29.47% 87.8 25.9 4.2.3 personal feelings and opinions for the discussion of students’ personal feelings and opinions on learning computers, it mainly investigates two questions. one is what computer skills the students are most familiar with? the other is do students feel that the technological skills they possess are sufficient? we will discuss in order. 4.2.3.1 computer skills most familiar to students students think that they are most familiar with the computer skills and final test scores shown in table 14. this question is a multiple-choice question. from table 14, 78.49% of the students answered that their most familiar computer skills were “clerical processing”, 44.09% of the students answered “basic introduction to computers”, and 32.26% of the students answered “briefing design and production”. in response to “basic introduction to computers” and other higher-skilled student groups, such as “spreadsheets”, “drawing software” and “programming”, the average final test score is much higher www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 1, no. 2, 2020 38 published by scholink inc. than the average class score. among them, 3 students answered “other”, their average score was 58.7 points, which was far lower than the average score of the whole class, 83.9 points. “other” may be professional information system operation skills at work, such as counter registration and pricing staff in large hospitals, or the cashier in the store, etc., said that students familiar with keyboard and mouse operation skills similar to this type have no advantage over ordinary people in the course of the “introduction to computers science”. this phenomenon is the same as brock’s et al. (1999) research results. the use of computers only in the workplace does not affect computer literacy, because individuals may only learn one application, such as an electronic form or a single word processing program, and may even only know how to turn on the computer. “computer” in simple english, they are typists who moved to detached by keyboards and never learned about the computer as we have defined computer literacy. refer to the previous way to deal with multi-choice questions, establish a computer skills score that students are most familiar with is called “skills scores”. the sum of all the scores of the most familiar computer skills selected by a single student is the student's score on this question. we call this score “skills”. the student’s final grade and “skills” were subjected to person correlation test analysis to obtain a correlation coefficient of 0.103. regression analysis was performed to obtain r-square=.011, f-statistics=.995, p=.321, and null hypothesis 2 could not be rejected. this shows that there is no significant relationship between the computer skills that students are familiar with before the study and the final test scores. table 14. computer skills most familiar to students and final test scores most familiar computer skills number percentage average score skills scores basic introduction to computer 41 44.09% 87.6 38.6 clerical processing 73 78.49% 83.6 65.6 briefing design and production 30 32.26% 83.6 27.0 spreadsheet 6 6.45% 86.2 5.6 drawing software 4 4.30% 94.8 4.1 computer animation 1 1.08% 87.0 0.9 programming 1 1.08% 94.0 1.0 other __________ 3 3.23% 58.7 1.9 4.2.3.2 do you think the technical skills you possess are sufficient? this question investigates whether the students think they have enough technical skills they have? the results are shown in table 15. it is found from table 15 that 10.53% of the students think that they possess sufficient technical skills, and 89.47% of the students think that they are not enough. the average score of the former group is 88.3 points, which is greater than the latter, and it is much higher www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 1, no. 2, 2020 39 published by scholink inc. than the average score of the whole class. for the student groups who think that they do not have enough technological skills, we further investigate the course or training that students think they need. the results are shown in table 16. from table 16, students who answered that the higher-level skills were insufficient, their average score is higher than the class score, for example: students who answered “drawing software” and “computer animation”. in addition, 64.21% of students think they need “briefing design and production”, 54.74% think “spreadsheet”, 48.42% think “clerical processing”, it can be seen that most of ouk students think they need to learn office software. like kuo’s (2020) research, this part can be used as a reference for decision makers in ouk course. table 15. do you think the technical skills you possess are sufficient? sufficient? number percentage average score standard deviation yes 10 10.53% 88.3 12.07 no 85 89.47% 83.2 16.65 table 16. what course or training do you think you need most? the need most course number percentage average score basic introduction to computer 28 29.47% 82.4 clerical processing 46 48.42% 81.2 briefing design and production 61 64.21% 83.5 spreadsheet 52 54.74% 83.7 drawing software 45 47.37% 85.6 computer animation 33 34.74% 87.2 programming 0 0.00% 0 4.3 computer attitude the student’s final grade and the score of the computer attitude scale were analyzed by person correlation test to obtain a correlation coefficient of 0.261. regression analysis was performed to obtain r-square=.068, f-statistics=6.793, p=.011. below 95% confidence level, null hypothesis 5 was rejected. this shows that there is a clear relationship between computer attitude and student’s final grade. 4.4 clerical software operation ability scale the student’s final grade and the score of the clerical software operation ability scale were analyzed by person correlation test to obtain a correlation coefficient of 0.047. regression analysis was performed to obtain r-square=.002, f-statistics=.21, p=.648, and null hypothesis 6 could not be rejected. this shows that there is no significant relationship between the measurement of clerical software operation ability and the final test scores of students before learning this course. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 1, no. 2, 2020 40 published by scholink inc. 5. prediction model for final test from the results of the discussion of the individual independent variable and the dependent variable above, it is found that in terms of demographic variables, “age” p<0.05 has the greatest impact on the final test scores, followed by “education” p=0.063, and other variables have no significant impact on the computers science course based on distance teaching. in the analysis of descriptive statistics, it is found that only “computer attitude scale measurement” has significant impact on the final test scores on the computers science course based on distance teaching, and the other variables have no significant impact. however, afzal et al. (2010) found that there is no significant relationship between individual independent variables and dependent variables. but, there is a significant relationship between the model combining six independent variables and dependent variables. rex and roth (1998) found that none of the three measures of computer experience can be used as an important predictor of performance. however, after combining the computer literacy scores, there is a significant relationship between the four independent variable models and learning performance. therefore, this study hope to establish a set of prediction models that has an important relationship with the final test score is based on the “introduction to computers science” course based on distance teaching from all the independent variables discussed in this research. after multiple regression analysis, a predictive model is established. the multiple regression coefficients of the prediction model are shown in table 17. this model combined seven independent variables, including “age”, “education”, “computer attitude measurement”, “motivation”, “course”, “clerical software operation ability scale measurement” and “skills”. table 17 shows the results of regression analyses with the values of r-square=.238, f-statistics=3.889, and significance=.001. the results reveal that the model is significant (p<.05) and there is a strong relationship between independent and dependent variables. table 17. prediction model for final test dependent variables unstandardized coefficient std. coefficient t-value sig. estimated value of b std. error beta distribution (constant) 64.108 16.080 3.987 .000 education -7.861 2.381 -.343 -3.301 .001 age 3.296 1.444 .228 2.282 .025 motivation .307 .161 .188 1.906 .060 clerical software operation ability measurement -.049 .264 -.021 -.187 .852 computer attitude measurement .423 .157 .307 2.695 .008 skills -.017 .050 -.035 -.330 .742 course .129 .073 .188 1.764 .081 r-square .238 f-statistic 3.889 significance .001 www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 1, no. 2, 2020 41 published by scholink inc. 6. results, limitations, and future research this study explores the relationship between the final test scores and factors, including “demographic variables”, “computer learning experience”, “computer use experience”, “personal feeling and opinions”, “computer attitude scale measurement” and “clerical software operation ability scale measures” in the “introduction to computers science” course based on distance teaching. in terms of the relationship between individual independent variables and final test scores, there is obvious age difference. the computer attitude scale measurement and academic performance show a statistically significant correlation. this result is similar to klein et al. (1993), but different from hignite and echternacht (1992). in addition, there is no direct statistically significant association between the other independent variables and the final test result. in the questionnaire questions of this research, there are many questions with multiple options. there is no way to perform regression analysis on the data of such multiple options. this research uses weighting to quantify each option in order to obtain a single quantification value of the students in this multiple options question data. a final test score prediction model with 7 independent variables is established in the “introduction to computers science” course based on distance teaching. this is just like previous studies (afzal et al., 2010; rex & roth, 1998), combining some independent variables that have no significant relationship between individual independent variables and dependent variables to establish a significant relationship between the independent variable model and academic performance relationship. this study has limitations. only 95 students participated in the questionnaire. the amount of data is slightly insufficient. if we can collect more classes or more semesters of accumulated data, in short, increase the amount of research data, the results obtained will be more practical. another limitation is that for the data of multiple-choice questions, it is not possible to directly perform regression analysis. in this study, the weighted method is used to generate the option intensity scores of multiple-choice questions to perform regression analysis. this part increases the load of data consolidation and analysis, but it is also the study’s important contribution. from the above results, we know that there are complex and important relationships between factors such as pre-learning computer experience and computer motivation and the learning performance in the “introduction to computers science” course based on distance teaching. nowadays, in the era of big data, artificial intelligence technology is booming, and it has a strong ability to analyze and calculate complex multiple independent variables and dependent variables. if we can collect enough data, we can consider using machine learning, such as support vector machines, artificial neural networks or deep learning, are used to build predictive models. http://eds.a.ebscohost.com.rpa.lib.nknu.edu.tw:81/eds/detail/detail?vid=2&sid=990b9cec-0173-448b-b104-af1ed96d7d89@sessionmgr4008&bdata=jmxhbmc9emgtdhcmc2l0zt1lzhmtbgl2zszzy29wzt1zaxrl#toc www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 1, no. 2, 2020 42 published by scholink inc. 7. conclusion due to the diverse sources of ouk students, teachers have insufficient understanding of students’ knowledge background, computer experience before class, and learning motivation. in the course of “introduction to computer science” based on distance learning, it is necessary to evaluate students’ computer experience and learning motivation before the class. according to the results of this research, students can fill out the 7 independent variable questionnaires used in this research before class. then, the teacher can predict the student's final academic performance at the beginning of the class based on the prediction model. this can help teachers obtain early warning effects and then provide counseling strategies for students who may not get enough grades at the end of the semester in the “introduction to computer science” course based on distance learning. in addition to establishing a predictive model that is significantly related to final learning performance, this study also found that although 33% of the students have studied “clerical processing”, 14% have studied “briefing design and production” and 5% have studied “spreadsheet”. and 78% of students said that their most familiar computer skills were “clerical processing”, 32% were for “briefing design and production” and 6% were for “spreadsheet”. but 48% of students still think that the computer course they need most are “clerical processing”, 64% are for “briefing design and production” and 55% are for “spreadsheet”. it can be seen that a large part of the students at ouk are unfamiliar with general office software and feel the need. this result is the same as the kuo’s (2020) study. similarly, in response to the government of the republic of china (taiwan) is promoting the open document format (odf) through its odf-cns15251 policy. and to meet the needs of students, it is recommended that ouk launch libre office free software-related course, such as writer, impress, and calc software. allow ouk students to better meet the expectations and goals of the government and society, and make themselves more competitive in the workplace and adapt to society. references afzal, h., ali, i., khan, m., & hamid, k. 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(2012). attitudes toward statistics in medical postgraduates: measuring, evaluating and monitoring. bmc med. educ., 12, 117. https://doi.org/10.1186/1472-6920-12-117 https://doi.org/10.1080/08886504.1998.10782238 https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/07475632 https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/07475632/30/supp/c https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2013.09.002 https://doi.org/10.1016/s0747-5632(99)00020-5 https://doi.org/10.2307/1131201 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2013.01.029 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2013.01.029 https://doi.org/10.1186/1472-6920-12-117 frontiers of contemporary education issn 2690-3520 (print) issn 2690-3539 (online) vol. 2, no. 2, 2021 www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce 21 original paper how contextual teaching and learning (ctl) correlates with students’ learning creativities iswan 1 *, herwina bahar 1 , farihen 1 & riza yanti 1 1 universitas muhammadiyah jakarta, south jakarta, indonesia * iswan, universitas muhammadiyah jakarta, south jakarta, indonesia received: june 1, 2021 accepted: june 18, 2021 online published: september 2, 2021 doi:10.22158/fce.v2n2p21 url: http://dx.doi.org/10.22158/fce.v2n2p21 abstract this research aimed to investigate whether or not there was an effect of contextual teaching and learning (ctl) model towards the improvement of students’ learning creativities. a total number of 40 students of 4 th grade of public primary school lengkong karya, south tangerang, indonesia, participated in this study. this was a quantitative research with descriptive quantitative method. the hypothesis of the study stated that there was an influence of contextual teaching and learning (ctl) model towards 4 th grade students’ learning creativities improvement. the results of the research revealed that there was a significant influence of ctl towards students’ learning creativities in which in the significant level of 5%, there was a significant correlation between variable x and y. additionally, in the significant level of 1%, rtable was lower than rxy (0.376<0.468), hence, at this level, there was a significant correlation between variable x and y. based on the statistical test, it was concluded that learning model of contextual teaching and learning (ctl) had significant influence towards the learning creativities of 4 th graders of public primary school lengkong karya. south tangerang. indonesia. keywords contextual teaching and learning (ctl) model, students learning creativity 1. introduction education process is one of the ways to advance a nation or a country. through an education process, a nation will be able to develop all potentials and skills owned by its citizenship. the advancing of education will also be able to change the paradigm of a developed country. thus, humans need education in their lives since it will open the mind-set from “do not know” to become “know” and also change one good condition to become much better. the development of learning in the primary school www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 2, 2021 22 published by scholink inc. is varied with many problems starting from the smallest to the biggest ones. therefore, all problems both at school and in the class, must be solved immediately, such as: a). students’ lack of focus to the materials discussed by the teacher; b). time efficiency, c). students’ creativity of what tasks given by the teacher. based on those three problems afore-mentioned, teachers should put more attention and focus to their pupils to anticipate one of the problems happens, so that the learning process can be received by the students well. the successful of the achievement of a subject’s competence depends on several aspects. one of the most influencing facets is the way the teacher runs a learning process. nowadays, the learnings tend to be centralized to the teacher which applies a method of delivering talks or speech. the students are less actively involved in that kind of learning process. as the consequence, level of students’ understanding to the learning material is still low. masih berpusat pada guru dengan bercerita atau berceramah. besides, teaching media is rarely used, hence the learning becomes boring and less meaningful. there are many ways to make the students become active which is usually called as “the equipment of active learning”, namely: classrooms settings, learning partnerships, doing analysis of students’ needs, encouraging students’ interests, understanding and involving students in the process of learning, creating study-groups, selecting appropriate tasks and strategies, facilitating a discussion, having experiment activities, applying role-playing, saving time and controlling any excessive students’ activity. in a process of learning, a teacher will choose good techniques in delivering the lessons in the class. because, if a teacher is unable or is not ready for applying a technique in the class, the atmosphere of the class will be monotonous, hence, the students need to be given new condition so that they will not be bored in following the lessons. however, based on the results of initial observation of this research to the class teacher of 4 th graders of public primary school lengkong karya, south tangerang, indonesia, level of these students’ creativity is still low while in fact, creativity is a potential owned by every person. the causes why creativity cannot be developed optimally because the person is accustomed with an orderly thought limited by the possibilities to respond and solve a problem freely. as well as the students whose creativities do not develop since they are influenced by some teachers’ paradigms in teaching in the class which argue that a learning process is only limited to learning, tending to lead their students to do something to learn on how to find that thing not teaching the basic concepts of the procedures, hence, at this stage, learning focuses on understanding the concepts of mastering procedures to build activities and creativities of the students. the phenomenon presented, above are also experienced by the 4 th graders of public primary school lengkong karya south tangerang. indonesia, with total number of 40 students. in the learning process, these students were only focusing on the materials without involving their creativities. one of the causes was lack of variation in the process of learning. referring to this finding, this research is aimed to investigate students’ learning process and creativities through a model of contextual teaching and learning (ctl). because this model will guide the students to be more active in learning and even www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 2, 2021 23 published by scholink inc. further, it will also influence the students’ creativities of learning. 2. formulation of the problems based on the background above, the problems of this research are formulated as follows: 1) how did the implementation of contextual teaching and learning (ctl) model to the 4 th graders of public primary school lengkong karya south tangerang, indonesia? 2) how was the influence of this model towards those students’ creativities? 3. the objectives of the research 1) to find out and analyze the way contextual teaching and learning (ctl) model being implemented to the 4 th graders of public primary school lengkong karya. south tangerang. indonesia. 2) to know and analyze the effects of this model toward those students’ learning creativities. 4. review of the literature a learning model of contextual teaching and learning (ctl), the explanation of contextual teaching and learning (ctl) model. the word contextual comes from the word “context” which means “relationship, contexts, condition and contextual condition”. thus, contextual teaching and learning (ctl) can be defined as a learning related to a certain condition, in general, contextual contains the meaning of: regarding with, relevant, having direct relation or correlation, following contexts, which bring meaning and purposes. contextual teaching and learning (ctl) is a concept which helps teachers to relate the content of a subject to the real world, and motivate students to build a relationship between knowledge and its application in their lives as members of families, citizens and workers. in 1916, dewey proposed a curriculum and teaching methodology applying based on students’ interests and experiences. contextual learning was firstly applied to school students in america, proposed by john dewey. beside the definition mentioned above, there are several definitions of contextual learning given by several scholars, and some of them are as follows: johnson (2014, p. 14), contextual teaching and learning (ctl), is a learning strategy focusing on the process of students’ fully in order to find out the materials discussed and relate that subject with the situation of a real-life so that the students will be able to apply that in their lives. further, according to jonshon (2014, p. 65), ctl is a full system. ctl consists of interrelated parts, and if these parts are connected one to another, then it will give effects more than the spreading parts. in reaching this goal, the system should compose 8 components, namely: creating meaningful interrelationships, doing meaningful actions, thinking critically and creatively, helping individuals to grow and develop, hitting high standard, and using authentic evaluation. it is quoted from us department of education office of vocational and adult education and the national school of work office, in muslich (2009, p. 105), contextual teaching and learning (ctl), is defined as a teaching and learning which assists teachers to relate learning materials with students’ www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 2, 2021 24 published by scholink inc. real world, and encouraging students to form a relationship between knowledge that they own with its application in their real daily lives. students’ knowledge and skills got are gotten from their efforts to reconstruct new knowledge and skill while learning. according to trianto (2010, p. 108), the term of learning model has wider meaning than strategy, method or procedure. learning model covers an approach of a wide and total learning model. learning model is based on the learning theories of constructivism, in which the learning is started by presenting real problems which require cooperation among students to solve the cases. contextual learning can be said as a learning approach which admits and shows scientific conditions of knowledge. through the relationships inside and outside the class, a contextual learning will make experiences become more relevant and meaningful for students in building knowledge that they will apply in long-life learning. thus, it is clear that the benefits of contextual learning will create classes where the students in those rooms will become active, not just passively observe and be responsible to their learnings. the process of contextual learning (contextual teaching and learning (ctl), is a learning concept which will be able to help teachers correlate the subjects taught with the real-world situations of the students and support students build the relationship between the knowledge they have with its application in their lives as members of families and society. while howey r, keneth in rusman (2010, p. 190), defined ctl as a learning which provides possibilities of learning process in which the students use their understandings and academic competence in various contexts both inside and outside the schools in order to solve problems either as simulation or real; as individuals or in groups. according to sanjaya (2006, p. 255), contextual teaching and learning (ctl), is a learning strategy focusing on students’ involvement process fully to find out the materials learned and relate them with the situation of real lives so that the students will be encouraged to apply them in their daily lives. a model of contextual teaching and learning (ctl), is a learning system based on the philosophy that the students are able to grasp the lessons if they catch the meanings contained in the school assignments as long as they can relate new information with the knowledge and skills they previously possessed. based on those several discussions on contextual teaching and learning (ctl) model, it can be concluded that dapat disimpulkan bahwa contextual teaching and learning (ctl), is a learning emphasized on students’ fully involvement process in important activities which helps them to relate the lessons with the real-life contexts they face. the purposes of contextual teaching and learning (ctl) model, there are several purposes stated on sites, i.e., a. ctl learning model, has the purpose to motivate the students to understand the meaning of the lessons learned by connecting those lessons with their daily life’s contexts so that they will have knowledge or skills which can be applied reflectively from one problem to another; b. this learning model has the objective of not only inviting the students to memorize but also to understand; c. this model of learning is focusing on developing students’ interests of experiences; d. this ctl model is aimed to train the students to think critically and skillful in processing knowledge in order to find out www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 2, 2021 25 published by scholink inc. and create something benefit for themselves and others; e. this ctl model has the goal to make the learnings become more productive and meaningful; f. this ctl model invites the students to relate academic materials with their daily lives; g. this ctl model has the purposes to make the students, individually, able to find and transfer complex information and they will use that information become their belongings. the strategy of contextual teaching and learning (ctl) model, based on the opinion of trianto (2010, p. 109), curriculum and instruction based on the strategy of contextual teaching and learning (ctl) should be designed to stimulate 5 basic of learnings: a. relating, is a learning in a context of life experience which is real or in the beginning before that knowledge gained by the students; b. experiencing, at this stage, the students might have no experience directly related to that concept. however, at this part the teacher should be able to give hands-on activities to the students so that they will be able to build their knowledge; c. applying, this strategy is learning by applying concepts when they are related to the activities of solving hands-on problems and projects; d. cooperating, learning together in the contexts of sharing, responding, and communicating with other students is the main instructional strategy in the contextual teaching; e. transferring, refers to teaching strategy defined as using knowledge in a new context or situation which is not solved or accomplished in the class. the components of contextual teaching and learning (ctl) model, according to trianto (2013, p. 145), contextual teaching and learning (ctl), is a learning model which has 7 components used as the basis for running the process of learning. those 7 components are explained as follows: a. constructivism, is a process of building or arranging new knowledge in the structures of students’ cognitive based on experiences, in the application of this component through ctl, the students are encouraged to be able to reconstruct their own knowledge through real experiences; b. inquiry, refers to a learning process based on searching and finding through systemic thoughts process. knowledge is not a number of facts resulted from memorizing it is a process of finding. through a systemic thoughts process, the students are expected to have the characteristics of scientific, rationale, and logic, in which all of them are needed as the basic for building creativities; c. questioning, asking questions can be seen as the reflection of each individual’s eagerness; while answering questions reflects the ability of someone in thinking. in a productive learning, the activity of addressing questions will be very important to: digging information of students’ abilities in mastering the subjects learned; raising students’ motivation; stimulating the eagerness of students towards something; focusing on certain students; guiding students to find or conclude something. in each learning stage and process, the activity of questioning is almost always be used. therefore, the ability of teachers to increase various techniques of questioning is definitely important. learning community, the concept of learning community in ctl, suggest that the results of learnings are obtained through the cooperation with others. that cooperation can be carried out in various types both in a formal study group and in a scientific environment. the results of learnings are gained from sharing with other people, friends, or groups in which those who have known will tell the ones who do www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 2, 2021 26 published by scholink inc. not know before, those who are experienced will share their experiences to the ones who do not have any experience. these are the basic concept of learning community, the community that shares to each other. modeling, is a process of learning by showing an example to be imitated by other students. for instance, teacher gives the example on how to draw a correct rectangle. modeling is also important in the learning of ctl model since through modeling the students will be avoided from any abstract lesson. reflection, is a process of keeping any lessons learned by listing back the learning events or experiences that they have followed. through reflection process, those learning experiences will be entered into students’ cognitive structure in which in the end, those experiences will become parts of the knowledge the students own. it might also happen that the students will renew the knowledge they have created, or add the insights of their knowledge. assessment, refers to the process taken by the teachers to collect information about students’ learning progress. this assessment is needed to find out whether or not the students really study; and whether the learning experiences the students had, gave positive impacts to the development of both their intellectual and mental. this assessment is carried out continuously along the learning process. thus, the focus is on the process of learning not the output of learning. the elements of contextual teaching and learning (ctl), trianto (2013, p. 144), contextual teaching and learning (ctl) has five elements which are constructivist, namely: activating, acquiring, understanding, applying, reflecting knowledge to the development strategy of that knowledge. the characteristics of contextual teaching and learning (ctl), according to sanjaya (2006, p. 225), there are 5 most important characters in the learning process applied the approach of ctl, namely: in ctl, learning is a process of activating the existed knowledge, hence, it means that what will be learned will not be separated from the knowledge learned, therefore the knowledge gained by the students is something total having correlation one to another. the learning of ctl is studying in order to obtain and add new knowledge. new knowledge is obtained deductively, it means that the learning is started from discussing whole aspects, and then analyzing the datils. the understanding of achieved knowledge is not to be memorized but to be understood and believed, for example the way of asking others’ respond about the knowledge someone has and based on that response, the knowledge is being developed. applying knowledge and experiences. both knowledge and experiences have to be applied into students’ lives, so that the changing of students’ behaviors will be seen. doing reflection is a strategy of developing knowledge. it is done as the feed-back to the process of improving the strategy. further, sofyan and amiruddin (2007, p. 16), explain that the characters of are: cooperating, supporting each other, fun learning not boring, learning and full of spirit, reintegrated learning, using various sources, active learners, sharing with friends, and critical and creative learners. the characters of ctl approach, based on the opinions given by the scholars described above, it can be concluded that: learning is a process of activating knowledge, acquiring knowledge, understanding knowledge, critical and creative thinking, authentic assessment, applying knowledge, i.e., the knowledge the learners have must be able to be applied in students’ lives, and reflecting knowledge to the strategy of www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 2, 2021 27 published by scholink inc. developing that knowledge. the application of contextual teaching and learning (ctl) approach in the class, trianto (2013, p. 144), broadly said that the steps of applying ctl in the classroom are as follows: developing the thoughts that the students’ learning will be more meaningful by having independent working, having self-finding, and reconstructing new knowledge and skills by themselves; doing any furthest inquiry activity for all topics; developing students’ eagerness through questioning; creating learning community (learning in groups); presenting model as a sample of learning; doing reflection in the end of the learning session; administering authentic assessment with various ways. . the merits and demerits of contextual teaching and learning (ctl), sanjaya (2006, p. 260), the advantages contextual teaching and learning (ctl) model are: placing students as the subjects of learning which means that the students are the ones who take active roles in each process of learning by finding and digging the lessons by themselves, the students learn through study-groups, discussing, receiving and giving to each other, connecting the lessons with real lives, basing the competence on experiences, getting self-satisfaction at the end of the lesson. the actions and attitudes are built based on self-awareness, the knowledge owned by each individual is always developed due to the experiences the students have, the students are responsible in monitoring and developing their own lessons, the learnings happen in any place under different contexts and settings referring to the needs, the successful of learning is measured in numerous ways, such as through evaluation process, students’ creations, performances, recordings, observations, interviews, and so on. besides the strengths discussed above, contextual teaching and learning (ctl), model also has disadvantages that must be considered as follows: in a contextual learning, students are seen as developing individuals, each student tends to learn new things and full of challenges, learning for students is a process of finding correlation and relationship between new things to the existed ones, learning for students is a process of completing existed schemes or creating the new ones. based on both merits and demerits of contextual teaching and learning (ctl) explained above, it can be assumed that ctl has many strengths in which through direct experiences the students will gain more knowledge, so that the development of the students will be integrated not only in the aspect of cognitive but also in affective and motoric facets. besides those advantages, ctl also has drawbacks in which the teachers are required to be able to understand this type of learning model deeply unless the lessons will not be successful. the definition of creativity, the term of creativity contains numerous meanings, depending on someone’s view to analyze it. each interpretation about creativity is adjusted with the background of the analysis, since there is no one general definition represents the whole meanings. in the beginning, in the research about creativity, this term is usually connected to creative behaviors. there are also many definitions stated on the literature, however there is no specific definition given by each version. shaleh (2008, p. 271), argues that creativity is an ability to overcome problem which make the person solves the real ideas or creates something adaptive (functional) which is fully developed, while according to j.p. guilford cited by shaleh (2008, p. 271), creativity is said as divergent thoughts, i.e., www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 2, 2021 28 published by scholink inc. genuine mental activity, pure and new, different from daily patterns and it creates more than one solution. the definition of creativity based on james j. gallagher, it is stated on rahmawati and kurniati (2010, p. 13), that creativity is a mental process of individuals in the form of ideas or new products, or combining those two which will be stuck on those persons. further, supriadi in rahmawati and kurniati (2010, p. 13), creativity refers to the ability of a person to create new thing, it is either in the form of ideas or creations which relatively different from existed one. while according to semiawan in rahmawati and kurniati (2010, p. 14), creativity is the ability to give new ideas and apply them in solving problems. chaplin also cited by rahmawati and kurniati (2010, p. 14), defines creativity as the ability to produce new things in arts, or in machinery, or in solving problems through new methods. rhodes explains in munandar (2012, p. 20), that creativity can be formulated in the terms of person, process and product. creativity can also be reviewed from personal’s condition and “pressing” environment. rhodes mentioned four types of creativity’s definitions as four p’s of creativity: person, process, press, and product. these 4 ps are interrelated in which creative persons who involve themselves in creative process with the supports and pressures from environment, and resulting creative products. that definition is in line with the one argued by the ministry of national education, research and development centre board for curriculum development (2010, p. 10), which stated that creative is a process of thought and doing something to produce new ways or results from something that has already possessed. munandar (2014, p. 45), gives his opinion that creativity is the expression of individual’s uniqueness in the interaction with the environment. creative expression is the reflection of that individual’s originality. from this unique expression, the new ideas and innovative products are expected. according utami munandar in idris (2015, p. 144), creativity is a process reflected in smooth, flexible, and original thoughts. while hurlock in idris (2015, p. 144), said that creativity is a process which resulting something new, either ideas or objects in new forms or arrangements, that creativity is the ability of someone in creating something new based on experiences, insights, or his/her relationships with other people and environment. further, jonshon (2012, p. 213), explained that creativity is human’s basic characters, a natural process flowers that bloom at the end of green stalks. creativity is like blood. blood is human’s spiritual facts without having to seek for it. additionally, cameron in jonshon (2012, p. 213), described that creativity is a natural creation of life. humans themselves are creations. and in turns, humans are destined to continue their creativities by making themselves be creative. in its process, the results of creativities according to torrance, covers original ideas, different views, solving problems, combining ideas back or looking at new relationships in those ideas. torrance described further that there are four components of creativity that can be accessed, namely: fluency, which means the ability to deliver ideas, flexibility, refers to the ability of resulting various ideas, elaboration, as the ability to develop or express an idea, originality, which is defined as the ability to create uncommon ideas. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 2, 2021 29 published by scholink inc. seifert (2012, p. 156), explained the view of creativity as branching thoughts, the ability of resulting a variation consists of various solutions which are strange and not common, to a problem, however, in facts, some situations and problems need those types of thoughts to reach best ways-out. this opinion is supported by yurisaldi (2010, p. 2), who argued that creativity can create something new so that it will have more values than before. branching thoughts have four important features, namely: proficiency which refers to the ability to create various responses without any external interruption toward a problem-matter from various views without focusing on one certain angle, originality, is the ability to create a unique or an uncommon response, wide, as the ability to enrich or add various details towards a response. besides, creativity is also defined as the results of learnings which are verbally expressed and the practice of creative thinking ability can be referred to the levels of students’ ability to think in finding most, the ones which are relevant, answers or problems that are flexible, original, and detailed based on provided data and information. creative behavior covers eagerness, imaginative, risk-taker, and respect. based on the opinions of the scholars above, it can be concluded that creativity is the result of learning expressed both verbally and practically due to the ability of thinking creatively and creative behaviors are formed from whole ability of a person reflecting fluency, flexibility, ability to elaborate, original, the ability of evaluation, eagerness, feeling challenged by pluralism, brave in taking risks, and respective in which its process is effected by the supports of the environment. 4.1 the pillar of creativity to children according to al-khalili (2005, p. 50), there are several pillars of creativity and also the factors influenced the personality of a child, his environment, life and way of growing. these all are built through several pillars, including: several ways taken by children to express their various thoughts, enjoying experiences, and those different activities are important things and big pillars in building creativities in children, the beginning of creativity is signed by obtaining several things and producing new forms, and also the ability to solve parts of the problems or games in the middle of activities; playing is the basic important pillar for creative thinking. in childhood stage, a child is able to speak, play, ask questions, imitate, adopt, follow, lie, joke, joy, sing, invent, create something, imagine, paint, and read. these all facets represent children’s creativities. therefore, creativities are many in number, including: environment, society, schools, families, the children themselves, its growing and caring methods. 4.2 the characteristics of creativity rahmawati and kurniati (2010, p. 15), explained that one of the necessary aspects in creativity is understanding its characters. there 24 characters of personalities found in various studies, as follows: open to new experiences, flexible in thinking and giving responses, free in stating opinions and expressing feelings, respecting fantasy, interested in any creative activity, having self-opinion without being effected by others, having big eagerness, tolerant to different opinions and uncertain situations, having bravery to take risks, self-confident and independent, owning responsibilities and commitments www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 2, 2021 30 published by scholink inc. to tasks, diligent and not easy to get bored, finding ways to overcome problems, rich of initiative, sensitive to surroundings, oriented more on today and future than past, having self-esteem and stable emotion, interested in abstract things, complex, holistic, containing puzzles, having original ideas, having broad interests, using spare-time for benefitted activities and constructive for self-development, critical to others’ opinions, preferring to address good questions, having awareness of moral-ethics and high-aesthetics. with those characteristics, it can be seen that the personality of creative person is very varied and fluctuating. for this reason, the presence of teachers as advisors are very important to help students to balance the development of their personalities, so that creative children can be developed optimum, not only on their intelligence but also on their social and emotional. the characteristics of creative persons according to al-khalili (2005, p. 53), there are several characteristics of creative persons, namely: a. their sensitivities to various problems are very big. by possessing humble character, creative persons can become very sensitive toward various big problems, and active in solving those matters by finding out new styles and steps; b. creative persons are able to broaden their networks of thoughts, from something usual to be extra-ordinary, and having big ability in giving different responses in facing numerous situations, thoughts, and problems; c. sensitive to beauty. this beauty is formed from great variety of privileges and benefits. this sensitivity is able to move hearts which might create big strengths from those hearts to think better and be productive. 4.3 the important values in creativity according to treffinger in reni akbar hawadi, et al. (2001, p. 13), in life, creativity is very important, since it is a meaningful ability in human’s life and none of the people who does not have any creativity. there several important values of creativities in real-life as follows: the ability to produce something as ideas or real creations in handling the problems in life. a creative person will be able to apply various and numerous approaches to encounter a problem. the potential of creativity, someone will show the results of his/her actions, performance/creations, through meaningful and qualified ideas. the levels of quality and performance, creations, ideas and actions of humans can be measured from how high the levels, obviously, a creative creation resulted from someone’s creativity will create valuable personal’s satisfaction. creativity is important in developing his/her life, by creativity owned, someone will reach his/her optimum self-development and he/she will use their ideas to make new creations for running his/her life. creativity is necessary to be understood by the educators (teachers) especially in regards with their responsibilities as teachers in guiding and “escorting” the learners to optimum growth and development. the improvement of human resources in this globalization and reformation era shows how important the creativity is to be optimally managed and developed. this is a challenge for serious caring of related parties in developing human resources, especially in the education field. it will be more meaningful if the students, in their responsibilities as learners, to manage, develop, and improve both of their academic and non-academic creativities. therefore, the potentialities of students’ creativities will be expressed and actualized optimally. creativities are also important in the process of www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 2, 2021 31 published by scholink inc. teaching and learning, especially for teachers. teachers are required to be able to create fun and conducive learning atmosphere so that the students will be stimulated to be keen on the materials taught, joyful, and confident to express opinions, and also to do any trial which requires new experiences. this thing is important for teachers in the process of teaching and learning in order to give chances to students to reach the highest achievement. creative as the operations of creativity concepts have significant values in individual’s life. conny in reni akbar hawadi, et al. (2001, p. 15), stated that there four important reasons why someone needs to study creatively, including: creative learning helps students to be successful even when the parents/teachers are not around, creative learning creates the possibilities to solve problems in the future, which are unpredictable before, creative learning will create big impacts to someone’s life which will influence and change their personal careers which will support their body and souls’ health, creative learning will make big self-satisfaction and happiness. in a wider sense, creative learning will create new ideas and creations. 4.4 the benefits of creativities to children according to albert einstein, creativity gives great benefits to both individuals and bigger society. the benefits of creativity are: making life becomes more beautiful, creativity will make a happier life since the living will be surrounded by varied things and not monotonous. running routine activities will make people bored sooner, not excited, and passive. doing creative varied things will give something new and fresh. besides schooling, the learners should try various new positive things. increasing appreciation to other people’s ideas. creative persons will absolutely accept and appreciate the opinions of others, whoever those persons are. improving motivation and life spirit. creativities will improve people’s spirit and motivation in life. creative persons will not be afraid of losing opportunities since they are able to create their own. creative people will never be afraid of facing problems since they are able to solve any matter with their creativities. as one of the factors of business’ succeed, day by day, creativities are needed more in business world. in business, creativities become one of the factors for its successfulness. all sectors of business need creativities, starting from creating goods and services, producing techniques, marketing strategy, payment method, and keeping the loyalty of buyers to continuously use the produtcs. with the growing of business competition, creativities are obviously needed for an entrepreneur to win the competition. creativities become the beginning of innovation and changings. innovation is the results of empowering certain creativities to become a way, process, product, or new sources, different from the previous ones. improving human’s quality and level of life, creativities play big roles to improve human’s welfare and life quality. one of the characters of crative creation is giving social benefits since if it does not have any benefit then it will be meaningless. 4.5 driving and inhibiting factors of creativity the ability of students’ creativities can be developed and affected by both driving and inhibiting factors. contextual teaching and learning (ctl) model is a process of learning emphasized on the involvement of students fully in crucial activities which help them to relate the learning materials with www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 2, 2021 32 published by scholink inc. real-life contexts they face. contextual teaching and learning (ctl) model will open opportunity to dig students’ potentials and stimulate their imagination, creativities, and independency in following the lessons which will improve their creativities. student’s creativity is a result of learnings expressed both verbally and practically in his/her creative thinking and behavior. the ability of creativity as a whole covers the abilities reflecting fluency, flexibility thoughts, ability to elaborate, original, the ability to evaluate, eagerness, imaginative, feeling challenged by pluralism, brave in taking risks and respective in which its process influenced by the supports of environment. creativity can be seen from the ability and activity of the students during the learning sessions. 5. findings of the research this research was conducted at public primary school lengkong karya south tangerang, indonesia. the study involved two variables; independent and dependent. independent variable is contextual teaching and learning (ctl) while the dependent variable is students’ learning creativities. this research was carried out by distributing questionnaire to 40 students of grade 4. the researchers did the research in this class because previously an observation had been taken in order to find out whether or not this class has applied contextual teaching and learning (ctl) model. before doing the observation at this school, the researchers found out that this grade 4 class is accustomed with the implementation of contextual teaching and learning (ctl) model compared to other classes. the questionnaire that the researchers delivered to these students consisted of 41 items in which 21 statements were related to contextual teaching and learning (ctl) model and another 20 ones were required the responses about students’ learning creativities. these all items were firstly tried-out to the higher grade, namely students of grade 5. variable x (model of contextual teaching and learning-ctl), in order to find out the effects, the researchers distributed questionnaire to those 40 students, as the respondents covering 21 statements with the results presented in the following graph 1: the distribution of questionnaire to the respondents is as described below: 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 frequency absolute percentage total strongly agree agree unsure disagree strongly disagree figure 1. distribution of questionnaire to the respondents www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 2, 2021 33 published by scholink inc. based on the graph above, there were 20 students who strongly agreed or 50%, 10 students who chose “agree” or 25%, 5 students were “unsure” or 12.5%, 3 students who disagreed or 7.5% and the other 2 students responded strongly disagreed or 5%. these results showed that most of the students strongly agreed with the learning connected with their environment since through this type of learning, the lessons were easier to be understood by them. 0 5 10 15 20 25 frequency absolute strongly disagree disagree unsure agree strongly agree total figure 2. i learn by connecting the real-world it can be clearly seen from figure 2 above that there were 15 students who answered “strongly agree” or 37.5%, 11 students were in option of “agree” or 27.5%, 10 students answered “unsure” or 25%, 4 students disagreed or 10% and none of the student gave response to “strongly disagree”. the data revealed that most students strongly agreed with learning by relating real-world since through this way, the students were not difficult in connecting the lessons to their world so that they would be challenged to add new knowledge to their real-world. 6. the results of data analysis validity test, both validity and reliability tests of the questionnaire in this research were analyzed through an application named statistical package for the social sciences (spss) version 16.00. the validity test of the items in the instrument resulted both valid and invalid items in which the validity criterion of >0.291 is called valid and the scale of alpha cronbach>0.5 to be decided as reliable. the following is the list of both valid and invalid items based on the tried-out of the instrument. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 2, 2021 34 published by scholink inc. table 1. the results of validity test of contextual teaching and learning (ctl) model towards students’ learning creativities no. aspects items valid drop 1. model contextual teaching and learning (ctl) 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,9,10,11,12,14, 16,17,18,20,21,23,27,28,30 8,13,15,19,22,24 25,26,29 2. students’ learning creativities 2,3,4,6,8,11,12,13,14,15,17, 18,21,23,24,26,27,28,29,30 1,5,7,9,10,16,19,2 0, 22,25 the table above presents the results of validity test which was tried-out to 48 respondents. the items covered 30 statements for variable x (ctl) and another 30 for variable y (students’ learning creativities). a total number of 19 items were invalid and dropped, hence, the rests of 41 statements were valid. reliability test reliability test is level of trust obtained from the results of the questionnaire as the instruments in collecting the data, in which the criterion of 0.6 for both variable x and y to be decided as reliable. based on the calculation by using the formula of alpha cronbach, the scale of contextual teaching and learning (ctl) hit the degree of reliability of 0.789 with 21 valid items. reliability statistics cronbach’s alpha n of items .789 21 and students’ learning creativities obtained the degree of reliability of 0.755 with 20 valid items. these findings showed the instrument used by the researchers in the data collection was reliable to be used. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 2, 2021 35 published by scholink inc. instrument prerequisite test a. normality test one-sample kolmogorov-smirnov test unstandardized residual n 40 normal parameters a mean .0000000 std. deviation 5.62976478 most extreme differences absolute .113 positive .076 negative -.113 kolmogorov-smirnov z .714 asymp. sig. (2-tailed) .688 a. test distribution is normal. based on data analized by using the software of spss above, if sig>0.05 then the data distributed normally, while if sig<0.05, then the data did not distribute normally. the value of sig data (2-tailed)=0.688 or bigger than 0.05, hence it could be concluded that those data distributed normally. distribution of data frequency this research used questionnaire as the instrument in collecting the data. in taking the data, the researchers were firstly distributed the questionnaire contained the statements of both contextual teaching and learning (ctl) model and students’ learning creativities. after the data being tabulated to be calculated into percentages, the next step taken was analyzing and interpreting the data to find out the effects of variable x on variable y. the data of contextual teaching and learning (ctl) as variable x and students’ learning creativities as variable y were obtained through the distribution of questionnaire to 40 students of public primary school lengkong karya 1, south tangerang. indonesia. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 2, 2021 36 published by scholink inc. simple correlation further, the correlational number between variable x, i.e., contextual teaching and learning (ctl) model and variable y, i.e., students’ learning creativities was measured through the assisting of spss version 16.00 for windows. correlations ctl creativity ctl pearson correlation 1 .468 ** sig. (2-tailed) .002 n 40 40 crea tivit y pearson correlation .468 ** 1 sig. (2-tailed) .002 n 40 40 **correlation is significant at the level of 0.01 (2-tailed) the interpretation towards rxy in the above calculation showed that the correlation between variable x and variable y was not negative which meant that both variables had positive correlation (linear correlation). by looking at the value of rxy (0.468) which was in the range between 0.40-0.599, this number confirmed that the correlation between variable x and y was medium or adequate. coefficient determination test in order to measure the percentages of independent variable and dependent variable in which r=0.212, then the value of determination was found by using the following formula: kd = r 2 x 100% kd = 0.212 2 x 100% kd = 0.449 x 100% kd = 44.9 www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 2, 2021 37 published by scholink inc. the calculation was also applied spps for windows model summary model r r square adjusted r square std. error of the estimate 1 .212 a .045 .020 6.308 a. predictors: (constant), creativity based on the calculation above, adjusted r square reached the value of 0.020 which could be interpreted that the model of contextual teaching and learning (ctl) contributed in the amount of 0.020% to 4 th graders’ learning creativities. simultaneous significant test (f test) anova b model sum of squares df mean square f sig. 1 regression 71.310 1 71.310 1.792 .189 a residual 1512.290 38 39.797 total 1583.600 39 a. predictors: (constant), creativity b. dependent variable: ctl based on the results of f test, it can be seen that the value of fcal was 1.792 with the significant level of 5%, df (40-2=38) and ftable was 4.10, therefore, if those two values were compared, then fcal>ftable or 1.792>4.10, thus, in the significant level of 5%, it was confirmed that ha was accepted and ho was rejected. this calculation hence, assumed that contextual teaching and learning (ctl) model had significant influence to the learning creativities of 4 th graders, public primary school lengkong karya. south tangerang. indonesia. individual parameter significance test (t-test) coefficients a model unstandardized coefficients standardized coefficients t sig. b std. error beta 1 (constant) 68.678 7.849 8.750 .000 creativity .113 .084 .212 1.339 .189 a. dependent variable: ctl www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 2, 2021 38 published by scholink inc. the results of the research above revealed that sig. reached the value of 0.189 which was>0.05, therefore ha was accepted. this also showed that partially, there was no significant effect of contextual teaching and learning (ctl) on learning creativities of 4 th grade students of public primary school lengkong karya, south tangerang, indonesia. 7. interpretation of research findings contextual teaching and learning (ctl) model (variable x). validity test of the questionnaire as the instrument to collect the data of ctl distributed to 48 respondents revealed that out of totally 30 items, only 21 items were valid, while the other 9 were invalid since their criterion was below 0.291. therefore, only 21 statements presented by the researchers in the research. sehingga hanya 21 item angket yang digunakan oleh peneliti dalam penelitian. the results of reliability test of variable x contextual teaching and learning (ctl) model were based on statistical analysis of croanbach’s alpha 789. students’ learning creativities (variable y). in validity test of the students’ learning creativities data, the questionnaire was tried-out to 48 respondents in which out of totally 30 statements, only 20 items were valid, while the rests of 10 statements were invalid since their criterion was lower than 0.291. the results of variable y (creativity) were referred to statistical calculation of cronbach’s alpha 755. based on the results, the value of rxy gave the interpretation to correlation index “y” product moment, namely: simply, the interpretation of the correlation between variable x and variable y did not show any negative symbol. this could be assumed that both variables were positively correlated (linear correlation). by reaching the number of rxy (0.468), in which it was in the range between 0.40-0.599, it showed that the correlation between variable x and variable y was in the level of “medium or adequate”. the interpretation by using scoring table of “product moment”. in the beginning, the hypothesis proposed by the researchers were as follows: ha: there was an effect of contextual teaching and learning (ctl) model to learning creativities of 4 th graders of public primary school lengkong karya. south tangerang. indonesia. ho: there was no effect of contextual teaching and learning (ctl) model to learning creativities of 4 th graders of public primary school lengkong karya. south tangerang. indonesia. the criterion used as the basis for those two hypotheses were, if, rtable<rcal then ha was accepted and ho was rejected. vice versa, if rtable > rcal, then ha was rejected and ho was accepted. after this, the researchers found out the degree of freedom (df) through the following formula: df = n – nr df = 48 – 2 = 46 www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 2, 2021 39 published by scholink inc. referring to the number of 46 for df, then it was found that product moment with df 46 in the significant level of 5% of obtained rtable of 0.291, while in the significant level of 1%, rtable was 0.376. since rtable in the significant level of 5% was lower than rxy (0.291< 0.468), therefore ha was accepted while ho was rejected. this also meant that in the 5% significant level, the correlation between variable x and variable y was significant. additionally, in the level of 1% significance, rtable was lower than rxy (0.376<0.468), thus, it was confirmed that in the significant level of 1%, there was a significant correlation between variable x and variable y. based on the description above, it can be concluded that a contextual teaching and learning (ctl) model had significant effect on learning creativities of 4 grade students of public primary school lengkong karya, south tangerang. indonesia. 8. conclusion based on the description of the data, data analysis and data interpretation of the research findings about contextual teaching and learning (ctl) (x) with students’ learning creativities (y), the results of this research concluded the following: 1) the results of the research about the implementation of contextual teaching and learning (ctl) model on students’ learning creativities, showed the statistical test results which were calculated by using the formula of product moment obtained rcal=0.468, with the interpretation of medium or adequate. while rtable in the significance level of 5% gained 0.320. these findings confirmed that there was an effect of contextual teaching and learning (ctl) model on students’ learning creativities, or the learning was better through the application of contextual teaching and learning (ctl)) towards learning creativities of students of public primary school lengkong karya south tangerang, indonesia. 2) based on statistical test, the results of the study showed the results of coefficient determination hit 0.449 or 44.9%. this also confirmed that contextual teaching and learning (ctl) had 44.9% influences on students’ learning creativities. based on the hypothesis test, it was found that tcal=0.189, with the significance level of α=5% and degree of freedom (df) of 38 (40-2). thus, the hypothesis stated that contextual teaching and learning (ctl) positively influenced students’ learning activities was accepted. 9. suggestions referring to the accomplished research study described above, there are several suggestions that the researchers would like to propose including: 1) for the school, the school should keep exploring to find out better new ideas in improving the quality of the school, in which it will also give positive impact to the quality of the students, especially to students’ learning creativities at school, and for the teachers, teachers as the central role in using contextual teaching and learning (ctl) model should make the students become more active in learnings. while for students, the students should be more active in addressing questions when they do not understand the materials delivered by the teacher and in answering questions asked by the teachers www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 2, 2021 40 published by scholink inc. while following the lessons in the class so that they will get good grades and achievements. 2) for further research, it is suggested that the results of this research will give descriptions to other researchers who are interested in ctl topic to develop the findings further with different approaches and variables. references al-khailili, a. a. (2005). mengembangkan kreativitas anak. penerbit: pustaka al-kautsar, jakarta, indonesia. arikunto, s. (2010). prosedur suatu pendekatan praktik. penerbit: pt. rineka cipta, jakarta, indonesia. arikunto, s. (2012). penelitian tindakan kelas. penerbit: pt. bumi aksara, jakarta, indonesia. arikunto, s. (2013). prosedur penelitian: suatu tindakan praktik. penerbit: pt. rineka cipta, jakarta, indonesia. contextual teaching and learning (ctl). (2014). penerbit: kaifa. bandung, indonesia. hawadi, r. a. (2001). psikologi perkembangan anak. penerbit: pt. gramedia widiasarana, jakarta, indonesia. idris, m. h. (2015). peran guru dalam mengelola keberbakatan anak. penerbit: pt. luximia metro media, jakarta, indonesia. isna, a. n. (2012). mencetak karakter anak sejak janin. penerbit: dva press. yogjakarta, indonesia. johnson, e. b. (2011). contextual teaching and learning (ctl), menjadikan kegiatan belajar-mengajar mengasyikan dan bermakna. penerbit: kaifa. bandung, indonesia. munandar, u. 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(2008). psikologi: suatu pengantar dalam pesepektif islam. penerbit: pt. kencana. jakarta, indonesia. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 2, 2021 41 published by scholink inc. sofyan, g. dan a. (2007). modul diklat profesi guru model-model pembelajaran i. kendari: universitas haluoleo. sudijono, a. (2015). pengantar statistik pendidikan. penerbit: pt. raja grafindo persada. jakarta, indonesia. sudjana, n. dan i. (2007). penelitian penilaian pendidikan. penerbit: pt. sinar baru algesindo. bandung, indonesia. sugiyono. (2010). statistika untuk penelitian. penerbit: pt. alfabeta. bandung, indonesia. sugiyono. (2011). metode penelitian pendidikan; pendekatan kuantitatif, kualitatif, dan r & d. penerbit: pt. alfabeta. bandung, indonesia. sugiyono. (2013). metode penelitian pendidikan; pendekatan kuantitatif, kualitatif, dan r & d. penerbit: pt. alfabeta. bandung, indonesia. trianto. 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(2010). melatih otak anti lupa: metode dahsyar brain gym dengan hanacaraka. penerbit: pusaka widyatama. jakarta, indonesia. frontiers of contemporary education issn 2690-3520 (print) issn 2690-3539 (online) vol. 3, no. 1, 2022 www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce 1 original paper from teachers‟ minds to speakers‟ minds in the applications to psychology and philosophy, connected to sociolinguistics in the ways of interactions for better relationships to make parts of narratives eri kondo 1 1 a researcher in linguistics, nagoya-city, aichi, japan received: february 5, 2022 accepted: february 21, 2022 online published: march 23, 2022 doi:10.22158/fce.v3n1p1 url: http://dx.doi.org/10.22158/fce.v3n1p1 abstract this paper is focused on discourse analyses that give us an insight that there is a cultural difference in showing empathy in dialogues from the issue of sociolinguistics. it would be based on further investigations and promotions to learn actual interactions as usages of languages, which is connected to a problem of bilingualism. the way to construct a conversation well shows a cultural view to give empathy in dialogues. this paper reveals the discourse frames in japanese and american dialogues, related to frames of self of “we”, “you”, and “i”. it is significant for us to notice that these frames appear in expressions and discourse structures as speakers and hearers. it puts forward an investigation of ways with which people interact. keywords psychology, philosophy, sociolinguistics, discourse analysis 1. introduction many problems in education may have been left behind although things are gradually changing for the better. the issues on improving learning abilities and on advancing inferential thinking for obtaining an identity have been still controversial. recently researchers have tended to find the relation between teaching methods and the effect on learning outcomes from an approach of classroom-based research projects. as a method, johnson & johnson (1994) propose that a cooperative learning against an individualism with a competitiveness is quite effective. sugie eds. (2016) suggest that learning through enough experiences would achieve a high ability of performances for all learners. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 3, no. 1, 2022 2 published by scholink inc. surely teachers are mainly trained, based on their academic basis that is related to the way of learning in the psychological direction. however, there might be a distinction between how teachers think and how learners think in the same situations. teachers want a focus from learners, and learners want a certain development. novik & gowin (1984, p. 7) draw an outline of ideas in teaching and learning by mentioning that “it is important to distinguish between the type of instructional strategy we employ and the kind of learning process in which the student is engaged”. a meaningful side is connected to “autonomous discovery learning (p. 7)”. if it is correct, it is indicative for learners to notice what is meant in a context as their discovery. robinson (2002) roughs out a leadership of teachers, weighting up an idea that “school-wide, departmental, team and individual teacher goals should be informed by careful analysis of students‟ learning needs (p. 76)”. the issue is sketched out as an ability of problem-solving. at this point, learning should be focused on the advanced function from a psychological aspect. evans & over (1996) bring out the best in an explanation through drawing that “reasoning and decision making are topics of central importance in the study of human intelligence and the starting point for any understanding of human rationality should be behavioural” (p. 1). then, this paper suggests that teachers should recognize that it is more desirable for learners to acquire a skill in ordinary days in acquiring a second language; therefore, the analysis takes up a cultural difference in proceeding conversations, based on a goffman (1981)‟s proposal of a framework in operations of talks. it is related with the mixed tendency to sociolinguistics, sociologies, and philosophy. mckay & rubdy (2011, p. 9) provide an illuminating explanation of how social and sociolinguistic contexts interact with language learning and teaching, in a state of that “in examining the social context of language learning, we focus on how language teaching contexts are affected by the larger social, political, and educational setting in which the teaching takes place”. it is certain that there is a limited proficiency in the research of spanish-english bilinguals (robinson & altarriba, 2018) and turkish-germany bilinguals against monolinguals who criticize bilingualism. if so, it is excellent that teaching and learning are connected to sociolinguistics. 2. literature review sociolinguists who analyze conversations have attempted to specify the relationship between language and culture from the viewpoint of the structure of language (austin, 1962; goffman, 1967, 1981; grice, 1975; ide, 1992; tannen, 1993; young, 1994; wardhaugh, 1998). goffman (1981, p. 10) firmly establishes a connection between talks and functions, on behalf of that “a basic normative assumption about talk is that, whatever else, it should be correctly interpretable in the special sense of conveying to the intended recipients what the sender more or less wanted to get across”. in addition, it is noted that “we have a social encounter that ritually regularized the risks and opportunities face-to-face talk provides, enforcing the standards of modesty regarding self and considerateness for others generally enjoined in the community (p. 19)”. as it can be seen in the talks of (1) and (2), tolerable and adequate responses are relevant. moreover, goffman also adds that “when an individual is engaged in talk, some www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 3, no. 1, 2022 3 published by scholink inc. of his utterances and nonlinguistic behavior will be taken to have a special temporal relevance, being directed to others present as something he wants assessed, appreciated, understood (p. 71)”. (1) a: “the store was closed by the time you got out?” b: “darn it. i‟m afraid it was.” etc… a: “the store was closed by the time you got out?” b: “it was open but they won‟t have any „til next week‟”. etc… (goffman, 1981, p. 59) (2) a: “the store was closed by the time you got out?” b: [striking head] “god. i‟m sorry. i‟m hopeless.” etc… (goffman, 1981, p. 59) today, as a theory known well, the worfian hypothesis is introduced. whorf (1941) finds that the structure of language controls the way in which the speakers view the world; therefore, it seems that the person who speaks a different language has another view of the world. the theory is based on that the recognition through linguistic forms is unconsciously developed, connected with the linguistic thoughts of the cultural group. this assumption is now widely accepted. be that as it may, there may be a liability in discourse structures. schiffrin (1994) carries out an explanatory study of something not previously researched. the observation is treated as a judgement from interactional sociolinguistics. on the basis of the opinion, discourse structures are belonging to two significances of structural and functional effects. especially, as the functional moment, it is likely said that we include “structure of speech (act, event) as ways of speaking” and “elements and structures as ethnographically appropriate” in the approach (schiffrin, 1994, p. 21). as an emphasis, schiffrin also notes that “speaking for another is an act whose meaning is also interactionally situated”, in the sense that “although space prevents us from a full examination of the interactive meanings of speaking for others, this act seems to be interpreted depending upon how the transfer of responsibility for speaking is achieved (p. 109)”. moreover, goffman (1981) and schiffrin (1994) refer to self talks and an implication of self as a social act. it is assured that there is an interpretation that metacognitive behaviors are related to the recognition of self which is connected to sociology and philosophy of mind from descartes (2002). this paper investigates the cultural difference from discourse structures. watanabe (1993) explains a cultural aspect of framing by showing differences between american and japanese speakers in their ways of framing of speech. the notion of framing in discourse is also defined by tannen (1993). she said that “at the same time that expectations make it possible to perceive and interpret objects and events in the world, they shape those perceptions to the model of world provided by them (p. 21)”. therefore, it is noticeable that we find the frame through analyses of discourse. then, of course, it relies on the discussion of structures of sentences teachers always teach as www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 3, no. 1, 2022 4 published by scholink inc. grammatical forms. for example, at the meaning of sentence (3), it is assumed that the speaker often conveys each meaning through phrases and words as (4) and (5). in the word order, the explanation to medicine or drugs happens at the same time. especially, at ordinary conversations, speakers usually do not use the complete syntax. in this respect, there may be a distinction between speaking and writing systems. (3) hi, miyake, i go to the hospital once a month to get medicine for insomnia. (4) hi, miyake, i go to the hospital, well, once a month, uh, to get medicine because of insomnia, you know (5) miyake, ore byouin ni iku tsuki ichi kusuri nano fumin de we should discover the habitual view of the world through the language, that is, the frame by analyzing the form of languages. it will contribute to building the communicative relationships between different cultures. firstly, makino (1978) can explain a moderation between speakers and speakers‟ viewpoints by analyzing structures of language. his study is based on the whorfian hypothesis as the proposed theory. he points out a different stance between japanese and english (p. 49). in addition, he finds that an independent view of the speaker is clearly particular in japanese conversations. moreover, he mentions that these focuses suggest that empathy and an identity appear as a base in a conversation; therefore, it obviously means that there is a person who operates a conversation, having empathy (p. 51). his exploration insights that japanese tend to show empathy more than english (p. 49). next, suzuki (1975) also states that a speaker does not consider a hearer as a partner from the subjective side of himself, and it often focuses on a situation of the third person of we that identifies another self psychologically in japanese (p. 49). in addition, he defines the feature in japanese as “empathetic identification”. moreover, lebra (1976) sets out japanese culture in an “omoiyari („empathy‟) culture (p. 38)”. she defines it as that “omoiyari refers to the ability and willingness to feel what others are feeling, to vicariously experience the pleasure or pain that they are undergoing, and to help them satisfy their wishes (p. 38)”. further, as a feature of „omoiyari („empathy‟)‟ in a conversation, she finds that “the speaker does not complete a sentence but leaves it open-ended (p. 38)”. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 3, no. 1, 2022 5 published by scholink inc. finally, it is helpful to describe the previous study in patterns of conversation in japanese and english before moving on to the main research. it clarifies “omoiyari („empathy‟)” proposed by lebra (1976) from the view of a pattern. mizutani (1993), first, demonstrates that the pattern of japanese dialogue does not agree with that of english dialogue. she defines the pattern of japanese dialogue as “co-construction”. japanese interlocutors continue their talks cooperatively as a base on the common assumption (p. 9). she focuses on the fact that japanese speakers do not finish one utterance completely, but speakers and hearers make one utterance cooperatively (p. 6). on the other hand, mizutani mentions that english speakers finish their utterances perfectly, and hearers wait for them to finish and begin their utterances (p. 6). next, sunakawa (1999) reports that there is a difference in the models of japanese and american conversations. she mentions that the pattern of japanese is named as a “norishiro („flap for pasting‟)” model, while that of english is a jigsaw-puzzle model. the theory agrees with the explanation by mizutani (1993) in respect to a classification whether there is an overlap or not. she put forward that “when we have two pieces of paper to be pasted together, we usually need some overlap in order to make them into one larger sheet (p. 18)”. moreover, she adds that “when we play with a jigsaw puzzle, we try to keep finding appropriate pieces that should be embedded in the complete picture (p. 23)”. it shows that the overlap is not significant in english. the ultimate aim of this paper is to investigate how people interact with each other in dialogues. it means how a person gives a care between interlocutors in their first language and how people communicate with each other in each frame of discourse. in this paper, the primary concern aims to observe how people show their empathy in dialogues. in addition, the analyses are focused on finding specific sociocultural differences in speakers. this study focused on two aspects of interactions. one is a self, and another is empathy. a dialogue requires at least two speakers. when the two speakers begin a conversation, they have a consciousness of “you”, “i”, and “we” in dialogues. the cognition is psychological and philosophical. if a conversation is once begun, the speaker regularly builds up the three pieces of the recognitions of “you”, “i”, and “we”. they are aware of the issue that these three faces are independent. empathy means that a speaker is associated with a hearer cooperatively. or a speaker regards oneself as sharing the same characteristic in feeling with a hearer. here, this paper suggests the following hypotheses: a) empathy shows itself in dialogues. b) there is a difference between japanese and english, in ways of showing empathy. c) the difference provides a distinction in ways of psychological side. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 3, no. 1, 2022 6 published by scholink inc. 3. methodology this study uses video-recorded talk shows in japanese and american english as its research materials. the channels of the programs used in this study are cnn, tv-asahi and nhk. i) larry king live on cnn ii) tetsuko no heya on tv-asahi toppu rannar on nhk in these talk shows, the guests are invited to the hosts‟ programs and talk to the hosts about their business or private lives. concerning the american talk show, the interviewer is larry king, who is an aged disk jockey. the five guests are listed in the following chart: table 1. list of participants program interviewers guests occupation age a-a ah1 ag1 designer 50‟s a-b ah1 ag2 actor 60‟s a-c ah1 ag3 anchor 50‟s a-d ah1 ag4 novelist 30‟s a-e ah1 ag5 spiritual leader 60‟s next, concerning the two japanese talk shows, in one program, the interviewer is tetsuko kuroyanagi, who is a 60‟s tv personality and in another program, the interviewer is senri ooe, who is a 30‟s musician. the five guests are listed in the following chart: table 2. list of participants program interviewers guests occupation age j-a jh1 jg1 actress 50‟s j-b jh1 jg2 announcer 30‟s j-c jh2 jg3 actor 40‟s j-d jh2 jg4 ballet dancer 30‟s j-e jh2 jg5 actress 40‟s ten talk dialogues from the three programs are video-recorded. removing the first five minutes, the following thirty-minute conversation is convenient as data for this study. next, these recordings are transcribed according to the transcription convention taken from hashiuchi (1999, pp. 41-42). www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 3, no. 1, 2022 7 published by scholink inc. 4. analysis the occurrences of showing empathy in dialogues give us a difference between japanese and english. the analyses demonstrate how one interlocutor emphasizes with another one. japanese hosts took a longer time than american ones to change a topic in talks. in this section, this paper analyzes the data from the view of following-up by hosts to guests in english and japanese talk shows. first, japanese hosts talk frequently about their own experiences in the talk shows. it means that the hosts empathize with the guests and that the hosts follow up the guests by showing empathy in giving words. (6) 01 jg: bokuha sibu sibu yatte ta, 02 mitai na tokoro arimasu. 03 jh: saishoha. 04 jg: ee. 05 jh: mata, are desuyo ne. sono boku piano mo sou 06 dattan desu kedo, minna de yakyuu toka iku noni, 07 dansi dousi. sore wo hitori nukete, mainichi 08 renshuu sinakya ikenai nde, nani yatte ru no, 09 [omae, mitai na.] 10 jg: [aa, arimasu ne, ee] 11 jh: piano, onna ga yaru mono yatte [ru], mitaina. 12 jg: [ee.] (the english translation) 01-02 jg: i have done it unwillingly. 03 jh: at first. 04 jg: yes. 05-09 jh: i also have had a similar feeling in piano. everyone was playing baseball, but i got out of it and i had to practice piano everyday. they said, „what are you doing?‟ 10 jg: um-huh. so did i. yes. 11 jh: they also said that you did the thing women did, that is, piano. 12 jg: uh-huh. this is an example from a japanese talk show between jh (a man, a singer) and jg (a man, a ballet-dancer). jh and jg talk about lessons in their childhood. jg talks about the lesson in ballet, while jh talks about that in piano. at 01-02, jg gives jh information that he disliked the lesson in ballet. it is a first step to these talks. at 03, jh gives empathy to jg, which is a sign to understand the plot. at 05-09, jh begins to talk about his experience about the lesson in piano. jh shows that he had the same experience as jg had in the lesson of ballet. this suggests one feature of a way to show empathy in a japanese dialogue. first, the japanese host seeks out a topic that he can show empathy www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 3, no. 1, 2022 8 published by scholink inc. from the guest‟s conversation. next, the host introduces his experience. the host needs to select the topic with which the guest can emphasize. then, the host begins to talk about his unwilling experience in the piano lesson. (7) 01 jh: demo jyampu dekiru you ni natta to iu koto 02 ha zuibun jyouzu de su yo ne. 03 jg: jya maa minna simasu keredo ne. 04 jh: jya a demo naka naka ne e. 05 watashi keiba no kishu ni narou to omotte yatte ta 06 koto aru n desu kredo mo [ne]. 07 jg: [ee]. 08 jh: demo maa yatte ta ra ba, haha ga anata jyampu 09 suru toki doumo ochi [sou] na ki ga suru [tte] 10 jg: [ee,] [ee]. 11 jh: itte [ne]. yamete kure nai ka tte iu kara ne. 12 jg: [hai hai]. 13 jh: sore de yame ta n desu keredo mo ne. 14 dakara jyampu site ru kata miru to sugoi na a to 15 omou n desu keredo ne. 16 jg: taimingu ga ne yappari aru n desu yone. (the english translation) 01-02 jh: are you an expert in horseback riding because you can jump, aren‟t you? 03 jg: no, i am not. everyone can do it. 04 jh: no. it is not easy. 05-06 jg: i have wanted to be a jockey. 07 jh: um-huh. 08-15 jg: however, my mother said that she felt that you seemed to fall when you jumped and asked me to give it up. therefore, i gave it up. when i see the person jump, i think that he is an expert. 16 jg: there is a timing to jump. this is another example from a japanese talk show between jh (a woman, a host) and jg (a woman, an announcer). jh and jg talk about their experience in horseback riding. the main topic here is that jg has done the horseback riding in her school days. this is a dialogue that a host follows up a guest by which a host introduces her own experience to a guest. this host‟s experience represents empathy. the show of empathy is connected to a common experience and feelings. it is defined as a strategy in japanese talks. in the american talk shows, this characteristic is not seen. american hosts never introduce their own experiences. this difference proves the hypothesis (b). www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 3, no. 1, 2022 9 published by scholink inc. moreover, this characteristic in japanese dialogues clarifies the issue that there is an overlap in a topic, which is related with mizutani (1993) and sunakawa (1999). japanese point out the topic which the interlocutors can emphasize with each other when they proceed with conversations cooperatively. to put it more concretely, interlocutors confirm empathy to the partner by rephrasing that “i am also doing so” or “i also have such an experience”. as result, they complete and maintain the consciousness that is “we have a similar experience and can have empathy mutually”. as for cognition, finally, the series of ways of empathy in japanese means that the maintenance of spatial cognition of “we”. makino (1978) gives an exploration of mixing a subjective side with an objective side to the loss of the perspective (p. 48). that is, japanese tend to maintain the view of “we”. this agrees with “empathetic identification” defined by suzuki (1975). these results seem to prove the hypothesis (a). next, there is a characteristic that a host proposes a guest a following word when a guest hesitates about continuing utterances or pauses. it expresses that a host shows empathy to a guest and goes through a conversation by the proposal. this feature agrees with the idea of sunakawa (1999). (8) 01 ah: a terrific lady worked for you. you haven‟t spoken much about it, 02 but it‟s been some time now, and i‟d like you to ask about her 03 because we met her. carolyn bessette kennedy, who died with her husband 04 in that plane clash, worked for you in what capacity. 05 ag: i really haven‟t talked .. and you know. i mean 06 i‟ve not talked about this to anyone and had no idea that you would even ask me. 07 carolyn was someone i found in boston, actually, in one boston store, 08 and offered her a job in new york to work with people that needed some special 09 attention because … 10 ah: vips 11 ag: yes, it may be because we were doing clothes for a film or for a personal 12 appearance or certain, you know, it was really a personal thing. this is an example from an american english talk show between ah (a man, a disk jockey) and ag (a man, a designer). ah and ag talk about carolyn kennedy. at 01-04, ah refers to the relationship between ag and her, and asks ag about her by saying clearly, “i‟d like you to ask about her”. it is the first step to this talk. at 05-09, ag answers ah‟s question. at 10, ah offers a new appropriate utterance from “because”. it is certain that the host‟s proposal makes the guest extend the following story of the guest. this is a strategy. (9) 01 ag: so the combination of yoga … 02 ah: and buddhism, right? 03 ag: yes, as you will see, it is really worthwhile, 04 yoga practice as well as the sort of positive mental training. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 3, no. 1, 2022 10 published by scholink inc. this is another example from an american english talk show between ah (a man, a disk jockey) and ag (a man, a spiritual leader). ag hesitates, then ah offers a new appropriate utterance to follow up ag. 5. discussion the occurrences of empathy have been examined. japanese and english data have represented different results in the way they overlap in a topic. in japanese, the interlocutor shows empathy by introducing own experiences to another one. japanese in dialogues always select a topic which can have empathy with each other. according to the analysis of data, the japanese have the consciousness to agree with the statements strongly more than to show an argument which is personal in it. it clarifies that japanese tend to maintain the cognition of „we‟ by the display of empathy. in english, one interlocutor shows empathy by proposing the following word. the important point to note is a respect of sequence in dialogues. in english, a host and a guest have clear roles as a recognition. an interlocutor gives a view of “you”. suzuki (1975, p. 53) defines self-recognition as “the absolute self regulation”. next, the results reveal a difference in discourse frames such as a prototypical frame in japanese dialogues of “we talk” and american ones of “you and i talk” respectively. as a philosophical discussion, it is possible to serve two analyses on these sociolinguistic findings in interactions. first, descartes (2002, p. 10) mentions that “so after considering everything very thoroughly, i must finally conclude that this proposition, i am, i exist, is necessarily true whenever it is put forward by me or conceived in my mind” and adds that “but i do not yet have a sufficient understanding of what this „i‟ is, that now necessarily exists”. at this stance, it is inevitable for speakers to know the way of interactions to show the self. next, williamson (2005, p. 95) insists that “forms of context-relativity” are related to judge propositional values of truth or false. from this logic, it is natural that speakers should give statements to interpret utterances. as a psychological application to this argument to explain them exactly, a conversation continues, having developed abilities for inferences and analogies that do not show a stupidity in interpretations. then, it is better to gain just a theory for the condition in interactions of conversations. holyosak & morrison (2005) suggest that we should recognize cognitive abilities of reasoning and conceptualizing in thinking. this paper concludes that it is a benefit to learn the structure of discourse against the shutdown of minds to connect to self-talks. as the sociological point, it would open another view to an identical self. goffman (1963, p. 2) commands that “society establishes the means of categorizing persons and the complement of attributes felt to be ordinary and natural for members of each of these categories” and adds that “social settings establish the categories of persons likely to be encountered there”. for example, we sing a song at a music class, then we must learn the parts and tempos. at the same time, it is adequate that we should establish the social identity for business persons. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 3, no. 1, 2022 11 published by scholink inc. to this end, these arguments may fundamentally prove the hypothesis (c): the difference provides a distinction in ways of psychological side. therefore, we need further academic investigations that relate to psychology, philosophy, and sociolinguistics. 6. conclusion this study has represented the findings which analyze the cultural difference in cognition and the way of showing empathy in japanese and english dialogues. the main findings are based on that japanese proceed with the dialogues with the frame “we talk” and that english do with the frame “you and i”. japanese tend to have a conscious of “we” in a conversation. on the other hand, english has a tendency of having a frame of “you and i talk”. these results of data have clarified the differences in overlaps of a topic as well as two frames. this study contributes to the interpretations of the different matter of showing empathy, in a state of speakers to change a new topic that related to social and cultural differences. i hope that this study helps us to be aware of how people in dialogues interact with each other. in addition, i believe that the understanding of it reveals a new realization for successful relationships in cases of job seeking and meeting. further study on cultural framing in dialogues are demanded, based on miscommunicated situations. eri kondo has a master degree in linguistics at the graduate school of jwu in tokyo. this paper is based on the thesis of bachelor approved by sachiko ide. references austin, j. l. (1962). how to do things with words. cambridge: harvard university press. chafe, w. (1980). the pear stories: cognitive, cultural, and linguistic aspects of narrative production. new jersey: ablex publishing corporation. descartes, r. (2002). mediations on first philosophy. in j. c. david (ed.), philosophy of mind (pp. 10-20). ny: oxford university press. evans, j., & david, e. o. (1996). rationality and reasoning. sussex: psychology press. goffman, e. (1963). stigma: notes on the management of spoiled identity. ny: a touchstone book. goffman, e. (1967). interaction ritual. ny: pantheon. goffman, e. (1981). forms of talk. philadelphia: university of pennsylvania press. grice, h. (1975). logic and conversation. in cole & morgan (ed.), syntax and semantics (vol. 3, speech acts., pp. 41-58). ny: academic press. https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004368811_003 hashiuchi, t. (1999). disukoosu [discourse]. tokyo: kurosio shuppan. hayashi, r. (1996). cognition, empathy, and interaction: floor management of english and japanese conversation. new jersey: ablex publishing corporation. https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004368811_003 www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 3, no. 1, 2022 12 published by scholink inc. holyoak, k., & robert, g. m. (2005). thinking and reasoning: a reader‟s guide. in j. h. keith, & g. m. robert (eds.), the cambridge handbook of thinking and reasoning (pp. 1-12). cambridge: cambridge university press. ide, s. (1992). on the notion of wakimae: toward an integrated framework of linguistic politeness. in t. michiko (ed.), kotoba no mozaiku (pp. 298-305). tokyo: mls. johnson, d., & johnson, r. (1994). the new circle of learning. virginia: ascd. lebra, t. (1976). japanese patterns of behavior. honolulu: university of hawaii press. https://doi.org/10.1515/9780824846404 makino, s. (1978). kotoba to kuukan. tokyo: tokai daigaku shuppankai. mckay, s., & rani, r. (2011). the social and sociolinguistic contexts of language learning and teaching. in l. michael, & d. catherine (eds.), the handbook of language teaching (pp. 9-25). oxford: wiley-blackwell. mizutani, n. (1993). kyoowa kara taiwa he. nihongogaku, 12(4), 4-10. novak, j., & bob, g. (1984). learning how to learn. cambridge: cambridge university press. https://doi.org/10.1017/cbo9781139173469 robinson, c., & jeanette, a. (2018). the psycholinguistics of bilingualism. in a. jeanette, & h. roberto (eds.), an introduction to bilingualism: principles and processes (pp. 69-92). ny: routledge. robinson, v. (2002). excellence in educational leadership: practices, capabilities and virtues that foster improved student outcomes. in b. tony (ed.), principles of educational leadership and management (pp. 73-92). los angeles: sage. schiffrin, d. (1994). approaches to discourse. oxford: blackwell. sugie, s. (ed.). (2016). active learning in cooperative learning. tokyo: meiji. sunakawa, c. (1999). norishiro vs. jigsaw-puzzle: a comparative study of co-construction in advising disourse (unpublished m.a. thesis). japan women‟s university. suzuki, t. (1975). kotoba to shakai. tokyo: chuukou gyousha. tannen, d. (1993). framing in discourse. ny: oxford university press. wardhaugh, r. (1998). an introduction to sociolinguistics. oxford: blackwell publisheres. watanabe, s. (1993). cultural differences in framing: american and japanese group discussions. in deborah tannen (pp. 176-209). whorf, b. l. (1941). the relation of habitual thought and behavior to language. in l. sapier (ed.), language, culture, and personality (pp. 9-49). wisconsin: sapier memorial publication fund. williamson, t. (2005). knowledge, context, and the agent‟s point of view. in p. gerhard, & p. georg (eds.), contextualism in philosophy: knowledge, meaning, and truth (pp. 91-114). oxford: oxford university press. young, l. (1994). crosstalk and culture in sino-american communication. cambridge: cambridge university press. https://doi.org/10.1017/cbo9780511519901 https://doi.org/10.1515/9780824846404 https://doi.org/10.1017/cbo9781139173469 https://doi.org/10.1017/cbo9780511519901 frontiers of contemporary education issn 2690-3520 (print) issn 2690-3539 (online) vol. 4, no. 1, 2023 www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce 11 case study a case study in a student with mental retardation: findings and proposed intervention anna boukorou 1 1 principal at the special high school of lemnos, greece received: february 25, 2023 accepted: march 6, 2023 online published: march 27, 2023 doi:10.22158/fce.v4n1p11 url: http://dx.doi.org/10.22158/fce.v4n1p11 abstract mental retardation is a complex pathological condition of the individual, which hinders his/her overall individual and social development. in this context, the role of the school is considered particularly important, as overcoming the individual difficulties faced by a student with mental retardation requires the assessment of his/her educational needs and the preparation of an individualized education program that will respond to his/her particularities. the case study of a student with mild mental retardation through participatory observation contributed to the evaluation of the difficulties she faces and to the preparation of her individualized education program. keywords mental retardation, case study, participatory observation, intervention 1. introduction mental retardation is a complex pathological condition of an individual, characterized by deficiencies or significant limitations in his mental functionality, which are a brake on his subsequent individual and social development. in particular, as typically stated: “mental retardation is not something you have, like blue eyes or a weak heart. nor is it something you are, like short or thin. it is not a medical disorder…. not even a mental illness. mental retardation refers to a particular state of functioning” (luckasson et al., 1992, p. 9). mental retardation based on the latest, improved definition by the american society on mental and developmental disabilities “is a difficulty characterized by significant limitations in mental functioning and adaptive behavior as expressed in perceptual, social and practical skills...” (luckasson et al., 1992, p. 8). since this includes a wide range of different levels of individual abilities and perceived difficulties, four levels of mental retardation were created to facilitate research (apa, 2000): mild mental retardation, moderate, severe and profound. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 4, no. 1, 2023 12 published by scholink inc. the research in this field utilizes both quantitative and qualitative data, for the recruitment of which there is an abundance of used scientific methods. participatory observation is among the qualitative methods of psychopedagogical research, the method that “used in conjunction with other data collection methods, e.g., in-depth interviews and historical data, while the complementary use of the standardized interview and the standardized questionnaire is not excluded, when descriptive quantitative data is needed” (kyriazi, 2002, p. 245). 2. description of the procedure and general presentation of the student participatory observation method was used to carry out this work. the process lasted one week and was conducted in a special education school of secondary education in the greek territory. the person conducting the specific research, serves as the director on duty at the specific school, where students with special educational needs attend, and for the specific research she interacted for three teaching hours on a daily basis-within the framework of the school’s operation-with the selected student. helen (fake name) is a 16-year-old student of the 3rd grade of the special high school. based on her opinion from the mental health center, she was diagnosed with mild mental retardation. her physical development is normal and she does not face sensorimotor problems. the interaction with the student involved activities in several areas: the student was given a text, which she was asked to read, followed by vocabulary, spelling, text comprehension, language expression exercises. also, an experiential game was carried out, in the context of which the student was assigned to assume the role of a store cashier with the instruction to give change from her cash register according to the products purchased by her teacher conducting the research. furthermore, she was asked to solve numerical problems with two-digit numbers, while she was given cards of the seasons, where she herself had to dress her doll accordingly (e.g., in winter she should wear a jacket, boots, etc.), of the time, where she had to match actions (e.g., in the morning i go to school) as well as picture cards from her place, her country and europe, which she had to identify. finally, her behavior in the field of social skills was recorded through the group games organized in the courtyard (treasure game, volleyball). 3. recording of the observations based on the observations, which were recorded in a diary every day after the end of the activities, the particular student was found to: in terms of her language skills, she herself is governed by relatively good listening comprehension and discrimination but has quite a bit of difficulty in understanding the text when she reads it herself. her range of knowledge and vocabulary are particularly limited (she didn’t know what “excited” means) and has particular difficulty in understanding abstract concepts of a general content (she didn’t understand the meaning of “homeland”, “freedom”). she is capable of classifying into groups, categorizing, lining up cards in logical sequences and understand the concept of cause and effect. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 4, no. 1, 2023 13 published by scholink inc. her reading ability is satisfactory but the substitution of similar words was often observed (instead of “ran” she read “run”, instead of “wrote” she read “write”, etc.). she does not recognize punctuation, so her speech when reading becomes difficult to understand. her spoken word is often slurred, she is very rushed to answer and often gets off topic. she does not like to dramatize roles in a story, because she finds it difficult, as she stated. in numerical calculations, she faces particular difficulties, as she has great difficulty in all operations, especially in those of division and multiplication. the subdivisions of the euro make it particularly difficult for her and most of the time she did not give the change correctly. also, it appeared that she does not understand the concept of season and time as she dressed her doll in winter with short pants, while she did not recognize either the photo of the map of greece, or the photo of her island. finally, in terms of social skills, she understands and decodes communication messages correctly and is generally cooperative. she likes to be a leader, since she demands that her classmates to do things by giving them orders, but when she is not pleased, she is stubborn and stops listening to any order, she refuses to enter the classroom, she turns her back and has no eye contact. she has frequent outbursts of anger and alienation from her classmates and teachers, often for no apparent reason, and -sometimes she appears to confuse reality with fantasy: as she stated, the previous day a famous greek singer, n.v., took her by his car and gave her a ride. in fact, it was observed that during her anger and experiencing negative emotions she renounces reality, her identity and her role as a student at school (“i am lisa karakazou! i am not helen! i am not your student!”), while she often talks about herself disparagingly, even abusively (“i’m dumb!”). the above findings are consistent with the corresponding literature reports, as the difficulty of people with mental retardation in acquiring new knowledge is justified due to the observed deficits in short-term memory, the disadvantageous development of procedural skills of attention-perception (pennington & luszcz, 1975) and the difficulty in choosing the appropriate mnemonic technique (westling, 1986). their perception is blunt, the capacity for generalizations is limited and their attention is constantly distracted (stavrou, 2002). their limited ability to think logically prevents people with mental retardation from grasping the concepts of morality and justice, while the disorder extends to emotion, as cortical control is at a low level, an element that justifies unexpected outbursts of anger, which are immediately replaced by unwarranted enthusiasm (kypriotakis, 1989). www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 4, no. 1, 2023 14 published by scholink inc. 4. proposed intervention helen’s particular deficits require individualized, targeted teaching in specific areas, which should be built on her positive elements, her virtues, her gifts. after all, every human being has limitations and possibilities and no one is completely deficient, but only partially (wolfensberger, 1988, p. 63). emphasizing, therefore, her potential and developed skills and covering up to a certain extent her weaknesses, teachers should contribute to improving the functionality of the student and mitigating the observed weaknesses. in particular, it is required that she practices at the reading level in combination with muscle relaxation exercises, in order to eliminate the anxiety that governs her and to be more focused and calm when reading. activities to strengthen her vocabulary, learning mnemonic techniques and frequent repetitions are needed to consolidate the newly acquired knowledge. also, motivation for further learning is required, as the range of her knowledge is particularly limited. the student must be facilitated to undertake extracurricular activities, which will contribute to her responsibility, the development of her communication skills and the strengthening of her self-esteem. wehmeyer (2001, p. 5) often cites deci’s (1975) theory of cognitive appraisal thus emphasizing the importance of self-definition and affirmation of one’s worth through the management of challenges, which trigger and control a variety of behaviors. in other words, the individual’s involvement in activities from which it derives satisfaction contribute to his self-definition, self-esteem and the reduction of learned helplessness (wehmeyer, 2001, p. 27), which leads them to leave decisions concerning their lives to third parties. on the contrary, the absence of such activities reduce the opportunities for socialization, which could mobilize creativity, imagination and overall promote the individual (bitzarakis, 2008). in addition, practice in numerical calculations is required through role-playing and dramatization, which will contribute to make her responsible, while the presentation of audio-visual material and an experiential game would be helpful for her understanding the seasons, time, geography. finally, at the level of her interpersonal relationships, it is necessary to cultivate reciprocity, which is a prerequisite for establishing friendly relationships but it’s not self-evident as a concept in mental retardation (lunsky, 2006, p. 132), which will help her “how to contribute herself to a relationship, to respect the existence of others, to listen to them” (lunsky, 2006, p. 146). emotion’s management exercises must be applied and a special effort must be made by her teachers in order to eliminate her low self-image through constant rewarding and motivation. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 4, no. 1, 2023 15 published by scholink inc. 5. conclusions in conclusion, the emphasis, not only in the case of helen but also of all people with mental retardation, it must be given to the way they interact with their environment, to their needs and not to their inadequacies (tzouriadou, 2008, p. 10) as an “expression of limitations on individual functioning within a particular social environment” (schalock, 2004, p. 213). references american psychiatric association. (2000). diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.). text revision. washington, dc: american psychiatric association. bitzarakis, p. (2008). an effort for coexistence: integration into the family, the neighborhood, the city, of the students of the 4th special education school of thessaloniki. in society and mental health—scientific periodical report on health and social exclusion issues (issue 7, thematic unit: disability, special education and education, pp. 69-95). kypriotakis, a. (1989). special children and their education. heraklion: psychotechnics kyriazi, n. (2002). sociological research. athens: greek letters. luckasson, r. et al. (1992). mental retardation: definition, classification, and systems of support. washington, dc: american association on mental retardation. lunsky, y. (2006). individual differences in interpersonal relationships for persons with mental retardation, στο switzky, h. (ed.). international review of research in mental retardation, 31, 117-161. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0074-7750(05)31004-4 pennington, f. m., & luszcz, m. a. (1975). some functional properties of iconic storage in retarded and nonretarded subjects. memory & cognition, 3(3), 295-301. https://doi.org/10.3758/bf03212914 schalock, r. l. (2004). the concept of quality of life: what we know and do not know. journal of intellectual disability research, 48(3), 203-216. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2788.2003.00558.x tzouriadou, m. (2008). mental retardation, in the educational material of the epeaek ii project: invention-specialization of teachers-sen and production of educational material for mild mental retardation (pp. 1-25). wehmeyer, l. m. (2001). self-determination and mental retardation, στο glidden, l. m. (ed.). international review of research in mental retardation, 24, 1-48. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0074-7750(01)80004-5 westling, d. l. (1986). introduction to mental retardation. new jersey: prentice-hall, inc. wolfensberger, w. (1988). common assets of metally retarded people that are commonly not acknowledged. mental retardation (edited by american association on mental retardation), 26(2), 63-70. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0074-7750(05)31004-4 https://doi.org/10.3758/bf03212914 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2788.2003.00558.x https://doi.org/10.1016/s0074-7750(01)80004-5 frontiers of contemporary education issn 2690-3520 (print) issn 2690-3539 (online) vol. 2, no. 1, 2021 www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce 75 original paper implementation of the blended learning approach: the case of spup graduate school inicia c. bansig 1 1 st. paul university philippines (e.g., graduate school, st. paul university philippines), tuguegarao city, philippines received: april 12, 2021 accepted: april 20, 2021 online published: june 21, 2021 doi:10.22158/fce.v2n1p75 url: http://dx.doi.org/10.22158/fce.v2n1p75 abstract this study aims to assess the implementation of the blended learning approach (bla) at the graduate school level at st. paul university philippines. the study utilized the mixed research approach. more specifically, the study utilized the quantitative approach particularly the descriptive causal-comparative research design as it assessed the implementation of the bla and associated factors. the qualitative approach dealt with the responses of the participants regarding their views on the strengths of the bla and the challenges they encountered in the implementation of the bla. the study utilized the questionnaire method in gathering the data and covered the faculty and students as the study participants. the tools used for data analysis tools include the frequency and percentage counts, t-test, f-test, and thematic analysis. the results reveal that the participant’s assessment of the extent of implementation of the bla along the four learning areas is “high”. most specifically, they rated the aspect on assessment and evaluation as “very high”, methods, learning resources, and modality as “high”. keywords blended learning, graduate school, learning outcomes, online learning, face-to-face learning 1. introduction the continuous development in technology is increasingly affecting the lives of individuals and has reshaped our culture. it has transformed the practices in the area of education especially concerning approaches and methodologies/strategies employed in the delivery of instruction. as technology brings about changes in our society, more universities and colleges provide opportunities to students to engage in classroom activities that make them more proficient in using technology to manage their learning. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 1, 2021 76 published by scholink inc. with the advent of digital transformation transfer, education has undergone major changes in recent years. the development has allowed full access to global communication and many resources available to students at all levels. the introduction of different approaches of instructional delivery like blended learning, flexible learning, e-learning exemplifies the transformation that has been occurring in the educational landscape. blended learning is defined as combining face-to-face teaching with computer-mediated instruction (graham, 2006). blended learning can also refer to both software and hardware or installed devices in physical learning spaces (i.e., dvd players, document cameras, whiteboard capture systems, videoconferencing, web cameras) and mobile devices (cell phones, clickers, pdas, laptops, or tablet pcs, ipods, ipads, digital cameras, usb drives, and gps systems) to enhance interaction. according to garrison and vaughn, “blended learning is more than enhancing lectures. it represents the transformation of how we approach teaching and learning. blended learning is a coherent design approach that openly assesses and integrates the strengths of face-to-face and online learning to address worthwhile educational goals” (garrison & vaughn, 2008). in (kitchenman, 2011), blended learning is defined as a versatile tool with which to address all sorts of problems, to analyze their nature, and to treat them with greater depth and scope than other, more traditional approaches. blended learning taps multiple resources to bridge the gulf between ordinary, everyday classrooms and the 21 st -century skills our children should acquire. blended learning is also about creating a more flexible learning environment. according to collis and moonen (2001), flexible learning has often been understood as distance education. however, this is not necessarily the case. “flexibility can involve options in course resources, in types of learning activities, in media to support learning” even for full-time, on-campus students (collis & moonen, 2001, p. 9). flexibility requires technologies because they enable students to overcome the limitations of time, location, delivery method, and the communication style offered in many face-to-face courses. the use and management of learning technologies have often been associated with distance education programs and with faculty/students who are “digital natives” participating in virtual environments. in blended learning, the web-based technologies are transferred to the face-to-face classroom to enhance interaction and student-centered activities (web-enhanced classrooms) or to enhance online education through classroom contact (classroom-enhanced online education) (dziuban et al., 2004). in a study on blended courses as drivers of institutional transformation conducted by charles d. dziuban et al., at the university of central florida, usa, they concluded that institutional transformation at a university when properly managed, blended initiatives reposition the institution for better response to current student lifestyles and educational requirements while increasing the efficient use of classroom space. outcome data suggest that these benefits enhance learning effectiveness while mitigating infrastructure expansion requirements created by demographic pressures. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 1, 2021 77 published by scholink inc. in the same study, the reaction of the faculty to the associated workload, level of interaction within the course, and willingness to continue teaching in each modality was collected. the results showed that faculty responses to teaching blended courses were overwhelmingly positive. at st. paul university philippines, particularly in the graduate school department, the blended mode of instructional delivery, which is a combination of face-to-face classroom interaction and technology-driven independent and research-based learning is employed. research on blended learning best practices and challenges toward 21 st century learning was conducted in 2017, but no further research was done to investigate its effectiveness. hence, this study is conducted to find out the effectiveness of the blended-learning in the graduate school of st. paul university philippines. 1.1 conceptual framework the investigation was based on the following framework. figure 1. blended learning approach model figure 1 presents the bla model with which the study was anchored. as shown, the bla is a conglomeration of three teaching modalities, namely, the face-to-face modality, the modular approach, and online instruction. face-to-face learning is an instructional method where the course content and learning materials are taught in-person to a group of students. this allows for live interaction between a learner and an instructor. it is the most traditional type of learning instruction. learners benefit from a greater level of interaction with their fellow students as well. in face-to-face learning, students are held accountable for their progress at the class‟s specific meeting date and time. face-to-face learning ensures a better understanding and recollection of lesson content and gives class members a chance to bond with one www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 1, 2021 78 published by scholink inc. another (tophat glossary, n.d.). modular learning features individualized instruction that allows learners to use self-learning modules (slms) in print or digital format/electronic copy, whichever applies to the learner. learners under modular learning can also use other resources such as learner‟s materials, textbooks, activity sheets, study guides, and other study materials. usually in this mode, teachers will have to deliver appropriate learning materials. however, students can also access these materials by downloading electronic copies through their computer, tablet pc, or smartphone malaya (2020). e-learning, also referred to as online learning or electronic learning, is the acquisition of knowledge that takes place through electronic technologies and media. in simple language, e-learning is defined as “learning that is enabled electronically”. typically, e-learning is conducted on the internet, where students can access their learning materials online at any place and time. e-learning most often takes place in the form of online courses, online degrees, or online programs (abernathy, 2019). in the context of the study, the assessment of the implementation of the bla was focused on the four key elements, namely, the instructional modalities, methods, assessment and evaluation, and learning resources. the instructional modalities involve the three aforementioned teaching modes. methods include the strategies utilized by teachers in the delivery of the content in the various teaching modes. assessment includes the different means which the teacher uses in measuring learning outcomes. the learning resources encompass the teaching tools, facilities, and equipment used by the teacher in the delivery of the lesson through the various teaching modalities. 1.2 statement of the problem this study aimed to assess the implementation of the blended learning approach at the graduate school level. more specifically, the study aimed to answer the following sub-problems: 1. what is the profile of the faculty participants in terms of the following: 1.1 subjects handled; 1.2 number of subject preparations; 1.3 number of years in teaching in the graduate school; and 1.4 employment status (parttime/fulltime)? 2. what is the profile of the student participants in terms of the following: 2.1 program cluster; 2.2 program; and 2.2 graduate-level? 3. what is the extent of implementation of the blended learning approach in the graduate school concerning the instructional elements? 3.1 modality 3.2 methods 3.3 assessment and evaluation http://itdl.org/journal/jan_15/jan15.pdf#page=34 www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 1, 2021 79 published by scholink inc. 3.4 learning resources 4. is there a significant difference in the participants‟ assessment of the extent of implementation of the blended learning approach in the graduate school concerning the instructional elements when they are grouped according to profile variables? 5. what are the strengths of the blended learning approach as assessed by the participants? 6. what are the challenges encountered by the participants on the blended learning approach in graduate school delivery of instruction? 1.3 hypotheses the following hypotheses were tested at 0.05 level of significance: 1. there is no significant difference in the participants‟ assessment of the extent of implementation of the blended learning approach in the graduate school concerning the instructional elements when they are grouped according to profile variables. 1.4 scope and limitation the study was limited to the assessment of the implementation of the bla at the graduate school level. this study was conducted during the academic year 2018-2019 which covered faculty and students as study participants. the study would not endeavor to establish the effectiveness of the approach but was solely focused on the extent of implementation of the approach concerning the defined instructional elements. 2. method 2.1 research design the study utilized the mixed research approach. the quantitative approach dealt with the participants‟ profile and their assessment of the extent of implementation of the bla for the defined instructional elements. the qualitative approach dealt with the responses of the participants regarding their views on the strengths of the bla and the challenges they encountered in the implementation of the bla. more specifically, the study utilized the descriptive causal-comparative research design as it investigated factors that affect their assessment of the implementation of the bla. 2.2 participants of the study the study covered two groups of participants particularly, the total population of graduate school faculty [n=42] and a random sample of students [315] for the academic year 2018-2019. the stratified random sampling was used in selecting the student participants with the program as the main strata under consideration. 2.3 instrumentation the survey questionnaire was the main tool that was used in data gathering. the survey tool involved three parts, the first part of which sought data on the personal profile of the participants, the second part asked for the participants‟ assessment on the implementation of the bla, and the third part involved an open-ended question to elicit the participants‟ views on the strengths of the bla as well as the www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 1, 2021 80 published by scholink inc. challenges they experienced in the implementation of the said approach. 2.4 data gathering procedure the data were gathered through the following procedure: 1. the researcher sought permission from the vp academics for the conduct of the study. 2. the researcher identified the study participants and secured informed consent from them. 3. the research personally administered the questionnaire to the two groups of participants. 4. the participants‟ responses were organized using appropriate data analysis tools. 2.5 data analysis tools the data obtained from the study were subjected to the following data analysis tools: the frequency and percentage count were used to analyze the profile of the participants. the mean was used to interpret the assessment of the participants on the implementation of the bla. the means were further interpreted using the four-point likert scale in a low-moderate-high-very high continuum. f-test was used to test the inferences set in the study. the deductive thematic analysis was utilized to organize the participants‟ responses on their views regarding the strengths of the bla and the challenges they encountered in the implementation of the said approach. 3. results 3.1 profile of the faculty-participants table 1. frequency and percentage distribution of the faculty-participants in terms of courses taught subject cluster frequency percentage core subjects 24 57.14 major subjects 28 66.67 cognate 13 30.95 the majority of the faculty teaches the major courses or core subjects. this is traced to the fact that the highest percentage of courses offered for all programs are major subjects, followed by core courses. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 1, 2021 81 published by scholink inc. table 2. frequency and percentage distribution of the faculty-participants in terms of number of course preparations number of subject preparations frequency percentage 3 19 45.24 2 15 35.71 1 8 19.05 total 42 100.00 as shown in table 2, the largest cohort of faculty participants has 3-course preparations. in every semester, a faculty may handle at most 3 courses, thus, the highest number of course preparations is 3. due to the variations on course offerings for each program, particularly the major courses, faculty tend to have three-course preparations. table 3. frequency and percentage distribution of the faculty-participants in terms of number of years in teaching table 3 shows that the majority [52.38] of the faculty have been teaching in graduate school for more than 10 years. this is an indicator of their commitment to sharing their expertise in graduate school. table 4. frequency and percentage distribution of the faculty-participants in terms of courses taught of employment status employment status frequency percentage full time 36 85.71 parttime 6 14.29 total 42 100.00 the majority [85.71] of the faculty are full-time faculty. only 6 or 14.29 % of the participants‟ are part-time faculty. number of years in teaching frequency percentage more than 10 years 22 52.38 6-10 years 17 40.48 1-5 years 3 7.14 total 42 100.00 www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 1, 2021 82 published by scholink inc. 3.2 profile of the student-participants table 5. frequency and percentage distribution of the student-participants in terms of program cluster, program and level program cluster programs master‟s level programs doctoral level total f % f % f % health sciences msn 48 22.43 dns 15 14.85 man 12 5.61 sub-total 60 28.04 sub-total 15 14.85 75 23.81 education mst 65 30.37 dme 5 4.95 maed 23 10.75 phd 27 26.73 sub-total 88 41.12 sub-total 32 31.68 120 38.10 information technology mit 12 5.61 dit 26 25.74 38 12.06 business mba 7 3.27 dbm 5 4.95 mshm 8 3.74 dhm 7 6.93 sub-total 15 7.01 sub-total 12 11.88 27 8.57 social sciences mssw 8 3.74 dpa 9 8.91 mop 6 2.80 phd psycho 7 6.93 mapsych 5 2.34 mpa 20 9.35 sub-total 39 18.22 sub-total 16 15.84 55 17.46 total 214 100.00 total 101 100.00 315 100.00 table 5 reveals that the highest percentage [38.10] of the student-participants are enrolled in programs associated with education. these programs include the mst, maed, dme, and ph.d. also, the table shows that there are more participants taken from the master‟s degree program which comprise 214 [67.94%] participants while those in the doctoral level comprise 101[32.06] participants. for the master‟s degree program, students enrolled in the mst program got the highest percentage [30.37%] followed by those who are enrolled in msn program [22.43%]. for the doctoral program, the highest percentage [26.73%] are enrolled in the ph.d. program which is closely followed by those who are enrolled in the dit program [25.74%]. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 1, 2021 83 published by scholink inc. 3.3 the extent of implementation of the blended learning approach in the graduate school for the instructional elements table 6. mean assessment of the faculty and student participants on the extent of implementation of the blended learning approach in the graduate school concerning modality indicators faculty students x di x di 1. teacher-student interaction is done face-to-face (onsite). 2.83 h 2.92 h 2. teacher-student interaction is conducted through non-physical means through technology but may not require internet connectivity. 1.85 m 2.12 m 3. content delivery is done online in the synchronous mode where teachers and students interact simultaneously. 2.02 m 2.13 m 4. content delivery is done online in the asynchronous mode where teachers monitor students‟ learning. 3.15 h 3.21 h category mean 2.46 h 2.64 h table 6 reflects that the students assess the extent of implementation of the bla through the defined modalities is at a high extent. the high extent of use of the desired modalities is an indicator that the students have adequate exposure to the different teaching modalities, particularly the face-to-face and online-asynchronous modes. 3.4 methods table 7. mean assessment of the faculty and student participants on the extent of implementation of the blended learning approach in the graduate school concerning methods indicators faculty students x di x di 1. the use of the following strategies in onsite/offline modes: 1.1 classroom lecture 2.87 h 2.93 h 1.2 self-directed modular instruction 1.83 m 1.92 m 1.3 project-based learning 2.89 h 3.02 h mean 2.53 h 2.62 h 2. the use of the following strategies in remote/distance-offline modes: 2.1 discussion through video conferencing 1.54 l 1.68 l 2.2 interactive online collaboration and discussion/chat 2.92 h 3.11 h 2.3 virtual learning 2.89 h 2.92 h www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 1, 2021 84 published by scholink inc. mean 2.45 m 2.57 h 3. the use of the following strategies in synchronous-online modes: 3.1 discussion through video conferencing 3.32 vh 3.28 vh 3.2 interactive online collaboration and discussion/chat 3.28 vh 3.32 vh 3.3 virtual learning 2.78 h 2.83 h mean 3.13 h 3.14 h 4. the use of the following strategies in asynchronous-online modes: 4.1 reading assignments 3.28 vh 3.35 vh 4.2 pre-recorded video/audio streaming 2.15 m 2.21 m 4.3 research activities 3.34 vh 3.42 vh 4.4 case study analysis 2.56 h 2.76 h 4.5 lectures 3.67 vh 3.87 vh mean 3.00 h 3.12 h category mean 2.78 h 2.86 h the data in table 7 show that the students and faculty assess the implementation of the bla methods as high. more specifically, both participants assessed the extent of implementation of synchronous-online modes such as discussion through video conferencing, and interactive online collaboration and discussion/chat as well as the asynchronous-online mode such as reading assignments, research activities, and lectures as very high. on the other hand, a low level of implementation was revealed on the use of the discussion through video conferencing in remote/distance offline modes while there is a moderate level of implementation of the self-directed modular instruction in onsite/offline modes and pre-recorded video/audio streaming in asynchronous modes. 3.5 assessment and evaluation table 8. mean assessment of the faculty and student participants on the extent of implementation of the blended learning approach in the graduate school concerning assessment and evaluation indicators faculty students x di x di 1. appropriate feedbacking mechanisms were done by professors in either online or offline mode. 3.45 vh 3.28 vh 2. assessment tasks match the learning outcomes. 3.65 vh 3.67 vh 3. assessment forms used include either traditional and authentic assessments. 3.76 vh 3.45 vh www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 1, 2021 85 published by scholink inc. 4. multiple assessment strategies were used to measure students‟ knowledge, skills, and attitudes. 2.34 m 2.43 m 5. students‟ grades are accessible to students. 3.67 vh 3.87 vh 6. the use of offline assessment modes such as: 6.1 project-based assessment 3.15 h 3.02 h 6.2 narrative reports/laboratory reports 2.35 m 2.46 m 6.3 portfolio assessment 1.89 m 2.00 m 6.4 reflection paper 3.28 vh 3.65 vh 6.5 research/literature review 3.78 vh 3.67 vh 6.6 written correspondence/essays 3.34 vh 3.40 vh 6.7 case analysis 3.35 vh 3.42 vh mean 3.02 h 3.09 h 7. use of online assessment modes such as: 7.1 asynchronous and synchronous quizzes 2.80 h 2.76 h 7.2 major examinations conducted in synchronous mode 3.26 vh 3.56 vh mean 3.03 h 3.16 h category mean 3.27 vh 3.28 vh table 8 generally reveals that the two groups of participants assessed the extent of implementation of the bla in graduate school instruction concerning assessment and evaluation at very high. more specifically, assessment techniques with a very high level of implementation include the following: (1) providing feedback in either online or offline mode, (2) assessment tasks match the learning outcomes, (3) assessment forms used include either traditional and authentic assessments, (4) students‟ grades are accessible to students, (5) assessments in offline modes (e.g., reflection paper, research/literature review, written correspondence/essays, and case analysis), and online assessment modes such as major examinations in synchronous mode. assessment strategies such as the use of multiple assessment strategies to measure students‟ knowledge, skills, and attitudes, as well narrative reports/laboratory reports, and portfolio assessment are implemented to a moderate extent. 3.6 learning resources www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 1, 2021 86 published by scholink inc. table 9. mean assessment of the faculty and student participants on the extent of implementation of the blended learning approach in the graduate school concerning learning resources indicators faculty students x di x di 1. a link is provided to students to enable them to access library resources. 3.58 vh 3.67 vh 2. the use of the following learning resources in offline instructional mode: a. learning modules 2.21 m 2.48 m b. handouts/worksheets/lecture notes/manuals 3.27 vh 3.89 vh c. teaching videos (i.e. videotaped simulations, lecture videos) 2.45 m 2.24 m d. open educational resources (oer) 1.87 m 3.11 h e. case studies 3.37 vh 3.86 vh mean 2.69 h 2.90 h 3. the use of the following resources in online instructional mode: a. msteams 3.27 vh 3.67 vh b. frontlearners 1.56 l 1.49 l c. edis 1.58 l 1.87 l d. google meet 2.78 h 2.89 h e. zoom 3.06 m 3.17 m f. edmodo 2.02 m 1.80 m g. canvas 1.67 l 1.59 l mean 2.28 m 2.35 m 4. the use of the following communication modes in the instructional process a. email 3.89 vh 3.78 vh b. text messaging 2.36 m 2.04 m c. messenger/group chat 3.29 vh 3.45 vh d. viber 1.98 l 1.98 l mean 2.88 h 2.81 h category mean 2.85 h 2.97 h in general, participants‟ assessment on the extent of implementation of bla along learning resources got a high extent rating. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 1, 2021 87 published by scholink inc. noteworthy is the very high extent of use of the following learning resources: (1) a link is provided to students to enable them to access library resources, (2) offline instructional mode such as the use of handouts/worksheets/lecture notes/manuals, and case studies, (3) online instructional modes such as msteams, and (4) communication modes such as email and messenger/group chat. on the other hand, a low rating is given to the implementation of learning resources such as the use of frontlearners, edis, and canvas as online instructional modes, and viber as a communication modality. table 10. summary table on the mean assessment of the faculty and student participants on the extent of implementation of the blended learning approach in the graduate school concerning learning resources instructional areas faculty students x di x di 1. modality 1.96 m 2.09 m 2. methods 2.78 h 2.86 h 3. assessment and evaluation 3.27 vh 3.28 vh 4. learning resources 2.85 h 2.97 h overall mean 2.72 h 2.80 h in summary, the participants‟ extent of implementation of the bla along the four learning areas is high. most specifically, they rated the aspect on assessment and evaluation as very high, methods, and learning resources as high while have a moderate rating for modality. 3.7 f-test result on the significant difference in the participants’ assessment of the extent of implementation of the blended learning approach in the graduate school for the instructional elements when they are grouped according to profile variables www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 1, 2021 88 published by scholink inc. table 11. f test results on the assessment of the faculty-participants on the extent of implementation of the blended learning approach in the graduate school concerning the instructional elements when they are grouped according to profile variables instructional elements course handled number of course preparation number of years in teaching in the graduate school employment status f pv f pv f pv f pv modality 2.56 0.15 2.03 0.23 2.14 0.21 2.76 0.67 methods 1.89 0.09 1.93 0.15 1.87 0.18 2.18 0.21 assessment and evaluation 2.47 0.21 2.02 0.23 1.76 0.52 1.98 0.08 learning resources 2.79 0.13 2.17 0.17 1.92 0.28 1.87 0.13 as shown by the probability values that are less than 0.05, there exists no significant difference in the assessment of the faculty-participants on the extent of implementation of the bla in the graduate school for the instructional elements when they are grouped according to profile variables. this implies that regardless of the course handled, number of course preparations, number of years in teaching in the graduate school, and employment status, the implementation of the bla along the instructional elements are of the same extent. table 12. f test results on the assessment of the student-participants on the extent of implementation of the blended learning approach in the graduate school for the instructional elements when they are grouped according to profile variables instructional elements program cluster program level f pv f pv f pv modality 2.67 0.23 2.09 0.17 2.45 0.12 methods 2.18 0.16 1.91 0.27 2.18 0.17 assessment and evaluation 2.15 0.21 1.89 0.19 2.09 0.21 learning resources 2.67 0.34 2.17 0.25 1.92 0.15 the results reveal that the students do not differ in their assessment of the implementation of the bla when they are grouped according to program cluster, program, and level. this result reflects the commitment of the graduate school unit in its initiatives to implement the bla in its instructional delivery, an approach that is deemed appropriate for adult learners and the learning context brought by technological advancements. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 1, 2021 89 published by scholink inc. 3.8 strengths of the blended learning approach among the noted strengths of the bla as exposed by the participants are as follows: 1. it enhances learning. 2. it promotes the acquisition of the desired skills and values. 3. it promotes heightened accessibility to learning. 4. it offers differentiation. 5. it promotes flexibility in learning. 3.9 challenges encountered by the participants on the blended learning approach in graduate school delivery of instruction among the challenges encountered by the students in their exposure to bla are poor internet connectivity and power interruption, lack of gadgets and technical issues, and insufficient resources. 4. discussion the data in table 1 indicate that majority of the teachers handle major subjects. the vast majority of the courses offered to graduate school are major subjects. these courses are offered to add up to the existing knowledge of the students in their field of expertise. this is intended for the mastery of their craft to improve the way they perform their tasks in their respective workplaces. the data in table 2 implies that the number of subject preparations of faculty is manageable. three subjects preparation is reasonable enough to allow the faculty to prepare their lessons and to monitor students‟ progress. table 3 reflects that majority of the faculty have been in the teaching profession for more than 10 years. this indicates their passion and commitment to share their expertise in graduate school. the majority of the faculty are full-time employees of the university. these faculty handle subjects both at the undergraduate and graduate levels. some of them hold administrative functions in the university. the data in table 5 reflects that the faculty from the different programs are represented. the table in table 6 reflects that the high extent of implementation of the bla through the face-to-face and online modalities. this result is an indication that the participants have rich exposure to the various teaching modalities. the data in table 7 reflect the high extent of implementation of bla concerning instructional methods. noteworthy is their very high extent of implementation of the synchronous-online teaching modes such as discussion through video conferencing, and interactive online collaboration and discussion/chat as well as the asynchronous-online mode such as reading assignments, research activities, and lectures. these methods are those that involve either the face-to-face and online instructional modes. most of the methods that were utilized promote the use of technology and the conduct of activities that promote critical thinking. table 8 reflects that the faculty participants utilize varied assessment tools in providing feedback in either online or offline mode. this mode of assessment depends on the nature of tasks required from the students. online assessments are oftentimes utilized in a distance learning mode where students could only be reached through online www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 1, 2021 90 published by scholink inc. modality. the assessment tasks that the faculty require the students match the learning outcomes that were defined in the syllabi. further, teachers use either traditional and authentic assessments to measure whether students acquire the desired knowledge, attitudes, and skills as defined in the course syllabi. furthermore, the faculty ensures that students‟ grades are accessible, and grade computations are transparent to show objectivity. table 9 reflects that the faculty have a very high extent of use of learning resources particularly those that are linked to online modes. students are provided with opportunities to access library resources through online modes. in the face-to-face modes, instructional materials such as handouts/worksheets/lecture notes/manuals, and case studies are highly utilized. these materials are important aids to facilitate students in understanding the course content and the required outputs. online instructional modes such as msteams and zoom are commonly used especially for classes with foreign students or those on distance learning. moreover, social resources such as email and messenger/group chat are highly utilized. online resources such as the frontlearners, edis, and canvas for online instructional modes, and viber for communication modality are rarely utilized by the participants due to their limited features and accessibility. in summary, the participants have a high extent of implementation of the bla along modality, methods, assessment, and learning resources. the data in table 12 reveal that the faculty implementation of the bla along the instructional elements are of the same extent regardless of the course they handled, number of course preparations, number of years in teaching in the graduate school, and employment status. the bla enhances learning, promotes the acquisition of the desired skills and values, promotes heightened accessibility of learning, offers differentiation, and promotes flexibility of learning. students‟ exposure to the blended learning approach leads them to a deeper understanding of the content and a higher level of content mastery. teachers can track students‟ compliance to the learning activities and their extent of engagement and can monitor the amount of learning that they acquired. because most students today are surrounded by technology in their everyday life, they often engage more easily with the material when technology is incorporated in instructional settings (walker, 2018). the bla incorporates multiple methods of instruction from an assortment of perspectives, thus, proves to have an effective learning outcome for most students involved (giarla, n.d.). the bla exposes the students to meaningful and varied activities that allow them to acquire and improve their digital skills. the various instructional modes particularly the use of online learning trained the students to acquire digital skills. students become empowered as they expand their technological skills and competency with technology (walker, 2018). multifarious activities harness students‟ innovative skills. the bla also trained students to acquire adaptability skills as they deal with one mode to the other. in their written outputs where they derived ideas from reputable sources, they learned the skill in proper documentation of sources and requirements. moreover, bla trains students to be independent learners, have a strong determination to learn, and commitment towards attaining quality learning. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 1, 2021 91 published by scholink inc. the bla provides accessible materials both print and non-print. students consider bla as a convenient mode of learning since the teacher has a range of options for the delivery of lessons. bla is considered safe and comfortable since it reduces travels to schools as there are other teaching modes to choose from such as online or modular. with this, there is an ease of access to education. bla is also the most appropriate instructional mode for professionals as they are given time to manage their learning while performing their work functions. the high-quality digital educational tools allow teachers to measure each student‟s learning level and provide activities and instruction that meet the child where they are to give them appropriate lesson material (walker, 2018). bla is multimodal, hence provide variation to students, particularly the mode of teaching and assessment. students in remote areas can attend classes through other modes, can learn while working. students‟ exposure to various online learning modalities hastens their flexibility skills caters to various learning styles/diverse students. blended learning classes offer flexibility for teachers in how they present material and for students in the pace and variety of the learning approaches they experience (walker, 2018). because blended learning incorporates a variety of instructional approaches, learning activities can be tailored to address numerous learning styles. blended learning also offers flexible time frames that can be personalized to each person, offering them the ability to learn at their own pace (giarla, n.d.). 5. conclusion and recommendations in the light of the findings, the following conclusion is arrived at: the graduate school has been successful in the implementation of the bla as supported by the high rating it garnered in areas of modality, instructional methods, assessment and evaluation techniques, and learning resources. this is made possible through the strong support of the administration and commitment of the graduate school faculty in the attainment of the graduate school program objectives through the bla. moreover, clarity of the implementation plan of the bla and the constant follow-up and monitoring from the top administration facilitated the implementation of the approach. also, the subjects handled, number of subject-preparation, number of years in teaching, and employment status of faculty do not affect the extent of implementation of the bla in the graduate school. the strengths of the bla as exposed by the participants are driving factors for its high extent of implementation. the bla enhanced learning, assists in the acquisition of the desired skills and values, enhances the accessibility of learning, provides opportunities for differentiation, and promotes flexibility of learning. the challenges encountered by the participants are external thus, considered as factors that are beyond control. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 1, 2021 92 published by scholink inc. based on the findings of the study, the following recommendations are derived: 1. the graduate school to sustain the high extent of implementation of bla as an instructional approach. 2. the administration and faculty may consider enhancing the implementation of the bla specifically on areas where these are rated at „moderate‟ levels. 3. faculty may consider investigating the effectiveness of the bla in improving learning outcomes. 4. future research may consider expanding the investigation by considering other related variables. references abernathy, d. (2019). what is e-learning? retrieved from https://e-student.org/what-is-e-learning/ chen, p. d., lambert, a. d., & guidry, k. r. (2010). engaging online learners: the impact of web-based learning technology on college student engagement. computers & education, 54(4), 1222-1232. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2009.11.008 dziuban, c. d., hartman, j. l., & moskal, p. d. (2007). blended learning. educause centre for applied research, 7, 1-12. garrison, r. d., & vaughn, n. d. (2008). blended learning in higher education: framework, principles, and guidelines. san francisco, ca: jossey bass. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118269558 giarla, a. (n.d.). the benefits of blended learning. teach thought. retrieved from https://www.teachthought.com/technology/the-benefits-of-blended-learning/ graham, c. r. (2006). blended learning systems: definitions, current trends, and future directions. in c. bonk, & c. graham (eds.), the handbook of blended learning: global perspectives, local designs (pp. 3-21). san francisco, ca: pfeiffer. kitchenham, a. (2011). blended learning across disciplines: models for implementation. university of northern british columbia, canada. https://doi.org/10.4018/978-1-60960-479-0 malaya, b. (2020). modular distance learning: here’s what you need to know. retrieved from https://www.whatalife.ph/modular-distance-learning-heres-what-you-need-to-know/ tophat, g. (n.d.). face to face learning. retrieved from https://tophat.com/glossary/f/face-to-face-learning/ torrisi-steele, g., & drew, s. (2013, may 28). the literature landscape of blended learning in higher education: the need for better understanding of the academic blended practice. https://doi.org/10.1080/1360144x.2013.786720 walker, s. (2018, september 12). 5 benefits of blended learning. topics in education. i imagine. retrieved from https://www.imaginelearning.com/blog/2018/09/5-benefits-blended-learning https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2009.11.008 https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118269558 https://doi.org/10.4018/978-1-60960-479-0 https://doi.org/10.1080/1360144x.2013.786720 frontiers of contemporary education issn 2690-3520 (print) issn 2690-3539 (online) vol. 2, no. 1, 2021 www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce 56 original paper purpose built offices replaced by work from home (wfh) in a time of business disruption: hybrid office model (hom) lisa barnes 1* , warrick long 1 & peter williams 1 1 avondale university college, school of arts and business, cooranbong, australia * lisa barnes, avondale university college, school of arts and business, cooranbong, australia received: april 14, 2021 accepted: april 27, 2021 online published: june 2, 2021 doi:10.22158/fce.v2n1p56 url: http://dx.doi.org/10.22158/fce.v2n1p56 abstract with the pandemic of covid-19 came a time of significant business disruption, particularly in relation to social distancing rules that effectively shut down organisations physical office spaces, and moved employees to work from home (wfh) in a very short space of time. this research looks at the current office space that employees use and compares it to the wfh space. the results showed that employees valued their physical office space, but that open plan or shared offices were often noisy and lacked privacy. most described their office space as personal, comfortable, and conducive to productivity. in relation to the ability to work collaboratively, most respondents stated this happened in their current office space (87%), and with the move to wfh, 76% stated that they were still able to work collaboratively. employees will no longer need to commute to work, can spend more time perusing personal plans and feel more productive when wfh. for employers, they now have access to a wider pool of talent, can enjoy cost savings and decrease their carbon footprint. the office of the future will be a hybrid model, a combination of wfh, working in the office and both, known as the hybrid office model (hom). keywords work from home (wfh), business disruption, covid-19, hybrid office model (hom) 1. introduction to the study the world health organisation (2020) determined that the covid-19 virus was as a pandemic, and on 30 january 2020 declared it to be a “public health emergency of international concern”. in response to this, the australian government has implemented that “public gatherings significantly increase the risk of covid-19 spreading, on 29 march the national cabinet agreed to further limit most indoor and outdoor non-essential gathering to 2 people” (australian department of health, 2020). this has had a www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 1, 2021 57 published by scholink inc. profound effect on the ability of people to work in their usual place of business. this research examines the effect of this on staff at avondale university college, a higher education institution located in regional nsw, australia who has been operating since 1892. since the march 31, 2020 introduction of the public health covid 19 restrictions on gathering and movement order (2020) by the nsw government, working from home (wfh) is becoming the norm for staff who have the ability to do so. according to safework nsw (2020), this includes the following:  “ceasing non-essential work activities that involve close personal contact (less than 1.5m)  implementing controls to reduce direct contact with workers and customers, including: o social distancing of at least 1.5metres (1 person per 4sqm indoors) o barriers to create space at counters, between workstations, seated areas, etc. o modifying shifts and rosters to reduce peak periods o actively supporting flexible work arrangements, including working from home (wfh) (emphasis added). in response to this governmentimposed limitation on gatherings, the avondale university college president sent to all staff on the 30 th of march (2020) the following: “the decision has been made that;  all those who are able to work from home and who have completed the paperwork/checks required by line-managers, should transition to working from home from this afternoon onwards. for staff yet to confirm their capability to work from home and/or to confirm the tasks they will be completing from home, we aim to transition you to working from home by wednesday (april 1);  from this afternoon onwards, all those needing to be on-campus should stay within their immediate work area and not visit other areas of campus that are not directly associated with their employment”. (president avondale university college, via email 29/3/20) this comment derives from the avondale crisis management teams‟ staged responses to covid 19, of which it was determined avondale was at stage b at the time (see figure 1). based on this information, all employees were encouraged to work from home, and if not to work only in their offices within their specific work areas, known as “moat” working. it is the aim of this research to understand what challenges and opportunities individual staff had when working from home, and what challenges and opportunities it meant for staff as a collective, when working remotely. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 1, 2021 58 published by scholink inc. figure 1. avondale university college covid 19 stages telecommuting or teleworking (bloom, liang, roberts, & ying, 2013) is described as “a facility or space which offers workers an alternative to either working in their normal place of work or working from home (wfh)” (nsw government trade & investment, 2013, p. 5). employers benefit from “increased productivity, security in retention, strengthened organisational commitment and improved performance”; employees benefit from “reduced stress, better health and better work-life balance”; and the wider community benefit from “reduced congestion on roads and the corresponding environmental benefits” (fitzgerald, malik, & rosenberger iii, 2017, p. 4). from a work/life balance perspective, this balance has become more challenging, especially with increasing workloads and advances in technology, which have resulted in the boundaries between work and home life becoming more blurred (major & germano, 2006). advances in communication technologies, such as mobile phones, laptops, email and wireless internet connections, have created a virtual workforce (remote working), where employees can be contacted anywhere and anytime (o‟driscoll, brough, & kalliath, 2006; beauregard & henry, 2009). being able to work from any location, especially from home, has an impact on a person‟s work-life balance. on the one hand, remote working enables the reduction in commute time, allowing for more time to interact with family and other non-work commitments, such as exercise and hobbies (hall et al., 2013). research has shown that employees who are working from home (wfh), are experiencing greater intrusion into their family life, due to the difficulty experienced in “leaving work at work” (hyman et al., 2003). www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 1, 2021 59 published by scholink inc. work-life balance (wlb) is the time an individual uses to work, in comparison with their time spent with individual engagement and relations (abioro, oladejo, & ashogbon, 2018). in this century, wlb is an important concept, in which the equilibrium must be maintained and managed constantly. a finding shows that employees with a well-balanced life are valuable for the company, and the quality of their personal life impacts their work quality (garg & yajurvedi, 2016). studies done by barnes, long and williams (2019 and 2020) into the advantages of workers using a remote smart hub indicated two themes of 1/work satisfaction and 2/personal satisfaction from using a smart hub closer to home. they also identified factors that contributed to these themes, either as an opportunity or a challenge of reduced commute, flexibility, productivity, control, interactions (internal and external), wellbeing, facilities & environment, work life balance, cost & time. at times these were favorable outcomes, and at times these proved challenging. due to the changes brought about by the covid-19 pandemic, this research surveyed current employees at avondale university college to see what challenges and opportunities arose when changing from working in an office space provided by the institution and its facilities, compared to the impromptu move to working from home (wfh). staff were surveyed after they had been working from home for at least a month, to allow them to settle in and get used to the new ways of working. the aims of this project were to identify the current challenges and opportunities to employees of avondale university college who have had to change their workspace to working from home (wfh) as individuals and as a collective. based on the literature review and research aims, the research questions (rqs) for this study are: rq1: what are the individual challenges for employees working from home? rq2: what are the individual opportunities for employees working from home? rq3: what are the challenges of working collaboratively from home? rq4: what are the opportunities of working collaboratively from home? the research questions are identified in table 1, and linked to the survey questions to elicit answers: table 1. research questions linked to survey questions research questions survey questions individual current avondale space survey questions individual work from home (wfh) space rq1: what are the individual challenges for employees working from home? rq1: what are the part a: current avondale office space 1) how long have you worked in your current avondale space/office? <1, 1-5, 5-10>10 2) how would you describe your part b: remote/home office space 1) how would you describe your remote/home office space? (open) 2) what is in your current office www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 1, 2021 60 published by scholink inc. individual challenges for employees working from home? current office space at avondale? (open) 3) what and who shares your current office space? (open) 4) is there anything you don‟t like about your office space? (open) 5) is there anything you particularly like about your office space? (open) 6) how important is the physical space you work in? (not/very) 7) how private is your current office space? (not/very) 8) have you been able to personalise your office space? (yes/no) 9) do you think your office allows for collaboration with others? (yes/no) 10) any other comments you would like to make about your avondale office space? space? (open) 3) who do you share your current office space with? (open-children/partners/anim als) 4) is there anything you don‟t like about your office space? (open) 5) is there anything you particular you like about your office space? (open) 6) how important is the physical space you work in? (not/very) 7) how private is your current office space? (not/very) 8) do you think your office allows for collaboration with others? (yes/no) rq3: what are the challenges of working collaboratively from home? 9) what have been the biggest challenges working with colleagues who are also working from home? rq4: what are the opportunities of working collaboratively from home? 10) what have been the biggest opportunities working with colleagues who are also working from home? demographic questions 1/ how many years have you worked at avondale? scale 0-5, 5-10, 10-15, 15-20>20 years 2/ please indicate if you are professional/administration/academic staff member. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 1, 2021 61 published by scholink inc. 2. methodology according to yin (2003), qualitative methodology is ideal for generating descriptive answers, involving richness and intensity, to access and understand personal experiences and opinions. qualitative research is undertaken when the researcher “aims to explore a problem, honour the voices of participants, map the complexity of the situation, and convey multiple perspectives of participants” (creswell & clark, 2011, p. 7). quantitative methods will also be utilised to determine associations between key concepts in the research questions. this understanding arises through the depth of exploration of the participant‟s perspectives. quantitative research methods typically use numeric data to measure variables (sarantakos, 2005) and describe trends or explain relationships between variables (creswell, j., & creswell, d., 2018). it typically (but not exclusively) uses surveys, documentary methods, observations and experiments (sarantakos, 2005). creswell notes this method typically uses questions which are “specific and narrow” in order to “obtain measurable and observable data on variables”, using “mathematical procedures, called statistics” (2008, pp. 54-56). in order to get both qualitative and quantitative data collection, individual surveys will be sent to participants, with questions consisting of both quantitative (open questions) and qualitative (e.g., likert scale) data collection. 3. results 3.1 formal office space a survey was administered to all staff at avondale university college using survey monkey, in july 2020 during the covid-19 pandemic business shutdown. total staff at avondale university college according to the human resources department numbered 157, with 83 responses received, giving an overall response rate of 53%. of the 83 responses, 74 (or 89%) indicated that they are now working from home (wfh), with 9 (or 11%) still working at the avondale premises, (note those that answered “no” to working remotely did not proceed with the survey). of the 74 respondents who indicated they worked from home, not all of them proceeded to answer the rest of the survey, with responses varying in number between 66 to 68. respondents stated the amount of time they have worked at avondale with less than 5 years=26 respondents, 5 and 10 years also 26 respondents, between 10 to 15 years=8 responses, 3 between 15 and 20 years and 3 respondents indicating services of 20 years or longer. of the respondents who indicated that they had to work remotely, 38 (57%) were academics and 29 (43%) were from professional or general staff members. the respondents included employees who have been working at avondale from being a new employee (less than a year) to an employee who has served more than ten years in the current space they worked in as shown in table 2. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 1, 2021 62 published by scholink inc. table 2. length of time in current space length of service number percentage <1 year 13 19% 1-5 years 25 37% 6-10 years 18 26% >10 years 12 18% total 68 100% survey data was administered to understand the current office space and compare it to the space used at home during the covid-19 changes to social isolation. current descriptions of office spaces at avondale are shown in table 3. table 3. description of current office space description of current avondale office example of quote good/great/excellent (23 out of 68 responses, 34%) “very satisfactory” (#16), “quite adequate” (#17) “excellent” (#6), “very pleasant” (#10) spacious/large (21 out of 68 responses, 31%) “spacious” (#4) “large enough to conduct the various aspects of my job” (#25) “large office for one person” (#58) comfortable (13 responses, 19%) “comfortable” (#26) “pleasant and comfortable with plenty of light” (#54) tight/small (11 responses, 16%) “small internal office with one occupant” (#11) “cramped” (#33), “confined” (#34), “small office” (#38) efficient/functional (10 responses, 15%) “it allows me to work efficiently” (#1) “practical” (#18) “allows for me to complete my work in an efficient manner” (#19) work with colleagues (7 responses) “open plan and adequate for the task of collaborating with team members” (#12) “it‟s located in and amongst the staff that i work with daily” (#50) window view (5 responses) “great view” (#2) “view out window” (#8) www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 1, 2021 63 published by scholink inc. the question of if office space was shared with others resulted in 68 responses, with 29 or (43%) stating they shared office space, with 39 (57%) stating they had their own office. table 4. individual space v shared space current space total sample quotes shared office space 29 or 43% “it is difficult to block out telephone and other conversations of my colleagues in as part of their work” (#34) “no partitions and can be noisy and distracting at times “(#56) individual office space 39 or 57% “i have my own office in the building with other offices close by” (#20) “no one else, just me, just the way i like it” (#32) when asked if there was anything they didn‟t like about their office space, 28 or 41% stated that there was nothing they didn‟t like about their space. 40 participants (59%) stated some improvements were needed including increasing privacy (e.g., partitions, less people in one space) and reducing noise in shared spaces. other issues included old, noisy and shared air conditioning, lack of glass panels and windows, cold offices in winter, cramped spaces, open plan offices and loneliness from being too far away from other colleagues. when asked what participants liked about their offices the following where stated:  the view and natural light (25 participants, 37%)  size of space occupied (18 participants, 27%)  privacy (16 participants, 24%)  collegiality (7 participants) other reasons for liking the workspace included accessibility for students, lovely buildings to work in, having two screens to work on and air conditioning. when asked how important the physical space you work in was, only 6 participants (9%) indicated that it was not very important or not important. 62 participants (91%) indicated physical space was important or very important to them as shown in figure 2. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 1, 2021 64 published by scholink inc. figure 2. importance of physical space participants were then asked how private their current workspace was, with 30.88% or 21 indicating it was not private. 42.65% or 29 participants stated it was sometimes private, and 26.47% or 18 stated it was very private. this aligns with the results above where space and privacy were indicated as positive factors for office space, and lack of privacy was shown in the open plan or shared spaces, particularly in relation to the level of noise. in relation to the ability to personalise space, 87% of respondents (59) indicated they had the ability to personalise, with 13% (9) indicating they did not have this ability. in relation to collaboration with others, 87% (59) stated their office space was conducive to collaboration, and 13% (9) stated that they didn‟t have the ability to collaborate with their current office space, as shown in figure 3. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 1, 2021 65 published by scholink inc. figure 3. collaboration with others in current office space 3.2 working from home (wfh) space (covid-19) participants were then asked to describe their remote office space, that they had moved to since the government implemented covid-19 restrictions that effectively closed the avondale campus down to both students and staff. most described their home/remote working spaces as functional (17 responses, 25%) and comfortable (15 responses, 22%). some described their individual spaces in detail for example “stand up desk on the chest of drawers in my bedroom or sitting at the living room table or breakfast bench” (#24). some described how easy it was to set up their office at home or remotely for example “really who needs a “space” when all you need is a computer and phone. i can work anywhere as long as i have a power point” (#40). some also lamented that they felt their home/remote office was “heaven” (#60) and that “it is going to be pretty hard to go back to my 7.4 sqm office space!” (#34). of the 68 participants that described their home or remote office, 61 (90%) indicated they had a dedicated desk, and dedicated chair (54, or 80%), some borrowed the chairs from their work office, others used dining chairs. 42 participants (62%) indicated they were able to use their computer/laptop from work at home, and others indicated that in their home office they also had access to a second bigger monitor (20, 43%), and a printer (19, 28%). interesting were the other office equipment listed such as a “jogging trampoline” (#12) and a “fish tank” (#40). others also described the difference between their home office and office workspace for example: “desk (choice of sitting or standing which i do not have at work), much bigger screen (personal home computer), mini kitchen (sink, kettle), controllable heating/cooling (windows and sliding door open for fresh air, not possible at work), laser printer/scanner, bookshelf, controllable lighting (not possible in work space)” (#7). www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 1, 2021 66 published by scholink inc. when participants were asked who they share their remote/home office space with, 41 (60%) indicated that they shared it with children, partners or housemates. 22 participants indicated that they did not share their remote office space with anyone (32%) and a further 30% (21 participants) indicated they also shared the space with various animals. some also indicated they shared the space with both family and animals, for example the following: participants where then asked if there was anything they didn‟t like about working from home/remotely. 27 or 40% of respondents indicated there was nothing they didn‟t like about their remote office. of the other participants, issues included lack of space (12), lack of privacy, distractions, lack of adequate equipment (e.g., printer/scanner), lack of colleagues and too much easy access to both the pantry and the fridge! the following quote from participant #6, sums up some of the issues raised by this question: “there is nothing i don‟t like about my home office space. there are things i don‟t like about working from home. being within „earshot‟ of anything that arises at home. being too close to everything (not enough exercise). being more „available‟ for work (i.e., putting in more hours that i am contracted to do because it is convenient to do so). not being able to printout things that i need—when connected to avondale my home printer isn‟t accessible but of course avondale printer is also not accessible. no personal interactions with work colleagues. correspondence via email rather than talking to someone face to face can sometimes cause a misunderstanding that could have been easily resolved in a face to face conversation” (#2). when asking the question what do you like about working in your home/remote space, only one participant indicated they did not like working remotely. all other 67 participants indicated that they liked working from home for reasons such as the following:  the view and natural lighting (22, 32%)  comfortable (15, 22%)  productive  private  no more commute  quiet  space  others included, multi-tasking, convenient and flexible. one quote from participant #6, sums up some of the issues raised: “being able to do a home chore (like removing the washing from the line if it is about to rain) but being able to ensure that my work obligation is fulfilled. no travel so later start to the day (or time to do home chores before start time). with the shorter days—being at www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 1, 2021 67 published by scholink inc. home and warm during the work day and when the day is finished not having to travel in the dark and cold. having access to whatever i feel like eating for lunch not what i managed to „throw together‟ as i ran out the door in the morning” (#18). respondents were then asked how important it was during covid-19 to have your own office space. 82% stated that it was important or very important (22+34=56), and 18% indicated that it was not very important, or not important (4+08=12) to have their own office space as shown in figure 4. figure 4. importance of own office space during covid-19 when asked about how private their remote/home office was, participants answered that 10 felt it was not private, 21 stated somewhat private and 37 said private. this can be compared to the results for the avondale office space as shown in table 5. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 1, 2021 68 published by scholink inc. table 5. privacy of spaces avondale v remote/home office office versus remote/home space avondale space remote/home office space variance not private 21 (31%) 10 (15%) 11 found more privacy at home somewhat private 29 (43%) 21 (31%) 8 found home less private than office very private 18 (26%) 37 (54%) 19 found home more private than office total 68 (100%) 68 (100%) in terms of collaboration with others whilst working remotely figure 5 shows the results: figure 5. collaboration home/office space challenges identified included seven main factors that created challenges in working from home or remotely. these challenges included collegiality, communication, workload, equipment/connectivity, community, mental health & work life balance. table 6 lists these with supporting quotes. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 1, 2021 69 published by scholink inc. table 6. challenges of working remotely/home office challenges quotes from respondents collegiality “i miss the face to face contact” (#14) “physical presence” (#17) “i miss the collegiality” (#18) “zoom connection provided space for connecting with others” (#7) communication “not being able to talk and collaborate face-to-face” (#19) “not being privy to body language when communicating/giving direction” (#4). “i struggle to insert myself into conversation in the same way i would in person” (#46) workload “the blow-out in workload” (#37) “the sheer number of hours spent in zoom meetings has been exhausting some days” (#29) “i tend to work more at home than in the office” (#35) “availability has been difficult for some of them who are home schooling” (#36) equipment/ connectivity “we are a paper-based department and at first that proved to be a challenge, but we have since figures out solutions that seem to work” (#27). “can‟t print your documents out so everything has to be saved on the f drive” (#53) “making sure i have brought everything i need from work home” (#54) “learning to use technology such as zoom” (#55) “internet performance and connectivity with college network” (#34) “zoom is tiring” (#2) “zoom fatigue” (#25) socialisation/ community missing the “social gatherings where we share personal stories” (#65) “maintaining a sense of community” (#67) “motivating of staff who are extroverts and thrive on people being around” (#15) mental health “monotony and anxiety” (#21) “i see some work friends struggling” (#65) work life balance “not knowing when i‟m at work or home” (#45) opportunities included six of the seven challenges listed in table 6, including collegiality, communication, equipment/connectivity, community, mental health and work life balance. only workload was not discussed as an opportunity. three other opportunities were also identified including flexibility, productivity and innovation, as shown in table 7 with supporting quotes from respondents. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 1, 2021 70 published by scholink inc. table 7. opportunities of working remotely/home office opportunity quotes from respondents collegiality “sharing challenges and solutions to working online/delivering education online” (#10). “closer collaboration with sydney campus” (#19) “staff worship via zoom when we get to see and know staff from other areas of the college” (#6) communication “i have been able to communicate with them more often” (#1) “more open, honest conversations that often extend beyond work related matters” (#2). “we can all work from home and still communicate via zoom or email to achieve what we would normally achieve at work” (#42) equipment/ connectivity “zoom has provided a wonderful opportunity to stay connected with colleagues” (#3). “zoom meetings has actually brought about more collaboration” (#15). “the ability to interact through zoom/skype digital media” (#34). “connecting globally” (#7). “learning new ways of collaborating remotely” (#46) community “we have grown closer and kept in touch more often than we did in the office” (#8). “team collaboration between both physical campuses” (#26) mental health “team meetings designed with the main focus on well-being and how you‟re going” (#58) work life balance “proof of concept that work can continue fairly much as normal” (#19) “not having to travel” (#52) “once covid restrictions are lifted … the experience has showed us that we can get work done when we are isolated… we may be able to choose to work from home on some days” (#34) flexibility “more flexible ways of meeting” (#11) “autonomy” (#24) “availability of people” (#66) “flexible working areas from home” (#39) “attendance at meetings has been more regular by all members” (#13) efficiency/ productivity “i get more done at home!” (#14) “improving processes and work more efficiently” (#27) “meetings i found are more intentional and kept to topic” (#54) “not having staff trooping into my office … has allowed consistent concentration on tasks… more focussed interaction with colleagues” (#29) “time to do research” (#62) “watched a lot of podcasts to get professional development hours” (#63) “setting boundaries—no casual visitors that suck up time” (#65) innovation “stretching our norms and developing new ways of working” (#22) “more innovative. think outside the box, refine our processes and be more open to change” (#36) “working with existing colleagues to integrate new technology” (#32) “learn new technology skills” (#51) www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 1, 2021 71 published by scholink inc. a summary of these findings is shown in figure 6, where there are six factors that appear as both challenges and opportunities, with a unique factor of “workload” as a challenge, and three additional issues as opportunities including “flexibility”, “productivity” and “innovation”. figure 6. challenges and opportunities for remote/home office 4. discussion covid-19 has given organisations an opportunity to demonstrate their trust in their staff through working from home, and that although challenges have been presented, that these challenges can also turn into opportunities, and bring with it, additional prospects of flexibility for staff, increase in productivity and use of innovation. what does the office of the future look like? according to a survey conducted by pwc (june 2020), the office of the future will change, with 3 out of 4 executives declaring working from home (wfh) a success, with a caveat that employees need to set clear challenges of remote /home office opportunities of remote/home office communication collegiality workload (unique challenge) equipment/ connectivity community mental health work life balance flexibility productivity innovation www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 1, 2021 72 published by scholink inc. work-life boundaries, and employers need to be more flexible (pwc, 2020). 55% of executive respondents would like to utilise wfh at least 1 day a week, with most agreeing that the office of the future whilst not obsolete, will change with 30% believing they will need less office space in the future (pwc, 2020). this is indicative of potential changes to the way people will work in the future. it seems a hybrid model will suit most employees with a combination of wfh options with office space as needed, particularly to encourage collaboration and provide social support for the model to work. figure 7 shows this hybrid model, with the options of wfh, working in the office and hybrid (hom) of doing both. figure 7. hybrid office model (hom) this study has shown that employees of avondale are generally happy with their office spaces on campus, but identified some challenges in shared office spaces, such as noise and privacy, and that the physical space they work in is important, as is collaboration with colleagues. upon moving to wfh during covid-19, most agreed that their home office was comfortable and functional, and that it was important to have their own space for privacy and productivity. 76% of people wfm also identified that it was important to collaborate with colleagues and that this was possible to do remotely. it appears that going forward the “office” will change for many organisations. if employees are happy to work from home, and have the space, privacy and equipment they need to do their job efficiently and effectively from home, then employers need to provide that flexibility. the upside for employees is no commute time, more time with family/partners/friends, and the ability to work for an organisation that may not be in your geographical area. for employers it means a decrease in the carbon footprint for the environment, a decrease in costs, e.g., electricity, heating, cooling, & rent and a wider talent pool to recruit from. the office of the future then, will be a hybrid model of wfh, working in the office, and a combination of both, known as the hybrid office model (hom). traditional office space working from home (wfh) hybrid office model (hom) (combination of traditional office space and wfh) www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 1, 2021 73 published by scholink inc. references abioro, m. a., oladejo, d. a., & ashogbon, f. o. (2018). work life balance practices and employees productivity in the nigerian university system. crawford journal of business & social sciences, 8(2), 49-59. allis, p., & o‟driscoll, m. (2008). positive effects of non-work-to-work facilitation on well-being in work, family and personal domains. journal of managerial psychology, 23, 273-291. https://doi.org/10.1108/02683940810861383 australian government department of health. (2020). limits on public gatherings for corona virus (covid 19). retrieved from https://www.health.gov.au/news/health-alerts/novel-coronavirus-2019-ncov-health-alert/how-to-pr otect-yourself-and-others-from-coronavirus-covid-19/limits-on-public-gatherings-for-coronaviruscovid-19 bailyn, l., drago, r., & koshan, t. (2001). integrating work and family life: a holistic approach. report of the sloan work-family policy network. cambridge ma: sloan school of management, massachusetts institute of technology. barnes, l., long, w., & williams, p. (2020). remote business hubs embedded in higher education business institutions: unique stakeholder engagement opportunities. proceedings of the sydney international business research conference, january 2020. barnes, l., long, w., & williams, p. (2020). when business and business schools unite to create uniqueness: stakeholder relationships in business hubs embedded in higher educations business institutions. international journal of research in commerce & management studies, 2(2). https://doi.org/10.38193/ijrcms.2020.20212 beauregard, a., & henry, l. (2009). making the link between work-life balance practices and organizational performance. human resource management review, 19, 9-22. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hrmr.2008.09.001 bloom, n., liang, j., roberts, j., & ying, z. (2013). does working from home work? evidence from a chinese experiment. in working papoer no. 3109, stanford graduate school of business. https://doi.org/10.3386/w18871 creswell, j. (2008). educational research: planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative and qualittive research (3rd ed.). upper saddle river, nj.: pearson education. creswell, j. w., & clark, v. l. p. (2011). designing and conducting mixed methods research (2nd ed.). los angeles: sage publications. creswell, j., & cresswell, d. (2018). research design: qualitiative, quantitative and mixed methods approaches (5th ed.). thousand oaks, ca: sage. fitzgerald, m., malik, a., & rosenberger iii, p. j. (2017). nsw smart work hub pilot program: final report prepared by the uon central coast smart work research team. the university of newcastle, new south wales, for the nsw department of industry. https://doi.org/10.1108/02683940810861383 https://doi.org/10.38193/ijrcms.2020.20212 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hrmr.2008.09.001 https://doi.org/10.3386/w18871 www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 1, 2021 74 published by scholink inc. garg, p., & yajurvedi, n. (2016). impact of work-life balance practices on employees retention and organizational performance—a study on it industry. indian journal of applied research, 6(8), 105-108. hall, d., kossek, e., briscoe, j., pichler, s. & lee, m. (2013). nonwork orientations relative to career: a multidimensional measure. journal of vocational behaviours, 83, 539-550. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2013.07.005 hyman, j., baldry, c., scholarios, d., & bunzel, d. (2003). work-life imbalance in call centres and software development. british journal of industrial relations, 41, 215-239. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8543.00270 major, d., & germano, l. (2006). the changing nature of work and its impact on the work-home interface. in f. jones, r. burke, & m. westman (eds.), work-life balance: a psychological perspective (pp. 13-38). new york: ny psychology press. nsw government, trade & investment. (2013). nsw smart work hub pilot program. eoi general information & guidelines. nsw government. (2020). public health covid 19 restrictions on gathering and movement. retrieved from https://www.legislation.nsw.gov.au/_emergency/public%20health%20(covid-19%20restriction s%20on%20gathering%20and%20movement)%20order%202020.pdf o‟driscoll, m., brough, p., & kalliath, t. (2006). work-family conflict and facilitation. in f. jones, r. burke, & m. westman (eds.), work-life balance: mapping the work-home interface (pp. 117-142). sussex: uk psychology press. pwc. (2020). us remote work survey 2020. retrieved from https://www.pwc.com/us/en/library/covid-19/us-remote-work-survey.html safework nsw. (2020). retrieved from https://www.safework.nsw.gov.au/resource-library/covid-19-coronavirus sarantakos, s. (2005). social research (3rd ed.). basingstoke, england: palgrave macmillan. world health organisation. (2020). public health emergency of international concern. retrieved from https://www.who.int/emergencies/diseases/novel-coronavirus-2019/events-as-they-happen yin, r. k. (2003). case study research: design and methods (3rd ed.). london: sage publications. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2013.07.005 https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8543.00270 frontiers of contemporary education issn 2690-3520 (print) issn 2690-3539 (online) vol. 6, no. 1, 2025 www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce 1 original paper an application of learner corpus analysis in grammatical comprehension—task based language teaching and corpus linguistics katerina florou 1 1 national and kapodistrian university of athens, greece received: may 19, 2025 accepted: may 27, 2025 online published: june 20, 2025 doi:10.22158/fce.v6n1p1 url: http://dx.doi.org/10.22158/fce.v6n1p1 abstract in this study, inspired by the corpus error analysis, its pedagogical application and the directions of task based language teaching, we compared the written production of two groups of students. the first was a group that applied the focusing on form phase by observing the past participle, in examples from native speakers and in grammar rules. the second was a group of students that applied the focusing on form phase by observing their own errors and comparing them with corresponding examples of a native speaker corpus. to investigate our hypothesis, we developed four learner corpora. the first two (one of each group of students) were produced during the task phase and the other two at the end of the lesson as a follow up activity. the results of the comparison showed that students’ exposure to their own errors can improve the comprehension of a grammatical element (note 1). keywords task based learning, corpus driven learning, focus on form, italian as foreign language 1. introduction in recent years, task-based language teaching (tblt) has emerged as a prominent approach within the field of language education, praised for its emphasis on using tasks to drive learning. according to bula-villalobos and murillo-miranda (2019), “task-based language teaching alludes to a communicative approach which is grounded in the usage of tasks (real-life and pedagogical) as a central element for language instruction.” this definition underscores the centrality of tasks in facilitating meaningful language use and acquisition, aligning with the broader communicative approach that prioritizes interaction and practical application over rote memorization and isolated grammar drills. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 6, no. 1, 2025 2 published by scholink inc. one of the significant aspects of tblt is its focus on form analysis to enhance language awareness among students. willis (2016) argues that analyzing linguistic forms within tasks helps students explore language intricacies and develop a nuanced understanding of different aspects of the foreign language. this process involves engaging with both correct and incorrect forms, offering a dual pathway to linguistic competence. by examining correct forms, learners can internalize accurate language usage, while analyzing errors provides insights into common pitfalls and areas requiring further attention. the use of learner corpora, particularly error-tagged corpora, is a powerful tool in this regard. learner corpora consist of textual data produced by language learners, which can be systematically analyzed to identify patterns of errors and developmental stages in second language acquisition (sla). according to granger (2002), “computer learner corpora are electronic collections of authentic fl/sl textual data assembled according to explicit design criteria for a particular sla/flt purpose.” these corpora offer authentic insights into learners’ interlanguage—the evolving linguistic system that learners create as they progress toward full proficiency. however, focusing on erroneous forms, while informative, carries inherent risks. as ellis (2006) notes, teachers “should seek to address errors or gaps in the students’ l2 knowledge” during task performance. this corrective approach aims to scaffold learners’ development by providing timely feedback and targeted instruction. yet, an overemphasis on errors might lead to a disproportionate focus on negative aspects of learner language, potentially affecting learners’ confidence and motivation. it raises the question of whether learners’ interlanguage, characterized by its developmental nature and variability, can be considered truly “authentic.” (note 1) the authenticity of learner language is a contentious issue in sla research. while errors are an integral part of the learning process, representing learners’ current stage of development, they also reflect the ongoing struggle to master the target language. this dual nature of learner language—as both a genuine reflection of learner progress and a site of imperfection—poses a challenge for educators. balancing the need to address errors with the goal of fostering a positive, confidence-building learning environment is crucial. in this context, tblt offers a robust framework for integrating form-focused instruction with communicative practice. by embedding language analysis in meaningful tasks, tblt encourages learners to apply their knowledge to practical, real-world scenarios. this task-oriented approach not only promotes linguistic accuracy but also enhances learners’ overall communicative competence. the dynamic interplay between task performance and form analysis facilitates a more holistic understanding of the target language, supporting learners’ gradual and sustained language development. in conclusion, tblt represents a significant advancement in language pedagogy, emphasizing the use of tasks to create engaging and effective learning experiences. by incorporating form analysis and leveraging learner corpora, tblt provides a comprehensive approach to language instruction that www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 6, no. 1, 2025 3 published by scholink inc. addresses both the strengths and challenges of learner language. as educators continue to refine their practices, balancing error correction with the cultivation of a supportive learning environment will be key to unlocking the full potential of tblt in fostering language proficiency. 2. literature review what is the connection between tblt and corpus linguiste? firstly, tblt emphasizes the importance of using authentic language samples, as highlighted by ellis (2005) in his principles for tblt: “exposure to authentic language is significant; language should be used for real purposes; tasks need to motivate students to use language; a focus on language should be established.” later, ellis (2009) integrated a focus on form with error and corrective feedback, suggesting that teachers should use corrective feedback strategies to address language form. corrective feedback is linked to error analysis, considering that errors represent forms, and the providers of corrective feedback are often the learners themselves (classmates) (su & tian, 2016). conversely, corpus linguistics has long sought applications in language teaching. flowerdew (2009) discusses the pedagogical use of corpus linguistics, distinguishing between corpus-based and corpus-driven teaching, and directly associates it with data-driven learning (ddl). boulton and tyne (2013) similarly provide a critical overview of these approaches. according to zaki (2020), “the field has witnessed a tremendous surge in corpus-based teaching approaches in second/foreign language classrooms, as teachers around the world realize the importance of language data in their classrooms and develop pedagogically sound means of incorporating corpora in their syllabi and classroom activities.” numerous studies have explored the relevance of corpora to language teaching, such as bernardini’s (2004) suggestions and the book by granger, hung, and petch-tyson (2002), which presents modern ideas beyond traditional concordances. more recently, research by lacková (2022) and aguilar and luna have examined the application of corpus linguistics in teaching vocabulary and terminology. additionally, there are some studies that connect tblt with the teaching of italian as a foreign language. for example, the use of tblt in a second-semester elementary italian course (means, 2020). this case study with its qualitative analysis of the students’ impressions demonstrates that the students believed the course was effective and enjoyable and met the overall goal of tblt: what they learned in the classroom could be put to practical usage in the outside world. there are also studies that connect tblt with technology: baralt’s and gomez (2017) paper which is a methodological guide for how to do tblt via online video interactive tutorials, or tomas’ and reinders’ (2015) book with a collection of studies and experiment reports on how one can implicate the new in task based teaching. despite the extensive research in both fields, there remains a noticeable gap in linking corpus linguistics with tblt, even though both are fundamentally connected to language teaching. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 6, no. 1, 2025 4 published by scholink inc. 3. research question bearing in mind that decades after granger et al. (2002) defined learner corpora, and several years after ellis (2006) proposed “focusing on form” during any phase of a tbl framework, the present study addresses the following question: how can learner corpora, whether error-annotated or not, provide opportunities to focus on form in an educational environment? if corpus analysis and tblt have developed parallel paths over the past 30 years, both aiming to enhance teaching practices, is it possible to effectively combine them in the classroom? 4. methodology in order to integrate tblt with corpus-based learning and conduct a study based on learner corpora, we combined language courses with error analysis courses. specifically, we used a course of the department of italian language and literature. the experiment was conducted during a three-hour lecture of the “error analysis in the italian language” course. 4.1 the learners the students from the university department of italian language and literature are all adults, either greeks or long-term residents of greece, with greek as their first language. upon entering the department, their italian proficiency is at a b1+ level. throughout their studies, they take courses in theoretical and applied linguistics, italian culture, and language courses, aiming to achieve a c2 proficiency level after four years. their professional goal is to teach the italian language. for this research, we selected 30 participants who were at a b2+ level, all of whom were in their third year of studies. we divided the students into two groups randomly, and we asked them to work on their written production in italian. then a comparison of the written production of the two groups of students was conducted: the first group (g1) aimed to apply the focusing on form phase by observing a particular form of the italian language, the past participle, in examples from native speakers and in grammar rules. the second group of students (g2) aimed to apply the focus on form phase by observing their own errors and comparing them with corresponding examples of a native speaker corpus so as to improve their performance in this form (e.g., past participle). 4.2 tblt framework and corpus development throughout the entire experiment, and for the purpose of investigating the hypothesis, we developed four learner corpora while following the tblt framework. first, as a pre-task phase, the students watched the trailer of a classic american film, “vacanze romane”, dubbed in the italian language. during the task phase, the first two sub-corpora, one from each group of students, were produced. the students were required to deliver a text responding to the topic “describe your experience of your last visit to italy” with a minimum word limit of 300 words. the collection of these texts from the first group constitutes the g1 corpus of the task phase, and the collection of texts from the second group www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 6, no. 1, 2025 5 published by scholink inc. constitutes the g2 corpus for the same phase. at the end of the course, as a follow-up activity, they had to produce another written text on the same topic and of the same length (see 3.4). the collection of these texts forms the g1 and g2 corpora of the follow-up activity. a presentation of the texts produced during both phases by both groups is available here. as evidenced, not all students completed the follow-up activity; however, the word count of the two corpora remains comparable: table 1. the corpus and the sub-corpora task phase follow up activity g1 g2 g1 g2 n. texts 15 15 12 13 n. words 4317 4,509 4,589 4,726 the students who did not continue with the follow-up activity are those who did not complete the courses either for health reasons or due to workload 4.3.1 focus on form (first group) the first group of students began the first stage of the focus-on-form phase—after having written their texts—by presenting or reading them in class. in the second stage, students focused on the form of the past participle in three ways: they discussed in pairs the grammatical elements of a tense, e.g., passato prossimo and the use of the past participle in particular; they practised simple activities on the grammatical structure; and they listened to excerpts featuring the use of “passato prossimo” by native speakers. 4.3.2 focus on form (second group): “error annotation” the students of the second group commenced the focus-on-form stage by creating a learner corpus, which involved compiling the texts produced by both groups with the assistance of the teacher. following the creation of this corpus, the texts were randomly distributed among the students of the second group for manual error annotation, focusing exclusively on errors in verb usage. subsequently, as a group assignment, the students categorized the annotated errors based on their frequency. to facilitate this process, they utilized the software antconc. in the final phase of their assignment, the students conducted a comparative analysis by searching for the same types of verb errors in a native speakers’ corpus. for this study, the coris codis corpus was used, allowing the students to identify and analyze the differences between the correct forms used by native speakers and the erroneous forms identified in their learner corpus. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 6, no. 1, 2025 6 published by scholink inc. 4.3.2.1 tag set the primary objective of this group is to develop a tag set that is straightforward and user-friendly for students to utilize during annotation tasks. the chosen tag set employs a single-level classification system that delineates the form of the error. given that the part of speech is consistently the verb, annotators are provided with three principal categories: tense, person, and number. additionally, two supplementary categories are included for instances where the erroneous form comprises two elements: auxiliary for incorrect grammatical or lexical choices of the auxiliary verb, and participle for incorrect grammatical or lexical choices of the participle. a residual category, another, is available for errors that do not fit easily into the aforementioned classifications. table 2. tagset for error annotation tempo/tense t persona/person p numero/number n ausiliare/auxiliary aus participio/particple par altro/other a observing the steps of the focus-on-form phase, it is evident that both groups began their respective activities immediately after the task phase. however, the nature of these activities differed between the groups. the first group transitioned into the focus-on-form phase following an individual activity, which emphasized personal engagement and reflection. in contrast, the second group entered the focus-on-form phase after engaging in a collaborative task that was more technical in nature, rather than purely pedagogical. in summary, it can be stated that students in the second group were obligated to complete supplementary preparatory tasks prior to participating in the core activities of the focus-on-form phase. these preliminary tasks involved creating and annotating a learner corpus, which provided a technical foundation for their subsequent focus on grammatical accuracy and error analysis. this added layer of engagement may have influenced the nature and depth of their learning experience during the focus-on-form phase. table 3. the stages of the lesson in the two groups stages first group (g1) second group (g2) 1 st present or read the texts in class collect texts and create a corpus with anonymized texts in group 2 nd discuss the grammatical elements of the tense in pairs select texts randomly and annotate errors on verbs manually www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 6, no. 1, 2025 7 published by scholink inc. 3 rd practice on activities on authentic texts categorize the errors by frequency using the ant conc in group 4 th listen to samples of natives on the same topic find analogies in ns corpora using coris codis 4.4 follow up activity during the follow-up activity, both groups wrote their assigned texts and submitted them via the e-class platform. at this stage, the teacher/researcher was responsible for creating two distinct follow-up activity corpora, one for each group (g1 and g2). subsequently, the researcher undertook the task of annotating and counting the errors related to parts of speech, with a particular focus on the past participle of verbs. in this phase, additional error annotation was required by the researcher to ensure comprehensive analysis. the error counts for each of the four corpora were meticulously recorded. these counts will be discussed with the students during the feedback phase to facilitate a deeper understanding of their linguistic errors and to guide further learning. the specific error counts in each of the four corpora will serve as a basis for this discussion, enabling students to identify common mistakes and learn strategies for avoiding them in the future. table 4. the number of errors in the two learner corpora task phase follow up activity g1 g2 g1 g2 n. errors in verbs 67 81 51 53 n. errors in the form 18 20 15 9 4.5 discussion in class/feedback as an optional phase of the framework, willis (2016) adds the follow-up activity, the last step of which involves discussing “how they [the students] felt about the task and the task cycle and what they might like to do next or sometime later (and/or note this down in their diaries for their teacher to read later).” this particular step was incorporated into this study and was applied under the name of feedback. the detailed feedback process is designed to enhance the students’ grasp of grammatical structures and to improve their overall language proficiency. therefore, both groups first discuss their errors in pairs and then as a group, focusing on the reduction in their errors and trying to point out all the positive steps of their evolvement throughout the learning process. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 6, no. 1, 2025 8 published by scholink inc. during this analysis, students of g1 shared their experiences with students of g2, highlighting how helpful the practice activities and native speaker oral samples were. similarly, students of g2 discussed the originality of error analysis, the use of an nlp tool (antconc), and the experience of searching within a corpus. at the end of this roundtable discussion, the tblt framework followed in this experiment was revealed to the students (and future language teachers) as follows: table 5. application of the tblt framework on the study tblt framework (willis, 2016) steps of the present study pre-task watch a piece of film in the target language task cycle planning planning the writing of the narrative text report write the narrative text post task present the text in the class/create a corpus with the texts focus on form analysis discuss the grammar/error annotation practice practice on grammar/compare with native speakers’ corpora follow up re-write the narrative feedback such demonstration provokes more discussion and opinion exchange about the link between corpus error analysis and tblt. 5. the results according to the results, several observations can be made. the comparison results indicate that students’ engagement with their own errors can substantially enhance their comprehension of specific grammatical elements. insights from the feedback stage reveal that learners demonstrated increased confidence when rewriting on the same topic. this boost in confidence extended beyond their use of the passato prossimo (past perfect) to their overall writing skills. while “focus on form” does not necessarily equate to a focus on grammatical form alone—as long (2000) highlights that focus can also center on aspects such as meaning or linguistic forms—this study suggests that learners were inclined to refine their written expression toward greater accuracy. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 6, no. 1, 2025 9 published by scholink inc. students in g2 reported a significant shift in their perception of error analysis, which, in turn, influenced their behavior as learners. they observed a notable decrease in the number of errors they made and, more importantly, felt actively involved in the learning process, particularly through the practice of annotating their own mistakes. (note 2) 6. conclusion one of the aims of this study was to investigate the effectiveness of integrating corpus-based teaching, error analysis, and task-based learning. the results of the final error analysis confirm that this combination can be beneficial for students. for this specific group of learners, who are also future teachers, such studies could serve as valuable tools for their future professional practice. furthermore, the feedback results suggest that, in addition to improving learners’ accuracy, this approach enhances their overall awareness of the learning process. as baralt and gomez (2017) state, “the analysis is the time to explicitly bring learners’ attention to forms that arise from their own production,” underscoring the importance of this reflective practice in language learning. this research also highlighted that relying solely on quantitative results could lead to inconclusive findings. a qualitative research technique is essential for evaluating the impact of a new teaching model comprehensively. recognizing the potential effectiveness of this methodology, it can be applied to other educational contexts or levels, provided there is a more detailed description of the educational scenario or the use of a different tag set. references aguilar, c., & luna, f. (2023). “today is another day to find you”: using corpus linguistics for language learning. in iceri2023 proceedings (pp. 8042-8050). iated. https://doi.org/10.21125/iceri.2023.2055 baralt, m., & morcillo gómez, j. (2017). task-based language teaching online: a guide for teachers. bernardini, s. (2004). corpora in the classroom. how to use corpora in language teaching, 12, 15-36. https://doi.org/10.1075/scl.12.05ber boulton, a., & tyne, h. (2013). corpus linguistics and data-driven learning: a critical overview. bulletin suisse de linguistique appliquée, 97, 97-118. bula-villalobos, o., & murillo-miranda, c. (2019). task-based language teaching: definition, characteristics, purpose and scope. international journal of english literature and social sciences (ijels), 4(6). https://doi.org/10.22161/ijels.46.39 ellis, r. (2005). principles of instructed language learning. system, 33(2), 209-224. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2004.12.006 ellis, r. (2006). the methodology of task-based teaching, asian efl journal, volume 8, number 3 september 2006 conference proceedings: task-based learning in the asian context 39. https://doi.org/10.21125/iceri.2023.2055 https://doi.org/10.1075/scl.12.05ber https://doi.org/10.22161/ijels.46.39 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2004.12.006 www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 6, no. 1, 2025 10 published by scholink inc. ellis, r. (2009). corrective feedback and teacher development. l2 journal: an electronic refereed journal for foreign and second language educators, 1(1). https://doi.org/10.5070/l2.v1i1.9054 flowerdew, l. (2009). applying corpus linguistics to pedagogy: a critical evaluation. international journal of corpus linguistics, 14(3), 393-417. https://doi.org/10.1075/ijcl.14.3.05flo granger, s. (2002). a bird’s-eye view of learner corpus research. https://doi.org/10.1075/lllt.6.04gra granger, s. (2003). error-tagged learner corpora and call: a promising synergy. calico journal, 20(3). https://doi.org/10.1558/cj.v20i3.465-480 granger, s., petch-tyson, s., & hung, j. (2002). computer learner corpora, second language acquisition and foreign language teaching. computer learner corpora, second language acquisition and foreign language teaching, 1-257. https://doi.org/10.1075/lllt.6 lacková, m. (2022). enlarging students vocabulary with the help of corpus-driven data. changes and challenges of increasing the quality of preparation of prospective teachers in european countries, 67. long, m. h. (2000). focus on form in task-based language teaching. language policy and pedagogy: essays in honor of a. ronald walton, 179-192. https://doi.org/10.1075/z.96.11lon means, t. (2020). task-based language teaching of italian. italica, 97(3), 567-587. https://doi.org/10.5406/23256672.97.3.06 thomas, m., & reinders, h. (eds.). (2015). contemporary task-based language teaching in asia. bloomsbury publishing. willis, j, (2016). a flexible framework for task-based learning. (revised article originally: in challenge and change in language teaching, eds. j. willis and d. willis, oxford: heinemann macmillan). zaki, m. (2021). corpus‐based language teaching and learning: applications and implications. international journal of applied linguistics, 31(2), 169-172. https://doi.org/10.1111/ijal.12316 notes note 1. a pilot experiment from this study was presented at the corpus linguistic conference 2023 at lancaster university note 2. the data that supports the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author, upon reasonable request. https://doi.org/10.5070/l2.v1i1.9054 https://doi.org/10.1075/ijcl.14.3.05flo https://doi.org/10.1075/lllt.6.04gra https://doi.org/10.1558/cj.v20i3.465-480 https://doi.org/10.1075/lllt.6 https://doi.org/10.1075/z.96.11lon https://doi.org/10.5406/23256672.97.3.06 https://doi.org/10.1111/ijal.12316 frontiers of contemporary education issn 2690-3520 (print) issn 2690-3539 (online) vol. 4, no. 2, 2023 www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce 1 short paper student reactions to announcements-auditory and visual (email) michael f shaughnessy 1 1 yetta massey, mark viner, eastern new mexico university, portales, new mexico 88130 received: march 25, 2023 accepted: april 3, 2023 online published: april 20, 2023 doi:10.22158/fce.v4n2p1 url: http://dx.doi.org/10.22158/fce.v4n2p1 abstract for some instructors in some classes, it is difficult to engage students, prompt students to participate in discussion board and submit work on time. the present study utilized a counterbalanced study to explore the issue of announcements, prompts and supportive reminders with undergraduates and graduate students. results of this preliminary study are provided and discussed. keywords online learning, auditory prompts, email reminder and spaces in the appendix between each week online education has become a permanent part of higher education and even secondary education in america and around the world. yet some faculty report difficulty in terms of procuring consistent student involvement in online classes. it is perplexing and exasperating to faculty when students participate minimally, or discontinue their work only to re-appear shortly before grades are due and then there are other students who “vanish” from the coursenever to be heard from again. some students report this as the “ghosting” phenomenon. instructors should be encouraging students to contact the instructor for any emergency-surgery, death in the family, hospitalization, car accident and the like. some students may need more assistance in certain areasfor example, writing, grammar, punctuation, sentence structure and thus communication is imperativeif nothing else to refer them to the appropriate resources on campus. in the current zeitgeist-it may be that students are simply less aware of deadlines or there is a diminished seriousness of purpose. some students may simply be overwhelmed or taking too many classes and may prioritize their time differently. in the past, huang (2021) attempted to address what he termed procrastination in massive online open courses via “optimal calls to action”. jabeen (2015) looked at weekly announcements to try to assist students in sociology courses. mathieson and leafman (2014) looked at the construct of “social presence” as a factor in online classes and examined this construct both from the student and instructor www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 4, no. 2, 2023 2 published by scholink inc. perspective. it is not clear what exactly “social presence” is and how it can be measured and what it’s impact is. certainly many instructors provide a picture, a brief bio, perhaps a joke or funny story or twobut the construct of social presence and how it helps or hinders student involvement and success in an online class remains to be seen and investigated. this study also examined students and faculty’s feelings about the requirement of having to socialize online in the discussion board or coffee shop or provide feedback to each other. in order to address some of the above concerns the first two authors established a series of encouraging, cordial, congenial reminders which were sent each monday of an 8 week class to their students. these were counterbalancedauditory then written via email. at the end of each course students were asked to complete a qualtrics survey and respond to some factual questions. the reminders can be found in the appendix in table 1. subjects there were 8 males, and 25 females for a total of 33 subjects. in terms of grade level, there was one freshman, 1 sophomore, 2 juniors 6 seniors and 23 graduate students responding. some foundational questions were: do you prefer online, face to face or hybrid? online 51.00% n=17 face to face 24.24 % n=8 hybrid. 24.24% n=8 how often do you check your school e-mail? every day—22 every other day—10 every third day—1 every fourth day—1 every fifth day—0 on a scale of 1—5—how helpful is instructor feedback? very important—81%. n=26 important—9.38% n=3 neutral—3.13 n=1 somewhat important. 6.25% n=2 not at all important. 0 my preference for instructor feedback is: email: 46.88 n=5 zoom: 6.25 n=2 discussion board. 3.13 n=1 canvas feedback box—43.75% n=14 www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 4, no. 2, 2023 3 published by scholink inc. if i am happy with my grade, i ignore feedback info—9% the announcement board is considered by me to be: very important. 25.005 n=8 important. 56.25% n=18 neutral 8.75% n=6 slightly important 0 not at all important 0 how important is immediate feedback or responses in announcements very important—22.58% n=7 important. 58.06% n=18 neutral. 9.68% n-3 slightly important. 6.455. n=2 not at all important. 3.23%. n=1 receiving announcements on my cell phone is: very important. 16.13 n=5 important48.39 n=15 neutral. 19.35% n=6 slightly important. 12.90% n=4 not at all important. 3.23% n=1 in terms of communication i prefer: announcements. 22.58% n=7 verbal communications 3.23% n=1 email. 74.19% n= 23 i do not check my communications regularly. 0% in terms of instructor reminders, i find both announcements ad verbal reminders: very important. 38.71% n=12 important-54.84% n=17 neutral. 6.4%. n=26 slightly important. 0% n=0 not at all important. 0% n=0 how helpful are announcements that are encouraging? very important. 51.61% n=16 important-37.81% n=12 neutral. 9.68% n=3 slightly important. 0% n=0 not at all important. 0% n=0 how helpful are announcements stating deadlines? www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 4, no. 2, 2023 4 published by scholink inc. very important. 70.97% n=22 important-19.35% n=6 neutral. 6.45% n=2 slightly important. 3.23% n=1 not at all important. 0% n=0 what type of voice do you prefer for audio feedback? male: 0.00% female 0.00% no preference. 100% n=31 2 no response in terms of qualitative research one question was asked in an open-ended fashion-what do you see as the factors that contribute to your success in online classes? (twenty two of the subjects chose to respond) 1) canvas app on my phone 2) responsive feedback 3) flexibility 4) feedback and feedback via zoom 5) timely and useful feedback /strong feedback 6) constant reminders /clear syllabus/ consistent feedback 7) instructor response asap summary and conclusions this is a very preliminary exploratory study examining the impact of verbal and email reminders to students given on a weekly basis. much more research needs to be conducted in order to fine the optimal factors that assist in the completion of online classes, references huang, n., zhang, j., burtch, g., li, x., & chen, p. (2021). combating procrastination on massive online open courses via optimal calls to action. information systems research, 32(2), 301-317. https://doi.org/10.1287/isre.2020.0974 jabeen, s. (2015). perceived effectiveness of weekly announcements in provision of learning support to sociology students. european journal of open, distance and e-learning, 18(1). kimbrel, l. a., & gantner, m. w. (2021). student perceptions of instructor made videos with quizzes in an asynchronous online course. international journal of educational leadership preparation, 16(1), 24-44. mathieson,k., & leafman, j. s. (2014). comparison of student and instructor perceptions of social presence. journal of educators online, 11(2). https://doi.org/10.9743/jeo.2014.2.3 https://doi.org/10.1287/isre.2020.0974 https://doi.org/10.9743/jeo.2014.2.3 www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 4, no. 2, 2023 5 published by scholink inc. appendix first week announcement welcome to this course. we hope that you will find it engaging and exciting and enthusiastic. please review the syllabus carefully and please note the deadlines and let me know if you have any questions-you can contact me via email and i would be happy to respond. i hope you have procured the text and have begun reading. second week-presented auditorially by now, you should have begun reading and begun doing the assignments as indicated in the syllabus. we do hope that things are progressing well and that you are enjoying the reading and the requirements. each week you will receive a brief reminder as to deadlines and requirements and a prompt to contact us for questions or concerns. third week-on announcements by now you should have established a great routine and have been checking the requirements, navigating around canvas and seeking assistance when needed. since this is an 8 week class, time management is imperative and deadlines are important. fourth week-presented auditorially at this point, the class is almost half over. all students should be very careful of time management of the requirements and the deadlines. we realize that some of you are working or taking other classes but we do want to encourage you to reflect on the amount of time left in the class. fifth weekon announcements as we approach the end of the class, we hope that it has been a meaningful enjoyable experience. at this stage, the end is in sight and hopefully deadlines have been met and requirements have been addressed. please contact the instructor with any questions or concerns. sixth weekpresented auditorially nearing the end of the course, this is a good time to reflect on what you have learned from the text, from the instructor, and from others. we hope that this has been an enjoyable learning experience and that you have benefitted from the class. as always, contact the instructor with any concerns or questions. seventh week-on announcements almost at the end of the class and hopefully deadlines have been met and your expectations have also been met for this learning experience. this is a good time to reflect on any last minute pending assignments and requirements of the class and to ask any last minute questions. eighth week-presented auditorially this is the final week of the class and we hope it has been a great learning experience. we realize the difficulty of taking an 8 week class and we applaud your tenacity and encourage you to review the syllabus and look for any last minute details or requirements. please contact the instructor for any last minute concerns. frontiers of contemporary education issn 2690-3520 (print) issn 2690-3539 (online) vol. 5, no. 1, 2024 www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce 38 original paper teachers’ knowledge and use of behaviour modification strategies in classroom management: does gender matter? regine kwaw nsiah 1 & dennis offei kwakye 2 1 department of education, enchi college of education, enchi, ghana 2 public schools of robeson county, nc, usa * corresponding author: dennis offei kwakye, e-mail: denniskkdo@gmail.com received: june 6, 2024 accepted: june 18, 2024 online published: june 28, 2024 doi:10.22158/fce.v5n1p38 url: http://dx.doi.org/10.22158/fce.v5n1p38 abstract this study investigated the knowledge of teachers on behaviour modification strategies in classroom management. the descriptive survey design (quantitative approach) was employed. a multi-stage sampling procedure was employed for the study. simple random, systematic, cluster and proportionate stratified sampling techniques were used to sample 327 public basic school teachers in the western north region of ghana for the study. data for the study was collected using adapted questionnaire with 5-point likert-type scale. data were analysed using descriptive and inferential statistics. the study found that public school teachers in the western north region of ghana have moderate knowledge level on behaviour modification strategies in classroom management. more so, teachers in the aforementioned region frequently used tangible behaviour modification strategies such as earning incentives like toffees in classroom management. this study further established no significant gender difference in the use of behaviour modification strategies in classroom management. it is recommended that there should be an increase in content of classroom behaviour modification strategies in the program structure for teacher education institutions. also, periodic refresher courses and in-service teacher preparation programs should be organized for teachers to help update their knowledge on the use of positive modification strategies in managing the classroom. this could help teachers find the use of the behaviour modification strategies less stressful and hence, manage their classrooms effectively. keywords behaviour modification, classroom management, gender matter, teachers knowledge www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 5, no. 1, 2024 39 published by scholink inc. 1. introduction education is focused on imparting knowledge, influencing the behaviour of a person positively, producing responsible citizens, and bringing on a complete personality development of the individual (shilvock, 2018). to achieve this, discipline plays a very significant role. disciplinary issue in the classroom has remained very challenging in education presently (yeboah et al., 2020). schools are always regarded as institution for transferring knowledge and culture to the generation yet to come (youssef et al., 1998 as cited in lwo & yuan, 2010). at school, teachers take on a significant position as educationalist and disciplinarian (society for adolescent medicine [sam], 2003). consequently, there are numerous strategies teachers employ to discipline students in the classroom and the school as a whole. these include the use of negative punishment; where an appetitive stimulus is removed following an unpleasant behaviour, and positive punishment, that is adding a noxious stimulus following behaviour. it also includes negative reinforcement; where behaviour is strengthened by removing, or avoiding an aversive stimulus, and positive reinforcement; adding a favourable stimulus to strengthen the occurrence of a pleasant behaviour. classroom management goes hand-in-hand with student discipline and differ as a function of teachers’ gender (brooks, 2012; tindan et al., 2023). for instance, female teachers are testified to use positive behaviour management practices since they are generally sympathetic towards children and have inordinate tolerance for students with behaviour problem in their class (sullivan et al., 2014). to understand how to teach and manage a classroom effectively, it is important to understand teacher classroom management in the context of their knowledge bases (ayebo & assuah, 2017). therefore, having a good understanding of what stimulates students within and outside the classroom have immense influence on management strategies employed (department of education, 2009). pattani (2018) talk of behaviour modification strategies as the techniques used in modifying behaviour by changing a person’s existing condition to help him or her function better in everyday life. parents use it to teach their children right from wrong. therapists make use of it to promote healthy behaviour in their clients and animal trainers use it to develop obedience among pets and its owners. the principles of behaviour modification have also been efficiently used in a number of classroom settings to target series of appropriate school-based behaviours such as compliance and self-management (beaulieu et al., 2012). regardless of its effectiveness reported by researchers, allen and bowles (2014) argues that its application in the classroom is insignificant. it therefore, appears to have become increasingly challenging for educators to ensure discipline in schools without the use of punishment in the wake of the new education legislation that regulate punishment in schools. in 2019, the government of ghana through the ministry of education and the ghana education service (ges) placed a ban on all forms of abusive punishment more particularly regarding the use of cane on school children. the prohibition of corporal punishment in schools demanded that new approaches to discipline be employed to protect the right of learners (skaalvik & skaalvik, 2017). in view of this, ges directed the use of positive discipline toolkit which offered alternatives to harsh punishments www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 5, no. 1, 2024 40 published by scholink inc. and recommended corrective measures such as removal from leadership positions, changing of seating position, and many others to modify the behaviour of learners. however, the proponents of this positive toolkits failed to acknowledge the fact that every child is different and what works in modifying the behaviour of one child may not work for the other. while several studies have explored different types of behaviour modification strategies used by teachers in the classroom (weistein et al., 2004; temli-durmus, 2016) few of these studies have focused on how knowledgeable teachers are about behaviour modification strategies in classroom management. available literature on teachers’ knowledge of behaviour modification strategies in classroom management focused on pre-service teachers (o’neill & stephenson, 2012; opare et al., 2024; yeboah et al., 2020), pre-school teachers (randazzo, 2011) and teachers in special education schools (alotaibi, 2015). yeboah et al. (2020) for instance investigated pre-service teachers’ knowledge on behaviour modification techniques in classroom management in ghana. randazzo (2011) explored elementary teachers’ knowledge and implementation of applied behaviour analysis techniques in new jersey. alotaibi (2015) also investigated the knowledge and use of applied behaviour analysis among teachers of students with autism spectrum disorder in saudi arabia. nonetheless, there are teachers in the mainstream educational setting whose knowledge level on behaviour modification strategies in the classroom, the researcher belief ought to be researched to find out which classroom management strategies they employ in managing students’ disruption in the classroom. 2. knowledge of teachers on behaviour modification strategies in classroom management until recent times, the approach to classroom management was based on the assumption of the popular proverb “spare the rod, spoil the child” (manoj & anoop, 2017). even though non-interventionist like neil hold that teachers’ intervention to modify learners’ behaviour into a desired one is unnecessary, interventionists on the other hand upholds high degree of teacher control in the classroom and believe that a teacher’s rewards and punishment bring about suitable behaviour in learners (mangal, 2012). applied behaviour analysis has been the theoretical basis for teachers on classroom management since 1960 (egeberg et al., 2016). classroom management is focused on creating a positive learning environment through a good teacher-student’s relationship in solving problems (saft & pianta, 2001). agreeing to this, oliver and reschly (2010) established that classroom management could be measured under three broad dimensions such as instructional management, people management and behaviour management. these three dimensions categorized by scholars’ highlights on the need for teachers to know the appropriate modification strategies that may perhaps be used to create a positive classroom environment and guide their effort to attain appropriate behaviour among learners. as a result, this study does not also deviate from these three dimensions in measuring classroom management. oliver and reschly (2010) expressed that the most essential things for teachers to consider in their quest to manage learners’ behaviour includes the skills used in encouraging and reducing appropriate and inappropriate behaviours respectively. merrit (2016) therefore, submits that teacher’s knowledge www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 5, no. 1, 2024 41 published by scholink inc. and ability to use these skills makes them experts in handling and dealing with problem behaviours. hence, making them effective managers of behaviour in the classroom nevertheless, earlier studies on teachers submit that their knowledge, competence, and confidence in these domains are limited (baker, 2005; mckenzie et al., 2011). for instance, baker (2005) investigated 345 secondary and elementary teachers to evaluate their ability and willingness to implement behaviour management techniques. in general, teachers reported to have low ability to use varied modification strategy in managing the classroom. mcdaniel et al. (2015) also found that 39.72% of teachers reported to have challenges managing the classroom due to their inadequate knowledge in behaviour assessment and management techniques. concurring to this, ackah (2016) confirmed the inadequate knowledge of teachers in the use of behaviour modification strategies like attention, behaviour contracting, and shaping specifically in managing disruptive behaviours in schools. shin and koh (2008) surveyed 167 korean and 116 american public high school teachers from urban school districts to solicit information on students’ disruptive behaviour and the strategies they implement in managing them. findings from their study indicated that 55% of american teachers pointed out the use of punitive behaviour management strategies such as punishment and time-out whilst 33% indicated the use of positive interventions like rewards, behaviour contracting and extinction. this implies most of these teachers seem to be more knowledgeable about the punitive modification measures other than preventive ones. these finding presupposes that most teachers still resort to reactive and aversive discipline systems in managing the classroom. randazzo’s (2011) has expressed the view that teachers mainly disregard the use of behaviour modification strategies in managing the classroom because they do not possess knowledge of adequate collection of modification strategies to choose from and also, do not have the required skill for its implementation. if teachers and educators have a better knowledge and understanding of the effectiveness of behaviour modification strategies in classroom management, they could help in its implementation by assisting each other to accept and use the strategies in their classrooms (feuerborn & chinn, 2012). when appropriately used, learners make connection between teacher use of positive modification strategies and doing the correct thing (moore-partin, et al., 2010). khalil and mohammed (2015) posit that most students tend to be praise-hungry and are often used to only hearing about what they do wrong and punished for that. therefore, reinforcing them for displaying good behaviour grabs their attention and stimulates them. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 5, no. 1, 2024 42 published by scholink inc. 3. gender and use of behaviour modification strategies in classroom management studies on managing disruptive behaviour in the classroom had examined how teacher characteristics such as gender influenced their belief of classroom discipline. sharma et al. (2018) in their study found male teachers unlike females to have challenges with the use of behaviour modification strategies in maintaining order in their classrooms. aliakbari and abdollahi (2014) found that male teachers employed strong control and punitive techniques when managing their classroom, compared to their female colleagues who only comment on student inappropriate behaviour and give warnings. in addition, andreichyn (2015) reveals that women are better managers of children in the classroom than men because, they begin these management roles right from conception as they interact with the fetus in the womb. although teachers have alternatives in identifying and using classroom modification plans that are suitable for their needs (brown, 2014), the question still remains as to which of these approaches’ teachers are knowledgeable and conversant with, and often use in managing today’s classroom? in an attempt to respond of the question above, this study seeks to investigate the knowledge of teachers on behaviour modification strategies and the frequency with which these modification strategies are used in classroom management in the western north region of ghana. this study also seeks to find out if there is a significant difference in the use of behaviour modification in classroom management with regards to gender. 4. research questions 1) what is the knowledge level of teachers on behaviour modification strategies in classroom management? 2) what is the most frequent behaviour modification strategies teachers use in managing the classroom? 5. research hypothesis h0: there is no gender difference in the use of behaviour modification strategies in classroom management. 6. methodology the study employed descriptive survey design with the quantitative approach. the design was deemed appropriate for this study because the researcher examined situations descriptively and made no attempt to determine the cause behind the phenomenon. employing the descriptive survey design also offered the opportunity to evaluate relationship between these variables. using descriptive survey design, helped to clarify matters as they existed without the researcher having control over the variables under investigation. it also enabled the researcher to describe situations and circumstances that emanated from the study as they were without manipulating any variable. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 5, no. 1, 2024 43 published by scholink inc. the descriptive survey is noted for some weaknesses such as it being time consuming in terms of its administration (gravetter & forzano, 2012) and having the possibility for error and subjectivity on the side of the researcher (cohen et al., 2004). this weakness of being time consuming however, informed the researcher on the need to employ two trained research assistants during the data collection. this aided the researcher to speed up the data collection process. in an attempt to minimize the subjectivity on the part of the researcher, it was ensured that, the data collection instrument dealt essentially with questions that concerned what existed with respect to the variables in the study. the population for the study comprised of all public basic school teachers in the western north region of ghana. the sample size for the study was 327 respondents. the selection of respondents was based on multistage approach, where simple random procedure (lottery method), systematic, cluster sampling, and proportionate-stratified sampling were used. the sampling procedure was carried out in stages and the larger population was divided into smaller units in several stages in order to make primary data collection more manageable and easier. the study used an adapted behaviour management scale developed by randazzo (2011). in the adaptation process, few modifications were made on some dimensions and items so that they could be contextually and culturally appropriate for use. the original scale had 15-items (α=.90) with no sub-dimensions. this is a likert point scale with responses such as not at all knowledgeable=1, slightly knowledgeable=2, somewhat knowledgeable=3, knowledgeable=4 and very knowledgeable=5. however, the adapted version had 15-items distributed among four factor components (intangible, tangible, behaviour contract and punitive strategies) after an exploratory factor analysis (epa) was conducted following the same scale. this was to reduce the number of variables to appear in the regression model. the kmo result produced a value of .72 with p<.000 indicating that the data was appropriate for the chosen statistical test. the total variance explained indicated that only four components produced eigenvalues above one (2.69, 2.43, 1.27, 1.16) and these four components explained a total of 50.37% of the variance. examination of the component matrix output showed un-rotated factor loadings of the four components, which were above .300. the pattern matrix output examined confirmed items loading on four-factors with five items loading above .300 on component 1(intangible strategies), four items loading above .300 on component 2(tangible strategies); three items loading above .300 on component 3(behaviour contract strategies); and three items loading above .300 on component 4(punitive strategies). data gathered was analysed using descriptive and inferential statistical tools. data on research questions 1 was analysed using frequencies and percentages. this was to find out the knowledge level of public teachers on behaviour modification strategies in classroom management. however, decisions pertaining the knowledge level were done based on a set criterion. data on research question 2, was analysed using means and standard deviations to find out the most frequent behaviour modification strategies public teachers used in managing the classroom. whereas, the research hypothesis was tested using manova. this statistical tool was used because the research hypothesis sought to find out if www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 5, no. 1, 2024 44 published by scholink inc. differences existed among two independent groups (male and female teachers) on the use of behaviour modification strategies, using a multi-dimensional continuous variable. 7. result and discussions presented in this section is the analysis and discussions on the research questions and hypothesis that guided the study. table 1. the knowledge level of teachers on behaviour modification strategies in classroom management b m s score range frequency percentage (%) level (cr = 15) intangible strategy 5-11 119 36.4 12-18 148 45.3 moderate knowledge level 19-25 60 18.3 (cr = 12) tangible strategy 4-9 124 37.9 10-14 140 42.8 moderate knowledge level 15-20 63 19.3 (cr = 9) behaviour contract 3-7 105 32.1 8-11 142 43.4 moderate knowledge level 12-15 80 24.5 (cr = 9) punitive strategy 3-7 92 28.1 8-11 134 41.0 moderate knowledge level 12-15 101 30.9 note. n=327. source: field survey (2021). table 1 data analyses indicates that teachers in public junior high schools in the western north region of ghana have a moderate knowledge level on behaviour modification strategies thus, the criterion obtained by respondents under the various components of the behaviour modification scale were neither below nor above the average score. all scores obtained felt within the average scores. the www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 5, no. 1, 2024 45 published by scholink inc. finding of this study is comparable to the finding of randazzo’s (2011) study among elementary teachers in two new jersey school districts in the united state who also found teachers to be moderately knowledgeable about behaviour modification strategies in managing the classroom using the same scale. this confirmed the study findings of yeboah et al. (2020), who established in a study on teachers’ knowledge on classroom behaviour modification techniques that teachers have insufficient knowledge on classroom behaviour modification techniques. the moderate knowledge level recorded could be as a result of the introduction of the positive toolkits by the ghana education service (ges) and the attention given to classroom behaviour modification strategies in teacher education programs. however, there is the need for more concern and attention to be given to the teaching of behaviour modification strategies as a course of study. this is because a relatively large number of respondents were still found to possess a low knowledge level on all the components of behaviour modification strategies with the exception of punitive strategies. table 2. the most frequent behaviour modification strategies teachers use in managing the classroom bms mean std. d intangible strategies 8.85 1.66 tangible strategies 18.77* 3.84 behaviour contract 13.55 1.51 punitive strategies 6.12 1.30 note. n=327. * denotes highest mean value. source: field survey (2021). results from table 2 shows that the use of tangible behaviour modification strategies (m=18.77, sd=3.84) was frequently used by teachers in managing the classroom. the tangible behaviour modification strategies such as teachers rewarding students for demonstrating positive behaviour, students earning incentives like toffee as well as points that can later be traded for bigger prizes, found to be frequently used by teachers may perhaps be due to their less expensive nature. however, these could also help them to manage their classrooms with little stress as student found to be disrupting class might learn to put up a desirable behaviour in order to also receive teacher’s praise and attention in the classroom. this finding supported the study by o’conner et al. (2011), and madjar and cohen-malayey (2016) which found incentives such as food, and special privileges as the most frequent behaviour modification strategies used by teachers in the classroom. it also confirmed the study findings of haydon and musti-rao (2011) citing the use of incentives as the most important forms of positive behaviour strategies. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 5, no. 1, 2024 46 published by scholink inc. table 3 shows the relationship between the multivariate test result on gender and use of behaviour modification strategies in classroom management. table 3. multivariate test result on gender and use of behaviour modification strategies in classroom management effect value f hypothesis df error df sig. partial eta squared intercept pillai’s trace .990 8093.216 b 4.000 322.00 .000 .990 wilks’ lambda .010 8093.216 b 4.000 322.00 .000 .990 hotelling’s trace 100.537 8093.216 b 4.000 322.00 .000 .990 roy’s largest root 100.537 8093.216 b 4.000 322.00 .000 .990 gender pillai’s trace .007 .603 b 4.000 322.00 .660 .007 wilks’ lambda .993 .603 b 4.000 322.00 .660 .007 hotelling’s trace .007 .603 b 4.000 322.00 .660 .007 roy’s largest root .007 .603 b 4.000 322.00 .660 .007 source: field survey (2021). to determine whether there was any gender difference regarding the use of behaviour modification strategies (tangible, intangible, behaviour contract and punitive) in classroom management, the multivariate analysis of variance (manova) was used as shown in table 3. this was deemed appropriate because the dependent variable (behaviour modification strategies) had four level against gender with two levels (male and female). all assumptions were checked with no serious violations before running the manova analysis. because the test involved multiple dependent variables, the bonferroni adjustment proposed by pallant (2016) was applied in order to reduce the probability of committing a type i error. more so since there was unequal sample size among male and female participants in the study, interpretation of the table was done using the pillai’s trace rather than the wilks’ lambda. the pillai’s trace result in showed no significant difference between male and female teachers in the use of behaviour modification strategies. thus, f (4, 322 =.603, p=.660; pillai’s trace=.007, partial eta squared (ƞ 2 )=.007. this means that, gender do not play any significant role in the use of behaviour modification strategies in classroom management. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 5, no. 1, 2024 47 published by scholink inc. this finding disconfirmed the assertion by sullivan et al. (2014) that female teachers are testified to use positive behaviour management strategies since they have inordinate tolerance for students with behaviour problem was not supported. 8. conclusion and recommendation public basic school teachers in the western north region are moderately knowledgeable of behaviour modification strategies (intangible, tangible, behaviour contract and punitive) in classroom management. this study found the use of tangible strategies as the most frequent behaviour modification strategies teachers in the western north region used in managing the classroom. more so, there was no significant difference between male and female teachers in the use of behaviour modification strategies in classroom management. adequate knowledge level of teachers on behaviour modification strategies is important for effective classroom management. it is recommended that curriculum developers should increase the content of classroom behaviour modification strategies in the program structure for teacher education institutions in ghana. by so doing, teachers would also gain more knowledge on varieties of behaviour modification strategies to be used as classroom management tools aside the use of tangible modification strategies which was found to be the most frequent strategies teachers employed in the classroom. funding: this research received no external funding. data availability statement: data is available on request from the author. acknowledgement: we acknowledge the respondents for their time. conflict of interest: the authors declares no conflict of interest. no funders had any role in the design of the study; in the data collection, analysis, or interpretation of data; neither in the writing of the manuscript, nor in the decision to publish the results. references ackah, r. 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(2020). knowledge on classroom behaviour modification techniques of pre-service teachers of colleges of education in ghana. journal of education, society, and behaviour science, 33(2), 62-71. https://doi.org/10.9734/jesbs/2020/v33i230203. https://doi.org/10.4172/2161-0665.1000347 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2017.06.006 https://doi.org/10.1016/s1054-139x(03)00042-9 https://doi.org/10.14221/ajte.2014v39n6.6 https://doi.org/10.13189/ujer.2016.040904 https://doi.org/10.36941/mjss-2023-0007 https://doi.org/10.1177/0022487103259812 https://doi.org/10.9734/jesbs/2020/v33i230203 frontiers of contemporary education issn 2690-3520 (print) issn 2690-3539 (online) vol. 2, no. 1, 2021 www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce 41 original paper a systematic review of cognitive diagnostic assessment and modeling through concept mapping jingshun zhang 1* , eunice jang 2 & saad chahine 2 1 jingshun zhang, department of leadership, technology, and research, florida gulf coast university, fort myers, fl, usa 2 eunice jang, department of applied psychology and human development. oise, university of toronto, toronto, on, canada 3 saad chahine, faculty of education, queen’s university, kingston, on, canada * jingshun zhang, e-mail: jzhang@fgcu.edu received: december 23, 2020 accepted: january 4, 2021 online published: april 8, 2021 doi:10.22158/fce.v2n1p41 url: http://dx.doi.org/10.22158/fce.v2n1p41 abstract traditional assessments are typically constructed on logical taxonomies and content specifications but lack explicit cognitive models of the processes and problem-solving strategies that underlie student performance. cognitive diagnostic assessment (cda) fills this gap by combining cognitive science and psychometrics. cda is in its infancy, but over 1,000 relevant studies have been conducted in this area during the last 20 years. facing these complicated studies, many beginners struggle to understand the whole picture of cda. this paper systematically reviews the literature on cda and relevant cognitive diagnosis models (cdms) with the application of a concept mapping technology. concept mapping is graphical representation of concepts and their relationships. its use in this study allows researchers and students to gain in-depth knowledge about cda and cdm and identify areas of future research. keywords literature review, cognitive diagnostic assessment and modeling, concept mapping 1. introduction the history of assessment can be traced back to the chinese civil service in 2200 b.c. (bowman, 1989), ancient greeks’ individual difference testing (doyle, 1974), and the european governments’ test systems of the 19th century. testing received a great boost in the 20th century due to rising interest in individual differences (kline, 2005). in the united states especially, spurred by the a nation at risk www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 1, 2021 42 published by scholink inc. report in 1983 and the no child left behind act in 2001, the role of large-scale assessment (lsa) in public education grew tremendously beginning in the mid-1980s, flourished during the 1990s, and unquestionably continued to grow with the implementation of assessment and accountability requirements (depascale, 2003; kifer, 2001). today, assessments of student performance are more prevalent than at any other period in history. national and international assessments have become increasingly frequent as has the use of college admission and placement tests. the development of lsa has been an ongoing process with many aspects still in need of improvement. for example, “the contents of standardized tests and the examination can assess only limited forms of competence, and teachers are quite able to predict which aspects of competence will be assessed” (wiliam, 2001, p. 165). lsa is an important component of determining achievement in education. it should be carried out in a systematic fashion (taylor & tubianosa, 2001) and shows the general public the effectiveness of students, schools, and teachers where there is increased accuracy and objectivity in examining achievement (crundwell, 2005). cognitive(ly) diagnostic assessment (cda) makes explicit the cognitive models of learning beyond the logical taxonomies and discrete content specifications that are prevalent in traditional lsas. cda is designed to measure specific knowledge structures and processing skills in students to provide information about their cognitive strengths and weaknesses; it provides formative diagnostic feedback through fine-grained reporting of test takers’ skill mastery profiles (buck & tatsuoka, 1998; dibello et al., 1995; jang, 2009a; javidanmehr & anani sarab, 2017; nichols, chipman, & brennan, 1995). cognitive diagnostic models (cdms) have been developed “to help construct diagnostic assessments and estimate students’ attribute mastery patterns associated with different cognitive skills” (cui et al., 2006, p. 4). the rapid advance and a growing interest in cda have resulted in extensive research and theories in the past two decades. because of its relative infancy and technical complexities, researchers interested in cda may find it daunting to comprehend the entire picture of this body of research. in this project, we analyzed the relevant studies on cda and cdms using concept maps. concept maps are used to visually represent concepts in a body of knowledge and their relationship to each other. concept maps show the hierarchy of these concepts and emphasize the links between them. they are valuable pedagogical tools (cañas et al.; clark & james, 2004; novak, 1990). the purpose of this study was to conduct a systematic review of cda and its accompanying statistical modelling approaches through concept mapping. this paper specifically focuses on the application of a particular concept mapping technology to the literature on cda over the last four years. it demonstrates a systematic approach to mapping the multiple areas of interests underlying the research on cda. through graphical representation of those areas, the study results shed light on emerging issues that require further development in research on cda. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 1, 2021 43 published by scholink inc. 2. literature review cda is designed to measure specific knowledge structures and processing skills that students have acquired and to provide fine-grained diagnostic information about their cognitive strengths and weaknesses (dibello, stout, & roussos, 1995; jang, 2009; nichols, chipman, & brennan, 1995). cda can give instructors and policy makers more information about the strategies students use to attack problems, the relationships students perceive among concepts, and the principles students understand in a domain. it provides useful information for educators and policymakers to draw conclusions about students’ instructional needs and the effectiveness of instructional programs (nichols, 1994). by measuring different cognitive processes and the knowledge required to solve test items in a domain of interest, cda can provide a profile of students’ mastery and non-mastery of particular cognitive skills. cda can have a significant impact on the improvement of instruction and learning by giving students and teachers reliable feedback on student strengths and weaknesses (roussos, templin, & henson, 2007) and “further help design effective interventions for individual students” (cui et al., 2006, p. 4). cda provides relevant procedures for application such as cognitive foundations of structured item response models, the fusion model skill diagnosis system, diagnostic inferences about cognitive skills, and cognitive-diagnostic score reporting. cda is “still in its infancy, but its parentage is fairly well established” (leighton & gierl, 2007, p. 1) because it can be traced back to the 1950s when prominent researchers, such as messick, snow, and lohman, put these perspectives forward. over the past three decades, a growing number of researchers have argued that cognitive science and psychometrics should be tightly aligned in the service of instruction (messick, 1984; snow & lohman, 1989). in the 1990s, some influential work was published in books and journals, such as a framework for developing cognitively diagnostic assessments (nichols, 1994) and cognitively diagnostic assessment (nichols, chipman, & brennan, 1995). recently, cognitive diagnostic assessment for education: theory and applications (leighton & gierl, 2007) and diagnostic measurement: theory, methods, and applications (rupp, templin, & henson, 2010) have become important sources of new ideas leading to innovations in cda. much attention has been paid to developing psychometric models that are capable of estimating students’ cognitive profiles. cda has also drawn much attention from practitioners and policy makers who strive for specific information about students’ knowledge states and proficiencies that are necessary for making decisions about the allocation of resources as well as planning effective instructional interventions for individual students (cui et al., 2006; nichols, 1994; roussos, templin, & henson, 2007). there have also been many studies of relevant theories and models, such as the fusion model skills diagnosis system, the irt-based parametric latent class models, the rule space model, the attribute hierarchy method (cui, 2007; cui & leighton, 2008; cui et al., 2006; gierl, 2007; jang, 2008; roussos et al., 2007) and studies of the broad application of cda such as skill diagnostics (jang, 2005, 2009; jang et al., 2008; leighton & gierl, 2007; zhang, 2013). www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 1, 2021 44 published by scholink inc. during the last decade, evidence in over 600 publications in various forms has shown a rapid growth in the use of cda (zhang, jang, & chahine, 2011). these studies reported high numbers of broadly classified theoretical debates, psychometric modeling, and applications to a range of testing contexts including both large-scale and classroom assessments when using cdas. with this rapid growth and cda's technical complexities, many researchers have expressed a need for a clear framework that can guide test design and validation processes. despite the large body of published work about cda, beginning researchers often find it difficult to discern the salient issues that await further research. therefore, our intent was to examine the status quo of research on cda and offer a systematic roadmap that could be useful both for developing a much-needed framework of cda and for beginning researchers. a systematic literature review is “designed to locate, appraise and synthesize the best available evidence relating to a specific research question in order to provide informative and evidence-based answers” (boland, cherry, & dickson, 2017, p. 2). the systematic review of literature in a narrow area is very important and has “recently become a major area of methodological development” (gough, oliver, & thomas, 2017, p. 9). this idea arose in the 1980s in studies featuring statistical meta-analysis (glass et al., 1981) and meta-ethnography (noblit & hare, 1988). although the literature review as a form of study has been continuously developed over many years (boland, cherry, & dickson, 2017; bolin, 2012; shadish & lecy, 2015; sheble, 2017), the systematic literature review is “still a young and rapidly developing field of study and methods of reviewing have not been developed for all areas of science” (gough, oliver, & thomas, 2017, p. 9). there are still many challenges to be overcome (dickersin, 2015; oakley et al., 2005) such as conceptual and methodological challenges, resource constraints, the constraints related to the use of reviews, and broader political challenges (gough, oliver, & thomas, 2017). however, many scholars have continued to improve the process used for conducting a systematic literature review in areas such as planning, finding materials to include in the review, describing them, assessing them, analyzing them, synthesizing results, and appraising them (boland, cherry, & dickson, 2017; lockwood, munn, & porritt, 2015; gough, oliver, & thomas, 2012). this study applied a systematic literature review to the development of cda to help us to understand its holistic and longitudinal content and relevant theories. also, this process helped us to enhance a particular research and learning method via concept mapping. 3. research methods 3.1 data source we intentionally started to collect relevant references three years ago when we undertook some related studies. after we had accumulated an applicable number of references, we systematically searched them for studies related to cda. our research began by locating published sources on cda research through a university library system. we were able to identify 538 sources in various types of https://us.sagepub.com/en-us/nam/author/david-gough https://us.sagepub.com/en-us/nam/author/sandy-oliver www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 1, 2021 45 published by scholink inc. publications (see table 1). among them, 40.5% were journal articles, 17.5% conferences papers, and 16.4% book chapters. twenty-three books dealt with issues related to cda, and among them, five focused specifically on cda or cdm. table 1. the types of studies in cda and cdm type of studies total studies (1957-2010) studies in this project (2007-2010) frequency percent frequency percent book 23 4.3 6+2 4.2 book chapter 88 16.4 27 14.3 conference 94 17.5 47 24.9 dissertation 31 5.8 7 3.7 journal 218 40.5 71 37.6 report 42 7.8 13 4.2 workshop 13 2.4 8 4.2 other 29 5.4 8 4.2 total 538 100.0 189 100 initially, we identified sources that spanned the period between 1957 and 2010. figure 1 shows the distribution of the identified sources. note that there is a big gap in the years between 1957 and 1973, and that the most significant development of cda and cdm took place after 2004. before 2004, the development of cda and cdm progressed slowly yet steadily. figure 1. the distribution of studies in cda and cdm www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 1, 2021 46 published by scholink inc. we narrowed our search to focus on sources published between 2007 and 2010, a period that showed a peak in relevant studies. over the course of these four years, there were 187 sources, which accounted for 34.8% of the total studies from 1957 to 2010. the types of sources are listed in table 1. these 187 sample sources were reformatted in apa style and numerically coded in a table format. we inputted relevant information about each source, including key words, study contexts, publication type and year, and authors’ affiliations. 3.2 concept mapping alias and suradi have stated, “conducting a systematic literature review is an essential research activity in ensuring a good piece of research” (2008, p. 1). a literature review is a multi-stage process that involves scanning information, making notes of reviews, synthesizing and structuring information, writing a critical review of the literature, and building a repertoire of resources (ali, mahfouz, & arisha, 2017; novak & cañas, 2006; rowley & slack, 2004). concept mapping can be helpful for conducting literature reviews because it visualizes information using nodes and links arranged in a spatial distribution to reflect the domain information (alias & suradi, 2008; arruarte, rueda, & elorriaga, 2008; carnot, 2006). rowley and slack (2004) noted that concept mapping can be useful for identifying key concepts in a collection of documents or a research area, comprehending the structure of a literature review in preparation for writing the review, and understanding theory and concepts as well as the relationships between them. it can serve as a tool for establishing the relationships among areas that are not apparent and are often hierarchical (novak, 1984). the content, structure, links, and organization of the concept map can be used as the framework for the literature review. there are many kinds of software for concept mapping, both commercial software tools (e.g., 3d topicscape, inspiration) as well as free software (e.g., compendium, cmap tools). in this review, a program called inspiration 9 was used. 4. result based on the relevant literature, the concept mapping in this study took place in three steps: mapping the preliminary structure of cda and cdm, creating a comprehensive map, and deeply analyzing this map. in the first stage, we created a preliminary structure map of cda and cdm based on four main books and four articles (jang, 2008; leighton & gierl, 2007; nichols, 1994; nichols, chipman, & brennan, 1995; rupp, templin, & henson, 2010; tatsuoka, 2009). this preliminary structure map included a center (cda) and four sub-groups, as shown in the following graphic. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 1, 2021 47 published by scholink inc. figure 2. the preliminary structure map subsequently, we created a comprehensive cda and cdm map based on the basic map from step 1. we reviewed all 187 studies and mapped them according to the expanded key words. it was necessary to revisit the original articles to gain some additional information. if an article was involved in a particular area, we would input this study’s code into a relevant circle. if there was no relevant circle, a new one would be created based on its relationships with other areas. as a result, the map in figure 3 successfully represented areas covered by all 187 sources. in our last step, we analyzed each area more substantively and identified distinct issues associated with it. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 1, 2021 48 published by scholink inc. figure 3. the comprehensive map of the literature review of cda and cdm www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 1, 2021 49 published by scholink inc. figure 4. detail of a subsection of the comprehensive map after we obtained the comprehensive map in figure 3, we clarified its hierarchical structures in microsoft word format by outputting them from inspiration 9. for example, we could focus on particular subsections of our comprehensive map, as shown by the dark lines in figure 3. figure 4 details the subsection of the comprehensive map that related to the real-life data application of cda. table 2 shows its hierarchical structure as it was outputted in microsoft word format. table 2. microsoft word output of the hierarchical structure of literature in cda map iii. application a. scale 1. classroom assessment [68] 2. lsa [223] a. toefl [494] b. timms [64/65/67/68/ 111/181] c. naep [72/181/ 228/522] d. pirls [74] e. melab [150] f. sat [158/ 163/165/1 67/168/ 169/ 502/504 /537] g. ecpe [385] www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 1, 2021 50 published by scholink inc. b. domains 1. language assessment [2/3/82/244/275 /282/369] a. reading skills [7/42/150/151/ 185/245/246 /502/504] b. listening skills [281/403] 2. mathematics [65/67/72/111/ 154/157/158/163/ 165/167/168/185/ 265/315/399/417/537] 3. writing [82/] 4. physics learning [187] 5. geometry/399] c. administration 1. traditional test 2. cat [69/70/82 115/170/ 183/237/238/ 322/358/400/417/ 482/484/487 /516/528/530/538] 3. ibt [2/181/ 243/403/] we gained many benefits from the concept mapping process beside the visual maps generated by inspiration 9. after we created the maps, inspiration 9 could export additional results in different formats such as pdf, word, or image files. for example, as mentioned above, table 2 shows the output of maps in microsoft word format. each file included two parts: at the top of the file, we could retrieve an image of the relevant map; then, the structure of the map became available in text format, which showed the relevant concepts, nodes, and studies in the different categories and levels. this allowed us to recognize the categories and hierarchical structure of the relevant studies; we also could easily track the original studies. in addition, we could establish the areas in which each individual study was involved. by applying concept mapping, we broadly analyzed the relevant studies on cda and cdm; we acquired many interesting results. we also considered this process to be a learning experience. by collecting references, analyzing these references, creating maps, and summarizing the maps and relevant outputs, we continued to learn more knowledge and skills that allowed us to adjust our maps continually. through comparing the many maps made during the process, we found that we also enhanced our research skills and extended our knowledge in more broad areas beside cda and cdm. 4. discussion the project developed over a two-year period. the project included two types of contributions to our cda development, in theoretical research and in technical support. theoretically, the results from the application of concept mapping to the literature on cda offered useful insight into what has and has not been researched. applying the concept mapping technology to a literature review of cda helped us to www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 1, 2021 51 published by scholink inc. visually compartmentalize the large body of literature. we categorized the literature into three main classifications: a) real-life data application, b) theoretical and conceptual issues, and c) psychometric modeling (see figure 2). it appears that much attention has been given to the development of psychometric models, and more research is necessary to examine the validity of cda in specific learning contexts. the field will benefit from a systematic and comprehensive framework for developing and validating cda. two books (leighton & gierl, 2007; rupp, templin, & henson, 2010) have done excellent work in this direction. in the technical and academic support for cda and cdm, the approach used in this project might prove to be a very useful practice (zhang, 2016). concept mapping, as we used it, can be a deductive method for building a conceptual model. as dr. jackie leighton said in the keynote address of the division d award of the american educational research association (aera) in 2010, the larger measurement community must develop a conceptual-visual model of cda to further establish it as an important field; such a model can serve as a method of communication and can open cda up to the larger research community. this will allow more researchers to understand the literature well and to draw on several sections of it when writing papers. in connection with the above discussions, what we advocate is a deductive approach—instead of thinking up a conceptual model based on our experience or our ideas, we may be able to concept map the literature in order to develop a conceptual model of a theory. based on our results, we would suggest the creation of an academic online platform build up a virtual on-line academic community for relevant technical and academic support of cda and cdm. this online platform might serve some of the following functions: 1) concept maps of cda and cdm would create visual images of the relevant studies and theories that researchers and learners could refer to. 2) reference pools would include links to all part and points in these maps. users interested in some parts or points could click on them to track the relevant references. 3) key elements such as reference lists in apa style, key words, and abstracts for each reference could be included in the reference pools. we could post the relevant articles on the web system after receiving copyright permission for their use in this project. the academic online platform, which could be named the systematic review of cda and cdm, could be an open system. we could set up a function that would allow for group discussion. it would be open to all researchers and learners. members could discuss any question and share ideas after registering to obtain a user account. using this system, we hope to build an online and virtual learning community that would be helpful for researchers, learners, and cda’s development in the future (kernan, basch, & cadorett, 2018). in summary, we conducted the first systematic review of the literature relevant to cda and cdm using a concept mapping method. this study contributes to the field by applying this new method of literature review to cda and cdm studies. this study showed this method is useful for building an entire picture of a complex body of research and opening a window to future studies in theoretical and technical support. posting these maps on-line could provide beginners, researchers, and others with information on www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 1, 2021 52 published by scholink inc. relevant studies and clarify the framework of cda and cdm. references ali, a., mahfouz, a., & arisha, a. 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(eds.). (2007). cognitive diagnostic assessment for education: theory and applications. new york, ny, us: cambridge university press. https://doi.org/10.1017/cbo9780511611186 lockwood, c., munn, z., & porritt, k. (2015). qualitative research synthesis: methodological guidance for systematic reviewers utilizing meta-aggregation. international journal of evidence-based healthcare, 13(3), 179-187. https://doi.org/10.1097/xeb.0000000000000062 messick, s. (1984). the psychology of educational measurement. journal of educational measurement, 21, 215-237. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-3984.1984.tb01030.x nichols, p. d. (1994). a framework for developing cognitively diagnostic assessments. review of educational research, 64(4), 575-603. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543064004575 nichols, p. d., chipman, s. f., & brennan, r. l. (eds). (1995). cognitively diagnostic assessment. mahwah nj: lawrence erlbaum associates. noblit, g., & hare, r. d. 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(2009). cognitive assessment: an introduction to the rule space method. new york: routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203883372 https://doi.org/10.1017/cbo9780511611186 https://doi.org/10.1097/xeb.0000000000000062 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-3984.1984.tb01030.x https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543064004575 https://doi.org/10.4135/9781412985000 https://doi.org/10.1017/cbo9781139173469 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-3984.2007.00040.x https://doi.org/10.1108/01409170410784185 https://doi.org/10.1002/jrsm.1132 https://doi.org/10.1002/asi.23864 https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203883372 www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 1, 2021 55 published by scholink inc. taylor, a. r., & tubianosa, t. (2001). student assessment in canada: improving the learning environment through effective evaluation. kelowna, bc: society for the advancement of excellence in education. wiliam, d. (2001). an overview of the relationship between curriculum and assessment. in d. scott (ed.), curriculum and assessment (pp. 165-181). westport, ct: ablex publishing. zhang, j. (2013). relationships between missing responses and skill mastery profiles of cognitive diagnostic assessment. diss. university of toronto. zhang, j. (2014). missing responses, characteristics, and skill mastery profiles of cda. lambert academic publishing. zhang, j., jang, e. e., & chahine, s. (2011, april). a systematic review of cognitive diagnostic assessment and modeling through concept mapping. paper presented at the annual meeting of the american educational research association in 2011, new orleans, la. frontiers of contemporary education issn 2690-3520 (print) issn 2690-3539 (online) vol. 4, no. 1, 2023 www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce 6 book review achieng-evensen, c., stockbridge, k. & soohoo, s. (eds.) (2021). freirean echoes: scholars and practitioners dialogue on critical ideas in education. myers education press sarah reddington 1 1 mount saint vincent university, halifax, nova scotia, canada received: february 8, 2023 accepted: february 15, 2023 online published: march 9, 2023 doi:10.22158/fce.v4n1p6 url: http://dx.doi.org/10.22158/fce.v4n1p6 freirean echoes is an edited collection of speeches given at a critical pedagogy conference in 2015 hosted by the paulo freire democratic project at chapman university, orange, california, usa. the book is structured to evoke new conversations on critical issues in education, with each section centered on an original speech by an established scholar with two additional authors bringing renewed discussions, hence “echoes”. the book is dialectical text designed to be accessible for scholars, educators, community workers, and practitioners to search out contradictions and question existing forms of knowledge. as freire (2000) reminds us “[a]uthentic thinking, thinking that is concerned about reality, does not take place in ivory tower isolation, but only in communication (p. 77). the themes across this collection of speeches serve not only as a tribute to freire’s life work, but delve into less familiar freirean concepts, like untested-feasibility. at the end of every section, there are questions and activities to encourage readers to reflect on the relationship between oppressive systems and ways to build a better society. at the time i worked on this book review, i was teaching a graduate critical perspectives course and i found myself fervently underlining words, phrases, and ideas in the editors’ introduction to share with my students. it was a stark reminder that critical pedagogy begins with asking questions and having dialogue about how knowledge gets constructed the way it does, and why some lives are more legitimized than others. section one, maria araújo “nita” freire reflects on her late husband’s concept of untested-feasibility, a freirean concept that encourages others to act, foster epistemological curiosity, and pursue sites of possible transformation. she frames the concept of untested-feasibility as an invitation to see the world in a more human way, a space that is unfinished, filled with “multiple wishes, desires, needs, wants, reason, creation, and, above all, a spirit of justice” (p. 7). nita freire eloquently speaks of paulo having untested-feasibility over the course of his life: “an embodied being; a thinking being; a person who acts www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 4, no. 1, 2023 7 published by scholink inc. in the world with love” (p. 9). later, anaida colón-muñiz and edgar orejel expand on the concept of untested-feasibility and examine our collective struggles as a society faced with gender and racial inequities, the inhumane treatment of refugees and the degradation of our planet. anaida colón-muñiz explicitly reflects on the impact covid-19 has had on our daily lives, including the impact on industry. however, she does not interrogate how the concept of untested-feasibility falls flat in light of the pandemic. we need to confront how the pandemic has stifled our collective community and ask ourselves what it will take to get back to living in more human world? we have spent cumulative days working in isolation, responding to digital messages, and coordinating online meetings with minimal opportunities to collaborate. the pandemic has exposed what happens when the hubs of daily personal interaction are missing and there are no informal relationships anymore. it would have been useful to explore this aspect given the section focuses on building a more humane and utopian world. section two focuses on tom wilson’s contributions to the field of critical pedagogy. wilson, who passed away on december 28, 2018, was a close friend of paulo freire and like freire, had a strong desire to see the best in humanity. it commences with wilson’s outline of the 2ra method that challenges individuals to ask each other and ourselves why we think the way we do. the 2ra method requires us to problematize knowledge and contest all forms of domination, oppression, discrimination, inequalities, and social injustices. wilson explains the 2ra method begins with participants engaging in three exercises wherein they read, reflect, and take action on concepts explored within a body of text (i.e., words, messages, objects, feelings). the first step involves reading (rd) the text closely for critical ideas followed by a reflection (rf) of key ideas. the final step follows a freirean problem-posing position where individuals are encouraged to take action (ac) and create meaningful change. to ask: what is the problem? why are things the way they are? what can be done to change things? how do we build a more socially just and better society? wilson’s chapter is a highly practical guide for educators, practitioners, community workers, and students. educators will appreciate tom wilson’s accounts of his own students’ experiences when grappling with the 2ra method. for example, tom wilson shares a story where he invited his students to examine their traditional classroom structure (i.e., teacher directed, standard assessments) and co-construct the course syllabus. the students struggled with this activity and requested for tom to resume his authority to which he responded, “why do you need me to tell you what to do? the students realized through the process of the 2ra method that they could revolutionize the classroom. i found the 2ra method a productive critical pedagogical framework to engage in critical ideas with my students. i could additionally see it being used as an assessment tool to examine core themes within courses and how it might inform future professional practice. section three takes quite a turn in relation to the accessibility of the text. while peter mclaren’s speech on the spiritual reawakening of liberatory education is thought provoking his applications of marxist humanism, revolutionary critical pedagogy, and christian socialism are hard to grapple with at first glance. mclaren (2015) describes liberatory education as centered around the principles for social change and transformation based on raising critical consciousness and engagement with oppressive www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 4, no. 1, 2023 8 published by scholink inc. forces-a vehicle for change. mclaren’s liberatory ideas in the seventh chapter on breaking free from the capitalist marketplace that drives education led to some rich discussions with my graduate students on the worsening economic conditions around the world (e.g., housing crisis, food insecurity). they began to problematize the conditions of their own realities struggling to find affordable housing while trying to raise their children and pursue graduate school. questions about what perpetuates economic injustices emerged. peter jandrić’s subsequent chapter on the consequences of living in a posthuman world heightened our conversations in relation to work productivity during the pandemic. the concept of posthumanism has evolved exponentially since the pandemic where we have transgressed beyond the universal subject and examined more closely the connections people make to more than human (e.g., technology, spaces, objects, and nature) (hickey-moody & page, 2016). peter jandrić’s proposal to redevelop critical pedagogy to align with a human-technological world is timely and needed. it brings forward questions, such as: what happens to notions of belonging and community when we work from home? what is the future of school? is it one where we see less human interaction and more technology? this idea of digital education replacing analog education and what happens to critical pedagogy in a digital era is worth future exploration. antonia darder begins section four with a return to discussing the foundations of freire’s work and the importance for individuals to raise our level of radical consciousness. the two authors that follow, monzo and white-smith, elaborate on freire’s concept of radical consciousness and to stand with “those you oppress” (p. 137). explicitly, the authors address the relevance of the dialectical process with recognition that we must attend to the oppressive conditions in which we live. i found chapters ten, eleven and twelve purposeful to explore with my graduate students where we collectively examined liberation, resistance and the tensions that emerge when navigating the social and material world. in this process, my students generated a series of questions addressing some of the pressures they have experienced in their own practice as child and youth practitioners. they questioned: why are youth homeless? why is education still teacher driven? why is there large police presence in some schools? why are young children frequently silenced? how do we build better communities? what does it mean to belong? this led to further discussions on the exploitation of women as low wage workers in early childhood education, including their experiences with xenophobia as new immigrants to canada. one student in my class who recently immigrated from united states shared his fear of systemic and legitimized violence after his six-year-old daughter was subjected to routine shooting drills. this section was useful as it created a space to challenge the social and economic conditions before us. it brings us back to the roots of freirean thought and the requirement to connect to the transformational praxis aspect of raising consciousness with a reminder that engagement in the world is not an individual process, but rather one that develops socially and in community. the final section of this book begins with a speech written by donaldo macedo where he evokes readers, especially academics, to re-examine their roles when producing scholarship and to challenge “neoliberal intellectualism”. he describes neoliberal intellectualism as the “work that claims to foster freedom” but www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 4, no. 1, 2023 9 published by scholink inc. instead is driven by self-serving careerism with limited understandings of the hidden and not so hidden collective struggles within their communities. it is a call for intellectuals to return to freire’s work, to spend time in communities, and work with community members in the interest of “true liberation” (p. 146). this speech and the two subsequent chapters in this section evoked rich dialogue with my graduate class around the issues when working in a hierarchical capitalist system. donaldo macendo’s example of a manhattan restaurant asking diners to pay $27,000 for a chocolate sundae while paying its workers who are predominantly women, afro-americans, and latinos much less for a year of labor fueled discussions on exploitation of labor. upon further reflection of this indignation, my students began to evaluate the social and economic relationships that affect their lives, and it was in the process of naming forms of power and control that led to them to be more critical about the necessity to challenge existing capitalist relations. students examined their own communities and histories. one international student from nigeria spoke about the exploitation of children as child brides and child bombers in his home country and his proactive struggle against these forms of dehumanization. many students had emotional, visceral, and embodied reactions when naming forms of power and control. this section became a mediated tool to help prepare students to not only become critically literate, but to legitimate the experiences students bring to the classroom. it involves bringing theory into the streets and linking their struggles to larger national and international contexts. this book provides a dialectical guide for scholars, educators, and practitioners to explore freirean theories (i.e., untested-feasibility, dialectical theory, critical consciousness and liberatory education) and engage in self-reflective processes. to ask: what is my purpose? what does it mean to belong? to be in a privileged space? where do i go from here? how do we become agents of transformation? academics might find mclaren’s chapter on liberatory education and donald macendo’s discussion on neoliberal intellectualism a productive space to contemplate their own positionality when producing scholarship and to self-reflect on their interconnected relationship with community. for practitioners outside of academia, the reflection questions and activities are a useful guide to share their stories, to struggle together with the conditions they face and revitalize critical democracy in their practice. in addition, tom wilson’s 2ra method is a productive framework for community workers, teachers, practitioners, and academics to use to examine in their pedagogical practice. the book raises more questions than it does answers, yet this is needed more than ever. i would like to think that this book offered my graduate students a space to frame their own learnings and agency in the world. the transformation of education can only happen when individuals engage in active citizenship and challenge the social, political, and economic structures of power. as freire (1997) states “aspire to become an association of truly serious and coherent people, those who work to shorten more and more distance between what they say and what they do” (p. 83). engaging in critical ideas on education is an ongoing dialectical process; it is not one action, or conversation, but the intentionality to pursue a better world. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 4, no. 1, 2023 10 published by scholink inc. references freire, p. (1997). pedagogy of the heart. continuum. freire, p. (2000). pedagogy of the oppressed (30th anniversary ed.). continuum. hickey-moody, a., & page, t. (eds.). (2016). arts, pedagogy and cultural resistance: new materialisms. rowman & littlefield. mclaren, p. (2015). life in schools: an introduction to critical pedagogy in the foundations of education. routledge. frontiers of contemporary education issn 2690-3520 (print) issn 2690-3539 (online) vol. 1, no. 2, 2020 www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce 1 original paper images of the “other” in english textbooks for high school education stella theologou 1* & maria dimasi 1 1 department of languages, literature and culture of the black sea countries, democritus university of thrace, komotini, greece * stella theologou, e-mail: stella_theologou@hotmail.com received: july 21, 2020 accepted: august 11, 2020 online published: september 13, 2020 doi:10.22158/fce.v1n2p1 url: http://dx.doi.org/10.22158/fce.v1n2p1 abstract the goal of this paper is to analyze the ways in which the “other” is portrayed and formalized in compulsory schooling in an institutionalized manner. the research methodology used is qualitative and quantitative content analysis of the teaching material. certain attitudes towards “other” cultures among societal groups are often the result of their conception of alterity, of their identity and the relation between them. these representations have become a culture on its own right, giving birth to a categorization of people within the same society and of peoples of the world. this paper will attempt to reveal the way this dichotomy between the “self” and the “other” operates and will analyze the way alterity is managed in the textbooks. keywords the other, high school textbooks, english language, alterity 1. introduction the present study aims at examining the content of the english high school textbooks used in greece, in order to register incidents that portray the image of the “other” and to perform a quantitative and qualitative analysis of these incidents taking into consideration the major role school textbooks play in the teaching and learning process (bonidis, 2004; johnsen, 1993; oates, 2014, p. 5; pingel, 2009, p. 7) and that textbook research aims to “promote international understanding”, particularly when textbooks contain “one sided images” (pingel, 2009, p. 8), it is of the utmost importance to study the “normative function” (ibid.) of english language textbooks in compulsory secondary education as they convey a global understanding of “the rules of society as well as norms of living with other people” (ibid., p. 7). in the case where there is only one www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 1, no. 2, 2020 2 published by scholink inc. available for the teacher to use in class-as is the case in greece-, it is evident that many ardent questions arise, such as: do the high school textbooks for teaching english in greece cater for all students, such as immigrant, minority students, students with special abilities as well as disadvantaged students, both socially and financially, or for the needs of students that live in isolated agricultural communities far from the urban centers? are these textbooks appropriate for all these diverse kinds of students? how do these textbooks deal with issues of alterity -national, ethnic, religious, linguistic, cultural, social (cummins, 2003; dimasi, 2002, pp. 55-56; gkotovos, 2002, pp. 59-60)? what is their contribution towards a more intercultural treatment of the multicultural profile of the greek classroom and its cultural diversity? does the teaching that takes place in the greek high schools take into consideration and focus on a) cultural knowledge (values, microculture and macroculture, habits, pop culture, arts etc.), b) social issues and people‟s attitudes, stereotypes and prejudices, and finally c) interpersonal relations between different ethnic, social, cultural groups? to what extend is the “other” visible in the texts and in what ways are the diverse cultures represented? these questions have been a research field of great interest since published papers on the textbook series used for teaching english in primary school education proved that there was little integration of multicultural issues in the textbook content (dimasi & zafiri, 2009, p. 117; zafeiriadou, 2010, p. 134). this paper analyzes the way textbook images and text language, both provide and limit knowledge of different people and societies. text and images are considered a means of representation as they reflect the political discourse concerning what it is possible to think and say about people and societies in relation to people‟s attitudes towards the cultural or ethnic “other”. 2. issues of alterity, the “other” and the “self” before proceeding with the analysis of the textbooks it is required that certain clarifications should be made regarding the definition of the “other”, the perception of the “self”, “alterity” as a notion and the interaction between the “other” and the “self”. the “other”, as defined in the dictionary, is “the „additional or extra‟, or „alternative‟, or „different type of‟ (note 1). it is closely linked to the notion of alterity which is “the quality or state of being radically alien to the conscious self or a particular cultural orientation” (note 2) and this differentiation involves, among others, geographical areas and other cultures (riboli, 2005, p. 145). similarly, the “other” is “an individual who is perceived by the group as not belonging, as being different in some fundamental way” (ibid.). what is more, otherness “within our national geographical boundaries on the other hand requires a re-definition of national identity” (byram, 1989, p. 26). alterity is considered a basic parameter of everyday life (tsoukala, 2010, pp. 103-104) and is the result of constant change on a global level (soulioti, 2005, p. 21). its definition stems from its dialectical relation with something other, either conscious or unconscious (gkotovos, 2002, p. 16) or with identity (konstantopoulou et al., 2000, p. 11; aravani, 2015, p. 3). alterity is considered either internal (in the case of minorities sharing the same culture or the same country) or external (in the case of groups of www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 1, no. 2, 2020 3 published by scholink inc. people from distant places carrying different cultures) (rimpoli, 2006, p. 144). in the case of the textbooks analysed, the “self” is seen in reference to greece and greek culture, it is perceived as the “we” and the “us” in the texts while the “other” is considered to refer to different nationalities, languages, and to religious, ethnic and cultural minorities, to people with special abilities or appearance. 3. textbook analysis in this paper, textbook analysis has been carried out using a particular set of criteria that includes both texts and the visual images accompanying them as they are of equal importance for the teaching process (theologou, 2017, pp. 462-463) and for the representation of alterity. thus, qualitative and quantitative analysis has been made using the following set of criteria: a) qualitative: 1) origin/ethnicity 2) language/communication between people or students from different countries 3) leisure, celebrations 4) education b) quantitative: number of references in 1) sketch 2) photo 3) word 4) phrase 5) text/literary text the qualitative set of criteria refers to specific content elements present in the textbooks, while the quantitative set of criteria involves the numeric reference of the relevant text and image representations used in the textbooks. 3.1 research methodology the method used for this research is “content analysis” as it deals primarily with the content of the course books. content analysis was chosen because it is considered the most appropriate for the analysis of all text types as it poses questions which aim at a quantitative classification of the hypothesis and deals with a specific system of categories, which secure objectivity, systematisity, quantitivity and the generalization of the results (ahlis, 1996, p. 23, p. 91; vamvoukas, 1998, p. 264; dimasi, 2002, pp. 60-61; dimasi, 2012, pp. 35-36). the resulting categories of the analysis were utilized in a way which facilitated the interpretation and evaluation of textbook content. 3.2 research hypothesis and categorization the hypothesis of this research is determined as follows: the textbooks used for teaching english as a foreign language in secondary compulsory education function both as tools which promote a particular image of the “other” and as determining factors in the formation of students‟ perception of alterity. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 1, no. 2, 2020 4 published by scholink inc. through the use of language and visual images, they introduce elements of the country in which the language is spoken and written -in this case the uk-but they also introduce elements of other cultures and languages. since the textbooks are designated for use within the greek educational system, they are expected to include cultural elements that refer to greece as well. also, it is expected that there would be reference to other countries around the world as the english language is considered a global tool for international communication, a global lingua franca (mckay, 2018, p. 9; zhichang, 2018, p. 102). at the same time, the textbooks are expected to include reference to foreign, minority, immigrant students from the former ussr and the balkans and to cultural elements related to their identities, as these students attend greek schools and are part of the educational system (note 3). the paper aims to analyze how ethnic and cultural alterity is presented, i.e., what knowledge and facts about the “other” are portrayed in the textbooks so that conclusions can be drawn in relation to what norms and values about alterity are being communicated. how the “other”, which forms a permanent part of society in greece, is reflected and handled in the textbooks used for teaching english as a foreign language at school. the categories used to analyze the textbooks have been initially determined, to a certain extent, by the research hypothesis and were concluded upon by the study of the textbook material. therefore, the process followed in the formation of the categories for the analysis is deductive. the findings were categorized in thematic areas and were presented in tables and graphs. the tables include the x axis and the y axis. the x axis is defined in terms of the cultural area studied while the y axis in terms of the type of reference encountered in the textbooks. more specifically, the subcategories of the x axis are the following: a. origin-ethnicity, which includes all reference to a particular national or ethnic origin including people‟s names, names of countries, reference to cities or sights in different countries. dress which reflects ethnic or cultural origin is also taken into consideration. b. languages, which includes reference to people‟s language c. leisure-celebrations-art, which includes cultural elements such as culture-specific or country-specific religious or other festivals and the food associated with them, hobbies and habits as well as free-time activities, artistic and literary creation. d. education includes the subjects of the curricula in different countries, students‟ interests and activities at school, projects and all aspects of school life. the subcategories of the y axis are: sketch, photo, word, phrase, text (including literary text). sketch includes those pictures in the illustration of the textbooks that are sketches and map drawings. photo includes all pictures that are photographs. the word subcategory includes all one-word phrases while phrase includes references of two or more words. text is longer than phrase and includes the main texts of the units in the textbooks including literary texts, songs and poems. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 1, no. 2, 2020 5 published by scholink inc. a further categorization relates to the type of reference encountered in the textbooks. reference to another culture, origin, ethnic group can be positive, neutral or negative. positive reference accommodates for cultural inclusion and acceptance of alterity which is, thus, considered a cultural asset. neutral reference is the unsigned “other”, the “other” without any evaluative connotations attached. negative reference attaches a negative connotative value to the portrayal of the “other”, which is regarded as undesirable and marginalised (cummins, 2005, p. 65). 4. the findings the five textbooks used for teaching english in compulsory secondary education are called “think teen” and cater for different levels. there are two textbooks used for 1 st grade, one for elementary and one for advanced level students, similarly, two for 2 nd grade, one for elementary and one for advanced students. for 3 rd grade students, the same book is used for both levels. 4.1 grade 1-think teen-advanced level 4.1.1 quantitative analysis the quantitative analysis of grade one, advanced level textbook can be seen in table 1. the textbook was studied in terms of elements that reflect alterity and relate to other cultures with the point of reference being the greek culture. table 1. “think teen” 1st grade of junior high school student’s book advanced x\y sketch photo word phrase text total origin, ethnicity 23 40 18 33 16 130 language, communication 3 10 16 26 5 60 leisure, celebrations, art 3 18 5 20 5 50 education 34 27 3 36 17 117 total 63 95 42 115 43 note. x: cultural elements of alterity/y: field of reference. in terms of ethnicity and origin there are 130 references, 117 references to matters of education, 60 to language/communication and 50 to free-time activities, festivals and artistic creation as well as famous artists. the results show that the textbook includes a large number of references to different countries and their cultural elements. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 1, no. 2, 2020 6 published by scholink inc. 4.1.2 qualitative analysis 4.1.2.1 text the vast majority of the texts (including words, phrases, and longer texts) refer to greek children using very common greek names such as maria, magda and yiannis (p. 5, p. 49, p. 75) and to their everyday school reality and interests (p. 6). alongside greek children, living in metropolitan cities of the mainland such as nafplio and athens (p. 8, p. 59, pp. 93-94), there is an extended reference to the uk and english children (pp. 15-16, p. 27). in particular there is a whole lesson devoted to the uk (pp. 71-72) but there are also disperse references to english culture (p. 33, p. 45, p. 79, pp. 103-104), habits (p. 29, p. 35) and sights in the uk (p. 63, p. 110). greek children most often interact with children from the uk via mails (p. 9), common projects and activities such as magazine quizzes and school newspapers (p. 101, p. 117). reference to greek culture is made alongside english culture drawing conclusions on their cultural similarities and differences, regarding school timetables (p. 10, p. 17), museums (p. 64) or food (p. 29, p. 32), trips, clubs (pp. 15-16, p. 19), volunteering (pp. 89-90). environmental issues (p. 54, pp. 83-84) and students‟ problems (p. 27, pp. 34-35) are presented in the form of “compare and contrast” between the two countries. books and texts are written by english authors (pp. 20-21, p. 128). american culture is quite present as well. the computer games mentioned are all related to mainstream american filmography (p. 37), some of the children involved in the activities are american and there is also reference to hollywood, the oscars, and american music awards (pp. 119-120), comic heroes (p. 43, p. 45). western european countries such as italy (p. 28), france (p. 9), germany (p. 20, p. 45, p. 127) are also frequently mentioned, mostly in relation to mail correspondence as children from europe appear to be communicating with greek children via e-mails (p. 9, p. 20, p. 103, p. 136). the country reference can be seen in figure 1. where the majority of references (142) involve the uk, followed by greece (70), although there is a significant numeric difference between them. figure 1. country reference in think teen for grade 1-advanced level www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 1, no. 2, 2020 7 published by scholink inc. as far as the rest of the world is concerned, there is scarce reference to asian countries such as china (p. 32), indonesia (p. 32, p. 37) -a girl, silou, is from thereand poor villages in india (p. 14). there is little reference to south america as only brazil is mentioned (p. 23). eastern european countries or to countries in the proximity of greece are excluded, there is no reference to them. this is quite surprising if we take into consideration that the majority of students in multicultural classes in greek schools actually come from these countries. children from these countries are hardly present in the textbooks (figure 1), or seen interacting with greek children in an intercultural or transnational setting, as is the case with children from western european countries or the uk. in other words, the emphasis in this book is on greece and its culture with the uk as the significant, linguistically and culturally desired, other. 4.1.2.2 pictures the children portrayed in the pictures (sketches and photos)-with few exceptions, such as a picture of an indian child (p. 14), an indonesian girl (p. 101) and another one of a chinese child (p. 32) -are western european, mainly english and greek (p. 1, p. 5, pp. 101-102, p. 106). there are pictures with greek sights (pp. 96-97) and snapshots from everyday school and family life in greece (p. 3, p. 27). uk and western european setting is predominant (p. 64, p. 74, p. 102) but there is reference to the us and dubai (p. 56, p. 74). 4.1.3 conclusion the “self” in the particular textbook is the student of greek origin living in one of the urban centres in mainland greece. the “eye” of the “i” is to the best part western european in terms of school activities, teen matters, habits and routines. what one can see in the book is greek students interacting almost exclusively with other western european students. there is no reference to any other students that are part of the greek educational system and the multicultural class setting, there is no reference to any other ethnic or minority group, to immigrant students. there are no instances that show social interaction with students of different cultures or ethnic origins that actually exist in greek classes, there are no roles assigned to them and no reference to their habits, their everyday routines or to their teen reality. table 2. “think teen” 1 st grade of junior high school student’s book advanced x\y neutral reference negative reference origin, ethnicity 130 1 languages, communication 60 0 education 117 2 leisure, celebrations, art 71 0 total 318 3 note. x: cultural elements of alterity/y: field of reference. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 1, no. 2, 2020 8 published by scholink inc. it is important to be noted, however, that almost all references to cultural elements of alterity is neutral as seen in table 2. reference to the “other” culture is not made on a discriminatory basis, students interact with each other as part of their everyday life even though they live in different countries. there is no implication of a lesser culture or ethnic group whenever these other cultures or groups are presented in the textbooks there are, however, implications of poor educational facilities in african countries. 4.2 grade 1-think teen-elementary level 4.2.1 quantitative analysis the quantitative analysis of the grade one, elementary level textbook for teaching english in greek high school can be seen in table 3. table 3. “think teen” 1 rd grade of junior high school student’s book elementary x\y sketch photo word phrase text total origin, ethnicity 6 46 35 16 22 125 languages, communication 8 6 35 38 6 93 education 13 5 14 13 4 49 leisure, celebrations, art 24 31 31 55 12 153 total 51 88 115 122 44 note. x: cultural elements of alterity/y: field of reference. in terms of ethnicity and origin there are 125 references. there are 49 references to matters of education, 93 to languages and 153, which is the vast majority to free-time activities, celebration and art. the results show that the textbook includes a large number of references to countries other than greece and their cultural elements. 4.2.2 qualitative analysis 4.2.2.1 text the philosophy underlying the compilation of this book is similar to the advanced-level textbook for the 1 st grade. the focus is either on greek children or uk students (pp. 2-3), their everyday school activities (p. 5) and interests, such as music (p. 57) which is directly related to the uk, english songs (p. 66) and famous british rock bands such as the beatles (p. 56). students from western european countries send mails to uk students (p. 18, p. 46, pp. 53-54), organize common projects and activities such as recycling (p. 50), writing articles for their newspaper and surfing the net while reference to greek culture, particularly in relation to athens, is made alongside english culture, such as english cooking (p. 35) or uniforms worn in uk schools (p. 73, p. 79). greek students travel to london (p. 67) and visit the sights (p. 111) or write articles about natural sights in the uk (p. 88). english literary texts are part of the teaching material of the textbook (p. 14, pp. 103-105). www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 1, no. 2, 2020 9 published by scholink inc. reference to other english countries such as the us and australia (p. 31) is limited (24 references) as seen in figure 2 in comparison with the uk (109 references) and greece (45). renowned american films are mentioned (p. 91) and there is a text about nasa (pp. 97-98, p. 101). western european countries, such as italy, france (p. 27), spain, and portugal are the countries of origin of the students. students from these countries appear to interact with greek students and to organise joint activities (p. 127). figure 2. country reference in think teen for grade 1-elementary level as far as the rest of the world is concerned, there is a whole page in the book entitled “friends from around the world” (p. 9), however, these friends are solely from western european countries such as portugal (p. 9, p. 84), the uk and italy. reference to the rest of the world is limited to israel, egypt, venezuela (p. 85), argentina, the bahamas and china (p. 12, p. 16). school uniforms are discussed in relation to greece, the uk and other countries around the world, such as japan, canada, australia (p. 80) and indonesia. indonesia is the non-european country that is most frequently mentioned in the textbooks. there is a case where an american and an indonesian student communicate through e-mail with an english student (p. 57). the indonesian student is mentioned occasionally in the textbook interacting with a greek student (pp. 67-68, p. 109). it should be noted that it is not common for indonesian students to attend greek schools while students from eastern european countries or balkan countries are part of the greek classrooms. it is clear that students of different cultural, social, ethnic, religious or linguistic backgrounds which inundate greek schools are totally absent from this school textbook as well. 4.2.2.2 pictures pictures reflect everyday instances of teen students mainly in greece. there are pictures showing sights and landmarks in the uk (p. 42, p. 70, p. 111) as well as famous paintings from greek, english and western european artists (p. 45, pp. 128-131). there is also a picture of an indonesian girl (p. 2, p. 69). www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 1, no. 2, 2020 10 published by scholink inc. 4.2.3 conclusion the “self” in this particular textbook is the student of greek origin living in a large greek city such as athens or nafplio. greek students are invited to interact with students from the uk with reference to greek culture and habits either in the form of comparison or similar practice. an indonesian student is also involved in their activities and shares their habits and culture. school issues, teen problems and habits reflect students‟ lives in western europe, such as italy, france and portugal, with the emphasis on greece and the uk. students with eastern european backgrounds or from the rest of the world are essentially non-existent. what is more, there is no reference in the textbook to students that live in isolated agricultural communities and there are no pictures of them. the students that interact with each other live in cities and use technology and computers. they travel to the uk, particularly to london, read english books or watch american films. it could hardly be argued that the textbook favours multiculturalism or appreciates alterity, as even in the cases of the non-european students mentioned the point of reference is either english or greek culture. though the textbook includes references to other countries, cultures, peoples, the focus is on greece, greek education and culture as well as the uk, english culture and education. students from these countries communicate, compare and contrast elements of their lives and realities. in these dialogue between the texts and the readers-writers of the texts no reference is made to expatriate students from the former ussr, immigrants from the balkan countries, minority students (muslim, rom), reference to their physical space or experience is absent although these students are present in greek classrooms. table 4. “think teen” 1 rd grade of junior high school student’s book elementary x\y neutral reference negative reference origin, ethnicity 124 1 languages, communication 93 0 education 45 4 leisure, celebrations, art 153 0 total 415 5 note. x: cultural elements/y: field of reference. almost all references are neutral as seen in table 4, there are only three negative references and these involve poor educational facilities in african countries. students are seen to interact with each other as part of their everyday life even though they live in different countries. there is no implication of a lesser culture or ethnic group whenever these other cultures or groups are presented in the textbooks. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 1, no. 2, 2020 11 published by scholink inc. 4.3 grade 2-think teen-advanced level 4.3.1 quantitative analysis the quantitative analysis of the grade two, advanced level textbook can be seen in table 5. table 5. “think teen” 2 nd grade of junior high school student’s book advanced x\y sketch photo word phrase text total origin, ethnicity 44 39 17 30 28 158 languages, communication 8 3 19 16 7 53 education 1 4 5 1 11 leisure, celebrations, art 18 29 15 13 11 86 total 71 71 55 64 47 note. x: cultural elements of alterity/y: field of reference. there are 158 references to ethnic origin, 49 references relate to matters of education, 93 to languages and 153, which is the vast majority, to free-time activities, celebrations and art. the results show that the textbook includes a large number of references to different cultural elements. 4.3.2 qualitative analysis 4.3.2.1 text the 1 st unit introduces students to diversity and encourages them to talk about people from different parts of the world such as china, france, australia and italy (pp. 9-10) and their differences in physical appearance in relation to the area of the world they live. there are two texts about a japanese and a french student (p. 11). also there are texts about landmarks from around the world such as agia sophia and sydney opera (pp. 20-21, p. 23). at the end of the unit there is a multicultural fair that involves people from around the world (dubai borneo, brazil mongolia, saudi arabia). another unit is about ancient times so the focus is on ancient greece, rome and ancient egypt (pp. 26-42). apart from these, all the other texts (including words, phrases, and longer texts) and their accompanying activities still involve western european students with the emphasis on the uk or greece. greek islands such as crete and skiathos (p. 44, p. 51) are frequently mentioned which marks a shift from athens to smaller cities around greece (p. 112). greek students write letters or e-mails and postcards to students from the uk (p. 56, p. 141, p. 146, p. 148) and collaborate in joint ventures (p. 135). there are english journalists (p. 71), english teachers (p. 66), news sites (pp. 58-59), english theme parks (p. 53). the magazine or newspaper articles adapted for the reading comprehension activities are all from uk press such eurosport uk (p. 59), or american press such as reader‟s digest (p. 40, p. 77), ny times (p. 70), people magazine (p. 124) and to a much lesser extent from greek press such as kathimerini (p. 112). there is reference either to english or greek literary tradition and artists such shakespeare and kavafis (pp. 94-98, p. 127, p. 149). the food described is english-specific, www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 1, no. 2, 2020 12 published by scholink inc. introduced by the renowned english chef jamie oliver (pp. 104-105), or traditional greek (p. 107) and even a project assigned to australian students is about greek students‟ eating habits (p. 102). singapore and brazil (p. 131) and school life in finland is described in detail (p. 67) and that concludes the representation of other cultural and ethnic communities. greek students are supposed to write e-mails to swedish students to help them with their projects about greece (p. 38). there is also a text about beijing but in relation to the olympic games which is an indirect reference to greek culture (p. 59). figure 3. country reference in think teen for grade 2-advanced level as is seen in figure 3 the vast majority of country reference (96 instances) involves western europe followed by greece (50 references) while in this textbook the uk comes third with 42 references which is a large number since the rest of the country reference involves continents or groups of countries. 4.3.2.2 pictures as far as the pictures in the textbook are concerned, they portray elements of greek or uk culture, mostly sights, famous people and teenagers from both countries. there are few pictures portraying people from different parts of the world. more specifically, there are pictures of chinese, indian and african students (pp. 9-10, pp. 12-13) but they are mostly limited to the first unit which is about diversity-apart from that there is only one picture showing an african school (p. 74). there are also pictures in the same unit showing world famous non-european landmarks (pp. 19-21), further than that only one other picture, showing a japanese master structure, exists in the whole textbook (p. 54). the rest of the pictures in this textbook are related to western europe, its people, landmarks and artistic creation. 4.3.3 conclusion thus, it is noted that the portrayal of the students in the greek school textbooks for grade 2 advanced level remains the same as the one in the textbooks used for 1 st grade. the names used are greek, for instance markos, lena, myrto, stefanos, or english ones, such as jason and claire from the uk respectively. their interaction is almost exclusively carried on with their friends from the uk -there are no other european peers to do joint activities or exchange mails or children from any other part of the rest of the world either. the countries of interest are greece as a point of reference, the uk as a www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 1, no. 2, 2020 13 published by scholink inc. counterpart and on a marginal level australia, china, russia and brazil. there is reference to eminent greek artists, such as elytis, mytaras, moralis, kavafis and some others but with the exception of stravinsky, there are only western european artists such as picasso, vivaldi, millet, beethoven and shakespeare. however, of the five textbooks used for teaching english in high school, the grade 2 advanced level think teen is the only one with a unit about diversity which includes reference to people and countries outside europe and to non-european cultures and habits. table 6. “think teen” 2 rd grade of junior high school student’s book advanced x\y neutral reference negative reference origin, ethnicity 156 2 languages, communication 53 0 education 10 1 leisure, celebrations, art 86 0 total 305 3 note. x: cultural elements of alterity/y: field of reference. almost all references to cultural elements of alterity is neutral as seen in table 6, there are only three negative references and these involve african children that have to fetch water from the spring or that attend crowded classes with no space on their own. reference to the other cultures is not made on a discriminatory basis. students from different countries interact with each other as part of their everyday life, however, most communication involves greek and english students. 4.4 grade 2-think teen-elementary level 4.4.1 quantitative analysis the quantitative analysis of the grade two, elementary level textbook for teaching english in greek high school can be seen in table 7. table 7. “think teen” 2 nd grade of junior high school student’s book elementary x\y sketch photo word phrase text total origin, ethnicity 17 12 25 31 17 102 languages, communication 33 5 31 25 4 98 education 27 26 17 52 6 130 leisure, celebrations, art 12 8 5 20 4 49 total 89 51 78 108 31 note. x: cultural elements of alterity/y: field of reference. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 1, no. 2, 2020 14 published by scholink inc. regarding ethnicity and origin, there are 102 references in this textbook. education matters and school life have the majority of references, 130. there are 49 references to free time activities, the arts and festivals. the results show that the textbook includes a large number of references to countries other than greece and their cultural elements. 4.4.2 qualitative analysis 4.4.2.1 text reference to the “outside”, non-european world is more evident in this book. the texts (including words, phrases, and longer texts) tackle with general interest topics and encyclopedic issues such as important historical figures (unit 2, p. 13), technology (unit 2, p. 25), the environment and pollution (unit 6, p. 61), magnetism (unit 7, p. 73), fashion (unit 9, p. 97). interaction between greek students and their uk peers is much more limited and there are fewer joint activities than in the previously mentioned textbooks. the names used are eleni, angelos, gerasimos, thanassis (p. 53) for the greek students and clark, andy, donna (p. 57) for the students from the uk. greek students send postcards to each other, for example gerasimos to maria (p. 53) and uk students send postcards to each other, for instance erica to donna (p. 57). in some cases, greek students send mails to teens from other places in the world such as africa (p. 9, p. 33). the point of reference is athens in greece, explicitly or implicitly, as there is reference to the acropolis and the benaki museum in athens (p. 57, p. 106), and the tower london in the uk (p. 53). 18 37 101 85 19 5 14 reference w. europe uk greece r. world us/australia e. europe balkans figure 4. country reference in think teen for grade 2-elementary level greece is mentioned more than any other country as seen in figure 4. there are 101 references to greece and 37 references to the uk. western europe, the us and australia are frequently mentioned in the textbook while the balkans, which are the neigbouring countries of greece, have only 14 references in the textbook. it is quite notable, however, that there are more references (85) to countries from around the world in this textbook than in any of the other four textbooks used for teaching english in high school (figures 1, 2 and 3). www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 1, no. 2, 2020 15 published by scholink inc. 4.4.2.2 pictures the first unit of the book includes representations of asian, indian and african students and snapshots of their everyday lives as well as life in the amazon (p. 1, p. 3, pp. 9-10, pp. 12-13). these representations are limited to the first unit which is about diversity. apart from that there are pictures showing an african school (p. 74), lack of transport in african countries (pp. 85-86, p. 94) and a girl‟s non-european attire (p. 46). an image of a muslim girl (p. 43) is the only reference made to a different religion and it is encountered solely in this textbook. there is picture of easter island (p. 118) and of a japanese master structure (p. 54). the rest of the pictures in this textbook are related to western europe -there is the map of central london (p. 55), its people and history (p. 18, p. 58), such as stonehenge and the acropolis (p. 59), scientific advancements and artistic creation (p. 14, p. 52, p. 76, p. 104). 4.4.3. conclusion grade 2 think teen elementary textbook includes reference to people and countries that are not confined to europe. the rest of the world seems the main point of discussion in reading comprehension questions and writing activities. there is reference to african and asian students, their spaces and realities. table 8. “think teen” 2 nd grade of junior high school student’s book elementary x\y neutral reference negative reference origin, ethnicity 102 0 languages 98 0 education 128 2 leisure, celebrations, art 47 2 total 375 4 note. x: cultural elements/y: field of reference. almost all references to different cultures are neutral, as seen in table 8, however, reference to african countries, has negative connotations in the textbooks as it focuses on their poverty, hardships that relate to poverty (p. 74) and their lack of technological advancement (p. 33). 4.5 grade 3-think teen 4.5.1 quantitative analysis the quantitative analysis of the grade three textbook can be seen in table 9. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 1, no. 2, 2020 16 published by scholink inc. table 9. “think teen” 3 rd grade of junior high school student’s book x\y sketch photo word phrase text total origin, ethnicity 14 39 13 5 9 80 languages, communication 34 3 16 71 education 26 2 21 8 57 leisure, celebrations, art 10 4 3 14 31 total 50 79 16 43 33 note. x: cultural elements of alterity/y: field of reference. there are 80 references to ethnic origin, 57 to education and school life and 31 to leisure and art. the results show that the textbook includes a large number of references to countries other than greece and their cultural elements. 4.5.2 qualitative analysis 4.5.2.1 text the same book is used in the 3rd grade for both elementary and advanced level students. regarding the general philosophy underlying its texts (including words, phrases, and longer texts), it does not deviate from that of the rest of the series and it is mainly centered around western-european culture, which in this case pertains to everyday routines particularly in reference to greece, its food and customs (pp. 61-62) and history (p. 51, pp. 57-58) and myths (p. 53). the students are called george, anna, emily and simon, which are either greek or english names and there is less reference to the uk (p. 29, p. 40, p. 63, p. 67) and london (p. 93) than in the previously-mentioned textbooks. other countries from around the world, such as japan, china, india, iceland (p. 69, p. 100), are used as instances of students‟ knowledge of the world. american culture is centered around hollywood stars, famous singers and athletes (pp. 14-16). artistic creation is western european (pp. 85-86, p. 91) and literature is english (p. 19). there is reference to bulgaria which is the only country in the proximity of greece and the only eastern-european country mentioned in all the five textbooks and a comparison between the two countries. other than these, there are few activities involving students from different countries, very sparse communication between them and very little interaction. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 1, no. 2, 2020 17 published by scholink inc. 25 39 77 53 13 5 5 reference w. europe uk greece r. world us/australia e. europe balkans figure 5. country reference in think teen for grade 3 greece is mentioned more than any other country as seen in figure 5. there are 77 references to greece and 39 references to the uk. western europe, the us and australia are frequently mentioned in the textbook while the balkans have only 5 references in the textbook. as far as the rest of the world is concerned there are only 53 to non-european countries. 4.5.2.2 pictures the pictures in the textbook show landmarks in european capitals (pp. 2-3, p. 9) or greek and english customs (pp. 61-63, pp. 68-69). there are also pictures related to india (p. 49, p. 69, p. 80) and iran (p. 90). there are greek archaeological artefacts (pp. 50-51, p. 57, p. 58), mythical figures from around the world (pp. 50-51) and exhibits from roman antiquity (p. 13, pp. 49-50) and egyptian antiquity (p. 51, pp. 76-77). all pictures of famous paintings belong to european artists (pp. 66-67, p. 76, pp. 85-86, p. 91) and display instances of life in europe. 4.5.3 conclusion similarly, this book falls short in the area of portraying and dealing with the multicultural reality of greek schools and students of different backgrounds are left excluded from the aspects of the everyday reality mentioned in the book. it is interesting to see that the idea of the world and of issues of the world in these books has as a starting point greek students and the formal instruction they receive at school -the textbooks make cross-thematic reference to other school subjects they are taught in class such as literature and artsand furthers on to reach out to students in the uk and their everyday school routine. what it is evident is that students in greece share almost the same teen problems, activities and interests with students in the uk. at the same time greek culture is seen mainly side by side with the uk (for instance we have greek drama and elizabethan drama). in this almost parallel juxtaposition of the two countries, their schools and realities, there are instances of similar realities from students and countries of western europe, france, italy, spain and germany. most countries of the european union are not included, there is scarce reference to the scandinavian countries and no reference to countries from the former ussr which are currently eu members or to the balkans. what is more, with the exception of china, reference to the rest of the world is made www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 1, no. 2, 2020 18 published by scholink inc. almost exclusively in relation to english-speaking countries such as australia and the us. the classroom in formal education portrayed in the books is definitely not multicultural. there are no immigrant, minority, or other ethnic group students and no students with special abilities. there are no values, habits, issues that pertain to such groups of students which are an integral part of formal education (note 4). there is no national, ethnic, religious, linguistic, cultural, social diversity apparent in the textbooks. table 10. “think teen” 3rd grade of junior high school student’s book x\y neutral reference negative reference origin, ethnicity 78 2 languages 70 0 education 55 2 leisure, celebrations, art 29 2 total 231 6 note. x: cultural elements/y: field of reference. almost all references to cultural elements is neutral as seen in table 10, there are only six negative references that relate to difficult everyday living conditions and homelessness in asian countries like india. 5. conclusion the five textbooks used for teaching english in advanced and elementary levels in all three grades of high school do not value diversity. although specific representations of the “other” exist, they do not include a multicultural or intercultural perspective. cultural diversity is a reality in the school environment in greece as many classes in greek schools include students of other nationalities/ethnic origins and/or cultural background, language, religion. there are, also, minority and immigrant students. reference to these “other” students and their corresponding culture is non-existent in the textbooks for teaching english. greek culture seems to be the starting point—no minority, ethnic, national or any other cultural or social groups occupy significant amount of textbook space. it seems that the teaching and learning situation created in the greek foreign language classroom does not foster intercultural encounters. english in the textbooks is mostly used by uk and greek students to communicate with each other. europe is limited to western europe, as east european countries are altogether absent. interaction with the uk is predominant, other english-speaking countries such as the us and australia are included but to a much lesser extent. the “self” does not include any of the following: immigrants from eastern european countries, cultural, ethnic minorities such as rom or religious minorities. there is no portrayal of cultural plurality which could foster dialogue, appreciation www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 1, no. 2, 2020 19 published by scholink inc. and acceptance of the “other”. the desired cultural-linguistic other is uk specific, it is a positive and desired image of the “other” but that means inadequate handling of issues of alterity and an apparent tendency towards the familiar culture, the western european. experiencing a foreign culture entails crossing cultural and national boundaries (brahim, 2011, p. 10), however, confinement within the binary greek-english speech or discourse community does not allow such crossing. cultural diversity is a reality to be developed in the school environment, because cultural plurality means more than pleading for differences; it also means cultural dialogue, which shows that everyone must contribute to the development of human experience transforming a linguistic legitimacy and competence into a cultural one. the findings seem to corroborate byram (1989, p. 26) who remarks that “otherness within our national geographical boundaries on the other hand requires a re-definition of national identity which can be painful and may therefore be ignored for as long as possible”. managing alterity in a particular society, in this case the greek society, is inextricably linked to recognizing and becoming informative aware of alterity at school and that presupposes an educational process (papadopoulou, 2000, p. 122). it is, thus, necessary to educate students to develop intercultural skills and enable them to adopt an open-minded attitude and active respect towards all instances of diversity, including cultural, ethnic, social or physical. such education would serve as a tool towards eliminating prejudice and discriminatory behavior towards the “others” including minorities, which are, in some cases, viewed as a compromise to social cohesion (konstantopoulou et al., 2002, p. 56). allowing students to be aware of the existence of other viewpoints would entail different approaches to the “other”, and different interpretations of the “other‟s” discourse. studying these textbooks and their representations of alterity contributes to the scientific dialogue towards content decision-making and the need to constantly reassess their role and their use. it can be argued that the portrayal of the “other” and of the “self” in the textbooks actually reflect social attitudes towards alterity which channel policy making decisions. revisitng and revising this portrayal can help prevent and manage intolerant behavior towards diversity. they will, then, become tools of expression, reflection and a means at the service of language learning and communication. according to the unified curriculum for foreign languages (eps-xg) for compulsory education (2011, pp. 7-9, pp. 15-16) (note 5), teaching and learning the english language will contribute substantially to shaping a multicultural conscience, which accepts and respects the different, and to an informed awareness of the “οther”. students are supposed to: 1) recognize cultural particularities as well as the many dimensions of world culture in terms of human activity and expression, 2) to understand social behaviour different from theirs but equal and of the same value, 3) to know, comprehend and respect the culture of other people and regard it as something which enriches their psychological and mental abilities and contributes to the development of human experience. it is necessary, therefore, to have “a pedagogy that functions as a systematic apprenticeship of difference” (kramsch, 2001, p. 235). www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 1, no. 2, 2020 20 published by scholink inc. references ahlis, ν. (1996). values in textbooks of primary education (1954-1994) (phd thesis). aristotle university of thessaloniki, greece. aravani, e. (2015). the inefficient “other” or “the different other”…?: cultural literacy through literature. in international conference proceedings: literature and cross-cultural routes. democritus university of thrace. retrieved from https://utopia.duth.gr/~mdimasi/cng/index_htm_files/aravani.pdf bonidis, κ. (2004). the content of the textbook as a subject of research. athens: metaihmio. brahim, a. n. (2011). identifying alterity and altering identity. mediterranean journal of social sciences, 2(1), 5-33. byram, m. (1989). cultural studies in foreign language education. clevedon, uk: multilingual matters ltd. cummins, j. ( 2005). identities under negotiation. education with the purpose of empowerment in a society of otherness. athens: gutenberg. dimasi, m. (2002). teaching first reading and writing: the case of black sea countries. kyriakidis publishers. retrieved from http://utopia.duth.gr/~mdimasi/cv/cv07.pdf dimasi, m. (2012). genre oriented and inter-cultural reading of language teaching textbooks for junior high school education. in proceedings of the scientific conference: issues of language teaching (7-8/5/2010, pp. 27-54). democritus university of thrace, kyriakidis publishers. retrieved from http://utopia.duth.gr/~mdimasi/cv/cv45.pdf dimasi, m., & zafiri, m. (2009). interurculturalism and elt in greek primary schools: the case of fun way i and fun way ii. journal of pedagogy: theory & praxis, 3, 107-118. gkotovos, a. (2002). education and diversity. issues of multicultural education. athens: routledge. gkotovos, a., & markou, g. (2003). repatriates and foreign students in greek education. national and kapodistrian university of athens. retrieved from http://repository.edulll.gr/edulll/handle/10795/891 johnsen, e. b. (1993). textbooks in the kaleidoscope. a critical survey of literature and research on educational texts. oslo: scandinavian university press. konstantopoulou, ch. et al. (eds.). (2000). “we” and the “others”: reference to trends and symbols. athens: ttypothito-george dardanos. kramsch, c. (2001). context and culture in language teaching. oxford: oxford university press. lafazani, d. (1997). us and others. modern issues, 63, 11-14. mckay, s. l. (2018). english as an international language: what it is and what it means for pedagogy. relc journal, 49(1), 9-23. https://doi.org/10.1177/0033688217738817 oates, t. (2014). why textbooks count. england: cambridge assessment. papadopoulou, t. (2000). alterity and school. patras: artion. https://doi.org/10.1177/0033688217738817 www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 1, no. 2, 2020 21 published by scholink inc. pingel, f. (2009). unesco guidebook on textbook research and textbook revision. paris: united nations educational, scientific and cultural organization. rimpoli, n. (2006). approaching the other. myths and illusions of the anthropologist in an effort to address the heterogeneity in the west and the east. in g. kyriakakis, & m. michailidou (eds.), the approach of the other. athens: routledge. soulioti, m. (2005). a note on alterity in kyridis, a. & andreou, a. aspects of alterity. athens: gutenberg. theologou, s. (2017). the use of pictures in teaching english in high school: the case of minority students in thrace. in proceedings of the 3rd international conference promoting innovation in education, larisa (pp. 20-22). retrieved from https://drive.google.com/file/d/1i06zuy4riopoks0oaorl7soxk4ljxhgh/view?usp=sharing think teen-1st grade of junior high school, advanced level. (2019). retrieved from http://ebooks.edu.gr/ebooks/v/pdf/8547/892/21-0047-02_agglika_a-gymnasiou-proch_vivlio-m athiti/ think teen-1st grade of junior high school, elementary level. (2019). retrieved from http://ebooks.edu.gr/ebooks/v/pdf/8547/884/21-0044-02_agglika_a-gymnasiou-arch_vivlio-ma thiti/ think teen-2nd grade of junior high school, advanced level. (2019). retrieved from http://ebooks.edu.gr/ebooks/v/pdf/8547/5202/21-0112-02_agglika_b-gymnasiou-proch_vivliomathiti/ think teen-2nd grade of junior high school, elementary level. (2019). retrieved from http://ebooks.edu.gr/ebooks/v/pdf/8547/900/21-0109-02_agglika_b-gymnasiou-arch_vivlio-ma thiti/ think teen-3rd grade of junior high school. (2019). retrieved from http://ebooks.edu.gr/ebooks/v/pdf/8547/920/21-0165_02_agglika_g-gymnasiou_vivlio-mathiti/ triantafyllidou, a. (2011). alterity in greek schools: theory and praxis. florence: univerity institue of florence. tsoukala, κ. (2010). inventing alterity: identities and differences in the era of globalisation. athens: kastanioti. unified curriculum for foreign languages (eps-xg). (2011). retrieved from http://www.rcel.enl.uoa.gr/research/language-education-research/the-integrated-foreign-languages -curriculum-iflc-linguistic-database.html vamvoukas, μ. (1998). introduction to educational psychology research and its methodology. athens: grigori editions. zafeiriadou, p. (2010). the pedagogy of genres and interculturalism in english as a foreign language in primary minority education in greece (ma thesis). department of languages, literature and culture of the black sea countries. http://www.rcel.enl.uoa.gr/research/language-education-research/the-integrated-foreign-languages-curriculum-iflc-linguistic-database.html http://www.rcel.enl.uoa.gr/research/language-education-research/the-integrated-foreign-languages-curriculum-iflc-linguistic-database.html www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 1, no. 2, 2020 22 published by scholink inc. zhichang, x. (2018). exploring english as an international language-curriculum, materials and pedagogical strategies. relc journal, 49(1), 102-118. https://doi.org/10.1177/0033688217753848 notes note 1. https://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/other-others-the-other-or-another note 2. https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/alterity note 3. in 2015, 10.6% of the 15-year-old students at greek schools were foreign, immigrant students and there were 150 minority schools in operation in the same year. https://www.dikaiologitika.gr/eidhseis/paideia/100268/pano-apo-to-10-ton-mathiton-sta-ellinika-sxolei a-einai-metanastes similarly, the hellenic statistical authority has documented a large number of foreign and repatriated students until the school year 2010-2011. https://www.statistics.gr/el/statistics/-/publication/sed13/ note 4. for instance, of the 39250 students in eastern macedonia and thrace 8836 are, according the general category they are classified in, “of different language”, that is students from the former ussr, muslims and rom. source: prefecture of eastern macedonia and thrace, 2001-2012 http://amaked-thrak.pde.sch.gr/index.php/2013-06-24-13-41-40/meionotika-sxoleia-amth note 5. the eps-xg is issued by the greek ministry of education and is distributed to schools. foreign language teachers are supposed to adapt their teaching to the mandates of the eps-xg. https://doi.org/10.1177/0033688217753848 frontiers of contemporary education issn 2690-3520 (print) issn 2690-3539 (online) vol. 1, no. 1, 2020 www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce 63 original paper teaching and learning democratically in a public high school: challenges presented in a high-stakes environment diana l. satterfield 1 1 hammondsport, ny, usa received: march 3, 2020 accepted: march 17, 2020 online published: june 27, 2020 doi:10.22158/fce.v1n1p63 url: http://dx.doi.org/10.22158/fce.v1n1p63 abstract the new york state board of regents adopted the common core curriculum, the implementation increased testing requirements and rigidity in classrooms. however well-intentioned, standardization and increased testing conflict with theories and research that support authentic learning and collaboration. implementing methods to empower and engage students can feel nearly impossible within a high stakes environment. this article discusses the findings of an action research study conducted to explore ways for teachers to engage students to become active participants in both teaching and learning. students were encouraged to explore a democratic learning environment in which they worked collaboratively to develop lesson plans for social studies that adhered to state requirements. the findings showed a profound shift in perceptions of teaching and learning by students and teacher. keywords high stakes, democratic learning, student engagement, collaboration, common core, authentic learning, student perspective 1. introduction 1.1 statement of problem and goals of the study in september 2012, i was preparing to conduct an action research study that would become the basis for my dissertation and … i was panicking. i had a carefully laid plan to implement a democratic learning environment in one section of a 10 th grade global studies class. the planning, theorizing, and discussion with my doctoral cohort about this venture had been exhilarating. the implementation was terrifying. my idea of democratic learning was that students would be actively involved in teaching and learning processes. this would be achieved by teaching students to collaboratively develop their own lesson plans, start to finish. however, the class dynamics, increased state requirements, and high stakes www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 1, no. 1, 2020 64 published by scholink inc. nature of the course instilled me with fear that without traditional instruction, the students might not be successful. regardless, i‟d spent a year developing this plan, so i forged ahead. as a result, the findings of this study fundamentally changed the ways i view teaching, learning, and the roles of students and teachers. it is my hope that these findings prompt a dialogue that will challenge traditional methods and roles within the classroom, and instead, encourage and promote democratic learning practices. 1.2 brief background of the study educational research indicates that high stakes testing is counterintuitive to a positive learning and teaching process for both students and teachers (gee, 2000; hursh, 2008). conversely, educational policies at both state and federal levels have increased emphasis on testing of a high stakes nature. the results of these tests are gathered into data used to evaluate students, teachers, and administrators. this topic is germane to current trends in education and to me personally. the rigid parameters of social studies curriculum and testing have permitted me to mostly teach of democratic methods, but not to practice them in the classroom. throughout my teaching career of twenty years, i have taught exclusively in new york state and hold certifications in social studies 7-12 and special education k-12. the majority of my experience has been teaching global studies and geography. the course is generally divided into two years. at the end of the course, students must pass a comprehensive exam consisting of fifty multiple-choice questions that cover six thousand years, one thematic essay question, and a document-based question (dbq). students are given three hours to take the exam and it often takes the entire three hours. in the recent past, all students in nys were required to pass this exam in order to graduate from high school. moreover, the ccss has required that schools, teachers, and administrators include passing rates and scores as an indicator of success. it is, therefore, high stakes for many constituencies. while high stakes exams and adherence to standards are a national reality, educators seek ways to work within these boundaries without sacrificing meaningful learning opportunities. in this study, collaborative lesson planning was introduced as a means to promote democratic learning. this method encouraged a redefining of traditional roles within this social studies classroom. as trust was built amongst the participants, elements of a democratic learning environment emerged. these elements will be presented and discussed in this article. 1.3 questions guiding the study throughout this action research study, adherence was maintained to social constructivist learning theory and newmann‟s (1992) categories of authentic engagement to promote collaborative participation, and problem solving through reflection. moreover, the study explored ways to increase active student participation in the educational process by collaboratively setting goals, choosing assessments, and developing lesson plan activities. these methods helped to answer the following overarching question and sub-questions: what is the nature of the classroom community when collaborating with high school students to develop lesson plans that align with nys and cc standards? www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 1, no. 1, 2020 65 published by scholink inc.  how do student perceptions of teaching and learning change through this collaboration? how does this process influence my practice?  how does collaborative lesson planning affect student participation in the classroom?  what challenges arise in trying to develop collaborative lesson plans in an era of high-stakes testing and common core curriculum standards? these questions helped to guide the study. while an abundance of research supported the positive effects of collaboration and authentic learning, there was very little that explored teachers as active collaborators with students and even less that positioned students as insiders. 1.4 theoretical framework and literature collaborative learning practices are rooted in the social constructivist learning theories of lev vygotsky (drucker, 1999; moran & john-steiner, 2003). social constructivists view the incorporation of collaborative practices in the educative process as necessary to facilitate learning for students, as well as important to the planning processes for teachers (fulton, 2003). vygotsky (1978) provided the theoretical structure for collaboration in his observations regarding the construction of knowledge as a social process also provided theoretical structure by writing about it. he proposed that individuals acquire knowledge through social interactions and that, “knowledge construction [is] a social, cooperative venture” (moran & john-steiner, 2003). therefore, an underlying assumption about collaboration is that learning and knowledge are co-constructed with others. the process of co-construction impacts self-efficacy and promotes positive learning experiences for both the instructor and the learner (hamilton-jones & vail, 2014). these ideas have provided the foundation for further work conducted on student engagement and authentic learning such as the factors of student engagement, as identified by newmann (1992). according to newmann, there are four categories of factors that influence student work. these categories include: a) need for competence; b) student engagement in academic work; c) school membership; and d) authentic work. these factors were used to stage a collaborative classroom environment. increasingly, academic research demonstrates that student-teacher collaboration has positive results (christie, 2000; friend & cook, 2003; kuh, 1995). these results are found across areas such as more meaningful lessons, increased achievement, and student perception of educational ownership (belgarde, mitchell, & arquero, 2002). while educators have been encouraged to develop collaborative classroom environments (blue-banning et al., 2004; johnson et al., 2004), the acceptance of national curricular standards has placed heightened emphasis on teacher accountability (peterson, 2002; wright, 2002). moreover, because test scores are used as a way to measure the effectiveness of teachers, the pressure to increase and maintain high student achievement on tests has caused some educators to teach to the test and in some instances, cheat (amerin-beardsley, berliner, & rideau, 2010). since test preparation is emphasized more than ever, i experienced a great deal of anxiety about conducting this study. yet, i was eager to find ways to improve www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 1, no. 1, 2020 66 published by scholink inc. my own practice and explore the possibility of creating a learning environment in which the construction of knowledge is a shared, meaningful experience for all of us. 1.5 overview and design this study was conducted in a public school, with a tenth grade class, in a rural community in upstate new york. the school serves approximately 600 students k-12. the student population is largely caucasian with little ethnic diversity. the majority of the students live in surrounding rural areas with more than fifty percent receiving free or reduced lunch. hence, the school has a significant student population in poverty and receives title i funds. the tenth grade class has approximately 50 students and is divided into three sections. the study was conducted with one section of 14 students, ages 15 to 16, with widely varying abilities. high honor and honor roll students worked alongside four students with individualized education plans (ieps) and two students who were second language learners (sll). the wide variety of abilities represented in the class is typical of public school. while i was initially concerned with the challenges of these diverse learners, i felt that it would provide a more authentic experience that was transferrable. all of the students must earn course credit, a requirement for graduation, and successfully pass a state exam covering the content, at the time a graduation requirement. if compliance is not maintained with the curriculum, standards, and testing requirements, teachers and principals face the possibility of imposed improvement plans and even dismissal. 2. methods and intervention over the course of approximately twelve weeks, this study considered the nature of a classroom in which the teacher and the students in a 10th grade global studies class collaborated to align with learning goals as required by the ccss, create learning activities, and develop assessments. we also reflected both individually and together in order to identify areas of success and areas to mark for improvement. the study schedule was designed to adhere to the action research cycle to: a) plan, b) act, c) observe, and d) reflect. this four step iterative plan provided the model for the collaborative lesson planning within the requirements of the ccss. the following schedule is inclusive of this plan: www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 1, no. 1, 2020 67 published by scholink inc. table 1. schedule of study week 1 week 3 week 5 week 8 weeks 9-10 weeks 11-12 9/5-9/18 begin first cycle 9/19 10/5-10/10 end first cycle 10/22 begin second cycle 11/10 11/26-12/4 end second cycle plan *recruitment *identify problem, set learning goals. *explain state requirements, ccss, and state assessment for the course. *explain the first unit of study enlightenment period. *collaboratively plan age of revolutions unit *identify ccss learning goals, design lesson plan learning activities, develop assessments such as, homework, pre-assessments, peer editing, quizzes, tests, and writing components. data collection *drawing from our experiences-plan a new unitindustrial revolution/imperialism and geography *identify ccss goals, design lesson plan learning activities and develop assessments such as, homework, pre-assessments, peer editing, quizzes, tests, and writing components. . as we were discussing the influence of nationalism throughout the 1800‟s the students asked to read a book for class that the honors section had read. as a result, we included an un-projected lesson plan. data collection act *implement the activities identify the lesson content of the enlightenment as it adheres to the ccss and state assessment. *showed students *implement the activities *identify the lesson content of the age of revolutions as it adheres to the ccss and state assessment. *discussed specific language in this data collection-surveys-focus groups *implement the activitiesidentify the lesson content the industrial revolution/imperialism and geography the as it adheres to the ccss and state assessment. *discuss specific language in this regard. completed the unit of study. *implement the activities *identify the lesson content of the book as it adheres to the ccss and state assessment. data collection surveysfocus groups www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 1, no. 1, 2020 68 published by scholink inc. the methods of data gathering for this study included the following: a) online survey; b) student written reflection; c) focus groups; d) teacher reflections; and e) teacher field notes and journaling. the first step involved planning. students were introduced to the state requirements of the course and the ccss. they were also shown sample state exams required for course credit and graduation. together, we identified goals and discussed lesson plan activities. students were taught the lesson planning process. they were instructed to take notes in their classes over the next few days to identify how every class, regardless of the subject, followed a similar pattern of review, introduction, delivery of new content, summary, and practice. they were amazed by this. random, informal conversations would ensue that compared biology class to english class as students identified each element of the lesson plans and that although the courses were dramatically different in content, the structure of class was essentially the specific language in this regard. completed the first unit of study. regard. completed the unit of study. observe monitored the interaction and nature of the classroom (journaling and field notes) monitored the interaction and nature of the classroom (journaling and field notes) journaling/field notes coding monitored the interaction and nature of the classroom (journaling and field notes) group discussions and democratic decision-making had become the norm. journal/field notes/member checking journaling/field notes coding reflect mutually considered if we met the ccss. reflected on the process and perspectives. what were the positives and drawbacks? mutually consider if we met the ccss. reflected on the process and perspectives. what were the positives and drawbacks? student survey reflection focus groups mutually consider if we met the ccss. what were the positives and drawbacks? ongoing discussions about process. student survey reflection focus groups-member checking www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 1, no. 1, 2020 69 published by scholink inc. same. this was the first step toward becoming insiders to teaching, not just learning. in step two of the cycle we covered the unit, age of revolutions. transferring the ideas of democracy from 1700 to current relatable events was an underlying goal to which i attempted to steer the class. at this point, students had a firm grasp of state requirements and we began to plan the lessons collaboratively for this unit. one full class period was utilized to teach the students how to plan lessons. next, we discussed their observations drawn from step one. then they brainstormed effective learning activities and created a master list. i kept field notes while observing their interactions. the class was then divided into four groups, with 3-4 members in each. three of the groups were given the task of designing lesson plans for a particular segment of the unit and one group was assigned to develop assessments. in step three, students completed a brief survey regarding the experience. the surveys consisted of ten or fewer questions and the results were compiled by an online service. the questions were designed to prompt their ideas about teaching and learning and how their perspectives might change if they become more actively involved in the process. next, they were provided reflective prompts to probe their perceptions in more depth. using the responses from the reflections, a protocol was developed for focus groups that allowed member checking of my perceptions. this phase of data collection also provided us with an opportunity to discuss what we might change in the next collaboration and aided my own reflections. following the first full cycle, we made some changes and began the next phase. the second collaboratively planned unit covered the industrial revolution in britain, imperialism, and geography. the student-planned lessons became far more creative than i had expected (discussed in the findings). when the planning and implementation of two units of study were concluded, we again completed a survey and written reflection. this reflection included prompts that guided the student to explore her or his personal experience and views regarding the educational process and their own perspectives of teaching and learning. this was followed by another focus group, two groups of seven people. additionally, field notes and personal reflections were compiled that aligned with the standards of an ethnographic case study. this method assisted more accurate recollection of verbal and nonverbal interactions amongst the students as they constructed meaning of their tasks and content. as both a researcher and participant, i observed and documented the interactions within the site. therefore, data collection for this study was largely qualitative. qualitative researchers seek to understand human behavior and experience how individuals construct meaning (bogdan & biklen, 2007). 2.3 analysis: grounded theory and action research analysis of the data was conducted simultaneously with the collection of the data. conducting analysis throughout the collection allows the researcher to identify gaps in the data at early stages (charmaz, 2006). all sources of datai. e. surveys, reflections, transcripts of focus groups, and teacher memos and field notes, were analyzed using a four step method. this method included the following: www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 1, no. 1, 2020 70 published by scholink inc. step 1. initial coding step 2. focused coding step 3. developing categories step 4. using categories to identify themes (saldaña, 2009). utilizing these methods, and acting as a participant and researcher, i analyzed the collected data to identify patterns, routines and consistencies. this grounded theory approach, and my participatory role, provided insight to the student perspective. through careful examination and reflection on the data, patterns began to emerge to build theory. as a largely qualitative study, a presupposition was that data exists in all environments and meaning and theories are extracted from them (charmaz, 2006; emerson, shaw, & fretz, 1995). moreover, grounded theorists use and emphasize participatory interactions and their co-construction of meaning as primary sources of data and analysis. the success of this study was due in part to flexibility on the part of all participants, as well as the willingness to trust one another in order to shift our individual responsibilities to mutually shared responsibilities. experiencing learning and teaching from new perspectives resulted in a democratic learning environment and overall positive experience for the participants. 3. findings as students planned their lessons, each participant utilized activities that were best suited to their own needs. following this step, students brainstormed activities that were memorable from other classes things they enjoyed and also remembered the content. this demonstrated how memorable lessons included the learning activities that best suited the learning needs of each individual. students became very in tuned to one another‟s preferences. the following day, we made a master list of these activities. as the list began to form, other ideas were generated from the group. i also added activities. in this way, we all made contributions. thus began the collaborative process, and my movement from a dominant role to that of a participant. it was from this perspective that i made observations. as analysis of these data began, emergent themes were identified that are presented in the diagram of democratic learning shown here. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 1, no. 1, 2020 71 published by scholink inc. figure 1. diagram of democratic learning 3.1 evolution of the diagram although i sought to observe the dynamics of the collaborative classroom community as one of the guiding research questions, i did not anticipate that it would take on its own energy and identity. the diagram presents the nature of the collaborative classroom in a central location. the term nature is used with purpose, because the environment in the classroom evolved in ways that could not have been planned or predicted. our interaction, roles, and communication took new forms. this evolution continued throughout the study. the collaborative process was dramatically different at the beginning, middle, and end of the study. initially, the students were enthusiastic, albeit apprehensive with the new concept of participating in the study. this is demonstrated by my recorded observations. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 1, no. 1, 2020 72 published by scholink inc. “at first, they were thrilled with the idea of making their own plans-little homework and tests, but when they realized that they had to rely on themselves and one another to be accountable for their learning, the mood changed. i told them they would be working most often in small groups and asked if they wanted to choose their own groups or if they wanted me to. *** very tellingonly 1 person wanted students to choose the groups” (field notes, 9/7/12). this excerpt indicates the enormity of trust in the collaborative relationship. analysis yielded the foundational features of our collaborative classroom as trust, roles, and awareness of learning. additional sub-features that were instrumental to the development of the nature of the collaborative classroom included the following: respect, understanding curricular requirements, familiarity with pacing of content, comfort and a shift from teacher-centered planning to student-centered planning and learning, and encouraging involvement of all students. as my role morphed from the dominant character to a supportive participant, my practice was also affected. these features are briefly explained as they relate to the research questions. foundational categories: trust, roles, and awareness of learning throughout data collection and analysis, recurrent codes and subsequent categories emerged. these categories represent the foundation on which the collaborative classroom was built. in retrospect, they were essential to the success of the study. the most important was the development of trust. 3.1.1 trust trust is placed at the cornerstone of the diagram purposely. this was the first, most notable feature that was consistent throughout the study. trust was exercised in three capacities, student to student, students to teacher, and teacher to students. when the idea of the study was first introduced to the students with a request for consent, the anxiety in the room was almost palpable. as discussed earlier, the course must follow the ccss and it concludes with a high stakes exam. we all felt the pressure of this. it was clear that the students were anxious about trusting one another with adequate preparation for this exam. it was also clear that i needed to gain their trust to ensure this preparation and that we wouldn‟t waste twelve weeks of instruction. additionally, i realized that i had to trust the students. i had agonized for days about changing the groups in that i was concerned about the dynamics of the class, their mixed abilities, and levels of motivation. however, discussion and feedback from my colleagues helped me concede that my primary goal was not to prove the success of collaborative lesson planning but to observe the nature of the classroom. moreover, i wanted the study to be transferrable. in order to achieve this, i needed a class dynamic that would represent a typical classroom, not one that consisted of teens with exceptional drives to succeed. in short, i had to trust my students. therefore, trust was identified in three distinct manifestations, teacher to student, student to teacher, and student to student. the following excerpts from my field notes indicate the importance of developing trust amongst the participants: “the students are apprehensive-they don‟t trust one another at all to work and be accountable” (field notes, 9/10/12). www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 1, no. 1, 2020 73 published by scholink inc. “much of this initial time is taken by teaching students how planning works. today i went over different types of assessments tomorrow we will discuss learning activities. these things are taking a lot of time and concern me. the students are also apprehensive about this. i comforted them by reiterating that i am still in charge and will make certain they learn what they need to. the tone seemed to relax then, but only minimally” (field notes, 9/10/12). initially, it felt that we were taking a leap of faith. after the initial hesitation, however, momentum increased. the building of trust was the key component that initialized this venture, but also propelled the collaboration to take on new characteristics. moreover, we all became enthusiastic about our redefined roles. 3.1.2 roles as the study progressed, my position as teacher shifted from dominant to supportive and eventually to participant. by week three, i felt more like a facilitator, helping to guide the students through the organization of lesson planning, providing resources, answering questions, and ensuring adherence to the curriculum and ccss. my knowledge and expertise was accessed and shared as directed by the students. by week ten, near the end of the study, i truly felt like a full participant. although my authority was never in question, the collaboration had evolved into a group/class experience. the students no longer separated into groups. as a class, we would brainstorm lesson activities, assignments, and deadlines. it was liberating. in these ways, my perspective of teaching and learning changed, as well as my practice. the opportunity to have a free exchange is demonstrative of the level of comfort that developed as my role became less dominant. for example, the responses to question three on the final reflection completed in week twelve, further demonstrates the changes in our roles. “r2q3 in what ways do you feel that collaborative lesson planning can make you more aware of the role of the teacher or how content can be taught?  the role of teacher is less. and dominant to student. i sort of like it.  it shows me how much effort they put in just towards a lesson.  we were able to put ourselves in the teacher‟s perspective throughout the lesson planning. there was certain criteria we had to meet” (reflection two, december 2012). while these responses demonstrate how students assumed the planning role and viewed my role as less dominant, they also reflect the enlightened attitudes of students toward their own learning and helped to identify student perspectives of teaching and learning. the next section will address this new awareness. 3.1.3 awareness of learning during first phase, students were assigned to generate activities that were memorable from other classes. in this way, a master list of activities was formed that focused the students to identify their own learning preferences. in order to develop a quality list of activities and achieve early student buy-in of the venture, students independently considered powerful learning experiences in their lives and www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 1, no. 1, 2020 74 published by scholink inc. education. these types of learning experiences range across contexts and circumstances and “may lead to guidance for instructional designers seeking to achieve high-level learning outcomes” (rowland, lederhouse, & satterfield, 2004). we all made contributions. next, the students were separated into groups and assigned tasks. those groups were assigned lesson design using the textbook as a guide for the content. a generic template lesson plan and time/pacing guidelines was provided. when the participants planned the lessons, each student utilized activities that were best suited to her/his individual needs. thus began student awareness of learning. the following exchange is in response to my prompt asking students to discuss the lesson planning experience with regard to the ways in which they learn. students were asked to describe the collaborative lesson planning experience thus far. it is taken from the first participant group interview held in week five: “fg1 student: teachers always planned it. we never really thought about it. it was just the teachers. fg1 student: that you get to think about how you learn and then apply it to the lesson plan” (focus group one, participant group one, lines 15-30). moreover, questions one and two on reflection one directed students to examine their experiences with teaching and learning. some students elaborated more than others, but the following sampling represents the general nature of the responses. three students reported that they had “experienced teaching in a different way”, and two students felt that “learning was more effective” (october, 2012). the responses demonstrate new awareness. new elements emerged to connect the major themes. these elements include: respect, understanding and working with curricular requirements, and pacing the coverage and delivery of content. additionally, it was exciting to note that our collaborative classroom had developed into an environment that was student-centered and involved all participants. i did not fully appreciate this shift until the above responses were coded during early analysis. these features were necessary to connect the major themes in order to practice effective collaboration. while emergence of these factors are documented and defined in the full analysis, the limits of this article do not permit me to do it here, but they are relatively self-explanatory. 3.2 the nature of the collaborative classroom the data presented the nature of the collaborative classroom to include themes of trust, roles, and awareness of learning. moreover, as students became familiar with the curricular requirements and the ccss, some of the anxiety was alleviated. we were able to meet the standards while increasing participation and developing a sense of community. this changed our perceptions of teaching and learning. the following evidence from the data reveals the changes in relationships and a new community that developed in our classroom. “student: it feels more like i guess i don‟t know how to put it. kinda like a family. it doesn‟t really feel like we‟re really like being talked down and we do not have to do every little thing possible. like school. it‟s more like we are actually communicating more. therapy” (focus group one, participant group one, www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 1, no. 1, 2020 75 published by scholink inc. lines 261-264, october 2012). having firmly established the foundations and features of the collaborative classroom, the sense of community in our learning environment was striking. i began to experience a more significant rapport with these students. the following selection from my field notes indicates the changes in rapport and comfort levels of the students: “i have noticed that students who are usually in the background feel more relaxed. for exampleessays were due today and those who did not complete them sought me out individually to explain why as opposed to just asking if it could be turned in later. janet explained that she was responsible to watch siblings all weekend because her uncle has cancer and her mother had to get him to his treatments and care for him. bernice (who has prior to this experience barely said 2 words to me all last year) explained that her family is in turmoil and there was yelling and fighting all weekend and that her father has threatened to move away. norawho hates speaking in front of others was her group spokesperson today” (field notes, 10/22/12). the data indicated that students were becoming active agents in their learning, as opposed to passive receivers. at this point, i also noted increased motivation and willingness to work, beyond expectations, in all of the participants. our collaborative classroom was poised to evolve into a democratic learning environment. thorough examination of the data helped to identify three key elements that contributed to this transition, they include connectivity, executive management, and being an insider. figure 2. subcategories 1 following the first round of data collection when the students shared their experiences and thoughts on the study, the process of collaboration changed. the day following data collection was scheduled as a lesson-planning day. by this point, students organized themselves and no longer needed instruction from me to form into groups. eventually, students chose not to form into groups at all. rather, they began to work as one collaborative group. again, this was completely without direction from me. as they talked about the possibilities of learning the content, ideas were shared throughout the room. i started taking notes on the board, trying to keep the thoughts organized. then, something dramatic www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 1, no. 1, 2020 76 published by scholink inc. happened. one student inquired about studying the topic in the same manner that the honors section was covering it. the topic was nationalism, pride in one‟s nation/culture, and the ways in which it was manifested during the nineteenth century. the honors section had been assigned an autobiography as a method to tie the topic to current events, connections to the local community, and recognize the impact of an individual. when the possibility was presented to the group, i said that it was not my decision, but that the group would have to decide, majority rule. this was our first truly democratic experience. it had occurred naturally without my direction. it is also another manner with which students shifted from being reluctant and passive to active and engaged learners. i went back to the data to find elements contributing to this transition and begin with connectivity. 3.2.1 connectivity this term identifies the sense of connection that students began to exhibit with one another, myself, and even to the content. the following description of a scene from my field notes is presented to clarify connectivity. “i notice that students have real ownership in the lesson activities they prepare. when times or activities are modified some students voice their dissatisfaction that an activity has not taken place. for example, this week i needed to add one day to the plan. students had prepared for four days of lessons but i needed to cover one additional topic so i planned and added one day to the plan. one student (bruce-male) was emphatic that he wanted his idea of a review activity—a crossword designed from the vocabulary used in the chapterbe used and not discarded. for two days he fussed about it until i promised him that we would do it. another student in the class offered to make the crossword so that he would be appeased” (field notes, 10/28/12). moreover, students began to design assessments that were more advanced than i had ever planned for this section of the course. in addition to reading the book, the students chose to write formal letters to the author. at this point, even the most reluctant students began to seek opportunities in their learning. probing further in the data, i labeled executive management as another element in this unique environment. 3.2.2 executive management executive management refers to the ability of students to organize learning and assessments, while balancing the demands of all of their courses and activities. it was promoted when given the opportunity to choose assignments. it also relies on informal reflection to gauge progress. again, these practices are individual and the choice of the student. for example, students explained that they were willing to take on additional assignments, such as reading the autobiography because they did not have assigned books in other classes to read at the time. furthermore, students explained that planning the lessons and knowing the assignments well in advance helped them to manage time more effectively between all classes. reflecting upon this, students felt that it resulted in the improvement in their grades. the following feedback is provided to further clarify executive management from the www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 1, no. 1, 2020 77 published by scholink inc. perspectives of the participants: satterfield: “why do you think [grades went up] that happened? and i never expected that to happen. student: because with us planning it we make sure that we learn it and we know what we are learning” (focus group one, participant group one, lines 66-69, october 2012). student: “i don‟t know. i think it‟s because we are more interactive and because we know what‟s going to happen next. so we are like prepared” (lines 261-262). student: “for me, about the effort that increased, it is kind of the same. i said that because in normal daily life i see how teenagers fight what they are supposed to, like i do all the time. like if i am told to do something, i don‟t want to do it. but if i make it myself, like we did in this, it gives me more of an effort to want to do something. so it gives more cooperation with the students” (focus group two, participant group one, lines, 75-79, december 2012). with some relation to executive management, the final contributing element consistent in the data that supported this democratic learning environment was being an insider. 3.2.3 being an insider it became apparent that students felt privy to a practice, lesson planning, an activity that previously they had only experienced passively. this allowed students to take control and be active in their own learning. one student noted, “yeah i kinda felt like us putting these lessons together, you know what is upcoming and „oh we are learning about this today because we built it‟” (focus group one, participant group two, lines, 27-28, october 2012). at this point, i recognized that student control of planning the class freed them to allocate the demands for their time amongst courses and other responsibilities. not only were the students more involved, but more of their work was completed on time, and with quality. i addressed my observation regarding the increase in completion rates of homework on the final reflection. it was the first time in my entire teaching career of fifteen years that a class had a 100% homework completion rate. i addressed this with the participants in the second reflection and elicited the following responses:  yes, and the lesson plans that we made then are showing us that we know what is next.  when a teenager like us is told to do something we don‟t really wanna do it but if we choose it ourselves we‟re more likely to do it. plus us teenagers have a clue what our schedules are like and we know what we‟re able to get done or not.  because you know what has to be done ahead of time so you know what you have to complete. (reflection two, question five, december 2012). moreover, when asked to describe the overall experience of the study in one word or a phrase, one student responded “insightful”. when i asked him to describe this he responded, “well, we got to see what teachers have to do to plan the lesson plans” (focus group two, lines, 168-169, december 2012). therefore, connectivity, executive management, and being an insider were key elements to the functionality of this democratic learning environment. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 1, no. 1, 2020 78 published by scholink inc. 3.3 observations of the democratic learning environment after assessing the data, it was my determination that when students engage in a democratic learning environment they became active agents in their learning. moreover, the extent of creativity, investment and risk-taking cannot be predicted or bounded. i provide the following data sources as evidence of this claim. figure 3. subcategories 2 3.3.1 creativity students would often alter an assignment or plan at any given time. this would occur spontaneously as the dialogue amongst the participants had become fluid. they were very comfortable to express a new idea to improve a lesson or express displeasure on a given topic. i did not sense students being hesitant to share thoughts as i had in the beginning. there seemed to be no fear of reprisal. moreover, i would join in at times and make suggestions about ideas that i had. then we would tweak these together. this environment promoted a free exchange and was supportive of participant thoughts that supplemented creativity. when prompted to explain the development of more creative assignments, one student responded, “i feel as though i was more comfortable, because i was interested in the assignment. we chose to do it, so i think there was a feeling of accomplishment we all wanted” (reflection two, question seven, december 2012). this demonstrates that students not only became increasingly comfortable with less traditional assignments, but that they were also more willing to take risks. 3.3.2 risk-taking when asked to explain the increased willingness of the class to engage in more challenging assignments as designed by the students, one participant responded, “we‟re like making the plans and stuff so it was like if it was pressure it was our own faults we made it” (focus group one, participant group one, lines, 212-213, october 2012). this reinforces the importance of self-choice. over the twelve weeks, students consistently emphasized that their efforts changed when they were allowed to make their own decisions. the recurrent theme regarding completion of assignments was the association to self-choice. the students chose the work and due dates as opposed to being instructed to do so. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 1, no. 1, 2020 79 published by scholink inc. moreover, as students became more confident with the process of developing and completing assignments, they were also more willing to take risks and create non-traditional assignments. choosing to read an autobiography is an example. my suggestion for an assessment of the book comprised of discussion questions to be completed as a formal document, but the students suggested that formal letters to the author be written, as they were learning the skill in another class. they also suggested that each letter include specific criteria, such as an introduction of the student to the author and the impact that the story made on them personally and their education. they also incorporated the principles of my discussion questions as a guide for the content of the letters. the following excerpt validates this shift to risk-taking: “student: we were more adventurous. satterfield: you became adventurous through the process? student: i thought we learned our limitations to begin with so then we pushed through them” (focus group two, participant group two, lines, 227-233, december 2012). considering that a primary goal of this study was to explore how collaborative lesson planning would occur in a high stakes environment, the emergence of increased creativity and risk-taking took me by surprise. it was exhilarating to hear students say that they became more “adventurous” in their education. this, in turn, led to an increased sense of investment on the part of the students. 3.3.3 investment during the study and later analysis, i perceived that students became more invested not only in the collaboration as a class activity, but in their assignments as well. this was very prevalent near the end of the study when the classroom developed a democratic atmosphere. i probed the students about my observations and include the following responses: “student: i normally can‟t get through the first chapter of any book and this time i could actually get through it and i finished the whole book. satterfield: why do you think you were so willing to step out and do the letters? student: because we wanted to be more in it i guess, we wanted to see what he had to say about it; so more of his own personal perspective of everything. we wanted to know more” (focus group two, participant group one, lines 96-109, december 2012). therefore, i assert that student participation in learning and teaching as a democratic process encouraged executive management. moreover, students became active agents in their learning and the result increased creativity, investment and risk-taking. while these positive shifts occurred, the experience was not without challenges. 3.4 challenges although i felt this intervention was an overall positive experience for the participants, many of the examples from the data also demonstrate frustrations associated to the high stakes nature of this course. as stated, the overall experience was positive, but the results were influenced by my thorough knowledge of the course requirements and content. i was beginning my fifteenth year of teaching this course. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 1, no. 1, 2020 80 published by scholink inc. additionally, i have worked for the nys department of education writing the global history regents exams. i am not certain that the experience would have been as positive without this expertise. for example, “i have practically abandoned the goal setting and using standards in the lessons. this is where i find that my teacher knowledge is put to use. i know when lessons meet standards and goals. this is too cumbersome and takes much practice to do with students in 40-minute class sessions. after completing the lessons, i show students how they apply. when we develop a list of activities i know that they all apply and change” (field notes, 10/10/12). also, this study was conducted during the first semester of the academic year. when review of the course and exam preparation takes place in the second semester, i would not have been able to maintain this method. moreover, my own job requirements with regard to the appr and administrative responsibilities posed challenges and caused a great deal of anxiety. any teacher can attest to the extensive time required for meetings, record-keeping, and administrative paperwork. 3.5 impact on the participants in the final focus group, i asked the students to summarize this collaborative learning experience in a word or a phrase. the following are some of their comments: “increased scores on all work; better grades; challenging; enlightening; more cooperative for students; interesting to see how the students actually put more effort in; insightful; enjoyable; inspiring; worthwhile; engaging; alright; how much we have learned” (focus group two, 12/3/12). while these comments demonstrate the positive nature of the experience for most of the participants, i again emphasize that the success of this collaborative venture began when the students allowed themselves to trust one another. as the levels of trust increased, the participants were empowered to design more creative ways of learning. likewise, the students were empowered as insiders to the designs of their own learning and the regulations of the policies imposed upon them. i attribute the insider knowledge to much of the empowerment that students developed as they explored their perceptions of teaching and learning, and the changing dynamics of the relationships amongst the participants. moreover, this environment contributed to an increased rapport with one another, and a willingness to communicate more openly with me. even when the study concluded, these characteristics remained amongst this group. they openly offered suggestions regarding deadlines, assistance, and their thoughts on any given assignments. furthermore, they were much more confident in their knowledge of the curriculum and standards. additionally, i have a closer relationship with these students than with any of my other five sections of global history. dewey (1938) spoke of teaching as a dynamic continuum in that the teacher affects the future experiences of students. in many ways, this study has reinforced this concept for me. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 1, no. 1, 2020 81 published by scholink inc. 3.6 impact on my practice: re-centering “faith is taking the first step even when you don‟t see the whole staircase”. martin luther king, jr. this quote adequately describes my feelings when the study began. while i have presented the student empowerment that developed, i too, felt a sense of empowerment when i relinquished control of the class. i have realized after all, that the student should be the central factor in learning, not me. this empowered me not only to trust the students, but myself as well. re-centering the focus of the learning process to the comfort of my students has impacted my methods. in doing so, seeking the student perspective has become a part of my practice that will continue to contribute to more meaningful learning experiences. i accept that collaborative ventures are daunting when teaching a high stakes course. while i feel a great deal of pressure to adequately prepare students for an exam that can determine their ability to graduate, i have learned that my students feel as much pressure, or more, than i do. as such, they worked hard to cover necessary content and were diligent when preparing quality lessons. i have realized that allowing the students to control some measure of their learning didn‟t mean that i was out of control. my knowledge and experience was necessary to ensure the success of this study and student preparation. i realized, what‟s the worst that can happen? if it‟s not working, we can stop and fix it. 3.7 students are a valuable resource when reviewing the data, i noticed that time was a significant concern. it emerged in the reflections of both the participants and me. however, the students became proficient and confident in their lesson planning by the second attempt in the first research cycle, roughly three weeks after the beginning of the school year. the lessons they designed at that point were not only more meaningful, but they could produce lessons in a 20-minute time span that would take me two or more hours. furthermore, they were more invested in these lessons. also, the activities provided new ideas for me to use in other classes, and i gained valuable insight regarding their preferences and styles. in these ways, the students became a valuable resource for me to add to my repertoire of methods. they also served as a support group to deal with the pressures in a high stakes environment. 4. implications despite the challenges of the study, i contend that the findings can contribute to the literature for practitioners who work within the confines of high stakes environments. also, the findings could add to the literature regarding collaborative studies. to begin, there is a gap in the literature. few studies present examples of collaboration between teachers and secondary students and no studies were found that allowed students to design their own lesson plans. additionally, i found no existing literature in which these interventions were attempted in a high stakes environment. therefore, this may be the first documented attempt to implement teacher-student collaborative lesson planning at the high school level in a high stakes environment and that aligns to the ccss. moreover, this study hopes to provide tools and methods to teachers who seek www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 1, no. 1, 2020 82 published by scholink inc. to implement authentic and meaningful learning activities. the dynamics of power shifted when i became a participant in the collaboration. this created a space for students to truly be at the center of the learning environment that empowered the students and me. using the students as a resource to design activities and lessons, not only resulted in more meaningful learning and engagement of all students, it also allowed time to observe classroom interactions and develop a deeper sense of rapport with my students. moreover, the students designed creative lessons that i would not have considered otherwise. all of these areas have implications for teacher preparation programs as well as potential training and professional development for new and veteran teachers. moreover, the findings of this study assist the generation of theory that could ultimately enrich the broader research community. social constructivist learning theorists purport that knowledge is built by the learner, not supplied by the teacher (papert & harel, 1991, p. 518). authentic learning is grounded in constructivist theory. active participation in one‟s education contributes to authentic and meaningful learning. therefore, students may tend to acquire more sustainable knowledge when they actively participate to create activities that are meaningful to themselves or their peers (papert, 1993). 4.1 future research and contributions to the field the findings of this study reveal that collaborative lesson planning can help many students experience a greater sense of purpose and meaning in their educational lives. it serves to illustrate some ways in which student-centered collaboration can increase student participation and engagement in an era of increasingly high stakes, standards-based curricula. another benefit of this method involves the ability for practitioners to reflect upon and positively impact their practice. seeking to understand learning through the perspectives of one‟s students can expand a teacher‟s repertoire of teaching and learning strategies and revitalize her professional life. i encourage teachers, who have become frustrated with the demands standards-based courses and high stakes testing, to consider this approach as a whole or in part. despite limitations, the findings from this study contribute to the literature on increasing student participation and authentic learning practices while aligning to mandated standards, in a number of complementary ways. 5. final thoughts “it feels more like i guess i don‟t know how to put it. kinda like a family. it doesn‟t really feel like we‟re really like being talked down and we do not have to do every little thing possible. like school. it‟s more like we are actually communicating more. therapy” (focus group 1, lines 261-264). making a positive impact on the lives of young people during the transitional teen stage is rewarding and gives purpose to my life. that is sometimes difficult to convey to people who criticize educators. however, when i review the transcript of the focus group and came across the selection above, i felt rewarded in an emotional way that i cannot describe. her words struck me because i realized that we did sort of feel like a family. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 1, no. 1, 2020 83 published by scholink inc. i am passionate about finding ways to engage my students to be more vested in their education. while i still struggle with state and federal requirements in that i am aware of the enormity of pressure that they place on my students, teachers, and parents, i am grateful to have had the opportunity to conduct this study to seek ways that might make that pressure more manageable. as supported by social learning theory, i found that real learning is a relationship-based experience. the social and democratic nature of this study allowed students to explore their perceptions of teaching, learning, and redefinition of roles. this empowered them to become more creative and adventurous in their learning. it also enlightened them to the educational policies that often limit creativity. as demonstrated by the work of freire, participatory action research has the propensity to engage participants in social critique and social action (herr & anderson, 2005). the participants in this study have developed strong opinions on educational policies and the ccss. i believe that they will continue to be informed on these topics and advocate for themselves. this study‟s ultimate value lies in its ability to explore the feasibility and practicality of executing meaningful and authentic strategies within the confines of a high-stakes high school global history course. the experience has energized my professional practice and has inspired me to find ways to influence educational policies. references amerin-beardsley, a., berliner, d. c., & rideau, s. 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(2002). the effects of high stakes testing in an inner-city elementary school: the curriculum, the teachers, and the english language learners. current issues in education [on-line], 5(5). retrieved from http://cie.ed.asu.edu/volume5/number5/ https://doi.org/10.7208/chicago/9780226206851.001.0001 https://doi.org/10.2307/1167322 https://doi.org/10.17161/foec.v36i5.6803 https://doi.org/10.1080/00221546.1995.11774770 https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195149005.003.0003 frontiers of contemporary education issn 2690-3520 (print) issn 2690-3539 (online) vol. 4, no. 4, 2023 www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce 1 original paper benefits and ways of integrating technology in teaching of social science courses in universities in nigeria chika n. chukwuma-nosike 1 1 department of social science education, imo state university, owerri, nigeria received: november 5, 2023 accepted: november 15, 2023 online published: december 7, 2023 doi:10.22158/fce.v4n4p1 url: http://dx.doi.org/10.22158/fce.v4n4p1 abstract this study is a descriptive survey that investigated benefits and ways of integrating technology in teaching of social science courses in universities in nigeria. three research questions guided the study. population comprised all universities lecturers in nigeria. multi-stage, cluster and purposive sampling techniques were used to select sample size of 124 social science lecturers from four universities in imo and abia states south-east, nigeria. two-section rating scale titled benefits and ways of integrating technology in teaching of social science courses (bwittssc) was used for data collection. instrument was validated by specialists in educational measurement and evaluation, educational technology and social sciences. reliability of instrument was determined using cronbach alpha reliability administered once. reliability index of 0.77 was obtained after analyzing data. research questions were answered using mean and sd. study’s findings revealed different technologies that can be integrated in teaching of social science courses and varied benefits of integrating technology in teaching of social science courses which include technology promotes digital literacy, speed and efficiency among teachers and students during teaching. researcher recommended that technology be integrated into teaching of social science courses to enhance students’ interest, active participation during teaching, leading to retention of knowledge, skills, aptitudes required in labour market. keywords integrating, technology, tertiary education, teaching, social science www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 4, no. 4, 2023 2 published by scholink inc. 1. introduction the trend in the last two decades is the movement from manual education to technology powered education. technology over the years has improved the way we do things especially in education. activities especially as it pertains to education, curriculum, teaching and learning, have shifted from the analogue process to the use of technology. the use of technology has spread across every facet of education globally (chukwuma-nosike, 2020; undie, 2017; nelson, 2010). this implies that technology could be integrated in teaching at all levels of education-basic, post-basic and tertiary levels respectively. nelson (2010) asserts that technology integration in curriculum delivery is bound to enhance learners’ performance and achievement. universities all over the world are known as the highest citadel of learning. national policy on education described the university as tertiary education which is the education given after post basic education (fgn, 2014). nwajiuba (2015) defined the university as an organized forum for the pursuit of knowledge (degree and research). it is a place of empowerment of diverse skills, knowledge and capacity for national development. learners at this level are equipped with the professional knowledge, skills and values in any particular course of study. universities house variety of courses and they are classified under varied branches of learning referred to as faculties and/or colleges. the branches of learning that exists in the university system are sciences, humanities, social sciences, engineering, environmental sciences, medical sciences, health sciences, law, business and education among many others. social science is a major academic discipline that study human society and social relationships. social science courses are courses studied within the field of social science such as economics, political science, government, geography, anthropology, sociology, psychology. some of the social science courses are also studied in education. these courses are housed in the social science education and are taught as senior secondary school teaching subjects. this indicates the importance of the social sciences courses to national development. over the last decade, there had been a paradigm shift in the way teaching is being conducted in our schools. teaching and learning are the major activities carried out in any formal educational setting. teaching summarily is the deliberate attempt to impart knowledge, skills and values to a learner by a trained person (mbakwem & ike, 2017). it can be done using different means, methods and materials. currently, the emphasis is on integrating technology in teaching especially at the tertiary level of education. technology is the alternative to analogue way of doing things. technology is described by redmann and kotrlik (2008) as the making, modification, usage, and knowledge of tools, machines, techniques, crafts, systems and methods of organization in order to solve a problem, improve a pre-existing solution to a problem, achieve a goal, handle an applied input or output relation or perform a specific function. integrating technology in teaching involves the use of digital technologies during teaching of subjects/courses in schools. technology integration is the use of technology resources-computers, mobile devices like smart-phones and tablets, digital cameras, social media platforms and networks, software applications, the internet and so on in daily classroom practices and in the management of a school (ohambele, 2019). in other words, integrating technology in teaching www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 4, no. 4, 2023 3 published by scholink inc. requires the teacher using the varied technologies available to teach the learners. ile, udegbunam and odimmega (2015), stressed that technology has become an integral part of the instructional process resulting in the development of new concepts in the logistics of instruction. technology brings values to students and employers because these students are readily able to apply their technology expertise to workforce (roach, 2012; edutopia, 2007). effective integration of technology into the curriculum and teaching revolutionizes the teaching and learning process. for instance, the teacher can integrate gamification, taking students on virtual field trips and using other online learning resources during teaching (nwabueze, madumere, obike & okeke, 2020). there are different technologies that can be integrated into the teaching of courses at the tertiary education level. technologies such as power point slide presentations, projectors, microphones, routers, use of email in sending assignments, smart phones/social media-whatsapp, telegram, signal, zoom, google classroom, google meet, chrome, webinar, skype can be integrated into the teaching of courses especially social science courses. some of these technologies such as power point, projectors, teleprompter, magnetic boards can be used in physical classroom to teach large student audience. while some other technologies can be used by the teacher from different locations to still teach learners. chukwuma-nosike (2021) and chukwuma-nosike and offorma (2020) recent study revealed that integrating technology in teaching enable teachers use diverse on-line learning packages such as zoom, webinar to teach effectively especially where there is a pandemic. technology holds numerous benefits in today’s teaching of university courses especially social science courses. more and more studies show that technology integration in teaching improves students’ learning processes and outcomes (chukwuma-nosike, 2020; nwabueze, madumere, obike & okeke, 2020; yu, ally & tsinakos, 2020; undie, 2017; roach, 2012; nelson, 2010). teachers who recognize computers and other technologies as problem-solving tools change the way they teach. technology helps to reduce teachers’ stress associated with physical teaching including covering distance, controlling the students’ crowd and noise pollutions. nelson (2010) stressed that integrating technology in teaching offer a wider range of personalized learning opportunities as students take responsibility for their learning outcomes, while teachers become guides and facilitators. with countless online resources, technology can help improve teaching. teachers can use different apps or trusted online resources to enhance the traditional ways of teaching and to keep students more engaged. virtual lesson plans, grading software and online assessments can help teachers save a lot time (bozalek, ng’ambi & gachago, 2013). when technology is integrated into lesson delivery, students are expected to be more interested in the subjects they are studying. social science courses comprise a lot of literary and expository contents, of which technology provides different opportunities to make learning more fun and enjoyable in terms of teaching same things in new ways. what is more, technology encourages a more active participation in the teaching and learning process thereby promoting quick retention which can be hard to achieve through a traditional lecture environment. the integration of technology in teaching/learning increases the learners’ chance of interaction within the learning environment. this is www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 4, no. 4, 2023 4 published by scholink inc. because most of the technologies used in education are quite interactive which makes it easy to create environment by which the students learn by doing while building on new and additional knowledge. pande, wadhai, and thakare (2016) buttressed that integrating technology in teaching promotes flexibility, efficiency in knowledge, qualification enhancement. in other words, integrating technology enables the teacher to work from any location while using different devices, platforms and packages thereby making learning easy and flexible. with the aid of technology, students can be at the center of their own learning, discover at their own pace, and move more fluidly through their education (ellis, 2016). adeoye, adanikin & adanikin (2020) and aina & abdurrahman (2020) in their studies listed some more benefits of integrating technology into teaching to include: completely reducing the issues of insufficient physical classrooms as lectures can be conducted online; allows all learners active participation and for learners to study at their own pace; enabling the taking of lectures at the comfort of both individual lecturer and students environment thereby increasing satisfaction and reducing stress. arkorful & abaidoo (2014) observed that the cost effect of using technology in training students is lesser than that of physical (face-to-face) contact. this is possible because it reduces travelling, time and use of physical facilities such as classrooms, halls and pews. for instance, an external examiner, as a way of integrating technology in teaching, can examine students using the zoom, webinar on-line platforms. this can be possible where technology integration is available. this implies that social science courses can be taught effectively if technology is integrated into its teaching especially at the university level. statement of problem integrating technology has become an integral part of teaching and learning. social sciences courses usually have large student audience and can be effectively taught with technology. integrating technology in teaching of social science courses will be of immense benefit both to the teacher and the learners. it will arouse students’ interest, promote teacher/student flexibility, increase skill and reduce teachers’ stress. it has been observed by the researcher, over the years that teachers do not integrate technology in teaching of social science courses in public universities rather teaching is still being carried out in the traditional analogue way. could teachers’ knowledge of the benefits of technology promote the integration of technology in teaching of social science courses in public universities in nigeria? the purpose of this study is to examine the benefits and ways of integrating technology in teaching of social science courses in public universities in nigeria. specifically, the study will identify different technologies that can be integrated in the teaching of social science courses. secondly, is to ascertain possible ways of integrating these different technologies in the teaching of social science courses in public universities in nigeria. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 4, no. 4, 2023 5 published by scholink inc. the following research questions guided the study. 1) what are the different technologies that can be integrated in the teaching of social science courses in public universities in nigeria? 2) what are the benefits of integrating technology in the teaching of social science courses at tertiary education level? 3) what are the ways of integrating these technologies in teaching of social science courses in universities in nigeria? 2. method the descriptive survey design was applied in this study. three research questions guided the study. the population of the study consists of all lecturers in public universities in nigeria. the sample size for the study was one hundred and twenty-four (124) social science lecturers, sampled from four (4) universities in imo and abia states selected through multi-stage, cluster and purposive sampling techniques. the cluster sampling technique was used to select south-east out of nigerian six geo-political/educational zones, two states imo and abia were selected out of the five states that make up the south-east geo-political/educational zone and four public universities were also selected from both states. the purposive sampling technique was used to get the lecturer’s sample. the instrument used for the study is a researcher-made rating scale titled: benefits of integrating technology in teaching of social science courses in universities (bittsscu). it was constructed on four-point rating scale with response options of (strongly agree (sa), agree (a), disagree (d), and strongly disagree (sd). the rating scale has two sections with three clusters which is made up of 32 items. the first cluster has 9 items, which sought the respondents’ agreement on the different technologies that can be integrated in teaching social science courses in universities in nigeria; the second cluster which is made up of 12 items sought information on the benefits of integrating technology in teaching of social science courses; while the third cluster which has 11items sought information on ways technology can be integrated in teaching of social science courses in universities in nigeria. the instrument was validated by three specialists in educational measurement and evaluation, educational technology and curriculum studies. the reliability of the instrument was determined using cronbach alpha reliability and 0.77 index reliability was obtained. the instrument was administered once using the cronbach alpha formula on the same number of lecturers in tertiary institutions in anambra state, which is in the same geo-political/educational zone as abia and imo states. the researcher made use of four trained research assistants. the instrument was collected on the spot and the analysis was done through the mean and standard deviation. the cut-off point for the mean responses was 2.5. any item that has a mean score of ( 2.5) represents agreement which means the respondents agreed with the statement, while items with mean scores ( 2.5) were regarded as rejected (disagreed), which means that the respondents disagreed with the statement. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 4, no. 4, 2023 6 published by scholink inc. 3. results table 1. mean scores of social science lecturers responses on different technologies that can be integrated in teaching of social science courses items teachers responses s/n different technologies that can be integrated in teaching of social science courses are: mean sd result 1 power point slides and pointers 3.89 0.79 agreed 2 teleprompter and magnetic board 3.70 0.81 agreed 3 online teaching platforms such as skype, zoom, webinar 3.90 0.79 agreed 4 online teaching packages such as email, chrome, social media, linkedin and soft wares -plagiarism testing 3.92 0.84 agreed 5 projectors, microphones 4.0 0.86 agreed 6 internet network/broadband connectivity, routers 3.96 0.79 agreed 7. chalkboard-white, green and black 1.96 1.13 disagreed 8. e-library, virtual field trips, gamification, cbt testing and grading 3.78 0.81 agreed 9. computers, laptops, headsets, bluetooth, rechargeable speakers and other peripherals 3.97 0.78 agreed grand/pooled mean 32.7/3.6 data on table 1 revealed the lecturers’ responses on different emerging technological innovations that can be integrated in teaching of social science courses in universities in nigeria as shown by their mean responses to all items which are above 2.5 (mean ) except item 7 that the mean rating is below 2.5 ( . the grand mean/pooled mean of 32.7/3.6 indicated lecturers’ high rating agreement that projectors, digital microphone, speakers, pointers, computers, laptops, headsets, internet connectivity, soft wares-power point, online packages and platforms are some of the technologies that can be integrated in teaching of social science courses in universities in nigeria. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 4, no. 4, 2023 7 published by scholink inc. table 2. mean scores of lecturers’ responses on the benefits of integrating technology in teaching of social science courses in universities items lecturers responses s/n benefits of integrating technology in teaching social science courses include: mean sd result 10. promotes digital literacy among students and lecturers 3.8 0.67 agreed 11. encourages flexibility in teaching and learning 3.6 0.74 agreed 12. arouses learners’ interest during teaching 3.7 0.78 agreed 13. allows for new ways of teaching of courses 3.6 0.73 agreed 14. prepares teachers and learner to international standard 3.8 0.69 agreed 15. promotes rapid retention and individualized learning 3.6 0.72 agreed 16. reduces teachers stress as teaching can take place from any location. 3.9 0.74 agreed 17. equips learners for the workforce and job creativity 3.8 0.80 agreed 18. promote speed, easy engagement of the learners 3.8 0.74 agreed 29. promotes active participation of all learners irrespective of their gender roles. 3.7 0.76 agreed 20. ideal for teaching all social science courses. 3.9 0.70 agreed 21. takes a lot of the teachers and students time 1.5 1.23 disagreed grand mean and pooled mean 42.7/3.6 data on table 2 show the lecturers’ responses on the benefits of integrating technology in teaching of social science courses in universities in nigeria. their mean responses to all the items were all above 2.5 (mean ) except item 22 that was rated 1.5 ( by the lecturers. the grand mean/pooled mean of 42.7/3.6 indicated lecturers’ high rating agreement that promoting digital literacy among lecturers and students, enables e-testing, grading, arouses students’ interest, encourages retention, flexibility in teaching and learning, skill acquisition, active participation of learners and reduces teachers stress are some of the benefits of integrating technology in teaching of social science courses in universities in nigeria. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 4, no. 4, 2023 8 published by scholink inc. table 3. mean score of lecturers’ responses on ways of integrating technology in teaching of social science courses in universities items lecturers responses s/n ways of integrating technology in teaching social science courses are: mean sd result 22. using projectors and power point slides for seminar presentation 3.8 0.78 agreed 23. adopting the use of e-library 4.0 0.88 agreed 24. using technologies like microphone, speakers, projectors in large class audience 3.8 0.82 agreed 25. promoting use of on-line class platforms/packages 3.6 0.90 agreed 26. using technologies for external examination defense 3.8 0.76 agreed 27. utilizing software like plagiarism testing in teaching 3.9 0.78 agreed 28. using e-monitoring and supervision such as social media, time clock in and out 3.7 0.81 agreed 29. employing the use of cbt and e-grading in teaching 3.8 0.74 agreed 30. management of e-attendance for both teachers and students using digital surveillance like cctv cameras 3.6 0.77 agreed 31. utilizing the benefits of the internet services in teaching 3.8 0.88 agreed 32. disregarding the integration of technology while continuing with analogue classroom teaching 1.7 1.16 disagreed grand mean and pooled mean 39.3/3.6 data on table 2 show the lecturers’ responses on ways of integrating technology in teaching of social science courses in universities in nigeria. their mean responses to all the items were all above 2.5 (mean ) except item 22 that was rated 1.7 ( by the lecturers. the grand mean/pooled mean of 39.3/3.6 indicated lecturers’ high rating agreement that using it for external defense, engaging the varied online platform/packages in teaching, employing e-library, e-surveillance, e-testing and e-grading are some of the ways of integrating technology in teaching of social science courses in universities in nigeria. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 4, no. 4, 2023 9 published by scholink inc. 4. discussion table 1 addresses research question 1. the result as presented in the table revealed the different technologies that can be integrated in teaching of social science courses in universities in nigeria. from the items in table 1, the researcher found that projectors, digital microphone, speakers, pointers, computers, laptops, headsets, internet connectivity, soft wares-power point, online packages and platforms are some of the technologies that can be integrated in teaching of social science courses in universities in nigeria. this is in line with the findings of aina and abdurrahman (2020), and ohambele (2019) that technology integration is the use of technology resources-computers, mobile devices like smart-phones and tablets, digital cameras, social media platforms and networks, software applications, the internet and so on in daily classroom practices. in further corroboration, chukwuma-nosike & offorma (2020) and nwabueze, madumere-obike & okeke, (2020) stressed that emphasizing on integration of technological devices in teaching by teachers in nigerian universities would benefit the learners at that level. this is because integrating technology in teaching of social science courses will promote effective learners’ empowerment and achievement of educational objectives. the result of research question 2 as shown in table 2 highlighted some benefits of integrating technology in teaching of social science courses in universities in nigeria. all the respondents agreed that promoting digital literacy among lecturers and students, enables e-testing, e-grading, arouses students’ interest, encourages retention, flexibility in teaching and learning, skill acquisition, active participation of learners and reduces teachers stress are some of the benefits of integrating technology in teaching of social science courses in universities in nigeria. this agrees with the findings of adeoye, adanikin and adanikin (2020) that technology holds immense benefits to the teachers and students as it saves time and stress as learning can take place from any comfortable location. it is worthy to note that teachers with the help of different technologies can effectively teach social science courses with ease in public universities in nigeria. this is because technology enables them to continue teaching processes irrespective of lecturers and learners’ locations and timing. table 3 addresses research question 3. the result as presented in the table indicated the different ways of integrating technology in teaching of social science courses in universities in nigeria. from the items in table 3, the researcher found out that using power point for external defenses, engaging the varied online platform/packages in classroom teaching and defense, employing e-library, e-surveillance, e-testing and e-grading are some of the ways of integrating technology in teaching of social science courses in universities in nigeria. this agrees with the findings of chukwuma-nosike (2021) and yu, ally & tsinakos (2020) that the application digital technologies by teachers will always enhance students and teachers’ skill empowerment and effectiveness to meet global standard. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 4, no. 4, 2023 10 published by scholink inc. these findings further corroborate with unesco’s (2020) statement that the use of google classroom and other on-line teaching platforms cannot be successful except the lecturers are digitally compliant. therefore, considering the importance of integrating technologies in teaching for continuous development of teachers/learners, it is vital that the suggested ways of integrating technology be adopted to enhance social science teachers digital compliant in universities in nigeria. 5. conclusion the need to integrate technology in teaching in nigerian universities has become necessary. this is because the benefits of integrating these technologies in teaching of social science courses are enormous especially in promoting learners’ empowerment. use of technology such as computers, projectors, power point online platforms/packages will ensure reduced stress, save time and encourage active participation of both the teacher and student during teaching. integrating technology in external examinations/defense, teaching and grading are suggested ways of integrating technology in teaching in universities in nigeria that can help to facilitate teaching processes. 6. recommendations based on the findings of this study, the researcher made the following recommendations: 1) teachers should integrate the different technologies in teaching so as to able teachers/students in nigerian universities benefit from them. 2) teachers should integrate technology in diverse ways in teaching especially in external examination/defense, e-grading, physical/online classes to promote learners’ interest, retention, speed, ease of processes and reduce stress. references adeoye, i. a., adanikin, a. f., & adanikin, a. (2020). covid-19 and e-learning: nigeria tertiary education system experience. international journal of research and innovation in applied science (ijrias), v(v), 28-31. retrieved january, 30, 2021, from www.rsisinternational.org https://www.researchgate.net/publication/341574880_covid-19_and_e-learning_nigeria_terti ary_education_system_experience.. aina, j. k., & abdurrahman, a. o. (2020). mitigating the impact of covid-19 on the teaching and learning of science in the nigerian higher education. international journal of research and innovation in social science (ijriss), iv(vi), 334-337. retrieved january, 30, 2021, from www.rsisinternational.org https://www.researchgate.net/publication/342703103_mitigating_the_impact_of_ arkorful, v., & abaidoo, n. (2014). the role of e-learning, the advantages and disadvantages of its adoption in higher education. international journal of education and research, 2(12), 397-410. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 4, no. 4, 2023 11 published by scholink inc. bozalek, v., ng’ambi, d., & gachago, d. (2013). transforming teaching with emerging technologies: implications for higher education institutions (pp. 1-18). retrieved from https://repository.uwc.ac.za/bitstream/handle/10566/2947/bozalek_transforming-teaching_2013.p df?sequence=1&isallowed=y chukwuma-nosike, c. (2020). constraints to effective technological curriculum content delivery in state universities in south-east, nigeria. in the nigerian academy of education (nae) conference proceedings (pp. 137-145). chukwuma-nosike, c. (2021). utilizing on-line learning platforms for effective teaching and learning in post-covid-19 pandemic era in nigerian federal universities. nigerian journal of curriculum studies, 28(4), 56-67. chukwuma-nosike, c., & offorma, g. c. (2020). providing safe and equitable learning during pandemics in nigeria. world council of curriculum and instructions (wcci) newsletter, special covid-19(9), 29-34. edutopia. (2007). why do we need technology integration? retrieved from https://www.edutopia.org/technology-integration-guide-importance ellis, j. l. (2016). edsurge embracing the wall-less classroom. retrieved from https://www.edsurge.com/news/2016-11-09-will-edtech-bring-back-the-open-classroom federal republic of nigeria (frn). (2014). national policy on education (7th ed.). abuja: nigerian educational research and development council (nerdc) publication. ile, c. m., udegbunam, e. o., & odimmega, c. g. (2015). challenges of integrating new technologies for teaching and learning in the business education programme of colleges of education in south-east nigeria. education journal. special issue: new dimensions in vocational business education teaching and learning, 4(6-1), 9-14. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.edu.s.2015040601.12 mbakwem, j. n., & ike, p. o. (2017). teaching and methods: what principles, what practice (2nd ed.). owerri: eddison business concern nelson, m. b. (2010). the role of technology in curriculum development and delivery. african higher education review, 3, 83-97. nwabueze, a. i., madumere-obike, c. u., & okeke, e. c. (2020). application of technology devices in the management programme for quality education delivery and students study habits. in the nigerian academy of education (nae) conference proceedings (pp. 32-46). nwajiuba, c. (2015). the idea and culture of the university. paper presented at the orientation for new academic staff, imo state university, owerri (30th january 2015). https://doi.org/10.11648/j.edu.s.2015040601.12 www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 4, no. 4, 2023 12 published by scholink inc. ohambele, j. (2019). the challenges of technology integration in art pedagogy within nigeria: the way forward. paper presentation at unimaid 2019 multidisciplinary academic conference: sub-saharan african awakening for 21st century challenges and opportunities: multidisciplinary approaches held at the university of maiduguri between 19th and 20th december, 2019. retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/349763573_the_challenges_of_technology_integration_i n_art_pedagogy_within_nigeria_theway_forward pande, d., wadhai, v. m., & thakare, v. m. (2016). e-learning system and higher education. international journal of computer science and mobile computing, 5(2), 274-280. redmann, d., & kotrlik, j. (2008). a trend study: technology adoption in the teaching—learning process by secondary business teachers—2002 and 2007. the delta pi espositon journal, 1(2), 77-89. https://doi.org/10.5032/jae.2009.02062 roach, r. s. (2012). benefits of integrating technology. retrieved from http://itecideas.pbworks.com/w/page/46670769/benefits%20of%20integrating%20technology undie, j. a. (2017). innovations in higher education: opportunities of threats for attainment of sustainable development goals in an unequal world. african journal of innovations and reforms in educational management (ajirem), 1(1), 29-46. unesco. (2020). covid-19 educational disruption and response. retrieved april 13, 2020, from https://en.unesco.org/covid19/educationresponse yu, s., ally, m., & tsinakos, a. (2020). emerging technologies and pedagogies in the curriculum. singapore: springer nature publication. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-0618-5 . https://doi.org/10.5032/jae.2009.02062 https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-0618-5 frontiers of contemporary education issn 2690-3520 (print) issn 2690-3539 (online) vol. 2, no. 2, 2021 www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce 55 original paper impact of instructional supervision on student performance and teacher effectiveness in public secondary schools in nakuru county, kenya joshua g. manduku 1* , peter ngok 2 & jared mauti 3 1 department of eapm, university of kabianga, kericho, kenya 2 school of education, kabarak university, nakuru, kenya 3 department of education, school of education and human resource management, kisii university, kisii, kenya * joshua g. manduku, e-mail: mandukujoshua@gmail.com received: february 19, 2021 accepted: april 12, 2021 online published: december 24, 2021 doi:10.22158/fce.v2n2p55 url: http://dx.doi.org/10.22158/fce.v2n2p55 abstract education is widely seen as one of the most promising paths for individuals to realize better, more productive lives and as one of the primary drivers of national economic development. education also forms the basic component upon which economic, social and political development of any nation is founded. with an ever-increasing population and expanding globalization, the country’s education system continues to experience shortcomings which affect the end product. the primary purpose of this study was to determine the impact of instructional supervision methods on students’ academic achievement and teacher’s effectiveness in curriculum implementation in public secondary schools in nakuru county. the study was guided by the following specific objectives; (i) to investigate the effectiveness of instructional supervision methods used by principals in enhancing students’ academic performance in public secondary schools in nakuru county and (ii) to establish the influence of instructional supervision methods used by principals on teachers’ effectiveness in public secondary schools in nakuru county the study employed correlational research design as it sought to find out the relationship between the research variables under study. the study was underpinned by the symbolic interaction theory as stipulated by blumer (1969). the study was conducted in nakuru county between february 2016 and june 2020. the target population was 65 principals 1800 teachers and the county director of education. purposive stratified and systematic sampling were used to obtain 16 principals and 200 teachers. data was collected through primary sources such as questionnaires, www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 2, 2021 56 published by scholink inc. interviews and document analysis. secondary sources such as articles, journals and internet were used to define the research gap. a pilot survey was done in the neighboring baringo county to check the validity and reliability of research instruments. data was analyzed using pearson moment correlation formula and hypothesis were tested using chi-square test of independence. the results of the study will be availed to the kenya ministry of education to guide policy, the recommendations will also provide useful literature for further research. the following recommendations were suggested: to improve school administration, develop teachers’ professionalism through robust instructional supervision and improve secondary school student’s academic performance. keywords instructional supervision, student performance, teacher effectiveness 1. introduction globally education is highly regarded among the most rewarding investments to aid a child’s well-being, development, survival and foremost enable their growth (unicef, 2014). in addition, in the modern world, education is regarded as a human right. it is through education forums that any form of development in a nation is grounded. in an economic setting, the future human resource lies among the children, the future politicians and electorate are grounded at school not forgetting the social aspect of the child. investing in education helps facilitate economic growth, improve productivity, reduce societal inequality and facilitate social development (namunga, 2017). the kenyan government continues to reach out for learners to attend the basic education level of schooling. this is evident through the free primary education in 2003 and consequently free secondary school education in 2008. currently the moe is focusing on 100% transition from primary schools to secondary schools. despite these increased efforts to improve the literacy level of the country’s population, it’s the quality of the service that matters. according to unesco (2008) a parameter that can be used to measure the development of a country is the state of education in that country. education as a tool serves a role of reshaping the citizens in a country and sharpens the reasoning skills hence curbing social inequality. in kenya, secondary education is highly valued in that it helps in creating human resource skilled personnel that may meet the industry standards. with a higher population and globalization, the country’s education system continues to experience shortcomings which affect the end product. the education system in kenya is only geared towards passing the national examinations (namunga, 2017). the system has laid a major emphasis on the learners where the learners spend most of the time in school with students attending teacherless remedial classes as early as 6 am. in so doing, the curriculum demands more from the students at the expense of the teachers. the quality of the student is very much dependent on the effectiveness of the teacher. in addition, the instructional quality of the teacher goes hand in hand with the level of students learning. the latter and the former are dependent on sustained and rigid school-based supervision (allida et al., 2017). www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 2, 2021 57 published by scholink inc. there is no point in time that the standard of the education system can rise above the drivers of the system who are the teachers. with time, schools are turning out to be complex bearing in mind that there is a need to blend with the current technological advancements in the education system. teachers play a determinant role in achievement of the desired results in an institution. today, teaching has become a business-oriented career with teachers no longer having a calling to the profession. a study conducted in nigeria revealed that in the recent era, teacher’s exhibit rudeness to the management and report to school late instead of optimally availing teaching time (sule et al., 2015). in addition, they also show a negative attitude while carrying out their roles in the school setting. as a result, the output is manifestation of poor mastery in their area of specialization, laziness in preparing learners progress records and gives a breeding background for undisciplined students in class. in order to attack the existing problem before it becomes uncontrollable, instructional supervision may be a rescue tool. instructional supervision entails the formal professional growth among the practitioners in the educational field to equip them with competence and knowledge which conforms them to take responsibility of their assigned roles (allida et al., 2017). broadly the process helps in nurturing and guiding the teachers and in return improves the delivery at classroom level which is depicted in the students’ results. teachers cannot do this by themselves; it is actualized by senior personnel in the same career and same institution as well. some scholars have termed it as the productive interaction between the trainer and the supervisor to improve the quality of instruction (mohammed et al., 2015). the likelihood of a success in instructional supervision depends on the relationship between the senior supervisor and the subordinate, in this case who is the teacher. a very good illustration are the heads of departments in secondary schools who again are supervised by the school principals. this implies that every stakeholder needs to play their role if there are chances of encountering success. if principals are not supervised by moe officers, hods are not supervised by principals, teachers are not assessed by hods the quality of the education will have a declining trend. in the school setting, some of the instructional methods seniors can use include; checking of lesson plans, schemes of work, class observation and visiting class sessions. a previous study revealed that seniors must check teachers’ lesson notes for the teachers to rely effective content in the classroom (mohamed et al., 2015). a commonly used method is class observation since it takes into account both the lesson plan and the schemes of work as well. classroom observation is an instructional supervision method where a senior attends a class objectively to capture the realities in the class setting. in this situation both the teacher and the supervisor have varying tasks where the teachers have to bring out the best while the supervisor has to document the output accurately (iroegbu & etudor-eyo, 2016). the supervisor may choose to record everything the teachers do which is regarded as verbatim recording while the supervisor may select areas, they may feel are crucial. with the rise of technology and access to internet having gone high, supervisors may record the class but must be in agreement with the teacher. later the supervisor reviews the recording with the teachers where they collectively highlight areas of improvement. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 2, 2021 58 published by scholink inc. other than classroom observation short visits organized collaboratively with the hods or the senior may help in improving the quality of instruction. during classroom sessions some teachers go too deep especially while giving examples thereby consuming much time on a single task. in order to minimize such occurrences, there is a need to organize short class visits with one’s administrator (david, 2008). a study in uganda concluded that head teachers who had short visits to classrooms were aware of what was happening and their teachers performed as evidenced by the students results (malunda et al., 2016). whenever teaching professionals expects as senior, they keep their output at their toes thereby ensuring they give maximum output. albeit instructional supervision may be a major determinant, teacher effectiveness is also a driving factor. the nurturing and development of class teaching material starts far away from the classroom. as mandatory requirement by the curriculum, teachers should prepare schemes of work which should be presented before the class begins (moe, 2007). upon resumption of the term the schemes are presented to the hods in the respective areas. in some situations, some of the tutors keep photocopying the previous schemes without taking into consideration of changes in the curriculum. previous scholars have referred to a lesson note as a necessity in effective learning (sule et al., 2015). out of classroom parameters include checking of the teacher’s punctuality and school regularities. teachers’ attitude towards supervision has a direct impact on the class output. historically teachers saw supervision as a means of demeaning them with the supervisor considered to have an intention of checking faults in their teaching mode (rahmany et al., 2014). the manner in which the teacher perceives the supervisory activity determines whether they may become productive in the classroom. supervisors must also play a major role in ensuring they maintain a friendly relationship with their teachers. in situations where the superiority persists; teachers may term instructional supervision as inspection where much is expected from the teacher other than effective teaching. a study conducted in zimbabwe documented that majority of supervisory measures were viewed as inspection with supervisors on a fault-finding mission in their classes (acheson & gall, 2003). in the kenya curriculum school principals supervise hods in the school setting since they are involved in school management. school management has evolved with increasing roles due to the development’s requirements by the national government. every year school principals are given resources out of which they are supposed to give a report at the year-end on accountability. in some situations, principals are tasked with the responsibility of evaluating the challenges with their institutions. in north eastern kenya for instance, shortage of teachers is a problem which forces teachers to work with bom to meet the needed capacity of teachers. in some school setting learners lack learning materials such as textbooks which has hampered the quality of education. not to forget some of the institutions continue to record lack of infrastructure such as the case of some parts of northern kenya. however, one may focus on instructional supervision of the teacher effectives in the classroom without considering that there are external factors that hinder the supervisory efforts. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 2, 2021 59 published by scholink inc. majority of the studies have focused on principal’s instructional supervision in other counties and sub-counties, less has been done on the impact on instructional supervision on teacher effectiveness in class. this study seeks to come up with appropriate measures that can be incorporated in the school setting so as to improve the quality of education by aiding effective curriculum implementation. 2. method 2.1 statement of the problem previous scholars have documented on the existence of a crisis in the education sector. teachers are often accused with regards to the quality of education due to how they execute their daily duties as well as the poor instructional supervision by their school principals. over time, schools have continued to record poor academic performance triggering parents to lose confidence in the existing current education system (namunga, 2017). a recent study revealed that teachers exhibit unwholesome attitude towards taking up their roles in schools where they end up reporting to school late and trade at the expense of educating learners (sule et al., 2015). lack of class preparation makes teachers manifest poor mastery in their area of specialization where they do not make proper follow up on their students hence tampering with the quality of students that they produce. today, the transition to secondary institutions is relatively low despite the increasing number of teaching professionals and well-equipped learning institutions (wanjiku, 2018). the academic performance of the public schools does not meet the current set standards despite intensified government efforts to improve the literacy percentage of its population. this study seeks to establish if curriculum implementation results could be related to instructional supervision methods. unless this situation is checked and arrested, the public secondary schools in nakuru county could continue reporting lower transition from secondary schools to institutions of higher learning. 2.2 purpose of the study the main objective will be to determine the impact of instructional supervision methods on student academic achievement and teachers’ effectiveness in public secondary schools in nakuru county. 2.3 objectives the study had two objectives: i. investigate the effectiveness of instructional supervision methods used by principals in enhancing academic performance of students in public secondary schools in nakuru county. ii. to establish the influence of instructional supervision methods used by principals on teachers’ effectiveness in public secondary schools in nakuru county. 2.4 research questions i. how does instructional supervision methods used by principals enhance the academic performance of students in public secondary schools in nakuru county? ii. how does instructional supervision used by principals’ influence teacher’s academic performance? www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 2, 2021 60 published by scholink inc. 2.5 research hypotheses ho1. regular instructional supervision has no significant relationship with student’s academic performance in public secondary schools in nakuru county. ho2. instructional supervision has no significant relationship with teacher’s performance in secondary schools in nakuru county. 2.6 theoretical framework: symbolic interaction theory the study was be based on symbolic interactionism theory by blumer (1969). the theory holds that people bring out their social identities depending on situational enactments. this further holds that roles are attached to an internal role expectation. people end up revealing what they choose upon identifying the audience (smit & fritz, 2008). teachers introduce themselves to the teachers, school management and supervisors through scaling up education standards in the school environment. the society on the other hand, rely expectations on the teachers to accelerate learning development process in the school. the teacher’s classroom delivery will depend on the situational setting a teacher encounter. activities such as supervision will change the quality of a teacher’s output. then theory holds that teachers ought to bring out the learning as a symbol in that learners can get a deep insight on learning activities. the nature of the supervision between the teachers and the supervisors determines the attitude among the two. supervision is a form of interaction in which teachers and supervisors interact leading to some form of observation. 2.7 research design this study adopted the descriptive survey research design and utilized the mixed methods methodology. this design was considered suitable for the study because it gives the researcher the opportunity of obtaining the opinion of the sampled population to infer the opinion of the entire population. the target population of the study was 210 public secondary schools and 1800 secondary school teachers in nakuru county in the year 2017/2018 academic year. nakuru county was selected because of its cosmopolitan in nature and has a mix of both rural and urban schools. purposive and simple random sampling techniques were used in the study. stratified random sampling was used to pick schools from the six sub-counties in the county. simple random sampling technique was utilized to select the actual schools selected for the study. the sample size for study comprised of sixty-five headteachers, 200 teachers, and the county director of education. a structured questionnaire titled: instructional supervision on students academic performance questionnaire was used in obtaining relevant data for the study. the questionnaire items were face-validated to ascertain their suitability for use in data collection by an expert in this field. the language, contents and the structure of the items were critically examined and possible corrections and suggestions were made. the reliability of the instrument was ascertained using a test-retest method. the reliability co-efficient of 0.789 and 0.824 were obtained respectively for the instrument using pearson product moment correlation co-efficient in a pilot study conducted with thirty staff in two secondary schools in the neighboring baringo county. the research instrument was administered personally by hand to the teachers in the public www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 2, 2021 61 published by scholink inc. secondary schools selected. this was after obtaining permission from nacosti and the relevant heads of the institutions. the instrument was supported with examination performance records of student’s performance in english language and mathematics in kcse for 2016, 2017, 2018 and 2019 in the schools under study. the completed questionnaires were coded into statistical data and analyzed using chi-square statistical tools and pearson product moment correlation statistics {pearson r} at 0.05 level of significance. 3. result 3.1 research question 1 how does instructional supervision methods used by principals enhance the academic performance of students in public secondary schools in nakuru county? table 1. pearson correlation results showing the relationship between regular instructional supervision and students academic achievement variable n degrees of freedom r-cal r-table findings regular supervision of teachers and student’s academic achievement 200 198 0.485 0.205 significant critical value at 0.05 significant level results of analysis in table 1 shows that the calculated r-value of influence of regular instructional supervision on student’s academic performance which is 0.485 is greater than the critical value of 0.205 at 0.05 alpha level. the calculated correlation value reaffirmed that regular instructional supervision of teachers has a measurable impact on student’s academic achievement in nakuru county. 3.2 research question 2 how does instructional supervision methods used by principals enhance teachers’ effectiveness in public secondary schools in nakuru county? table 2. pearson correlation results showing the relationship between regular instructional supervision and teacher effectiveness variable n degrees of freedom r-cal r-table findings regular supervision of teachers and teacher’s performance 200 198 0.567 0.205 significant www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 2, 2021 62 published by scholink inc. critical value at 0.05 significant level results of analysis in table 1 shows that the calculated r-value of influence of regular instructional supervision on teachers’ effectiveness which is 0.567 is greater than the critical value of 0.205 at 0.05 alpha level. the calculated correlation value reaffirmed that regular instructional supervision of teachers has a measurable impact on teacher effectiveness in nakuru county. ho1. regular instructional supervision has no significant relationship with students’ academic performance in public secondary schools in nakuru county. table 3. chi-square analysis of the teachers’ opinion on the relationship between instructional supervision and students’ academic achievement variable n  2 df p p=0.05 relationship between instructional supervision and students’ academic achievement 200 145.81 198 0.000 p<0.5 the results show a statistically significant relationship in the opinion of teachers on the relationship between instructional supervision and students’ academic achievement. specifically, there were significantly more teachers 161 (80.5%) agreeing that instructional supervision had a great influence on the academic achievement of the students than those disagreeing 39 (19.5%). ho2. instructional supervision has no significant relationship with teacher’s performance in secondary schools in nakuru county. table 4. chi-square analysis of the ts opinion on the relationship between instructional supervision and teachers’ effectiveness variable n  2 df p p=0.05 relationship between instructional supervision and teachers’ effectiveness 200 154.67 198 0.000 p<0.5 the results show a statistically significant relationship in the opinion of teachers on the relationship between instructional supervision and teachers’ effectiveness. specifically, there were significantly more teachers 174 (87%) agreeing that instructional supervision had a great influence on teachers’ effectiveness than those disagreeing 26(13%). www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 2, 2021 63 published by scholink inc. 4. discussion supervision is critical in the development of any educational programme in both developed and developing countries including kenya. based on the findings of the study, the research revealed that the education system in nakuru county is faced with numerous problems such as student’s poor performance in kcse, poor attitude of teachers to work and non-regular instructional supervision of schools. it is therefore imperative that the challenges being currently faced by the educational system requires professional approach by experts in the educational field to improve the educational standards of schools in nakuru county. the following recommendations were suggested to improve school administration, develop teachers’ professionalism through robust instructional supervision and improving secondary school student’s academic performance. 1) a remedial mechanism should be developed and built into the school system by the government, teachers, educational planners, policy makers, curriculum planners and parents. if quality education is to be achieved, a functional supervision mechanism involving parents should be built into the school system to ensure quality control and assurance from the system. 2) the inspectorate unit of the ministry of education should be properly staffed with qualified instructional supervision professional that are radical enough to articulate changes within the current supervision dynamics. retired but strong head teachers and teachers who have long years of on field experience can play a vital role in ameliorating school instructional challenges in nasarawa state academic environment. 3) regular evaluation of the instructional process, school administration procedure and educational outcomes by the supervisors so designated from within and outside the educational institution should be intensified so that conformities can be appreciated and improved upon while non conformities can be identified, sanctioned and corrected appropriately and timely. 4) school administrators, government and professional bodies in the education sector should promote capacity development of teachers through intensive and regular seminars/workshops based on needs assessment of professional practices of teachers to improve their knowledge, pedagogical skills and competence in various subjects, with a view to enhancing the quality of teaching and learning processes in secondary schools. it is hoped that if the above recommendations are thoroughly and effectively considered, students’ performance in schools will improve. moreover, the problem of quality of the secondary school products and standards of education would likewise be addressed by employing the best teaching – learning practices in nakuru county. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 2, 2021 64 published by 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(2007). cognitive dissonance, supervision, and administrative team conflict. international journal of educational management, 20(3), 224-232. https://doi.org/10.1108/09513540610654191 https://doi.org/10.1108/09513540610654191 frontiers of contemporary education issn 2690-3520 (print) issn 2690-3539 (online) vol. 2, no. 2, 2021 www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce 67 original paper designing indicators for a placement test: drawbacks and affordances gabriel brito amorim 1 1 languages center, federal university of espírito santo, brazil received: september 9, 2021 accepted: october 3, 2021 online published: december 29, 2021 doi:10.22158/fce.v2n2p67 url: http://dx.doi.org/10.22158/fce.v2n2p67 abstract one of the greatest challenges when it comes to assessment is the lack of clarity in the objectives or, to make it worse, the absence of objectives whatsoever for what results the curriculum, course, or the test instrument wishes to achieve. according to raupp and reichle (2003), this kind of information usually exists as expectations pushing the examiner to transform expectations, general goals or poorly stated objectives into measurable objectives. raupp and reichle (2003) emphasize that very precise indicators need to be written or selected to measure whether or not the course/curriculum objectives proposed were achieved. however, this job becomes rather challenging when objectives are not clearly stated or are too vague. indicators, then, ideally, resonate curricular goals, teaching methodologies, and testing. if one of these components is not well calibrated or is dissonant with the others, the whole assessment process is jeopardized (cefrl, 2007). indicators for placement testing, then, need to be carefully written or selected so that they can reflect an intended proficiency level as well as the school’s curricular goals, teaching methodologies, and testing procedures (brown, 2004; richards, 2009). at the federal university of espírito santo’s language center (cl), the discontentment of instructors and coordination staff with the lack of reliability, validity and practicality with the cl’s placement test motivated debates and work on the refinement of the indicators used for the referred exam. through a literature review and with a practical example from a language center in brazil, this paper addresses how teachers/practitioners can make informed decisions to write or select their own indicators for placement testing and, therefore, monitor the progress of their students and/or the success or pitfalls of their classes/programs/curricula and plan for possible welcome changes. keywords placement testing, assessment, indicators www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 2, 2021 68 published by scholink inc. summary through a literature review and with a practical example from a language center in brazil, this paper addresses how teachers/practitioners can make informed decisions to write or select their own indicators for placement testing and, therefore, monitor the progress of their students and/or the success or pitfalls of their classes/programs/curricula and plan for possible welcome changes. 1. introduction according to raupp and reichle (2003), in order for one to obtain efficient results in assessment, it is necessary to work with some guiding principles. the aforementioned authors recommend four principles: 1) assessment as a collaborative process of exploration, examining, questioning and search for other perspectives, 2) the availability and the use of valid and reliable information to make the process more efficient, 3) the use of the information obtained as the key point of the process; and, lastly, 4) assessment as a powerful and valuable catapult to increase the efficiency of projects and programs (p. 18). raupp and kolb (1990) point out that, before designing an assessment system or instrument, one should consider the reason or reasons to assess. the authors list 10 possible reasons and claim that an assessment proposal may fall into one or more categories. the one we shall be focusing on this paper is number 2, “to make informed decisions”. just as one ponders why to assess, they must also consider what to assess. raupp and kolb (1990) affirm that the information collected in the assessment corroborate a previous idea about the object being assessed. in other words, when placing an incoming student into a language program, the student might present certificates or diplomas from other schools, which indicate his/her overall proficiency level. a well-planned and well-executed placement test will collect valuable data that will confirm or refute that information and help the examiner place that student into the current language program. when a patient goes to the doctor seeking a diagnosis and treatment to a health problem, he/she presents precious health information that help the doctor diagnose the problem and prescribe an effective treatment. the description of the symptoms, clinical exams, the history of the patient and the experience of the doctor will collaborate in the recovery of the patient. currently, there is software that helps the doctor diagnose patients. this software provides a more precise diagnosis as it analyzes the data collected and contrasts with medical notes, medicine books, etc. after this thorough analysis, the software offers the doctor a list of possible health problems and prescriptions for the doctor to close the diagnosis. the doctor, then, decides on how to treat the patient. a placement test works similarly to the work of this software, but in a more analogical way. the problem we faced at the languages center (cl) of the federal university of espírito santo (ufes, brazil) was very much like that. the discontentment of instructors and coordination staff with the lack of reliability, validity and practicality with the cl’s placement test motivated debates and work on the refinement of the indicators used for the referred exam. also, the staff saw the need to refine the test www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 2, 2021 69 published by scholink inc. instrument in order to align with the refined indicators. the cl was established in 1997 as a university extension project to offer language courses to the academic community at ufes and the community at large at a reasonable cost. additionally, the cl provides an intensive language teacher education program for the letters students at ufes. the cl holds an average of 5,000 students and 60 teachers (permanent and trainees). since its conception the cl offers regular language courses that range from 8 semesters to 10 semesters of duration. the largest program is the english program, with the highest number of students, teachers and coordinators. for the purposes of this paper, we will be addressing the challenges faced by the english department only. in the early 2000’s, the cl hired an assessment specialist to assist the teachers and coordination staff transition from a paper-and-pencil assessment to a performance-based assessment system in the four abilities, namely, reading, writing, listening and speaking. the urge to change grew out of a dissatisfaction of both teachers and students with the mismatch between teaching and testing in the school. at that time, a brand-new performance-based assessment system was developed with the participation of permanent teachers and trainees. the system was and is used across language departments at the center. a principal document was elaborated with learning objectives for, mainly, three levels: beginner, intermediate and advanced. the document reflected the school’s views on language and language learning and had the communitive approach as its central theoretical basis. an assessment matrix, ranging from grade a to grade d, was designed with indicators that reflected the expected performance of the test-takers in the four abilities. the instruments were also redesigned and included tasks for reading comprehension, listening comprehension, writing expression and oral expression. as for the placement tests for incoming students of the english department (focus of this paper), a multiple-choice exam with 100 questions was created and encompassed a listening comprehension section, a grammar and vocabulary section and a reading comprehension section. there was also a second type of placement test which consisted of an essay exam and an oral interview. in 2013, due to the university’s internationalization process, the cl felt the need to adjust its assessment documents to international documents like the common european framework of reference for languages (cefrl). so, the original documents that divided the benchmark levels were adapted to a1—corresponding to the beginner levels which encompassed levels 1, 2 and 3—, a2—corresponding to the pre-intermediate levels which encompassed levels 4, 5 and 6—, b1—or the intermediate levels, englobing levels 7 and 8—, and, lastly, b2—which stands for the upper-intermediate levels 9 and 10. the language courses that were only 8 semesters long adopted a different configuration. since this time, the cl teachers and coordination staff have debated on the refinement of the assessment matrix and, consequently of the instruments they have used, including the placement tests. the motivation to rethink and, possibly, redesign the assessment documents and placement testing instruments of the english department came up as teachers and students reported that students were being misplaced over the course of years. in many occasions, the teachers, along with the coordination staff, had to adjust students’ levels after the placement testing procedures. when this situation became too www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 2, 2021 70 published by scholink inc. frequent, teachers and coordinators decided it was time to change (note 1). the laborious task of refining the assessment documents started back then when an assessment committee was formed and when it was decided that work should begin with an immersion in the literature of the area in order to make informed decisions. a series of teacher education sessions on assessment was carried out with different specialists and members of the staff. according to raupp and reichle (2003), for the daunting task of (re)designing assessment documents to be successful, it is essential that the designers know what they are aiming for. in order for one to know what a (language) program goal is, the objectives or indicators need to be carefully and clearly written. that was the beginning of our work. the objective of this paper is to present the refinement process of the indicators of the placement tests used in the cl at ufes. after an in-depth literature review and the analysis of assessment documents both from the institution and also of public domain (like the cefrl), the designers began working on the assessment documents, which culminated in a revisited and calibrated assessment matrix and new placement test instruments. the research and data collection process was a collaborative task amongst the members of the cl staff, including myself, reporting the results of this endeavor. 2. methodology given the history of the cl and the problems or difficulties the staff was facing with placement testing, teachers and coordination staff decided to delve into the literature of the area, which included theories, public documents like the cefrl and internal assessment documents. as the team advanced in their readings and discussion prior to the beginning of the heavy work, the methodology to carry out this task became clearer to all. the team decided for a qualitative approach (creswell, 2007) for its participatory and self-reflective nature (rossman & rallis, 1998). the team did not have a research question in mind, but a hypothesis that the assessment matrix being used to evaluate the incoming students was not really aligned with the learning objectives of the course nor with the test instruments being used. if this hypothesis could be translated into research questions, something along these lines would come up: to what extent are the assessment documents (matrix and instruments) influencing the misplacement of incoming students? how can the calibration of these documents improve results of placement testing? the characteristics of the qualitative research fit well into the scenario that the cl teachers and staff were inserted. they were inside the problem and could have access to information first-hand. as creswell (2007) points out, qualitative research utilizes multiple methods of data collection and are more interactive and humanistic (p. 188). according to creswell (2007), the analysis of documents, interviews and observations are some of the data collection methods applied in this kind of research. another trait of the qualitative research is the flexibility of the process of data collection, which may change as the researcher encounters better opportunities to understand better the phenomenon in question. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 2, 2021 71 published by scholink inc. the cl research was of interpretative nature. that means that the investigator makes an interpretation of the phenomenon (or the data) through his/her own lenses (creswell, 2007). in the case of the cl endeavor, the researchers (considering that all members of the staff contributed to the construction of this research) were very experienced teachers and coordinators, who have participated in the construction of the assessment documents of the cl and also had a lot of background knowledge on assessment. so, they were very aware of the context in which they were inserted to make the conclusions they needed to make and the alterations or calibrations they need to make. as per the phases of the research, first, the team observed the inconsistency of placement test results for some time (recurring topic in staff meetings and in the assessment committee meetings) and decided to invest time and effort in digging the problem to its roots. we call it the observation phase. next, in phase 2, the team decided to delve into the literature of the area and into public and internal assessment documents in order to build on their expertise and find a direction to the problem posed. staff meetings to discuss an appropriate manner to handle the problem were scheduled regularly. we call it the theoretical embedding phase. then, in phase 3, using the data they had collected, the team started calibrating the internal assessment documents and designed one specifically for placement testing. we call it the calibration phase. finally, in phase 4, the team began designing new test instruments for placement tests and piloting them in subsequent semesters. this was the design and piloting phase. the four phases of the project were completed between 2018-2019. in the next section, a literature review is presented aiming to show the reader the theories underlying the changes made by the cl team. this body of work shed some light into the doubts the team had about how the assessment documents were interfering in the placement test results and served as guiding principles for the calibration of the internal documents. 3. literature review as mentioned elsewhere, the objective of this literature review is to provide the theoretical foundations for the assumptions made by the cl team in regards to the institution’s assessment documents and their direct or indirect influence in the placement test results. as part of the research endeavor carried out by the team, they went back to the theory, from placement testing (brown, 2004) to reference documents like the cefrl (2001) to find the answers they needed. coombe, folse and hubley (2007) start off by listing eight theoretical concepts, namely: 1) utility: supported by bachman and palmer’s (1996) test instrument utility model, coombe, folse and hubley (2007) attest that this is the most important principle to give legitimacy to the evaluation process, that is, an evaluation instrument must be created for a specific objective and with a target audience in mind; 2) validity: refers to its purpose, that is, whether it evaluates what it intends to evaluate, one of its ramifications being construct validity, that is, whether the methodology chosen to evaluate is consistent with the instrument used; 3) reliability: refers to the consistency of the instrument, that is, if it presents the same results (or similar results) if applied on different occasions and by different examiners; 4) www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 2, 2021 72 published by scholink inc. practicality: when thinking about the evaluation instrument, one must also consider the costs for development and maintenance, the administration time, the necessary resources, among other aspects, and for a large-scale evaluation it is necessary to determine practical factors for the collection of information about the object to be evaluated; 5) washback: it is related to the effect that the evaluation results produce, which can be positive or negative, and one should not conduct the evaluation in a way to mask the results for both positives and negatives; 6) authenticity: refers to the fact that the instrument is linked to a real situation, a real objective such as pointing out solutions or directions for a current problem; 7) transparency: it relates to the clarity of the information to be collected, the way it will be collected and why it will be collected, which should be made available to the parties involved in the evaluation process and 8) security: it relates to the preparation and administration of the evaluation instrument and in the case of large-scale assessments, for example, it is common for an instrument to be designed and administered by a group of people, which can compromise both the confidentiality of the instrument and the provision of information to the target audience, which may mask the results obtained (p. xxii). brown (2004) suggests the foundations of designing and revising tests by providing 5 critical questions: 1) what is the purpose of the test? 2) what are the objectives of the test? 3) how will the test specifications reflect both the purpose and the objectives of the test? 4) how will the test tasks be selected and the separate items arranged? what kind of scoring, grading, and/or feedback is expected? (p. 42). knowing the purpose of a specific type of test helps to identify the foundational principles of assessment, namely, utility, validity, reliability, practicality, authenticity, transparency, security and wash back and, therefore, helps to determine whether a test is effective or not. the purpose of a placement test, for example, […] is to place a student into a particular level or section of a language curriculum or school. a placement test usually, but not always, includes a sampling of the material to be covered in the various courses in a curriculum; a student’s performance on the test should indicate the point at which the student will find material neither too easy nor too difficult but appropriately challenging (brown, 2004, p. 45). so, the placement test must fit the program or curriculum for which the incoming student is applying. there are some standardized tests available (some even online) which may be very practical for the institution administering the exam, but they might not really reflect the goals of the curriculum the student is going to encounter in that specific school or program. richards (2009) explains that most schools and language programs describe their curricular goals in terms of learning objectives and aims. the author claims that “[t]he nature of aims and objectives, however, is not necessarily straightforward because they refer to knowledge, skills, and values that educational planners believe learners need to develop” (p. 112, emphasis in the original). this means that the role of teaching and learning of a language is reflected in the curricular goals of a language program. richards (2009) helps us understand the complex task of describing curricular goals by www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 2, 2021 73 published by scholink inc. giving us three common assumptions: 1) people are generally motivated to pursue specific goals; 2) the use of goals in teaching improves the effectiveness of teaching and learning; and 3) a program will be effective to the extent that its goals are sound and clearly described. as mentioned elsewhere in this manuscript, stemming from a dissatisfaction of both teacher and students about their assessment system and teaching practices, the cl at ufes started rethinking its curricular goals back in the early 2000’s, which resulted in the design of a brand-new performance-based assessment system. part of the tasks back then was to define curricular goals for the language program and design institutional assessment documents to guide the staff. after the adjustment and refinement of the documents around 2013, the staff from all departments felt the need to revisit the assessment documents. this refers to phase 1 and 2 described in the methodology section. alongside this movement of change, the teachers and coordination staff of the english department began to work on the placement testing documents and procedures (phase 3) (note 2). during phase 3, it became very clear to the english department staff that considerable time and effort should be spent on the indicators or descriptors (we will use indicators henceforth.) that were the direct link to the program curricular goals. according to almeida (2018), important and valuable data can be collected through indicators, which can be assessed both quantitatively and qualitatively. indicators present evidence of whether a goal was achieved or not. a document that served as reference and model for the english department staff when redesigning their own indicators was the cefrl. the cefrl was intentionally created with an action-oriented approach to aid language practitioners to elaborate their own frameworks, according to their specific needs and contexts across europe. the manuscript became largely diffused and has served as theoretical basis for language programs around the world. here is the opening paragraph of the document: the common european framework provides a common basis for the elaboration of language syllabuses, curriculum guidelines, examinations, textbooks, etc. across europe. it describes in a comprehensive way what language learners have to learn to do in order to use a language for communication and what knowledge and skills they have to develop so as to be able to act effectively. the description also covers the cultural context in which language is set. the framework also defines levels of proficiency which allow learners’ progress to be measured at each stage of learning and on a life-long basis (cefrl, 2001, p. 1). barrett et al. (2018) put forth some criteria for the formulation of indicators, namely: 1) brevity, that is, having a maximum of 25 words; 2) positivity, expressing a skill or goal in affirmative sentences; 3) clarity, that is, no jargon and simple structure; 4) independence, in other words, being independent of another indicator; and 5) accuracy, that is, describing whether a certain behavior or a certain goal was achieved or not. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 2, 2021 74 published by scholink inc. taking the literature from the area and the analysis of the internal and public assessment documents into account, the cl staff initiated phase 4 which encompassed the design of new assessment instruments aligned with the redesigned assessment documents. in the following section, we present one of the results of this research endeavor, specifically taken from the english department staff. this department engaged in producing an assessment matrix for placement testing aligned with the other institutional assessment documents which, in turn, were aligned with the revised program curricular goals. as we present the assessment matrix for placement testing, we will make the connections with the literature. 4. results and discussion as mentioned before in this manuscript, the main outcomes of this project were the redesign of the institutional assessment documents and, subsequently, the assessment instruments. the english department at the cl, in particular, underwent a surgical process of (re)construction of the assessment matrix for placement testing and its instruments, which will be used here as illustration of how the staff used the theory and knowledge of the program curricular goals to attenuate the issue they were having with misplaced students. the process of rethinking the assessment documents for placement testing started with the redesign of indicators for that purpose, which had to be carefully and meticulously aligned with the course curriculum. before we analyze the process of creating the indicators, we shall describe the redesign of the placement testing instruments. there are two types of placement tests at the cl’s english department: 1) one multiple-choice exam with a reading section, a grammar and vocabulary section and a listening section; and 2) one with a written test (essay) and an oral interview. as part of a screening process prior to the exam, the incoming students fill out an application form in which they describe their language learning experience. depending on the information they fill in the form, the coordination staff will assign test 1 (multiple-choice) or test 2 (essay and interview) for the candidate. test 1 is geared towards candidates who have had less numbers of hours of instruction and test 2 is assigned to candidates who have had an extensive number of hours of instruction (around 300h). test 1 was completely redesigned question by question going from a 100-item test to an 80-item test (with a listening section, a reading section and a grammar and vocabulary section), which contained questions from all across the curriculum (brown, 2004) and were aligned with curricular goals of teaching and learning (richards, 2009). decreasing the number of questions made the test more practical to administer (the cl administers up to 250-300 tests each turn—usually happening twice in the academic semester), which increased security, validity, reliability and provoked positive washback (coombe, folse & humbley, 2007). www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 2, 2021 75 published by scholink inc. test 2 was completely redesigned as well. the test is still divided between an essay part and an oral interview. this time, candidates are presented with 2 images and guiding questions and have 40 minutes to write a 150-word-minimum essay about 1 one them. upon finishing their writing exam, candidates are directed to the interview in which they are supposed to talk about the same image they have chosen in the writing part. the role of the interviewer is more of a facilitator to welcome the candidate, to unwind by talking about personal information and then approaching the topic with some discussion questions (the same as in the writing part). the interviewer is only supposed to interfere if he/she perceives that the candidate needs, and will benefit from, a supportive or provocative question. the two parts of the test add validity and reliability to the test as it provides more data for a better-informed decision about the level of the candidate. the examiner has the chance to verify and explore both in written and also in oral form different structures of the english language, from simple to more sophisticated, vocabulary range, pronunciation and, ultimately, the candidate’s command of the language (cefrl, 2001; coombe, folse & humbley, 2007). the meticulous process of designing the indicators for placement test 2 (written test and oral interview) was informed by the literature presented here and resulted in an assessment matrix for written expression and another one for oral expression. these two documents have helped the staff attenuate the problem of misplaced students in the sense that: 1) the indicators have been aligned with the course or program curricular goals (richards, 2009); 2) with this alignment of the indicators and curricular goals, validity and reliability (coombe, folse & humbley, 2007) were increased; 3) the specifications or the indicators of the test reflect its purpose (brown, 2004); 4) the indicators echo the specifications of the cefrl (2001), making it easily relatable to standardized proficiency levels; 5) the indicators are carefully and accurately written expressing the skill or goal the learner is expected to achieve (barrett et al., 2018); and finally, 6) because this project was undertaken as a collaborative task, the staff of the english department was able to have a more comprehensive understanding of the complexity of why, what and how to assess in order to get better results (raupp & kolb, 1990; raupp & reichle, 2003). table 1 shows the oral assessment matrix for placement testing, one of the products of the project, which is now in its phase 4, the piloting stage. some adjustments have been made on the punctuation for the levels at the cl and in the instruments of test 2. candidates are now required to take the multiple-choice test, then the essay exam and, lastly, do the oral interview. there was consensus that the candidates screened for test 2 required that more information was collected in order for the examiner to make a more informed decision about his/her level (raupp & kolb, 1990; raupp & reichle, 2003). the document was designed in portuguese, candidates’ and teachers’ native language, for the sake of transparency and also for it to be a model for the other departments at the cl. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 2, 2021 76 published by scholink inc. table 1. placement testing matrix for oral assessment níveis/faixas de pontuação/pontuação valores fluência vocabulário gramática pronúncia b2 13-16 pontos ing 9 e ing 10 4 discurso com certa espontaneidade, coerente, com raras pausas para aprimorar e/ou reformular ideias, sem prejuízo ao fluxo da fala. expõe opinião sobre temas globais e ideias abstratas com variedade lexical. de modo geral, faz uso de estruturas complexas com raras inadequações que não comprometem a inteligibilidade da fala. pronúncia clara com entonação próxima a da língua alvo. raros lapsos que não comprometem a inteligibilidade da fala. b1 9-12 pontos ing 7 e ing 8 3 discurso coerente, porém, simples, com pausas curtas para resolver algum problema de construção linguística, exigindo algum esforço para expressar-se. expõe posicionamento sobre temas cotidianos e ideias em geral com léxico simples. faz uso de estruturas gramaticais complexas com algumas inadequações decorrentes de interferência de l1. pronúncia, em geral, clara, com entonação regular e lapsos pontuais. menor ou igual a ing 4 e ing 3 2 discurso compreensível com pausas evidentes para resolver algum problema de construção linguística, que causam interrupções frequentes ao fluxo da fala. discorre sobre temas do cotidiano e expressa ideias com léxico simples e interferências ocasionais da l1. faz uso de estruturas simples com inadequações decorrentes de interferência da l1 e que, por vezes, comprometem a inteligibilidade da fala. pronúncia com interferência da l1 e/ou de outras línguas que, por vezes, compromete a inteligibilidade da fala. a decisão final se dará a partir do alinhamento entre entrevistador e corretor. 1 discurso com constantes pausas e hesitações, que causam interrupções ao fluxo da fala. expressa ideias simples com frases curtas, com interferências constantes da l1. faz uso de estruturas sem flexão de tempos verbais e/ou concordância, com ordem invertida de palavras. pronúncia com forte interferência da l1 e/ou de outras línguas que frequentemente afeta a inteligibilidade da fala. source: núcleo de línguas, programa cursos de línguas (ufes). www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 2, 2021 77 published by scholink inc. 5. conclusion: drawbacks & affordances in this paper, we described the process of redesign of indicators of the assessment documents of the languages center at the federal university of espírito santo, brazil. the staff of the english department, in special, took on an extra project, which was to redesign the placement testing documents. the desire to implement such project grew out of the observation from the teachers and coordination staff of misplaced students after an adjustment to the assessment system around 2013. after observing the phenomenon, the english department staff took action and set off on a qualitative research approach which encompassed a theoretical embedding phase, a calibration phase and a piloting phase. the outcome was a new assessment matrix for placement test type 2 (see above) for oral and written expression and also new placement testing instruments. as per the hypothesis and research questions we posed, as we observe the consistency of results of placements for the past year, this suggests that the assessment documents, indeed, to some extent influenced the misplacements happening before the changes. however, a more detailed study should be carried out to confirm. as for the drawbacks encountered on the way, speaking specifically of the english department and their attempt to redesign the placement testing documents, because this is the largest department at the cl, with the greatest concentration of novice teachers, it was (still is!) difficult for novice teachers to conduct the placement test (type 2) using these documents. the novice teachers may not have a very comprehensive understanding of the program curricular goals and how they branch out into the benchmark levels. not only do they have little grasp of the curricular goals for different proficiency levels, but also, they had little experience teaching the levels of the course to see it in practice. this fact concentrated the work of placement tests on more experienced teachers, who represent a smaller contingent at the cl. ideally, all teachers should be able to conduct the placement test. this issue has been recognized and training sessions are in order to tackle the problem. a strategy used when designing the indicators was to attribute numerical values for the areas and indicators so that the sum of the indicators represents the level placed. another difficulty faced by the staff when designing the indicators was to make them independent from one another (barrett et al., 2018). because we understand the skill or linguistic knowledge being assessed in holistic way, it was hard not to make one indicator dependent on the other. there were countless and long debates on one single word or line, which made the process quite exhausting. on the brighter side of things, we can count some affordances from this undertaking. the staff has noticed less complaints about misplacements both from teachers and from students. there have been, of course, some small level adjustments, which are part of the placement process. as mentioned elsewhere in this paper, the fact that this was a teacher-led project, as opposed to a top-down decision made by the coordination staff, the redesign of the indicators was beneficial to all as we had to go back to the foundations of assessment and reassure our language teaching and learning philosophies. this exercise helped us look at both the internal (e.g., the cl’s assessment documents) and the public documents (e.g., the cefrl) and make the necessary links between them to have a clearer idea of what www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 2, 2021 78 published by scholink inc. our program curricular goals are and also to have a more global view on language proficiency. in times of the internationalization of education worldwide, this understanding is crucial to make the institution move forward. finally, the experience of designing indicators for a placement test in dialogue with internal and external documents gave us the experience to work with assessment grids, which are used worldwide to assess students and help us minimize the subjectivity of any assessment endeavor. acknowledgements the author would like to acknowledge the work of the ufes’ languages center english department staff during this project. special thanks to: sandra prates, leni puppin, wendell máximo, gustavo reges, danilo marinho, manoel sampaio júnior, danuza fonseca e sandlei moraes. references almeida, j. (2018). approaches and tools for internationalisation at home. bolzano, italy. 08 set. conference. bachman, l., & palmer, a. (1996). language testing in practice: designing and developing useful language tests. oxford university press. barrett, m. et al. (2018). reference framework of competences for democratic culture, descriptors for democratic culture. council of europe, 2. brown, h. d. (2004). language assessment: principles and classroom practices: united stated of america. a pearson education. coombe, c. a., folse, k. s., & hubley, n. j. (2007). a practical guide to assessing english language learners. university of michigan press. council of europe. council for cultural co-operation. education committee. modern languages division. (2001). common european framework of reference for languages: learning, teaching, assessment. cambridge university press. creswell, j. w. (2007). projeto de pesquisa métodos qualitativo, quantitativo e misto. in projeto de pesquisa métodos qualitativo, quantitativo e misto. artmed. raupp, m., & kolb, f. a. (1990). evaluation management handbook. andover, ma: network, inc. raupp, m., & reichle, a. (2003). avaliação: ferramenta para melhores projetos (p. 251). santa cruz do sul: edunisc. richards, j. c. (2001). curriculum development in language teaching. ernst klett sprachen. https://doi.org/10.1017/cbo9780511667220 rossman, g. b., & rallis, s. (1998). analyzing and interpreting data. in g. b. rossman, & s. rallis (eds.), learning in the field: an introduction to qualitative research. sage publications. https://doi.org/10.1017/cbo9780511667220 www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 2, 2021 79 published by scholink inc. notes note 1. the cl uses a unified performance-based assessment system and the staff from all departments felt the need to change/redesign/refine the assessment documents. the staff of the english department went a step further and decided to invest time and energy on assessment documents for its placement testing procedures. in this paper, we are referring to the whole process of refinement of the documents, but with a special focus on the placement testing procedures and documents of the english department. note 2. there were two tasks going on at the same time: 1) the redesign of the institutional assessment documents being carried out by the cl’s whole staff, and 2) the redesign of a specific assessment document/matrix for placement testing purposes being carried out by the english department staff only. we are focusing on the latter. frontiers of contemporary education issn 2690-3520 (print) issn 2690-3539 (online) vol. 5, no. 2, 2024 www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce 1 original paper exploring the challenges of online learning in nigerian higher education christian o. akaeze 1* & nana shaibu akaeze 2 1 college of education, concordia university, river forest, il., usa 2 college of education and leadership, eastern university, saint davids, pa, usa * christian o. akaeze, e-mail: chris.akaeze21@gmail.com received: september 5, 2024 accepted: september 12, 2024 online published: october 14, 2024 doi:10.22158/fce.v5n2p1 url: http://dx.doi.org/10.22158/fce.v5n2p1 abstract this study examines the challenges faced by lecturers in nigerian higher education institutions when adopting and using e-learning platforms. through virtual interviews conducted with 12 university lecturers across six regions, the research identifies several key obstacles: unreliable internet connectivity, frequent power outages, and limited access to technological resources. additionally, inadequate training and institutional support are noted as significant barriers. thematic analysis was employed to analyze the qualitative data, revealing patterns and common themes related to these challenges. the study suggests that improving internet and power infrastructure, along with enhancing training and technical support, are crucial strategies for overcoming these issues. the findings emphasize the need for targeted interventions to create a more supportive environment for e-learning, aiming to improve the educational experience for both lecturers and students. keywords e-learning challenges, ict infrastructure, nigerian higher education, online learning adoption, developing economies 1. introduction online learning has dramatically influenced how knowledge is stored, shared, and transferred, how skills are practiced, and how teachers and other stakeholders interact (anderson & hajhashemi, 2013). online learning requires students to manage their learning more than traditional education because it offers less external control and more freedom and flexibility (wong et al., 2019). developing countries, including nigeria, face significant challenges in fully benefiting from e-learning due to the high costs of building infrastructure and expanding internet and information and communication technology https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/education/articles/10.3389/feduc.2023.1334153/full#ref5 www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 5, no. 2, 2024 2 published by scholink inc. (ict) access. in nigerian tertiary institutions, e-learning implementation is still problematic because of inadequate ict infrastructure and various socio-economic factors. many universities and colleges do not have enough computers and specialized reading devices for students, and they have not yet integrated technologies like television conferencing (nwabufo et al., 2012). the growing use of technology in education has transformed traditional learning, making online learning a key part of higher education. recently, online learning has become a powerful tool for improving educational access, flexibility, and interaction (kamraju et al., 2024). however, the success of online learning depends largely on the willingness and ability of students and educators to use these digital resources effectively (alyoussef, 2023). understanding the factors that influence the use of online learning platforms by lecturers and students is vital for higher education institutions, particularly in developing economies like nigeria, where access to technology and digital skills can vary greatly (eze et al., 2020). despite the global trend towards digital learning, there is limited research on adopting online learning in nigerian higher education. most studies have focused on technological infrastructure and institutional readiness, often neglecting the individual factors that impact engagement with online platforms. furthermore, there is little research on strategies to enhance online learning adoption among lecturers and the main challenges they face in using online facilities in nigerian higher education. this gap in the literature highlights the need for a deeper understanding of the various factors influencing the use of online learning tools, especially in the context of nigerian higher education. eze et al. (2020) explored the factors influencing e-learning use in nigeria, focusing on students from a private higher education institution, and pointed out the need for further research involving lecturers to provide a fuller perspective. falola et al. (2022) recommended expanding future studies to include universities across nigeria’s six geo-political zones. this study addresses these gaps by examining lecturers' challenges in using online learning resources in nigerian higher education institutions. this research uses a basic qualitative design to focus on the experiences and perceptions of 12 lecturers selected from six universities across nigeria’s major regions. data were collected through qualitative questionnaires to investigate technological and infrastructural challenges and the impact of individual attitudes, perceived ease of use, and cultural influences on online learning adoption. the findings from this study aim to offer valuable insights for educators, policymakers, and technology providers to enhance the effectiveness of online learning strategies in similar contexts. 1.1 online learning in nigerian higher education online or remote teaching is a form of distance education where students receive learning and assessments without physically attending a university campus (imran et al., 2023). although remote education has existed for a long time, it was initially conducted through postal communication before the internet era (imran et al., 2023). with technological advancements, remote education was modernized, and online courses became feasible for the first time in the early 1990s. online education has become vital to higher education (mckenna et al., 2022). online learning in higher education involves delivering www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 5, no. 2, 2024 3 published by scholink inc. educational content and instruction through online digital platforms. this mode allows students to access courses, lectures, and resources remotely, usually through learning management systems (lms) such as blackboard and moodle. formats of online learning can include fully online courses, hybrid or blended learning (a mix of online and face-to-face instruction), and massive open online courses (al-kahtani et al., 2022). the flexibility of online learning allows students to study at their own pace and from any location, making it especially advantageous for non-traditional students, such as working professionals, parents, or those with geographical or mobility constraints. interactive features like discussion forums, video conferencing, quizzes, and multimedia content enhance student engagement and learning outcomes. however, online learning in higher education also faces challenges, such as maintaining student engagement, ensuring academic integrity, providing adequate technological support, and guaranteeing equitable access for all students. the success of online learning depends on the quality of course design, the digital literacy of students and faculty, the availability of technological infrastructure, and the teaching strategies used (meylani, 2023). in nigerian higher education, online learning encounters specific challenges that limit its effectiveness. a significant issue is inadequate ict infrastructure; many universities and colleges lack essential technological resources, such as computers, reliable internet, and digital learning tools, which hampers the ability of both students and lecturers to engage fully with online platforms (nwabufo et al., 2012). socio-economic factors also play a critical role, as many students come from economically disadvantaged backgrounds, limiting their access to the devices and internet services needed for online education (nwabufo et al., 2012). high data costs further exacerbate these challenges, making consistent participation in online learning difficult. moreover, digital literacy among lecturers is often insufficient, impacting their ability to use online platforms and engage with digital content effectively. this skills gap results in a steep learning curve, which can reduce the effectiveness of online education. resistance to online learning, where traditional face-to-face education is preferred, presents a significant challenge. many lecturers in nigeria view online learning as less effective, which affects their willingness to adopt digital methods. additionally, inadequate government policies and support impede the standardization and coordination needed for effective online education. addressing these challenges involves enhancing infrastructure, improving digital skills, providing financial support, encouraging a cultural shift towards online learning, and developing comprehensive policies to guide online education in nigerian higher education institutions. 1.2 additional literature related to online learning challenges to provide a comprehensive understanding of the challenges associated with online learning in nigerian higher education, it is crucial to consider findings from studies conducted in other contexts. karakose et al. (2022) examined digital addiction, which includes dependencies on the internet, social media, smartphones, and other digital technologies, and its effects on user experiences and academic productivity. their bibliometric and science mapping analysis highlighted a shift in research focus from general addictive behaviors to more specific issues such as smartphone and social media addiction. these www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 5, no. 2, 2024 4 published by scholink inc. findings emphasize the need to address technological constraints and their impact on online learning, an issue that resonates with the challenges faced by nigerian institutions, including unreliable internet and limited technological resources. in the realm of digital transformation and leadership, karakose and tülübaş (2023) explored the role of digital leadership in facilitating structural and pedagogical changes within educational institutions. they argue that leadership models integrating digital technologies are crucial for improving educational outcomes. this perspective is particularly relevant for nigerian higher education, where strengthening digital leadership could enhance the integration and effectiveness of e-learning platforms, addressing infrastructure and support challenges. papadakis (2023) discussed the effectiveness and ongoing challenges of massive open online courses (moocs), such as high dropout rates and reduced user engagement. although moocs provide flexible learning opportunities, they face persistent issues that must be addressed to improve implementation. this insight is pertinent to nigerian higher education, where similar challenges may hinder the adoption and success of online learning platforms. lavidas et al. (2023) investigated factors influencing the use of e-learning systems, focusing on moodle from the perspective of academic personnel. they identified perceived usefulness and ease of use as significant factors affecting lecturers’ intention to use e-learning systems. their findings suggest that enhancing training and technical support is crucial for the successful adoption of e-learning platforms, aligning with the needs identified in nigerian higher education. additionally, lavidas et al. (2022) examined web survey response rates, highlighting factors such as incentives, survey structure, and reminders. understanding these factors is essential for designing more effective surveys to assess online learning challenges in nigerian higher education, ensuring higher response rates and more reliable data. these studies collectively provide valuable insights into the various challenges and considerations related to online learning, offering a broad perspective that can help inform strategies and interventions in the nigerian context. 1.3 research gap current research on e-learning in nigerian higher education has predominantly concentrated on students’ experiences and challenges, often overlooking the critical perspectives of lecturers. this research gap is significant, as understanding lecturers’ viewpoints is crucial for a comprehensive analysis of e-learning adoption. lecturers play a pivotal role in the implementation and success of online learning systems, and their insights can reveal unique challenges and needs that are not captured through student-focused studies alone. addressing this gap by incorporating lecturers’ perspectives will offer a more nuanced and balanced view of e-learning implementation. it will provide valuable insights into the barriers and facilitators they encounter, including technological constraints, infrastructural limitations, and support deficiencies. the study aims to contribute to a more holistic understanding of e-learning challenges in nigerian higher education by filling this gap. this, in turn, will inform targeted interventions and strategies better aligned www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 5, no. 2, 2024 5 published by scholink inc. with the realities of lecturers and students, ultimately enhancing the effectiveness of e-learning practices across diverse educational contexts in nigeria. 1.4 research problem: problem statement despite the increasing significance of online learning in higher education, there is a notable lack of understanding regarding the challenges lecturers face when using e-learning platforms in nigerian universities. existing literature has not adequately explored the opportunities for e-learning and faculty engagement within nigerian institutions (falola et al., 2022). studies like that of eze et al. (2020) have primarily focused on student experiences in private universities that have invested heavily in e-learning infrastructure. however, there is insufficient research on the difficulties lecturers encounter in private and public higher education institutions across nigeria’s diverse geopolitical regions. this gap in knowledge is crucial because understanding lecturers’ challenges can provide essential insights into the infrastructural, technological, and pedagogical barriers that hinder effective online learning. addressing these gaps is vital for developing strategies to improve online education in private and public institutions throughout nigeria. as of 2020, nigerian tertiary institutions struggled to fully implement e-learning due to inadequate ict infrastructure and various socio-economic barriers (egielewa et al., 2022). furthermore, ofor-douglas (2022) noted that, aside from a few private institutions offering some online classes, no nigerian university has been authorized by the national universities commission to operate entirely online. as of july 2022, out of 217 universities in nigeria, only 15 offered open and distance learning (odl), with 11 being federal, two state-run, and two privately owned (adamu, 2022). 2. method this basic qualitative study investigates lecturers’ challenges with online learning in nigerian higher education institutions. qualitative research is particularly suitable for this inquiry as it focuses on understanding how individuals interpret and make sense of their experiences and environments (creswell, 2013). this approach effectively explores participants’ perspectives in a detailed and descriptive manner, allowing for a deeper understanding of lecturers’ difficulties with e-learning platforms. given the complexity of the issues involved, a qualitative research method is ideal for capturing lecturers’ diverse experiences and insights across private and public universities in nigeria. this study involves conducting one-on-one virtual interviews with administrators and faculty members, enabling a thorough exploration of the infrastructural, technological, and pedagogical barriers that hinder effective online learning (neuman, 2000). the research aims to uncover the nuanced challenges often overlooked in quantitative studies by engaging directly with participants. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 5, no. 2, 2024 6 published by scholink inc. 2.1 research design the basic qualitative design was chosen because it allows for an in-depth examination of participants’ experiences within a manageable timeframe, ensuring a comprehensive understanding of the issues while maintaining flexibility in data collection and analysis. this design is particularly effective for studies focused on understanding the complex, real-world issues educators face, such as the obstacles to fully implementing e-learning in nigeria due to inadequate ict infrastructure and socio-economic challenges (egielewa et al., 2022). unlike more rigid research designs, the basic qualitative design offers the flexibility to adjust methods as new insights emerge. it is well-suited for capturing the evolving nature of online learning in a diverse context like nigeria. it enables us to systematically explore lecturers’ perspectives and better understand the factors affecting their engagement with e-learning platforms. this approach also supports the development of targeted strategies to improve online education in nigerian higher education institutions, addressing both the technological limitations and the socio-cultural resistance that currently impede progress. the study employed a purposive sampling technique to select participants. purposive sampling involves selecting participants based on their attributes (bernard, 2002). for this research, 12 lecturers were carefully chosen to provide insights into the challenges of online learning in nigerian higher education. 2.2 research question this study is guided by the primary qualitative research question: what are the challenges faced by lecturers in adopting and utilizing e-learning platforms in nigerian higher education institutions across different geopolitical contexts? the research question aims to explore lecturers’ perspectives on the specific obstacles they encounter with e-learning, such as technological limitations, infrastructure challenges, and pedagogical issues. according to agee (2009), a general question can be a starting point for developing more specific sub-questions as the research progresses. to provide a more focused exploration of different aspects of the topic, the primary research question was separated into three distinct sub-questions including: 1) what are the key challenges lecturers face in adopting and using online learning facilities in nigerian higher education institutions? 2) why do lecturers in nigerian higher education institutions face difficulties adopting and utilizing e-learning platforms across geopolitical contexts? 3) what strategies can be developed and implemented to improve the adoption and effective use of e-learning platforms among lecturers and students in nigerian higher education? by focusing on lecturers across various regions and types of universities, the study seeks to provide a more comprehensive understanding of the factors affecting the successful implementation of online learning in nigeria. by addressing these questions, the study seeks to contribute to the broader www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 5, no. 2, 2024 7 published by scholink inc. discourse on digital learning and offer practical recommendations for fostering an inclusive and effective online learning environment in higher education. 2.3 data collection methods participants were invited through emails to join a virtual interview on zoom interview guide with the same set of questions to maintain focus and consistency across the multiple interviews. for this study, semi-structured interviews were used to gather data on the challenges of online learning in nigerian higher education. this method was chosen because it is more cost-effective and time-efficient than in-person interviews (krouwel et al., 2019). semi-structured interviews provide flexibility while ensuring key topics are addressed, enabling a deeper understanding of faculty members’ experiences and the difficulties they encounter with online teaching. a purposeful sampling strategy was used to select 12 university lecturers (two from each major region) with diverse backgrounds from universities in the six major regions of nigeria, all of whom have significant experience of up to five years in higher education. according to gore et al. (2024), teachers with at least five years of experience are considered knowledgeable enough to provide valuable insights across their career span. this approach ensures that participants can offer meaningful perspectives on the challenges of implementing e-learning in nigerian universities. interviews, based on a semi-structured interview guide, are a simplified display of questions or topics that will be explored by the interviewer (dicicco-bloom & crabtree, 2006). for this study, an interview guide with open-ended questions was developed to explore participants’ experiences with online learning, including technological, infrastructural, and pedagogical challenges. the guide ensures that each interview covers the same core topics while allowing in-depth discussions. interviews were conducted individually, based on participant availability and preference, in a setting that ensures comfort and confidentiality to encourage open sharing. informed consent was obtained before recording, and interviews were audio-recorded with notes taken to accurately capture responses. participants were contacted via email for the option to schedule interviews. the data collection providing detailed insights into the challenges of online learning in nigerian higher education was completed within two weeks. 2.4 data analysis a thematic analysis was conducted following braun and clarke’s (2006) six-step approach to understand the data and identify key themes. these steps include (1) becoming familiar with the data, (2) creating initial codes, (3) looking for themes, (4) reviewing the themes, (5) defining and naming the themes, and (6) writing the final report. thematic analysis is a trusted qualitative method that helps researchers find, analyze, and report patterns (themes) within data (creswell, 2013). this analysis revealed five main themes: (a) technological and infrastructural challenges, (b) lack of training and institutional support, (c) improving internet and power infrastructure, (d) enhancing training and technical support, and (e) technological and infrastructural challenges. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 5, no. 2, 2024 8 published by scholink inc. 2.5 conceptual framework the conceptual framework for this study is the community of inquiry (coi) framework, developed by garrison et al. (2000). this framework is ideal for understanding online learning in higher education. it focuses on three essential components: cognitive presence, social presence, and teaching presence. cognitive presence: this refers to the learners’ ability to actively engage and make meaning through discussions and activities. social presence: this is about feeling connected to others in the online learning environment, which helps in building a supportive learning community. teaching presence: this involves the instructor’s role in guiding and facilitating the learning process. the coi framework helps analyze how these three components interact to create an effective online learning experience and is crucial for identifying and addressing challenges in online education. 2.6 aligning conceptual framework with study topic the coi framework is well-aligned with this study as it provides a comprehensive approach to examining the complexities of online education in nigerian higher education. it aligns with the study’s focus on identifying challenges, understanding context-specific difficulties, and developing strategies to improve online learning adoption and effectiveness. research question 1: the coi framework’s elements of cognitive, social, and teaching presences help pinpoint the challenges lecturers encounter when using online learning tools. lecturers might find it hard to create a cognitive presence because of limited technology or lack of training. they may also struggle with social presence due to a shortage of engagement tools, and teaching presence can be difficult because of inadequate support in delivering content. research question 2: the coi framework helps analyze how different geopolitical contexts, such as infrastructure and internet accessibility, affect online learning adoption. for example, poor connectivity may hinder cognitive presence, leading to varied experiences and challenges for lecturers. research question 3: the coi framework guides the development of strategies to enhance online learning adoption, such as training to improve teaching presence, tools to enhance social presence, and resources to support cognitive presence tailored to the nigerian context. 3. result responses from online questionnaires and zoom interviews with participants having at least five years at their institutions were analyzed using braun and clarke’s thematic analysis and nvivo 14 software. emergent open coding revealed 121 code segments, organized into 12 sub-themes and synthesized into five major themes: technological and infrastructural challenges; lack of training and institutional support; improving internet and power infrastructure; enhancing training and technical support; and technological and infrastructural challenges. findings, supported by direct participant quotes, address challenges of online learning, guided by three sub-questions. the community of inquiry (coi) framework (garrison et al., 2000) underpinned the analysis, highlighting the challenges faced by www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 5, no. 2, 2024 9 published by scholink inc. lecturers in using online learning resources and identifying effective leadership strategies. research questions include: 1) what are the key challenges lecturers face in adopting and using online learning facilities in nigerian higher education institutions? 2) why do lecturers in nigerian higher education institutions face difficulties in adopting and utilizing e-learning platforms across different geopolitical contexts? 3) what strategies can be developed and implemented to improve the adoption and effective use of e-learning platforms among lecturers and students in nigerian higher education? 3.1 findings this section will present the study’s findings, organized by research questions, themes, and sub-themes. thematic analysis using nvivo 14 is detailed here, supported by participant quotes to enhance the report’s credibility and provide insights into their experiences. the basic qualitative study design was a helpful approach to exploring participant’s professional experiences (bailey, 2018). the basic qualitative study design was effective in exploring these experiences. interviews responses from nigerian lecturers, offer a thorough understanding of the challenges they face with online learning. participant quotes enhanced the narrative, making the findings more relatable. the integration of theoretical frameworks and literature review helps contextualize these findings and makes the results more relatable. the major themes covered in this study include technological and infrastructural challenges; lack of training and institutional support; improving internet and power infrastructure; enhancing training and technical support and technological and infrastructural challenges. 3.2 r1: lecturers key challenges in nigerian e-learning two major themes emerged from research question one: technological and infrastructural challenges and lack of training and institutional support. these two major themes that address the challenges lecturers face in adopting and using online learning facilities in nigerian higher education institutions include: 3.2.1 major theme: technological and infrastructural challenges participants reported that lecturers face significant technological and infrastructural barriers in adopting online learning, including unreliable internet connectivity, inconsistent power supply, and inadequate access to technology and resources. 3.2.2 internet connectivity internet connectivity is the key to successful online learning (ogolodom et al., 2023). the challenges encountered in online learning included internet access (ofori atakorah et al., 2022; ogolodom et al., 2023). despite the positive guidelines from the national university commission (nuc), many university libraries in nigeria still lack internet connectivity (baro & oyinnuah asaba, 2010). poor connectivity infrastructure is evident in the lack of affordable access to pcs, internet devices, modems, telephone lines, and internet connections, with internet use further limited by structural and cost factors www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 5, no. 2, 2024 10 published by scholink inc. (oyelaran-oyeyinka & adeya, 2004). for example, one participant from the northern nigeria commented, “the lack of reliable internet connectivity is a major issue. many areas have poor network coverage, making it difficult for both lecturers and students to access online platforms consistently”, and another from eastern nigeria said, “unstable internet connectivity... hampers our ability to deliver lectures and engage with students effectively”. 3.2.3 power supply electricity supply situation in nigeria can be best described as a total failure (ikenga et al., 2023). the poor electricity situation in nigeria makes it difficult to implement elearning systems effectively, as information and communication technologies (icts) rely heavily on electricity (bubou & job, 2021). several participants in this study noted that poor power supply in nigeria seriously hinders online learning in universities. for example, one lecturer from western nigeria said, “frequent power outages disrupt online classes and make it difficult for both lecturers and students to rely on digital platforms for learning”. another from eastern nigeria argued that “frequent power outages disrupt online teaching sessions, making it challenging to rely on digital platforms for lectures and assessments”. in nigeria, the challenges of implementing e-learning in universities include irregular power supply (bubou & job, 2021). 3.2.4 access to technology technology is crucial in modern education, and schools are expected to use it to improve student learning. however, challenges exist, especially when teachers haven’t received enough training, leaving them without the skills to effectively use technology in the classroom (winter et al., 2021). teachers must understand how and when to use technology, as it can be a valuable tool when applied correctly. the success of integrating technology in education depends on teachers’ technological skills and their ability to adjust both the quality and quantity of the curriculum (winter et al., 2021). for example, one participant from northern nigeria said, “not all lecturers and students have laptops or smartphones capable of running online learning applications effectively”. another participant, south-south nigeria, “there is limited access to necessary technological infrastructure. some universities in the region lack modern digital tools, up-to-date software, and reliable online learning management systems”. 3.3 major theme: lack of training and institutional support participants generally agreed that there is a shortage of training for lecturers on how to effectively use online learning tools and platforms, compounded by limited institutional support and resources, making it challenging for lecturers to adopt online learning effectively. 3.3.1 lack of training teachers in sub-saharan africa, including nigeria, face challenges like insufficient training and resources (adebayo et al., 2023). in this study, participants argued that obstacles which challenge the effective implementation of online learning include lack of teacher training. according to a participant from northern nigeria “there is often a lack of technical support and training on how to use these tools for effective teaching and learning”. another participant from a western nigerian university said “there www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 5, no. 2, 2024 11 published by scholink inc. is a lack of adequate training and support for lecturers. many of us are not fully equipped with the skills needed to effectively use online teaching tools and platforms”. in nigeria the challenges of implementing e-learning in universities include inadequate trained human resources (bubou & job, 2021). 3.3.2 limited institutional support institutional support is closely connected to the quality of education (nur ullah et al., 2021). providing strong institutional support for quality online teaching can enhance the online learning experience (khong et al., 2023). one participant from northern nigeria suggested that “many universities... do not have the necessary infrastructure or funding to fully support online learning”. additionally, one participant from eastern nigeria said, “universities in the region may not have the necessary infrastructure, such as digital libraries or software licenses, to support online learning effectively”. 3.4 r2: challenges in adopting e-learning in nigeria a common theme from the responses provided by lecturers across different regions in nigeria is that lecturers experience technological and infrastructural challenges. 3.4.1 major theme: technological and infrastructural challenges online education in its various forms has been growing steadily worldwide for various reasons including new technologies (palvia et al., 2018). in nigeria the challenges of implementing e-learning in universities include insufficient instructional technologies (bubou & job, 2021). participants in this study argued that lecturers across various regions in nigeria face significant difficulties in adopting and utilizing e-learning platforms due to unreliable internet connectivity, frequent power outages, and limited access to necessary technological resources. 3.4.2 unreliable internet connectivity many participating lecturers mention poor internet quality as a major barrier to effective e-learning. for instance, a lecturer from eastern nigeria states, “the main issue is unstable internet connectivity, which makes it difficult to conduct and attend online classes smoothly”. similarly, a lecturer from north-western nigeria highlights, “a major issue is poor internet connectivity, which affects the ability to consistently access online resources and participate in virtual classes”. 3.4.3 frequent power outages in addition, participants argued that power supply issues are a common challenge. a western nigeria lecturer pointed out, “inconsistent power supply... leads to frequent disruptions in online classes”. similarly, a lecturer from south-south nigeria notes, “frequent power outages further disrupt online sessions and make it challenging to maintain a consistent teaching schedule”. 3.4.4 lack of adequate training and institutional support participants argued that there is a shared concern about the lack of sufficient training and institutional support for e-learning across the regions. a lecturer from north-eastern nigeria states, “there is often a lack of institutional support and training, which hinders the effective integration of e-learning into the educational process”. in eastern nigeria, another lecturer mentions, “there is insufficient training and technical support for lecturers on how to use e-learning tools effectively”. according to participants, www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 5, no. 2, 2024 12 published by scholink inc. these technological and infrastructural issues collectively hinder the ability of lecturers in nigerian higher education institutions to effectively adopt and utilize e-learning platforms across different geopolitical contexts. 3.5 r3: strategies to enhance e-learning adoption and use two major themes from the responses to research question 3 include improving internet and power infrastructure and enhancing training and technical support. the themes highlight the importance of addressing foundational infrastructure issues and enhancing support systems to improve the adoption and effectiveness of e-learning platforms. 3.5.1 major theme: improving internet and power infrastructure improving internet connectivity would increase students’ engagement in online learning (salas-pilco et al., 2022). most participants in this study suggested that to enhance e-learning adoption and use among lecturers and students, the authorities should endeavor to improve internet and power infrastructure by expanding network coverage, investing in reliable technology, promoting renewable energy, upgrading electrical systems, establishing maintenance programs, etc. according to them, by addressing these areas, nigerian higher education institutions can create a more reliable and effective environment for e-learning, ultimately enhancing the educational experience for lecturers and students. one participant said, “enhance infrastructure to ensure more reliable and faster internet access” and “work on solutions to stabilize the power supply, such as investing in backup generators or solar power systems”. another suggested, “invest in improving internet connectivity by enhancing network coverage and increasing bandwidth”, and “implement measures to address frequent power outages, such as providing backup generators or solar power solutions”. additional submissions by study participants include “invest in improving both internet connectivity and power supply to reduce disruptions” and “provide backup power solutions to ensure reliable access to e-learning platforms”. and “implement reliable backup power solutions and invest in alternative energy sources” and “partner with internet service providers to improve the quality and reliability of internet connections”. 3.5.2 major theme: enhancing training and technical support supporting the development of skills needed for online study may enhance the learning experience (rotar, 2022). regarding the strategies to enhance e-learning adoption and use among lecturers and students in nigerian higher education, our study participants recommended enhancing the training and technical support. one participant from north-western nigeria argued that “implement comprehensive training programs for lecturers on how to use e-learning tools effectively”. she also suggested that “establish dedicated technical support teams to assist with troubleshooting and resolving issues”. two other participants from north-eastern nigeria suggested that “develop and provide targeted training programs for lecturers and students on using e-learning tools effectively” and “expand technical support”. two participants from south-south nigeria said that “offer comprehensive training programs for both lecturers and students to ensure they are proficient in using e-learning tools” and “provide ongoing support to address technical issues”. from the western nigeria two participants suggest that www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 5, no. 2, 2024 13 published by scholink inc. authorities “develop and offer training programs to help lecturers and students become proficient in using e-learning tools” and “establish dedicated technical support teams to assist with troubleshooting and resolving issues related to e-learning platforms”. 4. discussion the study reveals critical challenges nigerian lecturers face in online learning, reflecting broader issues within the country’s educational infrastructure. key themes include technological and infrastructural barriers, such as unreliable internet connectivity, frequent power outages, and limited access to essential technology. these challenges significantly impact the ability of lecturers to engage with e-learning platforms. the findings underscore the need for robust internet and power infrastructure improvements to ensure a more stable e-learning environment. enhanced connectivity and reliable electricity are fundamental to minimizing disruptions and facilitating consistent online education. moreover, the study highlights a substantial gap in training and institutional support, exacerbating the difficulties lecturers face. comprehensive training programs and dedicated technical support are critical to equipping lecturers with the skills to navigate online teaching tools effectively. addressing these issues requires a multifaceted approach, including investing in technology infrastructure, promoting renewable energy solutions, and expanding training and support systems. by implementing these strategies, nigerian higher education institutions can enhance the effectiveness of e-learning platforms and provide a more conducive environment for both lecturers and students. 5. conclusion this study highlights significant challenges faced by lecturers in nigerian higher education institutions when adopting and using online learning platforms. key issues identified include unreliable internet connectivity, inconsistent power supply, and inadequate access to technology, which disrupt the continuity and quality of online education. these challenges are exacerbated by insufficient training and a lack of institutional support, hindering the effective integration of e-learning. insights from related research provide valuable context for understanding these issues. karakose et al. (2022) emphasize the shift in digital addiction research towards smartphone and social media addiction, which underscores the broader need to address technological constraints impacting online learning. similarly, karakose and tülübaş (2023) highlight the importance of digital leadership in driving educational improvements, a concept that is highly relevant for enhancing e-learning in nigeria. the persistent challenges with moocs, such as high dropout rates and reduced user engagement noted by papadakis (2023), align with the issues observed in nigeria and suggest that addressing these challenges is crucial for effective online learning. furthermore, lavidas et al. (2023) identify perceived usefulness and ease of use as critical factors for the adoption of e-learning systems like moodle, suggesting that enhanced training and technical support are necessary. lavidas et al. (2022) also highlight factors affecting web survey response rates, which are www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 5, no. 2, 2024 14 published by scholink inc. important for designing effective surveys to assess online learning challenges. to address these issues, this study recommends several strategies: enhancing internet and power infrastructure, expanding training programs, and improving technical support for lecturers. developing a comprehensive support system that includes regular training, and robust technical assistance is essential for improving the adoption and effective use of e-learning platforms. the findings underscore the urgent need for targeted interventions to overcome these barriers. by implementing these strategies and drawing on insights from relevant research, nigerian higher education institutions can better support their lecturers and students, ultimately fostering a more resilient and impactful educational framework. 6. implications of the study the study’s findings underscore critical implications for e-learning adoption in nigerian higher education. key challenges include unreliable internet connectivity, frequent power outages, and limited resource access, which hinder teaching quality and student engagement. addressing these infrastructural issues is essential for successful e-learning integration. additionally, the lack of adequate training and institutional support highlights the need for ongoing professional development and stronger backing for lecturers. targeted interventions, such as improving internet infrastructure, investing in renewable energy, and enhancing training programs, are vital for creating a more reliable and effective e-learning environment. policymakers should consider these factors when designing inclusive and sustainable e-learning policies. 7. recommendations for further research further research could explore the long-term effectiveness of interventions to improve e-learning infrastructure and support in nigerian higher education institutions. comparative studies across different regions in nigeria may also provide deeper insights into how local contexts influence e-learning adoption. additionally, future research could examine the role of government policy in mitigating e-learning challenges and how collaboration between universities and private sector organizations can enhance access to technology and resources. finally, expanding research to include student-teacher interactions in online environments would contribute to a more comprehensive understanding of e-learning dynamics. acknowledgment we would like to express our sincere gratitude to everyone who contributed to the completion of this study. our most profound appreciation goes to the lecturers who participated in the interviews and shared their valuable insights, making this research possible. we also thank my colleagues and mentors for their guidance, support, and constructive feedback throughout the research process. additionally, we thank the institutions that provided the necessary resources and support, enabling me to conduct this study effectively. finally, we would like to acknowledge the support of my family and friends, whose encouragement and understanding were invaluable during this journey. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 5, no. 2, 2024 15 published by scholink inc. references adamu, a. u. 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(2019). supporting self-regulated learning in online learning environments and moocs: a systematic review. international journal of human–computer interaction, 35(4), 356-373. https://doi.org/10.1080/10447318.2018.1543084 https://doi.org/10.1080/1097198x.2018.1542262 https://doi.org/10.25082/amler.2023.01.017 https://doi.org/10.1186/s41039-021-00178-4 https://doi.org/10.1111/bjet.13190 https://doi.org/10.1080/03323315.2021.1916559 https://doi.org/10.1080/10447318.2018.1543084 frontiers of contemporary education issn 2690-3520 (print) issn 2690-3539 (online) vol. 1, no. 1, 2020 www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce 46 original paper impact of in-class breaks on students’ revitalization: an observational study in china and bangladesh md sajjad hosain 1 1 business school, sichuan university, chengdu, china received: june 8, 2020 accepted: june 15, 2020 online published: june 18, 2020 doi:10.22158/fce.v1n1p46 url: http://dx.doi.org/10.22158/fce.v1n1p46 abstract students are the receiver and the teachers are the providers of information at a classroom. the exchange of information is conducted mainly through delivering lectures although there are several other ways to do that. generally in a longer class duration (more than 1 hour), breaks are quite essential for the students as well as for the lecturer to get revitalized. this study aims at examining the impact of in-class breaks on revitalizing or energizing the students in order to focus on the lectures effectively. the investigation was conducted on 527 bachelor and master students of three universities in china and three universities in bangladesh on a random sampling basis. those students participated at two different classes: one with frequent short breaks and other one with two long breaks where they were being observed. the results indicate that frequent short breaks can revitalize the students more than fewer long breaks. further, it was revealed that the chinese students were more punctual and efficient in time management than the bangladeshi students. the author hopes that this study will be inductive to the university lecturers as well as educational policymakers for putting more motivational focus for students in order to make the lectures enjoyable and effective. keywords in-class breaks, lecture, revitalization, university, undergrad & master student 1. introduction among all the jobs we do in our everyday lives, the most preferred word is having a “break” particularly if the job is longer in duration and requires utmost attention. as a matter of fact, whether or not we like coffee or tea, we always look forward to coffee/tea breaks. any action, irrespective whether it is physically or psychologically fatiguing, turns out to be boring after a while; and a small break serves to revitalize an individual and regenerate attention. in this regard, a classroom or a lecture hall is not a different place, where people often deliver or listen lectures lasting from slightly less than an hour www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 1, no. 1, 2020 47 published by scholink inc. (e.g., 45 minutes) to 3 hours in duration. therefore, a student has to spend most of his/her time at educational campus (schools, colleges, universities). considering that a university student has 3 to 6 credits to attend a class in a day, he/she may have to sit in a lecture room/class from 6 to 9 hours in average. it is imperative to admit that the main purpose of a good lecture is to deliver a proper and timely transmission of information from sender (the lecturer) to receiver (the students). in this regard, proper attention from the receivers is of paramount significance. to receive the appropriate attention from the students, a lecturer needs not only to make the lecture interesting and deliver it in a unique, interesting manner, but also the in-class “break management” needs to be formulated and implanted prior to and during class. in fact, breaks are effective methods to allow the level of attention to recover (bonwell & eison, 1991). creating diversity and relief during the lecture is significantly vital to preserve audience attention (mambert, 1976) and enhance learning capabilities (milford, 1984). eble (1976) recommended that providing recurrent breathing spaces increase students’ freshness and revitalization to ask questions. he further suggested that physical movement, use of the boards/power point slides, audience participation and any other possible method for breaking up single presentation modes are efficient strategies to attract students’ attention. mambert (1976) warned that the standard audience is allured to sleep by a kind of monotonous repetitiveness whereas miller (1981) agreed that only a few professors/lecturers are capable of presenting inspiring, motivating and attention-drawing lectures (anderson & harrison, 1985). however, although there is no disagreement among the educational scholars or leaders that in-class breaks are imperative, there is very few research evidences about the duration and number of breaks in a university standard class lecture (2 hours or more). considering such research gaps in recent academic platform, this empirical paper has been carried out to investigate the role of in-class breaks (both long and short) on student revitalization (revival of interest/attention). therefore, the following research questions can be put forward for this empirical study: rq 1: what is the role of in-class breaks to revitalize students? rq2: what should be the optimum frequency and duration of in-class breaks? 2. literature review in university level education system in a number of countries, the most conventional and still widely used method is class lecture. particularly, in case of humanities and social science schools, in-class lecture method is the only option with a few exceptions (case study, project tour, industrial visit, etc.). a lecture is a two way communication of information involving two counterparts: sender or deliverer (lecturer) and the receivers (students). two way communications in this regard indicate the communication or exchange of information must not only come from one side but it should be a normal flow from both sides (lecturer and students). such lectures vary in duration from minimum 45 minutes to 180 minutes depending on the course credits. for due reason, in order to get adequate attention from www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 1, no. 1, 2020 48 published by scholink inc. the students and to make the information exchange effective, a lecturer must make his/her lecture contents in an attractive, presentable and enjoyable manner for average students especially in longer duration classes. the most significant requirement of a proper in-class exchange of information is the due attention of the receivers, the students. however, in this regard, there are in general, three broad sets of factors can influence such required attention. the broad sets or categories indicate three aspects: the deliverer, the students and finally, the atmosphere or classroom environment. table 1 indicates the factors that influence students’ attention corresponding to three categories mentioned. table 1. factors that influence in getting proper attention at a class factor category job role factors required the lecture deliverer the lecturer charismatic personality, presentation style, voice, eye contact, student involvement & number of breaks the receivers the students adaptation, patience, personality, number of breaks & subject interest atmosphere or classroom environment institutional authority technical facilities such as noise-free environment, size of lecture hall, multimedia & other facilities related to it source: author’s elaboration. however, the scope of this paper is limited to the role of breaks during a class in order to revitalize the students and get appropriate attention of the pupils. an important question might be asked in this case such as how long an average student can typically pay his/her attention to a lecture? there are several answers to this. according to johnstone & percival (1976), as expressed in their famous article “attention breaks in lectures”, published in the journal “education in chemistry” students with average memory typically can pay attention to a 10 to 20 minute span of lectures while eastwood et al. (2012) argued that if such paid attention is insufficient, encoding and recalling of information are adversely affected and learning becomes stalled. furthermore, the lecturers or university teachers having already loaded with multiple classes need some shorter refreshments in order to energize and revitalize themselves (hosain, 2016). therefore, in-class breaks are quite essential in order to revitalize the students from boredom, monotony and variation. the question arises what should be the frequency and duration of in-class breaks in a normal class duration, such as 1 hour. previous findings suggested that shorter, more frequent in-class breaks are more helpful than those of fewer and longer breaks (anderson & harrison, 1985; bunce et al., 2010; balbis, 2017). the obvious reasons for preferring shorter breaks pointed in www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 1, no. 1, 2020 49 published by scholink inc. their studies were that the shorter breaks are conductive for a quick remembering the lecture contents as well as reducing the boredom. considering that most of the bachelor and master classes have the normal duration of more than 60 minutes with 3 classes a day, it is quite necessary to retain the attention of students so that they do not leave the classes or go to sleep. in such a case, they might miss out the most important parts of the lectures. as a result, it can be useless to attend the classes if they cannot get the real content and grab it into their brain. although an in-class break is quite an important factor for a proper class management, research evidence focusing on this issue is quite uncommon and rare. this observational study has intended to discover the effects of number and frequency of breaks on bachelor and master students in two countries, china and bangladesh. 3. research methods as mentioned earlier in this paper, the author selected two countries (china and bangladesh) to conduct this study. for due purpose, six universities have been pre-selected as the research premise. total six classes of six universities have been taken as the sample classes having three hours duration. out of those six classes, four classes were for bachelor students and two classes were for master students. the participants (students) have been kept uninformed regarding the real purpose of the study. altogether 527 bachelor and master level students participated in this study. the same lecturers took each class two times. during the first time, the lecturers gave two longer breaks for each class having a duration of 15 minutes each. at the second stage, the same lecturers delivered lectures to the same students. during that time, they (the lecturers) gave 6 breaks each having 7 minutes. after all the classes, the students’ attention and revitalization were observed. such attention and revitalization were considered based on three factors: questions asked by the students, eye contact and listening patience. the whole class period of all the six classes were observed by the author including the break time. at the end of the classes, the author conducted an informal interview with the students as a whole. 4. research findings according to the author’s observation based on those three factors mentioned in previous section, it was revealed that frequent short breaks can revitalize and hold the students’ attention than fewer long breaks. such results are mostly supportive the previous findings regarding in-class breaks. the students also supported their views in favor of shorter and more breaks when they talked to the author after class periods. they argued that frequent short breaks are conductive for quicker revitalization and remembering the lecture contents as they can take a cup of coffee, tea or cigarette. further, the lecturer can talk to the students informally and record the quick feedback grading of the students who performed well during the class period. as a whole, both of the two very important parties (lecturer and students) were in favor of frequent short breaks than fewer long breaks. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 1, no. 1, 2020 50 published by scholink inc. if we consider the countrywide difference between the results in china and bangladesh, the study observed that the chinese students are more interested in frequent short breaks than those of bangladeshi students. further, the chinese students came back to the classes timely after break whereas the bangladeshi students came back a little bit late. therefore, the chinese students are more punctual and efficient in time management than the bangladeshi students participated in this study. 5. action recommendations based on the findings of this observational study, the author would like to provide a few action recommendations in order to make a longer class more effective regarding break management. the lecturers and educational policymakers can benefit from such suggestions. a one hour class can be divided into two breaks having 7 to 8 minutes each whereas a three hour class can be divided into 6 breaks having the same duration of each break (7 to 8 munities). after every break, the lecturer can ask the students regarding the lecture contents in order to check if they can remember the previous topics. no personal breaks for going to toilet or having coffee should be allowed unless there is an emergency. immediately after each in-class break, quick quiz or group cases can be conducted to check the overall class performance. 6. rationale and significance the study topic is based on the impact of in-class lecture breaks on revitalizing the students. such a purpose is quite uncommon so far in academia and educational management. the study can aid in reducing the gap in literature to a large extent as far as the author is concerned. further, the educational policymakers can also take the help from the results and recommendations provided in order to formulate and implement a proper break management policy for their educational institutions. the author expects that further research can be conducted based on this observational study as a guideline and pioneering effort. 7. limitations and further study although pointing to a significant issue, the study is limited to a confined area based on only two countries. further, the study is based on a kind of qualitative nature rather than an extensive questionnaire survey. such limitations are small but obvious from the points of study nature. the author is hopeful that further efforts can be initiated taking into consideration of such limitations by the researchers devoted to educational management. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 1, no. 1, 2020 51 published by scholink inc. 8. concluding remarks the advice to teachers based upon the observational proof of this study is that students do not or cannot pay their undivided concentration constantly during a longer lecture period. therefore, the lecturers/teachers should be conscious of students’ attention cycles within a lecture period and endeavor to pick up student concentration using student-oriented pedagogies at diverse times all the way through a lecture, not merely to reduce students’ attention gapes but also to amplify their concentration for the duration of the lectures that go after the utilization of such pedagogies. this research shows that the constructive outcome of student-oriented pedagogies acts not only to reduce student inattentiveness during class periods but also has the additional advantage of an adjourned consequence to a consequent lecture segment. such results supports the idea of altering conventional break management within a class period cannot simply be considered as a method to present new concepts in an alternate arrangement but might also assist in connecting students in succeeding teaching formats. as an obvious true fact, it cannot be denied that the in-class breaks are not only quite essential but also an integrated part of proper class management particularly if the total class duration is more than 60 minutes. lecture breaks can serve up to invigorate, arouse attention and pick up attentiveness during classroom presentations. participants/students admit that in-class breaks help to resolve the problems of boredom, noise, and extreme material exposure. almost all the parties involved in classroom management believe that in-class breaks can aid in improved learning, rather than wasting valuable class time. many actions are promising, in addition to providing desired diversity and liberation. this study suggests that it is an important task to plan a successful in-class lecture break during a generally scheduled class lecture since it is equally important as to prepare the lecture itself. references anderson, w. a., & harrison, b. (1985). lecture break. journal of agronomic education, 10(2), 105-108. https://doi.org/10.2134/jae1985.0105 balbis, l. (2017). effect of lecture breaks on students’ attention. the first symposium on teaching transformation through action research: university of bahrain, april 3, 2017. bonwell, c. c., & eison, j. a. (1991). active learning: creating excitement in the classroom. in ashe-eric higher education report no. 1. washington, dc: georgetown university press. bunce, d. m., flens, e. a., & neiles, k. y. (2010). how long can students pay attention in class? a study of student attention decline using clickers. journal of chemical education, 87(12), 1438-1443. https://doi.org/10.1021/ed100409p eastwood, j. d., frischen, a., fenske, m. j., & smilek, d. (2012). the unengaged mind: defining boredom in terms of attention. perspectives on psychological science, 7(5), 482-495. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691612456044 https://doi.org/10.2134/jae1985.0105 https://doi.org/10.1021/ed100409p https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691612456044 www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 1, no. 1, 2020 52 published by scholink inc. eble, k. e. (1976). the craft of teaching. jossey-bass publishers, san francisco, california. hosain, m. s. (2016). teaching workload and performance: an empirical analysis on some selected private universities of bangladesh. international journal of english and education, 5(3), 1-11. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2810640 johnstone, a. h., & percival f. (1976). attention breaks in lectures. education in chemistry, 13(2), 49-50. mambert, w. a. (1976). effective presentations. john willey & sons inc., new york. milford, m. h. (1984). ideas for success in the classroom. journal of agronomic education, 13, 69-71. https://doi.org/10.2134/jae.1984.0069 miller, r. h. (1981). the components of a good classroom lecture. journal of agronomic education, 10, 79-82. https://doi.org/10.2134/jae.1981.0079 https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2810640 https://doi.org/10.2134/jae.1984.0069 https://doi.org/10.2134/jae.1981.0079 frontiers of contemporary education issn 2690-3520 (print) issn 2690-3539 (online) vol. 1, no. 2, 2020 www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce 51 original paper youtube platform and the english language learning in the brazilian context márcia aparecida silva¹ * & izídio dias de carvalho junior¹ ¹ department of modern languages, state university of goiás, iporá, goias, brazil * márcia aparecida silva, e-mail: marciasilva@ueg.br received: december 21, 2020 accepted: december 28, 2020 online published: january 29, 2021 doi:10.22158/fce.v1n2p51 url: http://dx.doi.org/10.22158/fce.v1n2p51 abstract this work aims at exploring the youtube platform as a social network and useful space for english language learning in the brazilian context. we believe that youtube is a potential platform to enhance autonomy, but we are aware that there is a specific kind of student who could benefit from using this tool. for the theoretical basis of this research, we are based on recuero (2009) to discuss the meaning of social network. we will explore some youtubers who use the platform to teach the english language. keywords youtube, social media, foreign languages, youtubers 1. introduction youtube is an online platform that was originally launched in june 2005, by steve chen, chad hurley, and jawed karim. the platform was sold, a year after its launch, to google. the purchase was made for an amount of $ 1.65 billion dollars (more or less r$ 6 billion reais), according to burgess; green (2009). youtube is currently one of the most influential and internationally disseminated platforms, having reached the mark of 1.58 billion users in 2018. also, in 2011, its interface was already available in 34 languages (barton, 2015). in addition to enabling the sharing of audiovisual content, youtube allows its users, through registration, to evaluate the videos, giving them a “thumbs up” or a “thumbs down”, and adding them to a list of favorite videos. the content found on this platform varies a lot in its content and can be presented in the form of music videos, movie trailers, video clips, parts of tv programs, live streams (streaming) and, a great success today, vlogs and daily vlogs. this platform presents itself as an online environment pursued by those who wish, or do not care, for a more “public” life. prensky (2010, p. 2) states that “people mourning with the need to express and share their feelings and get comfort in people‟s responses [...]”, for this reason, a large number of people www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 1, no. 2, 2020 52 published by scholink inc. produce their content with the intention of generating some kind of feedback from those who watch their videos. over the years new terms have emerged within the platform, and these terms have been used to refer to specific niches within the site. one of the most important terms was “youtuber”, a word used to refer to the person who produces audiovisual material and shares it on this website. we can infer that the terminologies created were the result of an attempt to monitor the diversity of audiovisual content hosted daily. as an example, we can mention “booktuber” and “vlogger”. these terms, respectively, refer to those that produce content related to books and more personal topics. although by the time youtube started, the production equipment was basically a webcam. nowadays, however, there is a major concern on the part of audiovisual producers. it is not difficult to find videos in which youtubers present their filming and editing material, leading us to perceive an audiovisual production for youtube as an area that is developing professionally. as we can notice, youtube hosts audiovisual content of different genres, social relevance and goals. the videos are made mainly with a target audience in mind, so it is not difficult to find videos about sport, culture (national or international), news, education, comedy, entertainment and so on, some are delimited for age groups. for these reasons, we find it relevant to discuss how brazilian students can benefit from this platform, enhancing their knowledge in the english language learning. to conduct our exploratory research, we will explore three youtubers who post regularly about learning. after this introduction about what youtube is and what its uses are, we will move on to the next topic, which is in the applied linguistics field of study. to do so, let's start by pointing this platform as a social network. 2. youtube as a social network over the years, youtube has changed its concept. this website is no longer just an environment for hosting videos, it started to attract the attention of people who were interested in sharing something with the world. in other words, the website has changed “from a personal storage resource for video content to a platform designed for personal expression” (burgess, 2009, p. 21). this idea of personal expression is closely linked to the topic we intend to address in this section, the social. according to dornelles (2015), youtube has gained the attention of people who want to tell their stories to the world, and they see this platform as an alternative channel through which they can spread their ideas, opinions and worldview. it is precisely this possibility of interaction between users of digital media that characterizes social networks. recuero (2009, p. 69) states that “a social network is always a set of actors and their relationships”, thus, what characterizes a social network as such is the relationship and the interaction established among its users. this interaction process is strongly perceived on youtube. this relationship happens in several instances, it can be noticed between youtuber and followers, followers and youtuber, youtuber and youtuber or even among followers. the aim of this section is precisely to www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 1, no. 2, 2020 53 published by scholink inc. show youtube as a social network and, in order to do so, we will point out how the interaction can be developed in this environment. it is not difficult to understand youtube as a social network that bonds its users through communication and interaction. this platform allows us to follow and interact more directly with video creators who create the content of our interest. we can notice this aspect by analyzing the platform‟s functionalities that enable us to subscribe to the youtubers‟ channels that we like, to rate the watched videos by giving them a “thumbs up” or a “thumbs down”. we also have the possibility of sharing the videos that we like. youtube has become a place in which “many users post ideas and opinions, looking for feedback, and many get large numbers of responses to their clips” (prensky, 2010, p. 2). digital influencers, in many cases, encourage their followers to express their opinions through the comments section, where interaction mostly takes place. opinions and arguments are presented; debates take place openly, giving the right of speech to everyone who wants to use it. this interaction is one of the most common in the language teaching channels, since questions always arise when the subject is a foreign language. however, we believe that over the years the tendency is that the channels, regardless of genre, reach a larger audience and grow in terms of the number of subscribers. with this expansion of followers in mind, it is not difficult to imagine that in the future it will be almost humanly impossible for youtubers to answer all their followers. in this kind of scenario, we can witness the development of another type of interaction, the sharing of knowledge among subscribers. it is noticeable that a channel with more than 1 million subscribers receives many comments, comments that will not, at least not all, be answered by the channel owner. taking that into account, it is quite common to find comments such as the following one: figure 1. subscribers sharing their knowledge in figure 1, the first subscriber asks a question regarding the use of passive voice in the present perfect, and a second subscriber, for mastering the theme related to the question, does not hesitate to answer it. this sort of interaction is considered advantageous to all parties involved, since the first subscriber eventually finds a solution to their linguistic problem, the second subscriber puts into practice what they know and the youtuber, who owns the channel, consequently, has one less comment to answer. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 1, no. 2, 2020 54 published by scholink inc. the construction of collective knowledge is frequently observed in the comments section in videos related to teaching english as a foreign language. here we have another figure in which we can notice this sort of mutual collaboration: figure 2. construction of collective knowledge figure 2 presents a case in which three followers build mutual knowledge in the english language. the first one shares their appreciation of the youtuber‟s online contributions by using the expression “when it comes to”. the second subscriber had to ask for the meaning of the expression to understand the whole sentence, and, in the following moment, the third subscriber answers the question (note 1). through these images, we can attest that youtube is a social network, because it is its users, who use it for interaction, the ones responsible for keeping this social media ongoing. recuero (2009, p. 103) confirms this by stating that although social networking sites act as a support for the interactions that will constitute social networks, they are not, in themselves, social networks. they can present them, help to perceive them, but it is important to emphasize that they are, in themselves, only systems. it is the social actors, who use these networks, that constitute these networks. bearing this in mind, we can argue that a social network website is enhanced when human communication is established at its core. another form of interaction presented on youtube is “collabs” (note 2). “collabs” are videos that youtubers make by inviting other digital influencers to their channels and vice versa. to give an illustration, we can mention the following collabs. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 1, no. 2, 2020 55 published by scholink inc. figure 3. collabs between carina fragozo and rodrigo honorato figure 3 shows two collaborations between two brazilian teachers, carina fragozo and rodrigo honorato. collaborations are relevant on youtube because, besides the gain of possible new subscribers, each youtuber has the opportunity to present new content to their followers since the guest has a different background, opinion, humor and a unique view about the topic being discussed. in both videos, they are talking about the “african american vernacular english” (aave) also known as “black english”. in this collab, they present this english variation and its peculiarities, such as pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary, story and so on. in the following section, we rely on arndt and woore (2018) to discuss the concepts of intentional and incidental learning within youtube. we also briefly present this platform as a means of sharing education. 3. youtube for academic purposes we would like to start this section with two researches, which were focused on the youtube platform and in the english language learning and teaching. these studies are relevant to show the potential of this platform to education. the first is the work of silva (2018), which addresses the issue of youtube‟s pedagogical contributions to foreign language teaching and learning. the author introduced the possibilities and the challenges that this platform presents to the english language teaching/learning in basic education, in a brazilian context, and the processes that permeate the skills that teachers and students need to present in this teaching model. for this purpose, the researcher used a qualitative methodology and theoretical foundation. to conduct the research, the author based herself mainly on the “english in brazil”, channel by carina fragozo in order to understand the relationship of this social network with language teaching. the second research is from dias (2013) who is also interested in pointing out the pedagogical contributions of youtube. the author aimed to present this social network as a repository of audiovisual resources capable of contributing to the development of listening and oral skills in the teaching/learning www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 1, no. 2, 2020 56 published by scholink inc. process of english in basic education. the researchers presented are relevant to the current teaching scenario, as they aim to investigate the relation between digital platforms and language teaching. it is worth mentioning there are numerous academic researches, which analyze youtube as a platform that contributes to teaching. these researches are present in the teaching of mathematics, physics, biology, sign language and so on, but they will not be included here, since our focus is the teaching of the english language. taking into account the global reach of this platform and the ease we have to find videos in several languages, we argue that there is a relationship between this platform and the teaching/learning english. this is where our work is founded. we believe in the potential of youtube as a facilitator in the development of the learners‟ autonomy, since this platform and its contents can motivate students to explore different materials for new information. to that extent, students look for information in videos that catch their attention, and this directly contributes to their learning process, as they act more actively, not just waiting for the teacher to tell them what to do. barton and lee (2015, p. 77) argues that “many youtube users also take advantage of the possibility of sharing video to „teach the world‟ the languages they speak”, that is to say, this platform acts as a great ally in the foreign language learning and teaching, as it allows language teachers, trained or not, to “break” geographical barriers and reach users around the globe. we will explore the term “informal” linked to learning. to understand the proposed idea, we establish a relationship between “intentional” and “incidental” learning and informal teaching. moreover, we will talk about how informal learning on youtube can take place. we rely on arndt and woore (2018) to explain the incidental and intentional terms. when we mention “intentional”, we mean learning related to concentration, in which the student is actively learning. this occurs, for instance, when a language learner is in a traditional teaching context and he is receiving some type of instruction from the teacher. the moments of explanation in the classroom, for instance, can fit into intentional learning because it is when students focus their attention to learning, as arndt and woore (2018, p. 125) defend, “[...] it is believed that the intentional learning occurs when students‟ attention is focused on acquiring new language features [...]”. although we have used the classroom, formal educational space, to refer to intentional learning, it can also occur in the youtube context. when an apprentice watches a video about grammar, he strives to absorb the content, so he has his attention focused on that purpose. incidental learning occurs when the student learns something without being aware of it. incidental learning can happen, for instance, when the learner is watching, for leisure, a video on a topic that interests him. at this point, the student is not concerned with the tenses or conjugations that the speakers of the language are using, because his intention is to understand what he is hearing. throughout this moment of leisure, a lot is learned incidentally. in this type of learning, we unconsciously internalize grammatical structures, vocabulary, pronunciation, language rhythm, and so on. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 1, no. 2, 2020 57 published by scholink inc. there is an immense number of teachers, enthusiasts and language learners sharing their knowledge through videos. it is not difficult to find people, native or not, teachers or not, sharing tips, rules of a specific language which can leverage learning in any particular language. we use, as an example, the testimony that teacher carina fragozo shared with members of youtube at an event called “creator talks”, in a lecture at youtube space in new york. she was invited by the youtube team to share her experience on the platform. carina, in his lecture, addresses the issue of democratization of education through youtube. she claims that “today education is available to more and more people” and, according to the speaker, this dissemination of free educational content through youtube “is the most incredible thing that the internet has brought us” (note 3). the visibility experienced by teachers in the online environment is a point of recent debate when it comes to the democratization of education in an online context. this debate is based on the fact that videos hosted on youtube vary widely in content and are subject to worldwide visibility, which, consequently, contributes to the lives of students who dedicate themselves to learn autonomously. the youtube edu initiative is still relatively new, but it already has interesting ideas in the free dissemination of knowledge. teachers linked to this platform have promoted since 2017 the so-called “aulão youtube edu enem”, in which they perform live classes talking about important topics for the national high school exam. the democratization of education through youtube is something that has shown positive results and seems that it will be more used in the future context. in this section, we presented the concepts of intentional and incidental learning in an informal learning context, and discussed youtube as a platform, which generates constant interaction among its users. therefore, we intend to highlight the work of some youtubers who produce quality content for everyone who wants to have greater and deeper contact with the english language. 4. youtubers and the english learning in this section, we present three english teachers on youtube. in order to understand these teachers and the work they have been developing on the platform, we introduce them, and show how they can contribute to the autonomy of the brazilian english learners who follow them. the first channel is called “english in brazil” and it is run by carina fragozo. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 1, no. 2, 2020 58 published by scholink inc. figure 4. english in brazil by carina fragozo carina fragozo holds a ph.d. in linguistics from the university of são paulo. as a researcher, her main academic interests are phonetics, phonology and second language acquisition. her videos cover a variety of different topics, such as grammar, pronunciation, vocabulary, curiosities about the english language and the culture of countries where this language is spoken. the content hosted on her channel is explained in a simple way. carina, due to her academic background, generally relies on scientific facts and academic research to support her explanations. the second channel is called “smalladvantages” and it is run by gavin roy, a native english speaker from north america. figure 5. small advantages with gavin roy www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 1, no. 2, 2020 59 published by scholink inc. gavin roy, better known as gavin, is one of the classic cases of autonomous language learners, since he speaks english as his mother tongue and has taught himself spanish and portuguese. he is also currently learning the czech language. his channel started in mid-2014 with the aim of giving english tips to brazilian portuguese speakers. although “smalladvantages” has good recognition among youtube channels focused on teaching english, gavin does not hold a certification in the educational field. he holds a ph.d. in meteorology, but he has decided to focus on his career as an english teacher on youtube. he started, back in 2014, only with tips on the english language, but his channel currently hosts a great number of videos covering many different topics in english, from pronunciation to grammar. the content available on this channel is presented in a simple and dynamic way. one of the highlights of the youtuber didactics is the relationship he establishes between the language learning processes he has been exposed to through his autonomous learning. this comparison facilitates the understanding of students who have never learned a foreign language or for those who have experienced many difficulties in their language learning journey. last but not least, we have mairo vergara‟s channel. figure 6. mairo vergara’s channel mairo vergara is a brazilian english teacher and has worked in this field since 2009. he has accumulated over 2 million subscribers in his youtube channel and he is well known for having a “think outside the box” mindset when it comes to teaching and learning english. mairo is also an entrepreneur and sells his english courses online. his channel is interesting and accessible for everyone since most of his videos are recorded in portuguese and using daily language. his channel hosts many videos related to grammar, vocabulary and pronunciation, but there are also many videos talking about methods and techniques to learn english in a more effective way. he also posts videos explaining how to use apps, such as anki www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 1, no. 2, 2020 60 published by scholink inc. (note 4) that can benefit our learning journey. before concluding this section, it is worth mentioning that most youtubers create playlists on their channels to divide their videos into topics. this division is another factor that contributes to english language learners, as they will have access to videos already separated. in other words, they will not “waste time” searching for videos of their interest on specific channels, they only need to go to the playlists and watch videos related to their current language needs. to give an illustration of what we mean, the two following images illustrate how carina fragozo separates her videos into lists that meet the diverse needs of her followers. she also created a specific playlist, entitled “start here: basic english”, for new followers who still do not know her channel and want to start from the beginning. figures 7 and 8. playlists by carina fragozo these are three channels that can contribute to autonomous english language learners in brazil, because students have in these channels a source of information relevant to the search for proficiency in the target language. in addition to having contact with qualified professionals, apprentices have the opportunity to enjoy the content of the channels regardless of the level of proficiency, since the three channels mentioned here have specific videos for the most basic levels, but they also have videos for those english learners who are in a more advanced level in the language. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 1, no. 2, 2020 61 published by scholink inc. 5. conclusion in this paper, we aimed to explore youtube as a social network and how this platform establishes possibilities to promote learning in english language learners in the brazilian context. we can see that the process that unfolds on youtube has brought many possibilities to learners. we can perceive this by acknowledging that youtube provides free access to a vast collection of videos that contribute to autonomous learning and the enhancing of linguistic abilities. in view of the arguments presented, it is concluded that the possibilities of using youtube combined with the learning of students who have an autonomous profile are relatively large. the phenomenon of language teaching/learning on this platform has taken on great proportions, we can deduce that this fact is closely related to the narrowing that has occurred in the relationship between teaching/learning and the digital technologies of communication and information over the years. burgess and green (2009, p. 13) state that although not the only video-sharing site on the internet, youtube‟s rapid rise, its wide variety of content and its public projection in the west among english speakers make it useful for understanding the still evolving relationships between the new media technologies, creative industries and popular culture policies. therefore, we conclude that the popularity of youtube is something that contributes greatly to its status quo when it comes to the dissemination of content. youtube popularity and contributions are going to last for a long time, but it is worth mentioning that “it is not social networks that improve language teaching, but how we use them” (leffa, 2016, p. 138). references arndt, h. l., & woore, r. (2018). vocabulary learning from watching youtube videos and reading blog posts. language learning & technology, 22(1), 124-142. barton, d., & lee, c. (2015). linguagem online: textos e práticas digitais (1st ed.). são paulo: parábola editorial. burgess, j., & green, j. (2009). youtube e a revolução digital: como o maior fenômeno da cultura participativa transformou a mídia e a sociedade. são paulo: aleph. leffa, v. j. (2003). quando menos é mais: a autonomia na aprendizagem de línguas. in c. nicolaides, i. mozzillo, l. pachalski, m. machado, & v. fernandes (eds.), o desenvolvimento da autonomia no ambiente de aprendizagem de línguas estrangeiras (pp. 33-49). pelotas: ufpel. prensky, m. (2010). why youtube matters. on the horizon. recuero, r. (2009). redes sociais na internet. porto alegre: sulina. silva, m. t. (2018). contribuições pedagógicas da rede social youtube para o ensino e a aprendizagem de língua estrangeira. 2018. 169 f. dissertação (mestrado em linguística aplicada)-faculdade federal de minas gerais-ufmg, belo horizonte, 2018. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 1, no. 2, 2020 62 published by scholink inc. notes note 1. figures 1 and 2 were taken from interactions on teacher carina fragozo‟s channel. the images show moments of interaction between the youtube teacher and her followers, and these moments show the exchange of information that takes place on this platform. note 2. term used to designate collaborations between youtubers. note 3. retirado de: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=70-i-99w77g&t=273s note 4. anki is an app and website that helps people to remember things by using flash cards. frontiers of contemporary education issn 2690-3520 (print) issn 2690-3539 (online) vol. 1, no. 1, 2020 www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce 36 original paper does it really help? merits and demerits of call implementation as perceived by jordanian primary-stage efl teachers ruba fahmi bataineh 1* , nedal awwad bani-hani 2 & rula fahmi bataineh 3 1 department of curriculum and instruction, yarmouk university, irbid, jordan 2 department of basic sciences, al-balqa’ applied university, irbid, jordan 3 department of english language and linguistics, jordan university of science and technology, irbid, jordan * ruba fahmi bataineh, rubab@yu.edu.jo received: may 30, 2020 accepted: june 13, 2020 online published: june 17, 2020 doi:10.22158/fce.v1n1p36 url: http://dx.doi.org/10.22158/fce.v1n1p36 abstract this research examines the merits and demerits of call implementation in jordanian primary education as perceived by 200 primary-stage efl teachers. a questionnaire was constructed and used to collect the data. the findings reveal that the most frequently perceived merits are immediate feedback, motivating students learning, initiating more interaction, excitement and enjoyment, and language skills integration. on the other hand, the most frequently perceived demerits of call implementation were found to be insufficient number of computers, technical problems, student view of the computer as an entertainment tool, weak student computer skills, and cost. the study concludes with a number of pedagogical implications and recommendations for further research. keywords call implementation, demerits, jordan, merits, tefl 1. introduction and background for the past few decades, technology has been prevalent in every aspect of modern life. the computer, having a marked pedagogical potential to affect the way teaching and learning are viewed, has been utilized in teaching language around the world. this has led to the prominence of computer-assisted language learning (call) in language instruction in general and teaching english as a foreign language (tefl) in particular despite a de facto consensus that the computer is a teaching tool rather www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 1, no. 1, 2020 37 published by scholink inc. than a teacher substitute (cf., frizler, 1995; higgins & johns, 1984; kenning & kenning, 1993; levy, 1997). the literature documents a long tradition of using visual aids (e.g., posters, videos, overhead projectors, language laboratories) in the language classroom to supplement instruction (higgins & johns, 1984). the prominence of the computer, one of the latest of these innovations, makes it essential for all stakeholders to acquire basic computer skills, not to mention that, for instructional computer use to be effective for teaching, access to hardware and software is of the essence. a plethora of research (e.g., almekhlafi, 2006; ayres, 2002; baniabdelrahman, bataineh, & bataineh, 2007; bataineh & mayyas, 2017; bataineh, bani khalaf, & baniabdelrahman, 2018; harris, mishra, & koehler, 2009; mayyas & bataineh, 2019; robert, 2002) reports on the utility of technology integration into teaching and learning in general and in teaching and learning language in particular. not only has the computer been reported to facilitate students’ learning (goldman, cole, & syer, 1999) but also to develop their ability to learn independently, analyze information, think critically, solve problems (chavez, 1997), and increase their reading speed and comprehension (kulik, bangert, & williams, 1983). frizler (1995), for example, claims that even though they will never replace teachers, computers can provide excellent and fairly inexpensive materials to support classroom instruction. computers have also been found not only to promote visual, verbal and kinesthetic learning, higher-level thinking, and problem-solving (turnbull & lawrence, 2002) but also to offer immediate feedback, hands-on learning, and collaborative instruction (e.g., becker, 2000; smith, 2008; zapata, 2004). however, even though instructional technology has been expected to revolutionize the way teachers teach, learners learn, and schools deliver education, research (e.g., cuban, 2001; mumtaz, 2000; warschauer, 2001) documents a divide between the claims made for information and communication technologies (icts) and their actual effect on education. this divide has been attributed to material conditions like the insufficient computers and software and non-material conditions like insufficient ict knowledge, skills, and experience and teacher time (pelgrum, 2001). more specific to the context of this study, jordan started to integrate technology in formal education in the mid-1990s. over the years, the ministry of education (moe) has initiated a number of significant educational reforms, some of which are communication-oriented curricula, up-to-date teacher training programs, and personal computers for all schools. thousands of computers were brought into public schools, bringing the average ratio of student to computer from 43:1 in 2001 (bataineh & baniabdelrahman, 2006) to a range of 10:1 to 30:1 in 70 percent of jordanian public schools and internet connectivity for over 85 percent of all public schools (unesco, 2011). www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 1, no. 1, 2020 38 published by scholink inc. 2. rationale, purpose and question of the study jordan started to integrate technology in its schools in the mid-1990s, as government began to invest heavily in the provision of computers to schools and in the training of teachers. to the authors’ best knowledge, there has not been any research on the merits and demerits of call implementation in the jordanian efl context to date. therefore, the purpose of this research is to identify the merits and demerits of call implementation as perceived by jordanian primary-stage teachers. more specifically, the authors seek answers to the question, what are the merits and demerits of call implementation in jordan as perceived by primary-stage teachers? research (e.g., atkinson & davies, 2005; domengo, 2007; traynor, 2003; stepp-greany, 2002) reveals numerous advantages of computer use in teaching and learning: promoting experiential learning through using the vast resources of the web, fostering autonomous learning, promoting student motivation for learning, round-the-clock access to authentic materials, interaction with peers or native language users, and opportunities for global understanding, not to mention visualization and reduction of learner anxiety. on the other hand, an equally rigorous body of research (gips, dimattia, & gips, 2004; kenning & kenning, 1993; underwood, 1984) suggests certain disadvantages for call implementation: the potential increase in cost, decrease in the equity of education, software quality, and insufficient teacher experience with ict. the literature (e.g., lai & kritsonis, 2006; lu, liu, fotouni, dong, reynolds, aristar, ratliff, nathan, tan, & powell, 2004; thelmadatter, 2007) seems to also suggest that, unlike their more technologically competent counterparts, technologically incompetent teachers tend to think that computers are worthless or even harmful. additional obstacles include time pressures inand outside the classroom (lam, 2000; levy, 1997; reed, anderson, ervin, & oughton, 1995; smerdon, cronen, lanahan, anderson, iannotti, & angeles, 2000; strudler, mckinney, & jones, 1999); lack of resources (loehr, 1996), insufficient or inflexible guidelines, standards, and curricula (langone, wissick, langone, & ross, 1998); lack of support for computers integration (grau, 1996; strudler et al., 1999); lack of proper leadership (smerdon et al., 2000); and inadequate training and technical support (abdal-haqq, 1995; lam, 2000; langone et al., 1998; levy, 1997; smerdon et al., 2000). some of the claims presented above have been mirrored in the observations of the current researchers as well as other fellow practitioners. in their rather extensive experience as teacher trainers and language instructors, they have heard a lot of concerns voiced out by preand in-service teachers alike. for example, claims similar to those made by thelmadatter (2007) to the effect that call implementation is often misunderstood as solely acquiring hardware without paying serious attention to software or proper training are often heard in institutions of higher learning all over jordan. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 1, no. 1, 2020 39 published by scholink inc. 3. methods and procedure based on a thorough review of the literature and the authors’ collective experience, a questionnaire (note 1) was designed. it consists of three parts: one for respondents’ demographic information, one for the merits, and the third for the demerits of call implementation. to establish its validity, the questionnaire was refereed by three experts in educational technology whose feedback was used to modify the questionnaire prior to distribution to 200 (110 male and 90 female) efl primary-stage teachers in the public schools of the northern region of jordan. 4. findings and discussion the data were analyzed, categorized and tabulated. the subjects’ responses revealed a number of perceived merits and demerits of call implementation. tables 1 presents the perceived merits of call implementation: table 1. perceived merits of call implementation no merit n % 1 immediate feedback 184 92 2 motivating student learning 181 90.5 3 initiating more interaction 180 90 4 excitement and enjoyment 179 89.5 5 language skill integration 176 88 6 flexibility 175 87.5 7 fostering individualization 171 85.5 8 fostering learner-centeredness 168 84 9 helping shy students 167 83.5 10 exchanging experience with others 166 83 11 self-paced progress 165 82.5 12 animation 163 81.5 13 more student participation 161 80.5 14 learning extension 161 80.5 15 less time and effort 154 77 16 novelty of experienced 153 76.5 17 variety 143 71.5 18 technology support 137 63.5 www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 1, no. 1, 2020 40 published by scholink inc. table 1 shows that the top merits of call implementation, perceived by the respondents, are immediate feedback, motivating student learning, initiating more interaction, excitement and enjoyment, and language skill integration with 92%, 91%, 90%, 89.5%, and 88%, respectively. that providing immediate feedback is the most frequently perceived merit of call implementation is consistent with earlier findings (e.g., bani hani, 2009; 2014; murphy, 2007; sauro, 2008; ware, 2008), which can also be attributed to, unlike teachers, computers never forget to provide immediate feedback. providing immediate (and continuous) feedback may readily be a catalyst for improving not only students’ participation but also their motivation for learning, which may, in turn, improve their achievement and encourage further learning. moreover, that call implementation is perceived to initiate more interaction may constitute another catalyst for language learning, especially in light of emergent types of interaction (e.g., class-class and school-school interaction over the web) in addition to the more traditional student-computer and computer-student interaction. one should also keep in mind that since the computer doubles as a means of entertainment, it is not surprising that the respondents perceive call implementation in the classroom as a source of excitement and fun. the integration of the four language skills is potentially made more possible with call implementation. as the jordanian moe is keen on skill integration in the english curriculum at all levels, call implantation may come in handy for achieving and facilitating this goal, which may be why teachers perceived this as a major merit of call implementation. it is worth noting that call implementation overall is viewed favorably by the respondents, as evidenced by the fact that the least perceived merit, technology support, got a rather high percentage of 63.5%. however, call implementation was also perceived to have a number of demerits, as shown in table 2. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 1, no. 1, 2020 41 published by scholink inc. table 2. perceived demerits of call implementation no demerit n % 1 insufficient number of computers 189 95 2 technical problems 186 93 3 student view the computer as an entertainment tool 183 91.5 4 lack of student computer skills 183 91.5 5 high cost 178 89 6 need for more time 175 87.5 7 need for more teacher training 172 86 8 inappropriate for large classes 170 85 9 fewer chances for weak students 163 81.5 10 lack of well-designed software 162 81 11 insufficient teacher experience 158 79 12 inability to control students 155 77.5 13 physical problems 154 77 14 fear of teacher replacement 143 71.5 15 slow computers 139 69.5 16 need for continuous updating 124 63 17 difficulty of lesson preparation 121 6o.5 18 potentially vague instructions 112 56 table 2 reveals that the most frequently perceived demerits are inadequate number of computers, technical problems, student view of the computer as a means of play and entertainment, lack of students’ computer skills, and high cost, with 95%, 93%, 91.5%, 91.5%, and 89%, respectively. that the inadequate number of computers is perceived as the major demerit of call implementation (with a sweeping 95%) is hardly news given the large number of students in classrooms across jordanian primary education. albeit a serious problem, this can be overcome by pairing, or even grouping, students around each computer. empirical evidence abounds on that students benefit most when they work on the computer in pairs (e.g., murphy, 2007; naeyc, 1996), for despite the efforts of the moe, its schools still suffer from a shortage in computers, a matter which warrants immediate attention and feasible alternatives. understandably, technical problems are the second most frequently perceived demerit of call implementation. rarely does a school have a qualified technician in residence, but, more often than not, one or more computer teachers are responsible for the computer laboratory, which generally results in recurrent computer breakdowns and internet service interruptions. by the same token, that cost is fifth most frequently perceived demerit is not only consistent with findings of previous research (e.g., higgins www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 1, no. 1, 2020 42 published by scholink inc. & johns, 1984; thelmadatter, 2007) but also limits the type of measures the moe can take to overcome this problem (e.g., providing a computer technician for each school). 5. implications and recommendations much research has been conducted on the effect of computer use on the various aspects of the teaching/learning process. however, relatively little research has been conducted on the merits and demerits of call implementation in teaching in general and teaching english as a foreign language in particular. since the use of technology has to be driven by pedagogy, pre-service teacher training should include coursework to provide teachers with optimal levels of computer knowledge and skill to enable them to better use technology to support teaching and learning. the researchers further urge scholars to conduct more research on students and teachers’ need for instructional technologies, on computer use for the integration of the four language skills, and on subsidizing call implementation. references abdal-haqq, i. 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(20087). methodological hurdles in capturing cmc data: the case of the missing self-repair. language learning & technology, 12(1), 85-103. stepp-greany, c. (2002). students’ implications for the new millennium. language learning & technology, 6(1), 165-180. strudler, n., mckinney, s., & jones, w. (1999). first-year teachers’ use of technology: preparation, expectations and realities. journal of technology and teacher education, 2, 115-129. thelmadatter, l. (2007). the computers are coming … are here. tesol greece newsletter, 3(4), 8-18. traynor, p. (2003). effects of cai on different learners. journal of instructional psychology, 12(2), 25-39. turnbull, m., & lawrence, g. (2002). computers make sense according to brain research … but what do students think? canadian association of second language teachers. retrieved february 23, 2020, from http://www.caslt.org underwood, j. (1984). linguistics computers and the language teacher: a communicative approach. rowley, massachusetts: newbury house. unesco. (2011). transforming education: the power of ict policies. paris: unesco. ware, p. (2008). peer feedback on language form in telecollaboration. language learning and technology, 12(1), 43-63. warschauer, m. (2001). online learning in sociocultural contexts. in c. paechter, r. harrison, & p. twining (eds.), learning space and identity (pp. 121-141). london: sage. zapata, g. (2004). second language instructors and call: a multidisciplinary research framework. computer assisted language learning, 17(3-4), 339-356. https://doi.org/10.1080/0958822042000319610 note note 1. for a copy of the questionnaire, contact the corresponding author at rubab@yu.edu.jo http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/title~db=all~content=t716100697~tab=issueslist~branches=17#v17 http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/title~db=all~content=g725289496 https://doi.org/10.1080/0958822042000319610 frontiers of contemporary education issn 2690-3520 (print) issn 2690-3539 (online) vol. 5, no. 1, 2024 www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce 22 original paper challenges of students with hearing impairments in learning mathematics: evidence of st. john’s integrated senior high technical school bismark basigi 1 , christopher saaha bornaa 1 , stephen atepor 1 , godswill okorie uchenna 1 & dennis offei kwakye 2* 1 department of mathematics and ict education, c. k. tedam university of technology and applied sciences, navrongo, ghana 2 402 iona street, fms, fairmont, nc 28340, usa * dennis offei kwakye, e-mail: denniskkdo@gmail.com received: june 6, 2024 accepted: june 18, 2024 online published: june 28, 2024 doi:10.22158/fce.v5n1p22 url: http://dx.doi.org/10.22158/fce.v5n1p22 abstract this study examined the challenges that some hearing impairment students in the senior high school face when learning mathematics in school. employing qualitative case study techniques, data was gathered through interviews and observations checklists involving 11 participants. these included sign language interpreters, mathematics teachers, and students with hearing impairments. results revealed that delay in sign language development, unfavourable curriculum, unavailability of assistive technology resources, and insufficient proficiency of mathematics teachers in sign language and prominence dyslexia were prevalent challenges that were identified. based on the findings it was recommended that educational institutions, such as the colleges of education should open more training centres for teachers to learn the sign language during their studies. these institutions could train mathematics teachers. also, it is recommended that individuals and organizations could establish sign language clubs in schools and the communities in order to boost the proficient of all interested persons. stakeholders should be encouraged to recognise the education of students with hearing impairments as a societal investment aimed at cultivating a comprehensive social framework that nurtures self-reliant individuals. lastly, it is recommended that government and nongovernmental organizations should support the institutions with learning aids that will help them teach mathematics, proficiently. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 5, no. 1, 2024 23 published by scholink inc. keywords assistive technology, hearing impaired student, hearing impairment, inclusive education, sign language, student with hearing impairment 1. introduction st. john’s integrated senior high technical school (special) is a state funded secondary situated in navrongo within the kassena nankana municipality of the upper east region of ghana. the school was founded in 2006. unlike senior high schools in ghana, the school is the sole secondary school in the nation where both hearing impaired and non-hearing impaired students were enrolled, studying together in classes and sitting for identical examinations and offering a range of courses including general arts, agricultural science, technical, business, and visual arts. this establishment was initiated as a component of the government’s strategy to advance inclusive education by integrating students with special education needs (specifically, hearing impairment) alongside those without hearing impairment into the community. the school had a pre-classroom for hearing impaired students, with a total population of twenty (20) students and a waiting period of one year before they moved on to the next class. the pre-classroom was established to teach a unified language and basic concepts, as students with hearing impairments came from different parts of the country with their distinct ways of communicating using sign language. the school’s population numbered 811, with 68 students with the corresponding percentage of 8.4% having hearing impairments. however, kaindu (2021) and migeha (2014) observed that, several research studies have explored the mathematical achievement of impaired students in various parts of ghana. until then, there is no comprehensive research focusing on challenges of students with hearing impairments in learning mathematics at the secondary school level. moreover, studies have indicated that pupils who are deaf or hard of hearing frequently perform less well in mathematics than their hearing counterparts. according to one study, senior high school deaf and hard-of-hearing students computed arithmetic at a sixth-grade level and solved problems at roughly a fifth-grade level. the reasons for this underperformance include communication obstacles, a shortage of teachers with the necessary training to work with kids who have hearing impairments, and trouble understanding word problems (addi, 2021). governments worldwide strived toward inclusive education, including ghana. specific programmes and welfare services were established to assist children with hearing impairments (chi) in integrating into society. these services, encompassing healthcare and education, were grounded in international agreements and national legislation, such as the un convention on the rights of persons with disabilities and ghanaian acts like the persons with disabilities act 2006 (act 715), the children’s act 2006 (act 715), and the children’s act 1998 (act 560) (agyire-tettey et al., 2017; asante & sasu, 2015; “public health act and vaccine manufacturing in ghana”, 2024). these legislative frameworks laid the foundation for providing necessary support and services to safeguard the rights and well-being of children with hearing impairments in ghana and belong. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 5, no. 1, 2024 24 published by scholink inc. notwithstanding the adoption of conventions, policies, and programmes, as well as the recognition of rights for people with disabilities in ghana, a significant challenge persisted. the academic performance of students with hearing impairments in secondary schools, especially in mathematics, remained a major issue. their performance in the west african examination council (waec) exemplified this, with a significant percentage of students failing to attain qualifying grades for university and training colleges. between 2019 and 2022, only a small fraction of the total number of students with hearing impairments who sat for the west africa examination (80 in total, including 46 males and 34 girls) achieved qualifying scores. the successful students’ ratio was 2 males to 1 female (2:1), indicating a high failure rate, with 77 of the 80 students failing their west africa examinations. again, during this period, none of the hearing-impaired students achieved a c4 or better grade in mathematics. these findings depicted a pattern of weak mathematics performance among students with hearing impairments in school. compared to their hearing colleagues, students with hearing impairments encounter particular difficulties when learning mathematics. the language barrier is a significant hurdle since mathematics depends so much on precise terminology and specialized vocabulary. a lot of mathematics phrases and concepts are abstract, making lip-reading or sign language inadequate for communicating them (nunes & moreno, 2002; santos & cordes, 2022). furthermore, auditory explanations and debates are a common part of classroom instruction, which can be difficult for students with hearing impairments to follow (pagliaro, 2015; yuknis, 2015). this linguistic barrier can cause miscommunication and impede the growth of mathematical ideas and problem-solving abilities. not having access to auditory signals and feedback during maths instruction presents a serious problem for students with hearing problems. listening students can get clarification on their knowledge and reinforcement of topics from teachers and peers through verbal explanations, conversations, and questions (kritzer, 2009; schindler et al., 2022). it may be more challenging for students with hearing impairments to understand complex mathematical concepts and keep up with the flow of the class if they are unable to hear these important auditory inputs (nunes & moreno, 2002). moreover, although beneficial, the use of visual aids and manipulatives might not be adequate to completely make up for the absence of auditory input (pagliaro, 2015). additionally, social and emotional difficulties have been linked to a reduction in hearing-impaired students’ mathematical learning. due to communication issues and their inability to keep up with their hearing peers, these students may feel alone, low in self-worth, and frustrated (kritzer, 2009). according to nunes and moreno (2002), these affective aspects may be detrimental to students’ motivation, engagement, and general academic success in mathematics. moreover, the difficulties faced by pupils with hearing impairments may be exacerbated by teachers who lack the necessary training or expertise (aftab et al., 2022; pagliaro, 2015). www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 5, no. 1, 2024 25 published by scholink inc. recently, basas (2024) has stressed on a critical aspect of language learning for deaf children, highlighting their potential disadvantage compared with their hearing peers. however, despite ramaa’s (2014) investigation into the significance of language skills in the mathematics learning process, the study did not specifically address the challenges faced by deaf and hard-of-hearing students. agyire-tettey and colleagues (2017) studied the academic performance of hearing-impaired students in ghana, although their research did not focus on mathematics. additionally, oppong and colleague (2018) evaluated the academic experiences of deaf students at ghana’s university of education, winneba. the researchers identified a need for additional resources to meet the demands of deaf students, despite these challenges, evidence suggests that students with hearing impairments can excel in mathematics when provided with appropriate support. furthermore, alasim (2020) emphasised the pivotal role of instructors in supporting the learning of hearing-impaired students. while several research projects have explored the mathematical achievement of impaired students in various parts of ghana, a notable gap exists. there is a lack of comprehensive research focusing on challenges of students with hearing impairments in learning mathematics at st. john’s integrated senior high technical school (special) in the navrongo municipality of the upper east region of ghana. consequently, this study aimed to explore the challenges of hearing-impaired students in learning mathematics at st. john’s integrated senior high technical school (special) and to provide suggestions based on empirical data. the purpose of this research was to shed light on the barriers that hindered hearing-impaired students from participating and succeeding in regular classes by assessing their academic achievements in learning mathematics. when a kid falls short of projected milestones for speech and language skills at a typical age range, it’s called a delay in language development (dione et al., 2020; law et al., 1998). this may entail issues with either expressive language (word use and sentence formation) or receptive language (language understanding), or both. not babbling by the age of twelve, not uttering single words by the age of sixteen, not stringing two words together by the age of twenty-four, and having difficulty adhering to straightforward instructions are a few indicators of a possible language delay. many conditions, including hearing loss, intellectual difficulties, autism spectrum disorder, and a lack of stimulation and social engagement, can result in language delays (shriberg et al., 2011). since language skills are fundamental to the development of cognitive, social, and academic abilities, early detection and intervention are essential. it is imperative to obtain professional evaluation and help for a kid exhibiting indicators of language delay (scarborough & dobrich, 1990). speech-language pathologists are qualified to carry out thorough evaluations in order to pinpoint the root reasons and provide customized treatment programmes. speech therapy may be used as part of an intervention to enhance vocabulary, grammar, articulation, and pragmatic language abilities. it is also critical to treat any underlying issues, such developmental abnormalities or hearing difficulties. by having regular talks, reading aloud, singing, and creating an atmosphere that is rich in language, parents and other careers can greatly assist language development in www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 5, no. 1, 2024 26 published by scholink inc. their children (silva et al., 1987; sunderajan & kanhere, 2019). many children with language delays can catch up to their classmates and acquire age-appropriate communication skills with the help of early intervention and ongoing assistance. 2. objectives this study aimed at exploring the challenges of hearing-impaired students in learning mathematics in st john’s integrated senior high technical school and the specific objective was to explore challenges affecting mathematics learning of students with hearing impairments. 3. theoretical framework this study adopted the ecological systems theory as its theoretical framework. this theory elucidated that the development of a child, including those with hearing impairments, within an ecological context is significantly influenced by the child’s experiences in both immediate and distant ecological settings that interact with them. various ecological elements, such as individuals, residences, families, neighbourhoods, communities, play areas, and schools, collectively possess the potential to facilitate children’s learning. the ecological model of child development seeks to explain the intricate relationships between active children, including those with hearing impairments, and the connections and interactions among individuals, objects, and symbols within the child’s ecological surroundings. these dynamics play a crucial role in shaping the growth and development of such children. this model served as a framework for understanding how the connections and interactions among homes, families, communities, and schools can positively influence a child’s academic performance. building upon the insights of bronfenbrenner (1979), and bronfenbrenner and morris (1998), this work explored how the model can enhance the connections and interactions within the immediate and distant ecological environment of children with hearing impairments. the goal is to enrich the overall experience of these children and foster success in school, steering away from academic failures. 4. methodology the study implemented a case study design. a case study, as outlined by ebneyamini and moghadam (2018), involves a thorough empirical examination of a current phenomenon within its real-life context. the selection of this design was motivated by its suitability for convenient data collection at the school. the instruments in data collection were structured interview guide and observation check list. data was collected from 11 participants; three (3) mathematics teachers, three (3) sign language interpreters and five (5) students with hearing impairments. all the participants were sampled using the purposive sampling procedure. for this inquiry, a qualitative research approach was employed. this methodology enabled the researcher to systematically collect data from participants about their emotions, sentiments, experiences, and thoughts concerning the efficacy of the study involving students with hearing challenges. rooted in www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 5, no. 1, 2024 27 published by scholink inc. the interpretivist research paradigm, the qualitative approach is grounded in the belief that reality is shaped by individuals’ subjective perceptions of the external world, as highlighted by nickerson (2022). this method was particularly well-suited for the current study, as it facilitated the extraction of insights from participants regarding their emotions, experiences, and viewpoints pertaining to the achievement of the study’s objectives involving hearing-impaired students. 5. findings 5.1 delay in sign language development addressing the question about factors affecting mathematics learning among students with hearing impairment. first sign language interpreter, (sli1) elaborated that the underperformance of these students in mathematics could be attributed to the delay in their language development. with regards to sign language development, one of the sign language interpreter, sli was quoted to have said: these students commonly encounter a delay in the development of their language skills, sir. this delay stems from the fact that in many of their homes, their parents and siblings are unfamiliar with sign language, leading to a lack of its usage. as a result, these children are only introduced to sign language once they commence their schooling. in response to the inquiry regarding the challenges impacting mathematics performance of students with hearing impairments, sli1 addressed the matter by indicating that the primary issue lay in the delayed acquisition of language skills. according to the sign language interpreter one, sli1, the process of language development tends to be more time-consuming for students with hearing impairment, (swhi). the exact wording of sli1’s response was as follows: the hearing impairments delay in learning sign language. the majority of these students’ encounter sign language for the first time when they commence their education. this reinforces my belief that an early initiation of schooling would be advantageous, as it would allow them to become familiar with sign language from an early stage of life. 5.2 unavailability of assistive technology resources another noteworthy aspect that surfaced revolved around the inquiry regarding the unavailability of assistive technologies for students with hearing impairments at the school. in addressing this question, a student with hearing impairment, swhi, clarified that they were devoid of any technological devices. she emphasized that: we avoid using those objects, and the school doesn’t possess them either. they make me uncomfortable, and i prefer things the way they currently are. additionally, those items generate noise. fourth student with hearing impairment, swhi4, held the same perspective as the first student, swh1. he clarified that his awareness was limited to hearing aids and he lacked knowledge about other types of assistive technologies. as matter of fact, they were not accessible in school. the following response was recorded: www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 5, no. 1, 2024 28 published by scholink inc. i only know about hearing aids, that’s all. we don’t have any other things like that. some time ago, there were people who had hearing aids, but i didn’t get one myself. 5.3 unfavorable curriculum in another transpiring theme, a second sign language interpreter, sli2, answered that one of the causes of underperformance mathematics among students with hearing impairment was an unfavorable curriculum. sli2 asserted that: the curriculum is very unpleasant. what i’m saying is that the curriculum doesn’t think about what students with hearing problems need. also, the learning materials for these students are not in sign language. sli1 reaffirmed the perspective put forth by sli2, asserting that the curriculum employed for students with hearing impairments lacks customization to cater for their specific needs. the response was recorded: the issue at hand, sir, lies in the curriculum not being adapted to align with the learning requirements of hearing impaired students. the existing curriculum is better suited for students who do not have hearing impairments. for these hearing impaired students, it proves to be excessively rigid and unsuitable. not this… it is too inflexible. 5.4 insufficient proficiency of mathematics teachers in sign language in addressing the question, the third mathematics teacher, mt3, attributed the below-average mathematics performance to the insufficient proficiency of mathematics teachers in sign language. when asked about his own competence in sign language, the mt3 acknowledged that his fluency was not particularly high. the mt3 maintained: when i joined, i lacked proficiency in sign language. however, i have been progressively enhancing my skills by learning directly from the students. through interactions with them, i’ve found that the students themselves serve as teachers, and this is how i've been able to improve. the first mathematics teacher, mt1, provided a response to the inquiry about the factors influencing the underperformance of students with hearing impairments that closely resembled the answer given by mt3. he stated that a notable challenge was the lack of competence among certain teachers in sign language. the following response corroborated the concern on lack of competence among sign language teachers: a significant challenge we face is that some teachers who instruct hearing-impaired students are not sufficiently proficient in sign language. this issue detrimentally affects the learning process. in some cases, teachers resort to using english before fully grasping sign language, which presents a substantial problem. for students who are entirely hearing impaired, this becomes particularly challenging as they are unable to hear anything during lesson. in responds to the question of the difficulties affecting his achievements in mathematics, the fifth mathematics teacher, swhi5 opined: www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 5, no. 1, 2024 29 published by scholink inc. i have challenges in mathematics because mathematics is difficult, secondly the words problems form of mathematics is really a big challenge to me. i have problem understanding certain things, especially in mathematics. the issue is that i struggle to comprehend what the teacher is explaining in sign language. 5.5 prominence of dyslexia in a transpiring theme, the second mathematics teacher, mt2, the first sign language interpreter, sli1, and the third sign language interpreter, sli3, connected the low mathematics achievements of students with hearing problems to their limited reading and writing skills. she pointed out that many students with hearing impairments at the school struggle with reading and writing. the following was submitted: the student’s mathematics achievement isn’t satisfactory. reading and writing pose significant challenges for many of them. their ability to read and write is quite poor. it’s important to note that these difficulties with reading and writing have a major impact on their overall mathematics achievements. 6. discussion 6.1 challenges affecting mathematics learning of students with hearing impairment these findings revealed several problems that make it hard for students with hearing impairments to do well in mathematics in the school. the sign language translators, mathematics teachers, and the students themselves talked about these issues. some of the main problems are: gap in language development, unfavourable curriculum, knowledge in teachers sign language, no technological devices, challenged writing and reading and lack of materials in sign language. 6.2 delay in language development the findings under this theme illustrated the factors that influenced mathematics performance among students with hearing impairments in the school. both first and second sign language interpreters, sli1 and sli2 attributed the below-average mathematics achievement of these students to the delayed development of their language skills, particularly in sign language. this delay was often linked to a lack of exposure to sign language within their homes, where family members were unfamiliar with this form of communication. as a result, these students only encountered sign language once they entered formal schooling. the ideas that were shared by both sli1 and sli2 aligned with bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory. this connection could have made sense because the family, which was a component of the mesosystem, had a powerful and enduring influence on a child. the influence of the family extended to various aspects of a child’s development, including their language growth. the consistent theme of language deficit in relation to mathematics achievement among students with hearing impairments resonated with the conclusions drawn by (musonda & phiri, 2017). the research by musonda and phiri (2017) identified language deficit as a significant challenge affecting the academic performance of learners with hearing impairments. the connection between language www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 5, no. 1, 2024 30 published by scholink inc. development and academic success was evident in both studies, emphasizing the need to address this issue to support students in their educational journey. in contrast, the findings of akellot and bangirana (2019) challenged the notion that parental involvement directly influenced the academic achievement of deaf children. again, they found no association between parental involvement and the academic performance of deaf children. this disparity suggested that while parental involvement may not have been directly linked to academic achievement, the role of parents in supporting language development and exposure to early language could have been vital (marschark et al., 2015). marschark et al. (2015) emphasized the important role parents played in exposing their children to early language, which served as a foundational aspect of academic achievement. their research aligned with sli1’s and sli2’s observations that a lack of early exposure to sign language in the home environment contributed to delayed language development among students with hearing impairments, ultimately affecting their mathematics achievement. in conclusion, the research findings indicated that the delay in development of language skills, particularly sign language, posed a significant challenge for students with hearing impairments in terms of their mathematics achievement. this aligned with musonda and phiri (2017) conclusion regarding the impact of language deficit on academic performance. while akellot et al. (2019) found no direct association between parental involvement and academic achievement, marschark et al. (2015) highlighted the crucial role parents played in fostering early language development, which could influence overall academic success. 6.3 unavailability of assistive technology resources the findings under the theme illustrated the aspect related to the availability and utilization of assistive technologies for students with hearing impairments. the participants, particularly, the first and fourth students with hearing impairment, swhi and swhi4, shared their perspectives on the absence of such technologies at the school. the swhi emphasized her discomfort with using technological devices. she also mentioned noise as a potential concern. the swhi4 had echoed the same thought and further indicated his limited awareness, noting that only hearing aids were familiar to him, and he was unfamiliar with other types of assistive technologies. both participants had disclosed that these technologies were not accessible within in the school premises. these findings aligned with the observations made by other scholars. ferguson et al. (2017) identified the transformative potential of technological and assistive developments for individuals with hearing impairments, suggesting that such advancements could alter their experiences of the world. the experiences shared by swhi and swhi4 had reflected a discrepancy between this potential and the current reality at the school. similarly, frush (2019) proposed that hearing aids and cochlear implants could enhance auditory processing and communication abilities, potentially leading to improved mathematics achievements. however, the lack of awareness and availability of such technologies as revealed by the participants www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 5, no. 1, 2024 31 published by scholink inc. and had indicated that the potential benefits highlighted by frush (2019) might not have been fully realized in the school context. 6.4 unfavourable curriculum the research findings centered on the factors that contributed to the below-average mathematics achievement of students with hearing impairments. one notable issue highlighted by second sign language interpreter, the first mathematics teacher, and the first sign language interpreter denoted as sli2, mt1, and sli1, respectively was the inadequacy of the curriculum for these students. they indicated that the curriculum in place was not tailored to meet the unique needs of students with hearing impairments, thereby contributing to their difficulties in mathematics. this worry about an inappropriate curriculum aligns with what migeha (2014) found. they highlighted that the absence of specific learning materials and the lack of a shared communication method were important reasons behind the poor academic performance of students with hearing impairments. the findings echoed this sentiment by revealing that the curriculum itself did not accommodate the specific requirements of students with hearing impairments. the second sign language interpreter, the first mathematics teacher, and the first sign language interpreter denoted as sli2, mt1, and sli1 respectively all shared their perspectives that the curriculum lacked flexibility and failed to include crucial elements such as sign language, which was essential for effective communication and comprehension among students with hearing impairments. their verbatim responses emphasized the idea that the rigid structure and absence of personalize in the curriculum hindered the academic advancement of these students in mathematics. additionally, these students were expected to respond in english, a language that had not been used for instruction during their learning period. this could be interpreted as a deliberate choice, considering that the assessors were well aware of the communication challenges faced by students with hearing impairments. as a result, there should be consideration for modifying assessments to prevent placing students with hearing impairments at a disadvantage. 6.5 insufficiency sign language proficiency among certain teachers under this theme the findings revealed the challenges that led to the below-average mathematics achievement among students with hearing impairments. multiple perspectives were presented, shedding light on the factors that hindered these students’ success in mathematics and how these challenges could be attributed to the proficiency of mathematics teachers in sign language. the third mathematics teacher, mt3, highlighted that the insufficient proficiency of mathematics teachers in sign language played a crucial role in the students’ underachievement in mathematics, this finding resonated with sibanda (2018) conclusions on analysis of sign language proficiency among teachers of the hearing impaired in primary schools in bulawayo zimbabwe and the implications for learning and inclusion education. the mt3 acknowledged his own limitations in sign language fluency but had noted that he had been progressively improving through interactions with students. this adaptive learning process explained the significance of student-teacher interactions in bridging the www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 5, no. 1, 2024 32 published by scholink inc. communication gap. the first mathematics teacher, mt1 echoed similar feelings, emphasizing that the lack of competence in sign language among teachers posed a major challenge. this challenge hindered the learning process, leading to instances where teachers had resorted to using english even before fully grasping sign language. this not only had hindered effective communication but had also created difficulties for students who had relied solely on sign language due to their complete hearing impairment. the fifth student with hearing impairment, swhi5’s perspective had provided an additional layer of insight. the student expressed the challenges faced in mathematics, particularly in word problems, which had proven to be a major hurdle. he again said, difficulties in understanding certain concepts had been compounded by the teacher’s use of sign language that the student could not fully comprehend. the findings revealed that the underperformance in mathematics amidst students with hearing impairments could be attributed to multiple factors, including the proficiency of mathematics teachers in sign language. the first and third mathematics teachers, mt3 and mt1, respectively highlighted the challenge of inadequate sign language proficiency among teachers, leading to communication barriers and ineffective instruction, this aligned with the study by chibuye et al. (2023) student swhi5’s input had emphasized the difficulty in understanding certain mathematical concepts, especially word problems, further underpinning the challenges faced by students with hearing impairments. in essence, the findings had emphasized the crucial role of effective communication, particularly through sign language, in enhancing the learning experience of students with hearing impairments. addressing the proficiency gap among teachers in using sign language and finding innovative ways to convey complex concepts to these students could potentially have contributed to improved mathematics achievement among this group. 6.6 prominence of dyslexia the findings highlighted on another theme that revolved around the relationship between reading and writing skills and the low mathematics achievements of students with hearing impairments. the second mathematics teacher, the first sign language interpreter, and the third sign language interpreter denoted respectively as mt2, sli1, sli3, had all contributed to this discussion by emphasizing the challenges faced by these students in reading and writing, and how these challenges subsequently impacted their mathematical achievement. the observations made by mt2, sli1, and sli3 had pointed to a crucial factor that contributed to the underachievement of students with hearing impairments in mathematics. reading and writing were fundamental language-based skills that played a pivotal role in understanding and solving mathematical problems. the struggles experienced by these students in reading and writing had hindered their ability to comprehend mathematical concepts, follow instructions, and communicate their responses effectively. in general, students engage in reading for the purpose of learning. however, when reading and writing pose challenges, this can lead to a highly frustrating learning experience (kaindu, 2021). www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 5, no. 1, 2024 33 published by scholink inc. 7. conclusion from the major finding the following conclusions were made: delay in sign language development, unavailability of assistive technologies, unfavourable curriculum, insufficient sign language proficiency, and dyslexia among students with hearing impairments contribute significantly to their underperformance in mathematics. 8. recommendations a) a purposeful policy and centres should be established, in cooperation with the ministry of education, to ensure early assessment and identification of students with hearing impairments, enabling their timely entry into the education system and minimizing delays. b) the ministry of education should take responsibility for providing essential assistive technologies devices such as hearing aids and cochlear implant to amplify their hearing sensory, so as to improve mathematics learning of swhi. c) the directorate of teacher education and pertinent stakeholders in special education training should collaborate with the ministry of education (moe) to embark on a thorough review of the teacher education curriculum for hearing impaired students. d) the central government should provide additional training for teachers specializing in instructing students with hearing impairments and consider reassigning previously trained teachers to schools dedicated to hearing-impaired students. e) the ministry of education should collaborate with relevant stakeholders to enhance the teacher education curriculum for hearing-impaired students, specifically focusing on improving sign language skills for prospective special needs educators and employ sign language interpreters with mathematics backgrounds. acknowledgements the authors are grateful to the participants, that is the teachers who took part in this study. author’s contributions basigi: conceptualization, data curation, methodology, formal analysis, writing-original draft and preparation, project administration, final draft. bornaa: conceptualization, data curation, supervision. atepor: formal analysis, conceptualization uchenna: data curation, project administration kwakye: final draft, final write-up funding the authors received no funding www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 5, no. 1, 2024 34 published by scholink inc. competing interests the authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper. informed consent obtained ethics approval obtained data availability statement the data that support the findings of this study are available on request from the corresponding author. the data are not publicly available due to privacy or ethical restrictions. references addi, t. 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(2018). awareness of the benefits of sign bilingual education in the education of deaf children in zimbabwe. scientific journal of pure and applied sciences, 7(11), 823-832. https://doi.org/10.14196/sjpas.v7i11.2556 silva, p. a., williams, s., & mcgee, r. (1987). a longitudinal study of children with developmental language delay at age three: later intelligence, reading and behaviour problems. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8749.1987.tb08505.x spencer, p. e., & marschark, m. (2010). evidence-based practice in educating deaf and hard-of-hearing students. oxford university press. retrieved from http://books.google.ie/books?id=dafdcaaaqbaj&printsec=frontcover&dq=spencer,+p.+e.,+ %26+marschark,+m.+(2010).+evidence-based+practice+in+educating+deaf+and+hard-of-%09he aring+students.+oxford+university+press.&hl=&cd=1&source=gbs_api sunderajan, t., & kanhere, s. v. (2019). speech and language delay in children: prevalence and risk factors. journal of family medicine and primary care, 8(6), 1997. https://doi.org/10.4103/jfmpc.jfmpc_162_19 yuknis, c. (2015). attitudes of pre-service teachers toward inclusion for students who are deaf. deafness & education international, 17(4), 183-193. https://doi.org/10.1179/1557069x15y.0000000003 https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.909775 https://doi.org/10.14196/sjpas.v7i11.2556 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8749.1987.tb08505.x https://doi.org/10.4103/jfmpc.jfmpc_162_19 https://doi.org/10.1179/1557069x15y.0000000003 frontiers of contemporary education issn 2690-3520 (print) issn 2690-3539 (online) vol. 3, no. 3, 2022 www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce 1 original paper effect of inquiry-based teaching approach on students achievement in circle theorems gabina susuoroka 1* , richmond adu-gyamfi 2 , emmanuel boakye adubofour 2 , al-hassan abdul-mumin 2 & dennis offei kwakye 3 1 department of business education, university of business and integrated development studies-ubids, wa, ghana 2 department of mathematics, ola shs, nja college of education, ghana 3 department of mathematics and ict, c. k. tedam university of technology and applied sciences, navrongo, ghana * gabina susuoroka, e-mail: susuorokag@yahoo.com authors’ contribution:  theoretical and conceptual framework: gabina susuoroka, richmond adu-gyamfi, emmanuel boakye adubofour, al-hassan abdul-mumin & dennis offei kwakye  design and typesetting: gabina susuoroka, richmond adu-gyamfi, emmanuel boakye adubofour, al-hassan abdul-mumin & dennis offei kwakye  data collection: gabina susuoroka, richmond adu-gyamfi, emmanuel boakye adubofour  analysis and interpretation: gabina susuoroka, richmond adu-gyamfi, emmanuel boakye adubofour, al-hassan abdul-mumin & dennis offei kwakye  supervision and guidance: gabina susuoroka, richmond adu-gyamfi, dennis offei kwakye received: june 15, 2022 accepted: july 6, 2022 online published: september 20, 2022 doi:10.22158/fce.v3n3p1 url: http://dx.doi.org/10.22158/fce.v3n3p1 abstract this study investigated the effect of inquiry-based teaching approach on students’ achievement in circle theorems in senior high schools. the study used sequential exploratory mixed method research design to collect quantitative and qualitative data to answer the various research questions. a sample of 105 students and 6 mathematics teachers from the two schools were randomly and conveniently selected respectively for the study. circle theorems achievement tests (ctat) was administered to both intact classes (control and experimental) as pre-test and after the intervention a similar ctat was administered as post-test. during treatment, the experimental group were taken through inquirybased teaching approach instruction while the traditional instruction was applied to www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 3, no. 3, 2022 2 published by scholink inc. the control group. results from paired sample t-test showed that participants in the experimental group had increment in their post-test as compared to the pre-test. however, independent samples t-test results revealed that students in the experimental group achieved better in the post-test as compared to those in the control group. interview data showed students negative attitudes and teachers’ teaching methods (use of traditional teaching method) were the main cause of students’ poor performance in circle theorems. the observation data also revealed that time factor was challenging since inquiry class activities needed more time to complete and also forming the small groups was a challenge in the class due to large class size and classroom not spacious. in conclusion, inquiry-based teaching approach was found to increased students’ achievement in circle theorem than the traditional instruction and hence recommended for teachers to implement it in their teaching. keywords circle, theorem, inquiry-based, teaching, achievement and students 1. introduction mathematics is one of the most useful subjects worldwide. in view of this, its importance in everyday life cannot be undermined. the main objective of teaching mathematics at all levels is to enable the learner develop clear and logical thinking needed for analysis of both academic and everyday life situation (scopes, 1973). thus, mathematics aids in understanding other subjects, especially the science subjects. mathematics is necessary for the development of scientific, technical, monetary and commercial activities around the life of an individual and the community (ayot & patel, 1992). mathematics has become a compulsory subject up to a certain academic level in almost every nation of the world. according to kinyua, maina, and odera (2003), mathematics helps the students to improve their skills in measurement, approximation and estimating. such skills are necessary for any quest be it academic or business. the importance of mathematics is also highlighted by national council of teachers of mathematics (2003) that “those who understand and can do mathematics will have significantly enhanced opportunities and options for shaping their future” (p. 5). every student must study mathematics during the educational process for their personal development and achievement in today’s technological and progressing world. the mastery of mathematics is a key literacy component that influences children’s success in education and in future society (engle, grantham-mcgregor, black, walker & wachs, 2007). asiedu-addo and yidana (2000) asserted that mathematics builds individual’s reasoning and problem-solving abilities, and also develops his/her personal qualities which include confidence, diligence, perseverance and cooperation. secondary school mathematics is designed to help students in working out solutions to problems with accuracy, precision and speed both academic and functional life situation. the core mathematics syllabus at senior high school (shs) level in ghana, is made up of the following content domains: numbers and numeration, plane geometry, algebra, vectors and transformation in a plane, statistics and probability, trigonometry and mensuration (ministry of education, 2010). geometry, which is the www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 3, no. 3, 2022 3 published by scholink inc. main focus of this study places emphasis on circle theorems. geometry is a branch of mathematics that provides a rich source of visualization for understanding arithmetic, algebraic, and statistical concepts (drickey, 2001). as such, the teaching and learning of geometry is very essential in everyday life since it provides a more complete appreciation of the world, we live in. the reason being that it appears naturally in the structure of the solar system, in geological formation of some rocks and crystals, in plants and flowers, and even in animals (lie & hafizah, 2008). circle theorems is considered as a very important aspect of geometry. its application is seen in ship navigation. due to the usefulness of geometry in everyday life, it is not surprising that most international examinations always have some aspect of it. examples of these examinations are the trends in international mathematics and science study (timss), west african senior school certificate examination (wassce), etc. students showed high level of difficulty in identifying angles subtended at the centre and at the circumference by an arc. moreover, in questions relating to angles subtended by a diameter at the circumference majority of the students encountered difficulties in the area of recognizing the theorem to be used as well as writing the correct mathematical statements. how well students retain taught circle theorems concept can be traced back to the teachers’ teaching approach used in class. furthermore, there is empirical evidence that many students in ghana face difficulties in solving questions involving geometry concepts (baffoe & mereku, 2010). this suggests that shs students find geometry concepts difficult and mathematics teachers are faced with the challenge of how to present geometry concepts to students to promote conceptual understanding. as a result, the methods of teaching mathematics should be of great importance to mathematics educators. generally, teaching requires that, the teacher creates an environment in which students are active leaners. teaching also requires that the teacher integrates a range of assessment methods into their instruction to enhance students understanding (national board for professional teaching standards, 2009). understanding mathematics means being able to justify procedures used or state why the process works. in other words, real understanding of mathematics concept is achieved when it is taught through proofs (wiggins, 2016). unfortunately, mathematics teachers in sub-saharan africa use the traditional method of teaching in their lessons where concepts are taught by giving a set of rules to students to be followed without the students knowing how those concepts came about (akyeampong, lussier, pryor & westbrook, 2013). according to wood and gentile (2003), educators are beginning to recognize that there are better ways to learn other than through the traditional methods. the traditional method of teaching, is passive rather than active. students are made to act as spectators rather than partakers in the learning process. also, the traditional method of teaching does not enhance critical thinking and collaborative problem-solving since “chew and pour” is the order of the day. students should be exposed to skills in creating their own knowledge in order to enhance understanding of mathematical concepts rather than providing them with a set of rules without understanding. in order for the students to think mathematically, students should be exposed to various strategies of problem solving. one of such strategies is inquire-based teaching approach. inquiry-based teaching approach is www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 3, no. 3, 2022 4 published by scholink inc. a method of teaching in which teachers allow students to learn through investigations and discovery. according to spronken-smith (2007), inquiry-based learning is a pedagogy which enables students experience the processes of knowledge creation and the key attribute is learning stimulated by an inquiry is student centred, a more to self-directed learning and an active approach to learning. similarly, friesen and scott (2013) also defined inquiry-based learning as an approach to teaching and learning that places student’s questions, ideas and observations at the center of the learning experience. according to minner, levy, and century (2010), inquiry-based teaching strategy actively engage students in the learning process through scientific investigations which increase conceptual understanding. there is a positive impact in the student learning outcome when an inquiry-based learning method is used instead of traditional lecture-based learning (minner, levy & century, 2010). with inquiry learning, students engage in learning by drawing upon their prior knowledge and experiences. inquiry learning uses the student’s prior knowledge as a building block to integrate new understandings with prior learning (lemlech, 1998). learning has more meaning for students as it becomes a more relevant part of their lives and they begin to better understand the world around them. inquiry-based learning involves students’ in explorations, theory building, and experimentation. it encourages active thinking and seeking rather than rote memorization. as stated by baker et al. (2008), in our view, encouraging students’ problem solving and creative thinking is far better than testing their ability to memorize. the goal [of inquiry learning] is to help students develop skills that enable them to construct vital concepts and challenge their ingrained misconceptions. inquiry learning is a student-centred approach that allows students to have more control over their process of knowledge-getting. consequently, students are motivated by inquiry learning. not only because students are actively involved in the process but because the expectation of finding the answer motivates the search for it as confirmed by slavin (2006) that it arouses students’ curiosities and motivates students to continue to seek until they find answers. inquiry-based learning develops independent problem-solving and critical-thinking skills in students, which is a benefit for both students and teachers. lemlech (1998) stated that the goal of inquiry learning should be to challenge the student to engage in activity that requires higher level thinking and reflective processes. inquiry-based learning also emphasizes students’ understanding concepts rather than acquiring skills. inquiry-based learning encourages teachers to move away from the tradition in which knowledge is viewed as discrete, hierarchical, sequential, and fixed and toward an environment in which knowledge is viewed as an individual construction created by the learner (draper, 2002). inquiry-based learning offers students opportunities to discover knowledge by themselves (longo, 2010). students are allowed to discuss their own perspectives, reflect on the process of exploration, and explain their choices (michalopoulou, 2014). www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 3, no. 3, 2022 5 published by scholink inc. 1.1 statement of the problem in discharging our duties in the classroom as mathematics teachers, we often encounter a lot of problems faced by learners. these problems sometimes discourage students in their learning of mathematics and eventually cause their failure in the subject. this came to light as a result of students showing fewer interest in circle theorems lessons leading to scoring low marks on circle theorems. students showed high level of difficulty in identifying angles subtended at the centre and at the circumference by an arc, the relationship between the angles between the tangent and cord at the point of contact and angle in the alternate segment and the relationship between opposite angles of a cyclic quadrilateral. moreover, questions relating to angles subtended by a diameter at the circumference and properties of parallel lines majority of the students encountered difficulties in the area of recognizing the theorem to be used as well as writing the correct mathematical statements (see appendix a). based on information gathered by the researcher, teachers in the district still use traditional or teacher centred method to teach circle theorems. traditional or teacher centred method makes students passive, act as spectators in the learning process, does not enhance critical thinking and collaborative problem-solving. in order for students to perform better in circle theorems, teachers should use student centred method such as inquiry-based teaching approach. in inquiry-based teaching approach, teachers allow students to learn through investigations and discovery, develops independent problem-solving and critical-thinking skills and emphasizes on students’ understanding concepts. this study therefore, sought to investigate the effectiveness of inquiry-based teaching approach in circle theorem in senior high schools in asutifi north district in ahafo region in ghana. 1.2 purpose of the study the purpose of the study was to investigate the effect of inquiry-based teaching approach on senior high schools (shs) students’ achievement in circle theorems in the asutifi north district of ghana. 1.3 research questions the study was guided by the following research questions: 1) what are the causes of poor performance of students’ in circle theorems? 2) what is the effect of using inquiry-based teaching approach on students’ achievement in circle theorems? 1.4 definition of terms in the context of this study, the following definitions of terms have been used based on the objectives, scope, limitations and delimitations of the study. circle theorems: it is one of the geometry topics in senior high school syllabus. it is known as plane geometry ii. it can be found in unit 2.10 in 2010 core mathematics teaching syllabus. students’ achievement: student achievement refers to the amount of academic content learned by a student within a specified amount of time. the achievement can be measured using various assessment tools such as achievement tests, observation or interview. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 3, no. 3, 2022 6 published by scholink inc. traditional method of teaching: for the purpose of this study, the traditional method of teaching mathematics is defined as the process by which mathematics teachers explain concepts to students by using board illustrations and then follow the explanations up with examples from textbooks. 2. theoretical framework this study is anchored on constructivist theory. constructivism is a theory about how we learn. it also suggests that children must be active participants in the development of their own understanding. constructivist designers view instruction as “a process of supporting [knowledge] construction rather than communicating knowledge” (cunningham & duffy, 1996). the constructivist classroom is an environment where learners actively inquire and originate new knowledge and ideas through engaged dialogue, interaction, presentation, sharing, and negotiation. in this setup, teachers’ role is to guide and moderate the discussion rather than passively passing information to the learners. constructivist teachers provide direction to the learners by engaging them in inquiry activities and by stimulating student centered active discussion and knowledge sharing, i.e., promoting active learning in a social setup where learners construct new knowledge according to their prior knowledge, social realities, peers’ perspectives, and new findings (bruner, 1986). again, constructivist teaching, emphasize that children have to build their own scientific knowledge and understanding. at each step-in science learning, they need to interpret new knowledge in the context of what they already understand. rather than putting formed knowledge into children’s minds, in the constructivist approach, teachers help children construct scientifically valid interpretations of the world and guide them in altering their scientific misconceptions (martins, sexton, franklin & gerlovich, 2005). in constructivism, collaboration is emphasized (adler, 1997) and this is in line with inquiry-based classroom which allows learners to collaboratively engage in decision making regarding the solution to a problem at hand with learners not losing their autonomy and control. in inquiry-based teaching approach, students experience the processes of knowledge creation and the key attribute is learning stimulated by an inquiry a student-centered approach, a more to self-directed learning and an active approach to learning (spronken-smith, 2007). the teacher’s role in a constructivist classroom is to prompt and facilitate discussion, and to guide students by asking questions that will lead them to develop their own conclusions on a subject. if inquiry-based teaching approach is based on the belief that knowledge is generated through the process of students working and conversing together to tackle real-life problems and makes discoveries, then constructivism and inquiry-based teaching approach are perfect match. 2.1 causes of poor performance of students in geometry and circle theorems a number of factors have been put forward to explain why students perform poorly in geometry and circle. findings made by noraini (2006); aysen (2012) have shown that some factors are identified to make the learning of geometry concepts in mathematics difficult which include: teachers’ methods of instruction, geometric language, visualizing abilities. fabiyi (2017) found out that the reasons given by www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 3, no. 3, 2022 7 published by scholink inc. students for perceiving geometry concepts difficult includes: unavailability of instructional materials, teachers’ method of instruction and so on. the quality of instruction is one of the greatest influences on the students’ acquisition of geometry knowledge in mathematics classes. according to akyeampong, lussier, pryor, and westbrook (2013), mathematics teachers in sub-saharan africa use the traditional method of teaching in their lessons where concepts are taught by giving a set of rules to students to be followed without the students knowing how those concepts came about. traditional approaches in learning geometry emphasize more on how much the students can remember and less on how well the students can think and reason. thus, learning becomes forced and seldom brings satisfaction to the students (baffoe & mereku, 2010). the problem with traditional instruction is the concept of rote learning. marshal (2006) took the definition of “rote” from the oxford english dictionary as, a mechanical manner, by routine; especially by the mere exercise of memory without a proper understanding of, or reflection upon, the matter in question. through traditional mathematics instruction, children are expected to use a mathematical concept before they have been able to experience it primarily focusing on how the teacher told them how to use it. this style of teaching is what battista (2009) as cited by marshal (2006) described as ineffective and seriously stunts the growth of students’ reasoning and problem-solving skills. 2.2 concept of inquiry-based teaching approach inquiry-based learning is a pedagogy which enables students experience the processes of knowledge creation and a more to self-directed learning and an active approach to learning (spronken-smith, 2007). inquiry-based learning can also be defined as an approach to teaching and learning that places students’ questions, ideas and observations at the centre of the learning experience (friesen & scott, 2013). there are forms of inquiry that are commonly used in inquiry-based instruction. they are confirmation inquiry, structured inquiry, guided inquiry, and open inquiry (pappas, 2014). the first level of inquiry is confirmation inquiry in which students are provided with the question and method as well as the results, which are known in advance (pappas, 2014). the second level of inquiry learning is structured learning where the students are introduced to the experience of conducting investigations or practicing specific inquiry skills like those of collecting and analyzing data (banchi & bell, 2008). this is where the teacher mainly directs the inquiry by providing questions to be investigated and will then provide a step-by-step instruction to help students arrive at the answer. this kind of inquiry is important because it enables students to gradually develop their ability to conduct more open-end ed inquiry. it is also good level to start for teachers who are new to inquiry-based teaching method (banchi & bell, 2008). the third level of inquiry is guided inquiry. it is the inquiry level where the question and procedure are provided by the teacher; however, the students arrive at an explanation supported by their investigations (pappas, 2014). here the teacher chooses the question and the students will take more responsibility for establishing the direction and methods of the inquiry. the teacher plays an important role in guided inquiry. this could be through feedbacks or posing further questions to help www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 3, no. 3, 2022 8 published by scholink inc. lead the students in the right direction (banchi & bell, 2008). the final level of inquiry learning is open inquiry. in free inquiry, students form their own questions, design their own methods of investigation, and carry out the inquiry process without guidance from the teacher (pappas, 2014). in open inquiry, students take the lead in establishing the question and methods while the teacher takes on a supportive role. having students to ask questions is key to open inquiry and requires a high order thinking. however, it is possible to use a combination of the types mentioned and it is called the coupled inquiry (banchi & bell, 2008). the inquiry teaching style establishes itself as different from other constructivist guided approaches in the sense that it is not a minimally guided learning environment and that direct instruction can be used in the context of inquiry teaching and learning. proper inquiry teaching approach requires that teachers carefully scaffold their students as they challenge them with new mathematical material (hmelo-silver et al., 2007). once students are challenged, they are expected to engage in creating conjectures, analysing conjectures, communicating, working collaboratively, and engaging in mathematical argument (stonewater, 2005). 2.3 effect of inquiry-based teaching approach on students’ achievement for teachers to have a proper understanding of students’ mathematical knowledge and know-how, there must be tangible ways teachers can gain insight into their students’ thought processes. inquiry-based mathematics approach does just that (ferguson, 2010). the teacher’s role has evolved from concept deliverer to concept facilitator where questions are posed to get students thinking and experiencing the mathematical concepts at hand. students are encouraged to “show what they mean” and “explain” their thinking either orally or in written form (ferguson, 2010). according to ferguson (2010) the inquiry-based teaching approach has a positive effect on the mathematics achievement of students. in ferguson (2010) study, two high school geometry classes were taught area formulation using a traditional lecture-based approach to instruction. a third geometry class was taught area formulation utilizing inquiry-based instructional methods. students in both groups took both a pretest and post-test. at the end of the exercise, students involved in the inquiry-based lessons exhibited better retention, a better ability to problem solve, and better performance on decontextualized mathematical problems than their peers who were taught in the traditional fashion. he stated that, the inquiry-based mathematics instruction improves students’ mathematics achievement. he therefore recommended that teachers of mathematics should apply the inquiry-based teaching and learning approach in both at the junior levels through to the tertiary levels. a quasi-experimental study carried out by riordan and noyce (2001) compared two inquiry-based mathematics programmes; an elementary programme called everyday mathematics and a middle school programme entitled connected mathematics. the study compared state-wide standardized test scores for students using these curriculums to demographically similar students using a mix of traditional instruction methods. the results of this study showed that students in schools using either of these inquiry-based programmes as their primary mathematics curriculum performed significantly www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 3, no. 3, 2022 9 published by scholink inc. better on the 1999 state-wide mathematics test than did students in traditional programmes. similarly, al-qurashi (2002) conducted research on examining inquiry-based instruction in mathematics. teachers were trained in professional development sessions and participated in an inquiry-based instruction project. he used videotapes, lesson plans of the participants, observations, and interviews to explore the implementation of inquiry-based instruction. using the engage, explore, explain, elaborate and evaluate inquiry-based design (5 e inquiry-based design), he developed a rubric to evaluate lessons. he concluded that inquiry-based instruction promoted student achievement. 2.4 summary of review findings from the review suggested that most students learn best when given problems to solve and that such problem-based learning improves retention and ownership of geometry (circle theorems) (goos, 2004; stonewater, 2005; hmelosilver, duncan & chinn, 2007). through the analysis of literature on inquiry-based approach it seems feasible that one could create a more optimal learning environment for most students. few articles are dedicated to the detriments of inquiry instruction however, lampert (1990) did indicate that not all students participate in inquiry environments. in particular, some students may not wish to participate in classroom discussions. though there are concerns regarding inquiry-based instructional methods they are not severe enough that we should ignore the possible benefits of such an approach. in light of the current state of mathematics education, and the consideration that in current practice not all students are engaged in the learning processes, the inquiry-learning approach needed to be investigated. the possible benefits to students and mathematics education warrant a movement towards constructivist-based instruction and inquiry-based learning opportunities. 3. method 3.1 research design mixed methods design was used for the study since both quantitative and qualitative data set was collected. mixed methods design is based on the premise that a single data set is not sufficient to answer all the research questions which are different in nature (creswell, 2012). not all, mixed method approach holds greater potential to address complex questions by acknowledging the dynamic interconnections that traditional research methods have not adequately addressed (hesse-biber, 2010). the use of the quantitative approach enables the researcher to use the students’ test data to ascertain if there was any positive or negative influenced of inquiry-based teaching approach on students’ achievement in circle theory. this was done by the use of independent and dependent t-tests to test for statistical significance in the differences in pre and post test scores of the students. the qualitative approach on the other hand, allow the use of semi-structured interview data to get an in-depth knowledge of causes of poor performance of students in circle theory from students’ and mathematics teachers’ perspective. qualitative approach also enables the researcher to use observation data collected from mathematics teachers on challenges associated with inquiry-based teaching approach in www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 3, no. 3, 2022 10 published by scholink inc. teaching circle theorem classroom. mixed method was used to collect different and complementary data on the same topic for integration and interpretation to address the overall content aim of the study (creswell & clark, 2011). this method is justified on the basis that the researcher collected both quantitative and qualitative data within the study period to address the aim of this study. the reason for combining both quantitative and qualitative data was to bring together the strengths of both forms of data for this research work and better understanding of the results (cohen, manion & morrison, 2007; creswell, 2009). 3.2 population field (2013) described population as an entire collection of things. also, nworgu (2006) classifies population as target and accessible where target population is all the members of a specific group to which the investigation is related while the accessible population is defined in terms of those elements in the group within the reach of the researcher. the target population for the study was all the third-year students and mathematics teachers in the public senior high schools in asutifi north district in ahafo region of ghana. there are two public senior high schools in the district with a total population of 657 students in third-year and 23 mathematics teachers these schools. 3.3 sample and sampling technique a sample according to gerrish and lacey (2010), is a subset of a target population, normally defined by the sampling process. the sample for the study consists of 105 students and 6 mathematics teachers selected from the two senior high schools in the district. considering the purpose and the design of the study, the researcher employed simple random and convenience sampling techniques to select the sample from the population. simple random sampling is a process of selecting a sample from a population in a way that every different possible sample of the desired size has the same chance of being selected (devore, 2005). on the other hand, a convenience sampling is a type of non-probability sampling where members of target population that meet certain practical criteria such as easy accessibity, geographical proximity, availability at a given time, or the willingness to participate are included for the purpose of the study (dornyei, 2007). simple random sampling technique was use to select 105 students for the study. simple random sampling was use to select two intact classes, one from each school. this technique was used to avoid bias in selecting the classes. school “a” have seven classes for the programmes of general arts, general science and home economics and school “b” also have eight classes for the programmes of general arts, general science, home economics and visual arts. these classes were also coded according to each selected school. the coded numbers were also keyed into the random number generated calculator to select the classes to be used for this study. for school “a”, 3f1 (3 general arts 1) class was selected, the number students in 3f1 class was 53 and for school “b”, 3e1a (3 home economics, 2) class was selected with a total number of 52 students. final year students were selected because they treated circle theorems in form 2 so they are the right students to provide vivid responses about their perception on circle theorems. convenience sampling technique was used to select 6 mathematics teachers and 10 students to collect interview data from each www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 3, no. 3, 2022 11 published by scholink inc. group (control and experimental) school. the selection of both the mathematics teachers and students was done based on their availability and willingness to participate in the study at the time the interview was conducted. 3.4 research instruments based on the nature of the research questions examined in the study, circle theorems achievement test (pre-test and post-test), semi-structured interview and observation were the main instruments used to collect data for this study. the circle theorems achievement test (pre-test and post-test) was used to collect quantitative data while semi-structured interview and observation were also used to collect qualitative data. 3.5 circle theorems achievement test (ctat) circle theorems achievement test was used as an instrument in collecting quantitative data to assess the effectiveness of the experiment on the experimental group. the researcher administered two tests (i.e., pre-test and post-test). these items were developed by the researcher based on the research questions and theoretical perspective. the content of the test items was taken from a government approved students’ textbooks that are commonly used in teaching geometry in all senior high schools (shss) in ghana and all the items aligned with the objectives from the core mathematics teaching syllabus for shss in ghana. the pre-test consisted of 10 major items (see appendix b). the pre-test was intended to measure students’ level of attainment in the concept before treatment. it also helped to unveil students’ areas of difficulty in the concept in order to design a treatment that would best suit their level of attainment. the post-test contained the same number of items as the pre-test. the difficulty level of the post-test was similar to the pre-test. however, the items in the post-test were different from those in the pre-test (see appendix c). according to creswell (2012), using different test items on pre-test and post-test of a test instrument eliminates biasness from the scores. the post-test was intended to measure participants’ attainment in circle theorem after the treatment has been implemented. pre-test and post-test were administered to all the 105 students selected for the study, in both experimental group (52 students) and control group (53 students). the scores of both pre and post-tests was used to answer research question 2. 3.6 semi-structured interview semi-structured interviews have the advantage of generating qualitative data through the use of open-ended questions which allow the participants have in-depth conversation with the interviewer, choosing their own words. such interviews have increased validity because it gives the interviewer the opportunity to probe for a deeper understanding, ask for clarification and allow the interviewee to steer the direction of the interview (mcleod, 2014). the researcher therefore used semistructured interview to seek both students’ and teachers’ in-depth knowledge on the causes of poor performance of students in circle theorems. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 3, no. 3, 2022 12 published by scholink inc. the students’ semi-structured interview guide contains 2 items, the first item with 1 sub-item which was developed by the researcher and it was administered to 10 conveniently selected students. 5 students from the experimental group and other 5 students from the control groups after the post-test (see appendix d). the mathematics teachers’ semi-structured interview guide also contains 2 items, the first item with 1 sub-item which was developed by the researcher and it was administered to 6 conveniently selected mathematic teachers. 3 mathematics teachers from each experimental and control group’s school (see appendix e). the interview was used to answer research question 1. 3.7 observation observation is a systematic data collection approach in which the researchers use all their senses to examine people in natural setting or naturally occurring situations (cohen & crabtree, 2006). two mathematics teachers were conveniently selected as observers for the study. the observers were always present in the experimental group class during the intervention period. the observers were directly observing the implementation of the intervention in each period and taking notes quietly on the challenges associate with the inquiry-based teaching approach in the classroom without interfering with the lessons based on the observation guide (see appendix f). observations made based on the observation guide was used to answer research question three. 3.8 reliability william (2006), was of the view that reliability is the consistency or dependability of the measurement; or the extent to which an instrument measures the same way each time it is used under the same condition with the same subjects. moreover, creswell and clark (2017) stated that reliability implies scores received from participants should be consistent and stable over time when the instrument is repeatedly administered. test-retest is one of the ways to conduct reliability test. test-retest approach was employed by the researcher to examine the reliability of the ctat in this study. according to creswell (2012), the test-retest approach of measuring reliability involves administering the same test at two different times to the same participants at a considerable time interval. in this study, the researcher administered ctat to one of the form 2 science class, 2a1 students of the control group school and after a month re-administered them to the same students again. the results were used for modification of instruments. the modified and improved instruments were then used in this study. the data collected was used to determine the reliability of the instruments. the correlation co-efficient of reliability of ctat was calculated using karl pearson’s co-efficient of correlation testing in spss. the correlation coefficients of reliability of ctat was 0.82. the reliability coefficient was greater than 0.5, therefore, the ctat was reliable for having high degrees of reliability and could help in achieving research objective for this study. 3.9 validity according to field (2013), validity basically means measuring what you think you are measuring. field (2013) stated that content validity was really the degree to which an item can be considered as a representative and cohen, manion and morrison (2007) asserted that content validity is concern with www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 3, no. 3, 2022 13 published by scholink inc. how an instrument fairly and comprehensively covers the domains or items that it purports to cover as the face validity is where superficially the test appears at face value to test what it is designed to test. to attain content and face validity of the instruments, the researcher gave the instruments (interview guide, circle theorems achievement test and observation guide) to his supervisor to examine after which all remarks, corrections and comments were made. 3.10 data collection procedure the researcher visited the sample selected senior high schools and discuss the purpose of the study with the headmasters, and also seek their permission to carry out all exercises of the study that had to do with data collection and intervention. 3.11 pre-intervention stage the researcher after seeking permission to carry out all exercises of the study in the selected sample schools and had the approval, went on and collected his first data on the schedule date. the circle theorems achievement test that is pre-test was administered to students in both schools on the same day. the researcher collected students work for marking (see appendix h) and analysis of scores. four days after the pre-test, researcher met the control and experimental group separately and explain the purpose of the interview to them. the researcher then granted one-on-one interviews to 10 students and 6 mathematics teachers selected from both the experimental and control groups, 5 students and 3 teachers from each group. each interview took a minimum duration of 10 minutes and a maximum duration of 15 minutes. the researcher audiotaped the questions and responses of the interviews. the researcher used a total of two days to conduct the interviews. 3.11.1 intervention lesson design one of the goals of this study was to teach the same concept in two different ways using traditional, lecture-based instruction with the control group, and inquiry-based instructional methods with the experimental group. these lessons were to be taught over the same timeframe. the control group lessons were taught using the traditional approach described by stonewater (2005) and goos (2004) which involved reviewing the homework assignment from the previous day, followed by a presentation of new material, and concluded with a homework assignment. new material was presented using lecture-based instruction that included examples of problems that they would see in their homework, and the formulas required to solve these problems. parts necessary for substitution into circle theorem formulas were highlighted, and examples included the various theorems. experimental group lessons were inquiry-based and had specific objectives for each day to keep the experimental group on pace with the control group. students in the experimental group solved the same type of circle theorem problems but were taught in a very different manner than the control group. lessons were specifically designed practically to meet the criteria of inquiry-based learning environments and are included in appendix g. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 3, no. 3, 2022 14 published by scholink inc. the inquiry lessons were facilitated through individual work and group work with the expectation that students would work with their group members to develop methods for solving problems related to circle theorem. as the instructor, i closely monitored the process of individuals and groups, and required all participants to give justification for their methods. i carefully designed the lessons to allow students to move from more simple environments for formulation into more complex problems that required usage of a developed method for solving circle theorem problems. as the class progressed into considering more complex theorems, students were expected to draw on previous explorations to find solution to new problems. the lessons were designed to engage students in developing their own strategies for addressing problems on circle theorem, fitting with basic constructivist learning principles. at the end of each lesson, students were provided a problem set to take home and complete using their newly developed method. these problem sets were short (consisting of two to four problems) and only served to solidify developed understandings. 3.11.2 procedure at the beginning of the study, all members of the control group and the experimental group took a pre-test. the purpose of the pre-test was to measure students’ prior knowledge about geometry and circle theorems problems. data from the control group was compared with the experimental group using a t-test. differences were noted and included in the final comparison of the two classes. once the pre-test was completed, the differing lessons began. i, the researcher instructed the experimental class while a different mathematics teacher of the same experience took the class that represented the control group. both of us were teaching the topic based on the lesson’s objectives but different approaches. the inquiry-based lessons were taught over a three weeks periods. students were encouraged to discuss the circle theorems and develop methods through this discourse. students’ desks were arranged in groups of two or three to encourage group discussion. the researcher served as a facilitator of the discussion and guided the direction of the discourse in a way that helped students recognize the meaningful relationships underlying their mathematical tasks. this included small segments of direct instruction as well as extended periods monitoring students’ progress as individual groups developed approaches. researcher closely monitored individual groups’ progress, aiding them in recognizing any noticeable misconceptions through question posing. though direct instruction was sometimes used, it was never the primary method of instruction, and every class period began with student investigations and discussions of the circle theorems. students were expected to defend their ideas in circle theorems to their groups as well as to the entire class, to support their abilities to explain circle theorems ideas. students were not required to take formal notes. instead, the hands-on materials and hand-outs that students received during lessons became their resource for future use. daily lessons concluded with short take-home assignments to assess the students’ developing understanding of the circle theorems. the control group was taught using the government textbook for the selected school district. their lessons followed those from the selected text and were supplemented with worksheets that are www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 3, no. 3, 2022 15 published by scholink inc. generally used in geometry classes to highlight specific concepts of circle theorems. students were taught the formulas in circle theorems and were expected to use those formulas on a variety of problems, including problems that do not give all necessary information. all instruction was lecture-based and examples were provided to guide the students in using the circle theorems rules. students were also shown the reasoning behind the formulations. students were expected to participate in the lecture by answering questions and by taking formal notes, which were assessed for completeness at the end of the unit. to encourage participation and focus on the instructor throughout the class period, students’ desks were placed in rows facing forward. once instruction was completed, students were given an assignment out of the book and a small amount of class time to begin work so that they could ask questions if necessary. work not completed during this time should have been taken home by the student for completion and inspect it next period. students should have felt comfortable with this progression through the material, as this instructional approach had already been established throughout the school year. throughout the course of the study the researcher maintained a journal in which student behaviours within the experimental classrooms were documented, as well as the researcher’s own reflections on what went well during the instructional periods. researcher recorded examples of student conversations and strategies as they attempted onto use ideals of circle theorems they were learning. through careful observation, researcher hoped to discover if the method of instruction impacted on the students’ willingness to attack difficult problems on their own. researcher was also trying to determine if the students in the experimental group adapted and took responsibility for their learning. when differences developed in their approaches to the mathematics and problem-solving approaches, then the researcher attempted to generalize these differences and included them in his observational data. researcher also tried to find whether the experimental-group students performed better when confronted with a real-life situation involving circle theorem and circle geometry in general, observing whether they had a better-established ability to convey meaning and understanding through mathematical discourse to others. all of this information was important in determining the overall success of the instructional approach. 3.11.3 post-intervention stage at the end of the three weeks intervention period, both groups of students were given a post-test. the post-test contained similar items as the pre-test. the post-test also contained a section of problems that required students to apply their problem-solving abilities. such problems required more analysis on the part of the students and a better understanding of the circle theorems relationships that exist among circle geometry and geometry as a whole. students’ post-test scripts were marked (see appendix h) and analyzed the scores. 3.12 data analysis procedure the data obtained through the pre-test and post-test, semi-structured interview and observation guide were organized and summarized to obtain sense of information and to reflect on its overall meaning. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 3, no. 3, 2022 16 published by scholink inc. the data was analyzed quantitatively (descriptive and inferential data analysis) and qualitatively (descriptive words). the descriptive statistics such as measure of central tendencies and dispersion were used. according to creswell (2012), descriptive statistics basically helps researchers to summarize the overall trends or tendencies in quantitative data, provides an understanding of the variability of the data and provides understanding of how one score compares with another. thus, descriptive statistical analysis was used in an attempt to understand, interpret and describe the scores of experimental and control groups from the ctat. the inferential statistics, paired sample t-test and independent samples t-test were run to compare for any significant difference in the mean scores of the experimental and control groups at 95% confidence level was used to an to answer research question 1 quantitatively. qualitative data generated from interviews and observations were used to answer research question 1 and 3 respectively. recorded data generated from the one-on-one interviews were analyzed using thematic analysis. that is recorded audio from the interviews granted to participants were transcribed and analyzed based on the topical areas contained in the interview guides. the researcher reported all events that emanated from the interviews by describing and interpreting the outcomes after reading the transcribed interview. the observations made by the mathematics teachers were also compiled. 3.13 ethical consideration the study participants were kept anonymous. all the participants were treated with respect. the researcher explained the purpose of the sturdy and their rights such as withdrawal from participation if they want to do so, without being compelled to give an explanation. 4. results and discussions 4.1 demographic information of the participants the demographic information of students was described in detail in the following two tables. table 1 presents the demographic background of the students according to their gender and table 2 deals with their age group. this was necessary in order to understand the researcher’s informants used for the study. a total of 105 final year students of the two senior high schools in the district participated in this study. this was made up of 29 males, representing 28% and 76 females, representing 72%. one of the two schools used for the study was mixed whilst the other was single sex (female) school. this contributed to the lower number of males as compared to the higher number of females. however, gender have no effect on the results of this study. this distribution is presented in table 1. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 3, no. 3, 2022 17 published by scholink inc. table 1. gender status of the students school class total number male female a 3f1 53 29 (55% ) 24 (45 %) b 3e1a 52 0 (0% ) 52 (100 %) total 105 29 (28%) 76 (72 %) source: field data, 2020. table 2 shows the age distribution of the students. from table 2, majority 77(73%) of the students were between 17-19 years, followed by 20(19%) of them were 20-22 years and only 8(8%) of them were between the ages of 14-16 years. this means that none of them was below 14 years and also above 22 years. majority of the students are matured enough to give correct responses needed for the study. 4.2 findings the findings have been categorized and presented in three main themes in accordance with the research questions. these were the causes of poor performance of students in circle theorem, the effects of the inquiry-based teaching approach on students’ achievement in circle theorems and challenges of inquiry-based teaching approach in teaching circle theorems. 4.2.1 research question 1 what are the causes of poor performance of students’ in circle theorems? research question 1 sought to find out the causes of poor performance of students in circle theorem. in answering this research question, semi-structured interview was granted to 10 students and 6 mathematics teachers conveniently selected from both experimental and control schools. the students’ interview data were presented as follows. interviewer: do you score high marks in circle theorems exercise? interviewee 1: hmmm, sir please no. i always score low marks. in fact my performance is not good in that topic. interviewer: what are the causes of your low (poor) performance in circle theorems exercise? interviewee 1: the way my teacher taught me, i did not understand it at all. the topic itself is something complex for me. interviewer: how does your mathematics teacher teach circle theorems in your class? interviewee 1: when the teacher was teaching us this topic, he allow us to write the properties or rules one by one as he was dictating. he then solve one example on each properties and ask us to solve some from the textbook as class exercise. in fact i was confused about these properties. i didn’t get anything that he taught us. interviewer: what do you suggest should be done in order to improve on your performance in the topic? www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 3, no. 3, 2022 18 published by scholink inc. interviewee 1: i suggest my teacher should take his time and teach us well, so that i can also understand it well. interviewer: do you score high marks in circle theorems exercise? interviewee 2: no, i always score no or low marks in circle theorem exercise. i even don’t answer questions involving circle theorem in end of semester since i may score no or low marks. interviewer: what are the causes of your low (poor) performance in circle theorems exercise? interviewee 2: i find it difficult to apply more than two rules or properties to solve question. the rules or the properties are confusing to learn and understand and this makes it challenging to me. interviewer: what do you suggest should be done in order to improve on your performance in the topic? interviewee 2: i think my teacher should help me to know how to use more than two properties to solve problem. interviewer: do you score high marks in circle theorems exercise? interviewee 3: no. i find it difficult to score high marks. interviewer: what are the causes of your low (poor) performance in circle theorems exercise? interviewee 3: i have idea or mind-set that circle theorems are complicated and difficult so i don’t like solving problems on it. i know i will not select questions on the topic even in wassce. thus why i score low marks. interviewer: what do you suggest should be done in order to improve on your performance in the topic? interviewee 3: i think teachers should help me to change my mind-set that circle theorems are complicated and difficult so i may like to solve more problems on it. interviewer: do you score high marks in circle theorems exercise? interviewee 4: no, please sir. interviewer: what are the causes of your low (poor) performance in circle theorems exercise? interviewee 4: my teacher did not teach me well to understand. he do not know how to go about it. he made it difficult and totally confused me on the topic. interviewer: what do you suggest should be done in order to improve on your performance in the topic? interviewee 4: i suggest my teacher should have patience with those of us, slow learners to understand the topic since he always move with the fast learners in class. interviewer: do you score high marks in circle theorems exercise? interviewee 5: no sir, i score very low marks. interviewer: what are the causes of your low (poor) performance in circle theorems www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 3, no. 3, 2022 19 published by scholink inc. exercise? interviewee 5: i have difficulties to transfer knowledge on triangle and parallel lines properties in circle theorems and also i find it difficult to solve problems involving two or more properties. interviewer: what do you suggest should be done in order to improve on your performance in the topic? interviewee 5: i suggest teachers should teach me triangle and parallel lines properties well then followed by circle theorems so that i can easily transfer knowledge. and also teachers should help us to solve problems involving two or more properties. interviewer: do you score high marks in circle theorems exercise? interviewee 6: no sir, interviewer: what are the causes of your low (poor) performance in circle theorems exercise? interviewee 6: the topic is too difficult for me, i don’t get the understanding. it’s confusing. interviewer: what do you suggest should be done in order to improve on you performance in the topic? interviewee 6: my teacher should make it easy for me by teaching it again. interviewer: do you score high marks in circle theorems exercise? interviewee 7: no please sir, interviewer: what are the causes of your low (poor) performance in circle theorems exercise? interviewee 7: the way my teacher taught me, i did not understand it. he was moving very fast making everything difficult and confusing. interviewer: what do you suggest should be done in order to improve on your performance in the topic? interviewee 7: my teacher should take his time to teach it well for me to understand it. i think my teacher should teach it again. interviewer: do you score high marks in circle theorems exercise? interviewee 8: no sir, interviewer: what are the causes of your low (poor) performance in circle theorems exercise? interviewee 8: i do not practice or solve problems on circle theorems and also the topic is complicated and difficult to me. interviewer; what do you suggest should be done in order to improve on your performance in the topic? interviewee 8: i think i have to practice or solve problems on the topic by allowing friends to teach me and change my mind set that topic is difficult. interviewer; do you score high marks in circle theorems exercise? interviewee 9: no sir please. interviewer: what are the causes of your low (poor) performance in circle theorems exercise? www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 3, no. 3, 2022 20 published by scholink inc. interviewee 9: my teacher made it difficult for me to learn since he just use one period to teach all the nine principles of circle theorems and ask us to use them to solve problems. i did not understand what he taught us. interviewer: what do you suggest should be done in order to improve on your performance in the topic? interviewee 9: my teacher should re-teach the topic again and this time each theorem with a specific examples and exercises. interviewer: do you score high marks in circle theorems exercise? interviewee 10: no sir interviewee: question; what are the causes of your low (poor) performance in circle theorems exercise? interviewee 9: my perception about the topic is that it’s difficult. it has many principles that makes it more difficult for me to understand and also my teacher made it more difficult for me to understand. interviewer: what do you suggest should be done in order to improve on your performance in the topic? interviewee 9: my teacher should take his time and find proper way to teach the topic again for me to understand. the mathematics teachers’ interview data were also presented as follows. interviewer: do your students perform well in circle theorems exercise? interviewee 1: no sir please. almost all my students performed poorly in circle theorem questions. interviewer: what are the causes of their poor performance in the topic? interviewee 1: most of my students’ have in their mind that it is difficult topic and they are lazy, they don’t practice after classroom work. interviewer: what do you suggest should be done in order to improve on your students’ performance in the topic? interviewee 1: i think students should change their attitude towards the topic and practice more examples after school. interviewer: do your students perform well in circle theorems exercise? interviewee 2: no, their performance is not good in the topic. interviewer: what are the causes of their poor performance in the topic? interviewee 2: students’ inability to apply their knowledge on triangle and parallel lines and other properties in solving circle theorem questions. also students’ cannot apply two or more properties to solve problem. interviewer: what do you suggest should be done in order to improve on your students’ performance in the topic? www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 3, no. 3, 2022 21 published by scholink inc. interviewee 2: i suggest teachers should help students to apply the basic principle in plane geometry 1 and how to use more than two circle properties solve a problem. interviewer: do your students perform well in circle theorems exercise? interviewee 3: no, their performance in the topic is very bad. interviewer: what are the causes of their poor performance in the topic? interviewee 3: students’ have problem with connecting one property with others in solving circle theorems problems. and using basic properties of triangles and parallel lines in solving circle theorems problems. students don’t practice or solve problem on the topic. they claim the topic is too difficult for them to learn. interviewer: what do you suggest should be done in order to improve on your students’ performance in the topic? interviewee 3: i think, i should form small groups for students’ and encourage them to practice more examples on the topic. interviewer: do your students perform well in circle theorem exercise? interviewee 4: no sir interviewer: what are the causes of their poor performance in the topic? interviewee 4: students are lazy to practices on their own or in group. they are not serious about the topic. they claim it difficult to understand. interviewer: what do you suggest should be done in order to improve on your students’ performance in the topic? interviewee 4: i think they should stop been lazy and be more serious with their studies. also they should change their attitudes towards the topic that it is difficult. interviewer: do your students perform well in circle theorems exercise? interviewee 5: no interviewer: what are the causes of their poor performance in the topic? interviewee 5: students have ideal that circle theorems questions are complicated and confusing for that reason they do not pay much attention on the topic. interviewer: what do you suggest should be done in order to improve on your students’ performance in the topic? interviewee 5: i think teachers should help to changes students’ attitudes on the topic that it is difficult and confusing. interviewer: do your students perform well in circle theorems exercise? interviewee 6: no interviewer: what are the causes of their poor performance in the topic? interviewee 6: students find it difficult to apply the theories to solve problem. especially problem involving two or more properties and other geometry problem. interviewer: what do you suggest should be done in order to improve on your www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 3, no. 3, 2022 22 published by scholink inc. students’ performance in the topic? interviewee 6: geometry at the junior high school level should be well strengthen in order to help students to apply geometry concepts at the senior high school level. 4.2.2 research question 2 what is the effect of using inquiry-based teaching approach on students’ achievement in circle theorems? to determine the effectiveness of inquiry-base teaching approach on students’ achievement in circle theorems, circle theorems achievement test (ctat) was administered to students. all the 105 students selected from the two schools in the district agreed to participate in the study, wrote both the pre-test and the post-test of the ctat. the summary of the scores of ctat (pre and post) of the students is recorded in table 2, table 3, table 4, table 5, table 6 and table 7. table 2. descriptive statistics of pre-test scores of control and experimental groups groups n minimum maximum mean std. deviation experimental (b) 52 4.00 23.00 11.88 3.97 control(a) 53 3.00 21.00 11.51 4.45 source: field data, 2020. the pre-test scores of experimental and control groups were compared to determine if there exist any significant difference in the mean scores before treatment. in fact, the pre-test results revealed no significant difference between the two groups. the result from table 2 showed a mean score of 11.88 for the experimental group as compared to a mean score of 11.51 for the control group. the results indicated a mean difference of 0.37 between the mean scores of school “b” and “a” with respect to performance in the pre-test. the following assumptions of independent sample t-test was checked and met (homogeneity of variance, the sample of each group was more than 30, samples scores were normally distributed (see appendix i) and two groups were randomly independent samples) before independent sample t-test was tested. table 3. independent samples t-test of pre-test of experimental and control groups groups n mean std. div. t-value df p-value experimental (b) 52 11.88 3.969 0.455 10 3 0.650 control (a) 53 11.51 4.453 source: field data, 2020. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 3, no. 3, 2022 23 published by scholink inc. to ascertain whether the difference between the mean scores was statistically significant, independent samples t-test was performed at 95% confidence level. the results of the independence samples t-test performed on the pre-test scores of school “b” and “a” is illustrated in table 4. the results from the table 4, the independent samples t-test performed on the pre-test scores of the two independent groups: that is experimental and control groups, revealed that there was no statistically significant difference between the experimental group and control group. (103)=0.455, 𝑝=0.650>0.05. this result indicates that both the experimental and control groups were at the same level in terms of conceptual understanding of the concept of circle theorems before the intervention was carried out. the following assumptions of paired sample t-test were checked and met (homogeneity of variance, sample scores were normally distributed (see appendix i) the sample of the group was more than 30 and the samples were randomly selected) before the paired sample t-test was tested. table 4. paired sample statistics of post and pre-tests of the experimental groups groups n minimum maximum mean std. deviation std. erro.mean post-test 52 17 44 29.827 6.718 0.932 pre-test 52 4 23 11.885 3.969 0.550 source: field data, 2020. table 5. paired sample t-tests of post and pre-tests of the experimental groups experimental(b) n mean difference std. div. t-value df p-value cohen’s d post-test – pre-test 52 17.942 4.578 28.263 51 0.000 3.92 source: field data, 2020. to find out whether the difference in the pre-test and post-test scores of school “b” was statistically significant, paired samples t-test was conducted to compare the pre-test and post-test scores at 95% confidence interval. tables 4 and 6 presents sample t-test of the circle theorems achievement test score of the experimental group. from table 4, the mean and the standard deviation scores of the pre-test was (𝑀=11.885 and 𝑆𝐷=3.969) while that of post-test was (𝑀=29.827 and 𝑆𝐷=6.718). the results indicated a mean difference of 17.942 which was significant. the results of the paired samples t-test (see table 5) of participants from school b, the experimental group who were taught using inquiry-based teaching approach, indicated that there was statistically significant difference in their mean scores of the pre-test and the post-test, 𝑡(51)=28.263, 𝑝=0.000<0.05. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 3, no. 3, 2022 24 published by scholink inc. the effect size the inquiry-based treatment was calculated to determine the extent of the intervention (see table 5). the effect size cohen’s 𝑑=3.92 which is large effect size was realized. this effect size value implies that the inquiry-based teaching approach has made a tremendous impact on students’ concepts of circle theorems. research question 2 focused basically on the effectiveness of inquiry-based teaching approach on students’ achievement on the concept of circle theorem in contrast to the traditional instruction. the independent variable for the test was the teaching method (that is: the inquiry-based or the traditional method) and the dependent variable was the achievement in the post-test of the two groups. table 6. independent sample statistics of post-test of experimental and control groups groups n minimum maximum mean std. deviation std. error mean experimental 52 17 44 29.83 6.718 0.932 control 53 10 37 19.74 5.069 0.696 source: field data, 2020. table 7. independent samples t-test of post-test of experimental and control groups groups n mean std. div. t-value df p-value cohen’s d experimental (b) 52 29.83 6.718 8.699 103 0.000 1.71 control (a) 53 19.74 5.069 source: field data, 2020. the post-test scores of experimental and control groups were compared to determine if there exist any significant difference in the mean scores after treatment. in fact, the post-test results revealed significant difference between the two groups. the result from table 6 showed a mean score of 29.83 and standard deviation of 6.718 for the experimental group as compared to a mean score of 19.74 and standard deviation of 5.069 for the control group. the results indicated a mean difference of 10.09 between the mean scores of school “b” and “a” with respect to performance in the post-test. from table 7, the results of the independent samples t-test revealed that there was statistically significant difference in mean between the experimental group and control group 𝑡(103)=8.699, 𝑝=0.00<0.05. this result suggests that the experimental group which was taught with inquiry-based teaching approach outperformed the control group taught with the traditional method. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 3, no. 3, 2022 25 published by scholink inc. the effect size the inquiry-based treatment was calculated to determine the extent of the intervention (see table 7). the effect size cohen’s 𝑑=1.71 which is large effect size was noted. this effect size value signifies that the inquiry-based teaching approach has made a great impact on students’ acquisition of circle theorems concepts. 4.3 discussion of results this part of the study discusses the result of the study. the findings are discussed in view of previous related studies and the findings of the results of the research questions. the analysis of the interview data collected from both students and mathematics teachers show causes of poor performance of students’ in circle theorems and suggested ways to improve upon their performance. findings from the analysis of interview data revealed that students see circle theorems as the most difficult topic and developed negative attitudes towards circle theorems and this is one of the causes of their poor performance. these findings are consistent with findings of a research made by mogari (1999) who found out that students with negative attitudes toward geometry have problems with understanding other concepts in geometry. also, this findings is in line with the study made by geddes and fortunato (1993) who noted that students’ attitudes about the value of learning geometry may be considered as both an input and outcome variable because their attitudes towards geometry can be related to educational achievement in ways that reinforce higher or lower performance. similar, pickens (2005) linked higher achievement in geometry to positive attitude on the part of the students. findings reveals that, mathematics teachers teaching method also account for students’ poor performance in circle theorem. these findings show that teachers use traditional method mostly to teach students’ circle theorem which is line with the study made by akyeampong, lussier, pryor, & westbrook (2013) which confirm that mathematics teachers in sub-saharan africa use the traditional method of teaching in their lessons where concepts are taught by giving a set of rules to students to be followed without the students knowing how those concepts came about. the finding also supports the statement this style of teaching is what battista (2009) as cited by marshal (2006) described as ineffective and seriously stunts the growth of students’ reasoning and problem-solving skills. these findings also are in support with findings made by keith (1999) who found out that the methods used in teaching mathematics are instrumental in determining one’s performance. further findings show that the complex and abstract nature of geometry (circle theorems) itself is also a cause of students’ poor performance in the topic. this finding agrees with the research finding made by akinlade (2004) that geometry is one of the topics among the abstract and complex aspects of mathematics that students find difficult to learn. the finding from the independent samples t-test (see table 3) analysis, 𝑝=0.650>0.05 showed that there was no statistically significant difference in the participants’ achievement levels in plane geometry ii (circle theorems) between the experimental group (school b) and the control group (school a) before the treatment was carried out. this indicated that both groups were on the same level of achievement before treatment. findings from the paired samples t-tests (see table 5) of participants www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 3, no. 3, 2022 26 published by scholink inc. from school b, the experimental group who were taught using inquiry-based teaching approach, indicated that there was statistically significant difference in their mean scores of the pre-test and the post-test, 𝑡(51)=28.263, 𝑝=000<0.05. the effect size of the intervention, cohen’s 𝑑=3.92 (see table 6) was realized, which is large effect size. this effect size value implies that the inquiry-based teaching approach has made a tremendous impact on students’ achievement in circle theorems. furthermore, the finding from the independent samples t-test (see table 7) showed a statistically significant difference at 𝑝=0.000<0.05 between the achievement in the post-tests of participants who were exposed to inquiry-based teaching approach (mean=29.83) in the experimental group and those exposed to the traditional approach (mean=19.74) in the control group. the difference in means between both groups comparatively was an indicator to the result that the experimental group outperformed the control group in the post-test. the effect size cohen’s 𝑑=1.71 which is large effect size was noted (see table 7). this effect size value signifies that the inquiry-based teaching approach has made a great impact on students’ acquisition of circle theorems concepts. these findings revealed that when inquiry-based teaching approach is employed, students’ achievement is higher than when the traditional method is used. these findings strongly agrees with the studies by riordan and noyce (2001), crawford and snider (2000), crawford and snider (2000), ferguson (2010), mensah-wonkyi and adu (2016) and abdi (2014) who in separate studies found students in the experimental group, who were exposed to lesson by enquiry-based teaching strategy, improved significantly in the post-test as compared to their counterparts in the control group taught by the traditional method. these results also support findings made by al-qurashi (2002) on examining inquiry-based instruction in mathematics and concluded that inquirybased instruction promoted student achievement. the outcome of this study also confirm what aktamis, higde and ozden (2016) found in their meta-analysis study that the inquiry-based learning method used in science education had much more significant effects on student achievement rather than on their science process skills and their attitudes towards science in contrast to the traditional teaching method. the results of this study agrees with theoretical framework of the study by khalid and azeem (2012) said constructivist approach modifies the role of the teacher to that of a facilitator who helps students to construct knowledge rather than to reproduce a series of facts which is the bases of inquirybased teaching approach which promote students achievement. findings from the observation made by the mathematics teachers shows that some students don’t fully engage themselves in the classroom activities in their various group work. students also feel embarrassed when they answer questions wrongly. these findings are in conformity with what gutierrez (2018) said that students with learning disabilities feel embarrassing and unwilling to participate in small group during inquiry-based learning. inquiry-based teaching methods require more time due to its practical and investigative nature. students need to spend time to explore and find out the truth about each of the theories one after the other without learning them through “chew and pour”. this finding agrees with the study conducted by aulls (2002), who observed several teachers as they www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 3, no. 3, 2022 27 published by scholink inc. implemented inquiry-based activities in their classrooms. he reported that the teacher whose students achieved all of their learning goals spent a great deal of time in instructional interactions with students by simultaneously teaching content and scaffolding-relevant procedures. the finding also agrees with wei and li (2017), said schooling and class time are limited, and students are not able to complete inquiry experiments in a short period of time. outcome of the observation also shows that class control and management was a bit challenging due to the fact that the classroom was not spacious and the class size was large. this finding is in line with study made by harris and rooks (2010) and lawson (2000) who in separate studies found that teachers find it challenging to manage an inquiry classroom. 5. major findings the major findings of the study are classified according to the research questions. they are presented under three main sub-headings in accordance with the research questions in this section. 5.1 research question 1: what are the causes of poor performance of students in circle theorems? the findings from interviewees’ responses from both students’ and mathematics teachers’ show that poor performance of students are mainly cause by students’ attitude towards circle theorems and mathematics teachers’ methods or strategies of teaching. students’ have in mind that the topic is too difficult and confusing and for that matter they don’t worry themselves to practice examples on it. moreover, students said they will not answer any questions on it at the final exam. teachers teaching method (the use of traditional method) in teaching circle theorems. this method makes students aware that circle theorem is full of rules that must be chew and pour making it difficult for students to remember them and apply. 5.2 research question 2: what is the effect of using inquiry-based teaching approach on students’ achievement in circle theorems? findings from the pre-test analysis showed that students in both the experimental and control groups were at the same level in terms of conceptual understanding of the concept of circle theorem before the intervention was carried out. also, findings from the post-test analysis revealed that students in the experimental group (school b) outperformed their counterparts in the control group (school a) after treatment. the findings also revealed a statistically significant difference in the mean scores between the experimental and control groups in the post-test comparison. 5.3 conclusions based on the findings from the study, it can be concluded that students’ negative attitude and teachers’ teaching methods are the main causes of students’ poor performance in circle theorems. it can also be concluded that inquiry-based teaching approach increased students’ conceptual understanding in circle theorems and hence increased students’ achievement in circle theorems than the traditional instruction. finally it can be concluded that forming smaller groups in class, control and management problem due to large class size and classroom not spacious and inadequate time factor are some of the challenges associated with the inquiry-based teaching approach www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 3, no. 3, 2022 28 published by scholink inc. 5.4 recommendations from the findings of this study, the following recommendations are offered: 1) mathematics teachers in senior high school level should use inquiry-based teaching approach to teach geometry (circle theorems) since it increases students’ conceptual understanding and haven positive impact in their achievement in geometry (circle theorems). 2) mathematics teachers should help students to changes their negative attitudes towards circle theorems (that it is difficult and confusing) and other geometry topics in order to sustain their interest in the topic. references abdi, a. 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(2012). a national survey on the quality of present teacher training programs. educational science, 28(6), 53. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1091803 frontiers of contemporary education issn 2690-3520 (print) issn 2690-3539 (online) vol. 4, no. 2, 2023 www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce 6 original paper the action-oriented approach to the teaching-learning of english in côte d‟ivoire: contribution to the development of learners‟ entrepreneurial culture yésonguiédjo yéo 1 1 department of english, université felix houphouët-boigny, abidjan-côte d‟ivoire received: april 26, 2023 accepted: may 19, 2023 online published: june 2, 2023 doi:10.22158/fce.v4n2p6 url: http://dx.doi.org/10.22158/fce.v4n2p6 abstract this paper theoretically analyses the contribution of action-oriented approach to teaching and learning english regarding learners’ appropriation of entrepreneurial culture. the aim is to finally suggest the adoption of that approach in the teaching and learning of english in côte d’ivoire given the country’s strong desire to promote entrepreneurial culture. the paper seeks to answer the following questions: what are the principles of the action-oriented approach? how does this approach set field for the appropriation of entrepreneurial culture? the analysis starts with the review of actions taken by ivorian authorities to promote entrepreneurial culture since its independence. it then focuses on the characteristic features of entrepreneurial culture, and the principles of action-oriented approach before moving to the implication of action-oriented approach in the appropriation of entrepreneurial competence. the conclusions revealed three core entrepreneurial skills that could be appropriated by english language learners following an action-oriented approach. first, adopting an action-oriented approach to english language teaching-learning ensures the development of risk-taking and decision-making skills by the learner. second, the action-oriented approach to english language teaching and learning facilitates the development of learners’ capacity to innovate. third and final, teaching english from an action-oriented perspective helps develop learners’ ability to identify business opportunities and make use of them to manufacture a concrete product. keywords action-oriented-approach, entrepreneurship, culture, entrepreneurial culture www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 4, no. 2, 2023 7 published by scholink inc. 1. introduction like many other countries around the world, côte d‟ivoire is currently facing a real challenge relating to the socio-professional integration of its graduates. the state authorities find this issue both complex and a priority for their various governance programs. they generally justify this situation with the various economic, political, and health crises that have shaken the country for several decades, the demographic growth, the inability of the job market to absorb the successive waves of graduates, and the inadequacy of the training to the requirements of this job market. a comparative study of the number of candidates for the various civil service competitions held by the ivorian ministry in charge of public service and the number of places available clearly evidences that, for some time now, the state of côte d‟ivoire has been struggling to absorb its graduates. the episode of the jobless doctorate holders since 2021 is quite an illustration of this situation. faced with this undeniable reality, the state‟s response is to increasingly invite these graduates to turn to entrepreneurship. this state discourse is followed by “initiatives aimed at setting up training modules in entrepreneurship with a view to promoting entrepreneurial culture […] among young people” (bamba et al., 2021, p. 2). the orientation towards entrepreneurship in côte d‟ivoire has also fueled and continues to inspire the organization of several symposiums, conferences, and other scientific meetings. in parallel to these meetings, research on entrepreneurship in côte d‟ivoire, although still in its early stages, has also been the subject of studies that respectively focus on the entrepreneurial perception of young students in côte d‟ivoire (bamba et al.), the impact of education on entrepreneurial intention (benié, 2012; brou, 2016; hillarion & yéo, 2017; sonzai, 2017; achi & bony, 2018), female entrepreneurship (ouattara, 2007; dali, 2014), and entrepreneurial support (soro, 2018). two trends emerge from their works. first, despite the efforts made through the implementation of numerous initiatives, young ivorian graduates seem to be little oriented toward business creation and self-employment. this is transparent in the scarcity of new businesses created by ivorian graduates-creators. second, education and training programs alone cannot sufficiently promote the development of entrepreneurial skills and competence (potter, 2008; oecd, 2012). moreover, the educational system in côte d‟ivoire rejects the entrepreneurial spirit (bamba et al., op.cit. p. 2). therefore, the ivorian educational system needs to be reviewed in such a way that it can offer effective and efficient opportunities for the development of entrepreneurial skills and competencies. indeed, education has the responsibility of rethinking itself in order to serve as a means for its appropriation. moreover, given that the explicit teaching of entrepreneurship does not seem to be producing the expected results so far, it appears necessary to adopt a pedagogy that can lead to its inductive appropriation. this implies that any teaching-learning process in côte d‟ivoire must have a dual objective: the appropriation of knowledge in the concerned discipline and the development of entrepreneurial skills and competencies. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 4, no. 2, 2023 8 published by scholink inc. unfortunately, studies combining the development of entrepreneurial culture and the acquisition of second/foreign languages in the ivorian context are almost non-existent until now although they are inspired by the aforementioned objectives. the teaching-learning of english in côte d‟ivoire is invested, at the very least, with the same finality. henceforth, it is a question of adopting approaches to teaching english that promote an inductive appropriation of the entrepreneurial culture by ivorian graduates. in this perspective, the action-oriented approach to teaching-learning english will be examined in order to have more insight into its contribution to the appropriation of the said entrepreneurial culture by the learners. the questions this paper intends to answer are as follows: what are the principles of the action-oriented? how does this approach set field for the appropriation of entrepreneurial culture? 2. method this study, though a theoretical analysis of the question raised, follows a qualitative research strategy. it separately analyses the concepts of entrepreneurial culture and action-oriented approach in language teaching-learning so as to uncover the underlying principles, values, attitudes and aptitudes of each. the analysis therefore contrasts the characteristics of these two concepts in view of figuring out how the implementation of the second in language teaching and learning could contribute to the development of the first. however, the paper first reviews the different actions taken by ivorian authorities to promote entrepreneurial culture starting from its independence until now. in so doing, the following four main parts constitute its overall structure: entrepreneurship education in côte d‟ivoire, the conceptual framework, the link between entrepreneurial culture and action-oriented approach, and the discussion. 3. entrepreneurship education in côte d’ivoire côte d‟ivoire has been committed to promoting entrepreneurship long before its independence. this commitment was manifested by the taking and implementation of several initiatives that bamba et al (op. cit.) listed in their study. thus, since 1953, the state of côte d‟ivoire has been trying to create institutions responsible for encouraging employment in all its components. to this end, the côte d‟ivoire labor directorate [office de la main d‟œuvre de côte d‟ivoire] (omoci), created in 1953 and later reformed, was replaced by the agency for employment studies and promotion [agence d‟études et de promotion de l‟emploi] (agepe) in 1993. similarly, from 1978 to 1991, a pilot training-apprenticeship project developed and conducted by the former national office for vocational training [office nationale de la formation professionnelle] (onfp) led, in 1996, to the program for the absorption of out-of-school or drop-out youth [programme d‟absorption des jeunes déscolarisés ou décrochés] (pajd). in addition, the apprenticeship training redeployment project [projet de redéploiement de la formation par apprentissage] (prfa) was created in 1996 and entrusted to the www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 4, no. 2, 2023 9 published by scholink inc. national agency for vocational training [agence nationale de la formation professionnelle] (agefop), with the objective of adapting vocational training to the needs of businesses. in 2003, in an attempt to make entrepreneurship a reality, the state of côte d‟ivoire created the national solidarity fund [fonds national de solidarité] (fns) with the aim to support youth entrepreneurship by financing so-called viable projects. more recently, the youth employment agency [agence emploi jeunes] and the côte d‟ivoire sme agency [agence côte d‟ivoire pme] have been set up. each of these initiatives aims to fight unemployment through the development of youth entrepreneurship. the creation of the employment initiatives mentioned above was followed by the implementation of entrepreneurship training modules aimed at promoting entrepreneurial culture, which philippart (2016) refers to as the „entrepreneurial education ecosystem‟, among young people. as bamba et al. put it, these initiatives have certainly been numerous, but young graduates in côte d‟ivoire do not seem to be oriented toward business creation and self-employment. rather, these actions seem to have been aimed at explicitly teaching entrepreneurship. however, potter (2008) and oecd (2012), in their conclusions, purport that education and training programs alone cannot sufficiently promote the development of entrepreneurial skills and competencies. 4. conceptual framework this section discusses the concepts of entrepreneurship, entrepreneurial culture, and the action-oriented approach and its pedagogical and didactic implications. 4.1 entrepreneurship research on entrepreneurship or entrepreneurship-related questions unanimously admit its polysemic nature, making it a difficult concept to fully define in a singular study such as ours. however, several of its definitions are inspired by the economist joseph schumpeter. according to schumpeter (1911), entrepreneurship is the “motor” of the economic and social dynamics of society because it consists of the independent development and implementation of ideas. from his perspective, entrepreneurship is likewise an “innovative power, which encompasses the creation of new products, production process, organizational structures, or alternative distribution channels” (lindner, 2021, p. 10). entrepreneurship for lievens (2020) has a double meaning: strict and broad. in the strict sense, entrepreneurship is the act of creating wealth and/or employment by the creation, in whatever form, of an enterprise. in the broad sense, entrepreneurship is the ability to put an idea into practice, to set up a project, which can lead, among other things, to the creation of a company, but it can also lead to intrapreneurship (collective and organizational ability to encourage and support initiative-taking at all levels in a company) as well as to greater employability (ability to evolve autonomously within the labor market, so as to realize, in a sustainable way, through employment, the potential that one has within oneself...) (p. 2). (note 1) [my translation] www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 4, no. 2, 2023 10 published by scholink inc. in the second sense, the european commission (2006, p. 4) argues that “entrepreneurship helps people in their everyday lives and workplaces to be aware of the context in which they work and to be able to seize opportunities” (note 2) [my translation]. in the same line, tounès (2003, p. 74), who states that entrepreneurship is a dynamic and complex process. it is the result of psychological, socio-cultural, political, and economic factors. it takes the form of attitudes, skills, perceptions, norms, intentions, and behaviors that manifest themselves in a given context. it can take various forms such as intrapreneurship, spin-offs, franchising, and subsidiary creation. however, starting a business is the most visible manifestation of entrepreneurship. it involves the realization of an opportunity, along with the inherent risks that come with it… (note 3) [my translation] entrepreneurship is best understood as the accomplishment of a series of actions that begin with the detection of a business opportunity leading to innovation and that materialize into an organization whose goal is to create value. it refers to the ability of an individual or group of individuals to transform ideas into action. in this respect, it generally involves the following functions or responsibilities: taking risks, making decisions, innovating, identifying business opportunities, and employing product drivers. 4.1.1 entrepreneurial culture studies on the concept of entrepreneurial culture always start from the understanding of the term culture in order to understand and operationalize it in the said studies. unesco (1982) considers culture “as the set of distinctive, spiritual and material, and intellectual and affective traits that characterize a social group”. rocher (1992, p. 101), quoting the british anthropologist edward burnett taylor, defines culture as: “a complex whole which includes knowledge, beliefs, art, morals, law, customs, and all other dispositions and habits acquired by man as a member of a society”. this last conception of culture seems to be more encompassing, especially as it emphasizes, at the same time, its individual and collective aspects. put differently, the social group is understood by the membership of an individual to a more global cultural entity. from the perspective of rocher, culture essentially aims to determine while constituting the reference of the action and the behavior of the individual taken separately and collectively. based on this elucidation, entrepreneurial culture is generally accepted as a set of assets that make individuals and organizations (social groups or other communities) capable of adapting to the economic and social changes that emerge at the time of the organization‟s creation or at the time of its growth and development (johannisson, 1984; prabu, 2005; pepin, 2009; bensghir & reghioui, 2015, among others). www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 4, no. 2, 2023 11 published by scholink inc. it emerges from the preceding that the above-mentioned authors confine entrepreneurial culture to the unique context of the company. their approach departs from johannisson‟s (1984) as the latter had already freed the concept from this compartmentalization. indeed, he did so by specifying that entrepreneurial culture values the personal characteristics associated with entrepreneurship, namely, individualism, marginality, the need for personal achievement, risk-taking, self-confidence, and social skills. in his words, the concept also values personal success while forgiving failure, encourages diversity and not uniformity, and encourages change and not stability. in quebec, for example, the ministry of education, recreation, and sport [ministère de l‟éducation, du loisir et du sport (mels) (2005) has adopted a definition of entrepreneurial culture that is not directly associated with business: “entrepreneurial culture is made up of qualities and attitudes that express the will to undertake and to commit oneself fully to what one wants to do and to see through to completion: self-confidence, motivation, effort, a sense of responsibility, initiative, perseverance, solidarity, team spirit, resourcefulness, and determination (p. 11). (note 4) [my translation] from the above, the entrepreneurial culture admits variables, characteristics, or dimensions that it is important to identify in order to be able to apply or identify them in a teaching-learning process. 4.1.2 the variables and pedagogy of entrepreneurial culture in the literature, it is easy to see that there is no consensus on the number of variables of entrepreneurial culture, let alone on their identification. bensghir and reghioui (op.cit, p. 68) give the reason in the following statement: “attempting to standardize the characteristics and establish a single profile composed of a restrictive list of variables is, in our opinion, an aberration, especially since the characteristics of entrepreneurs are not uniform” (note 5) [my translation]. although impossible to list exhaustively, entrepreneurial culture can, nevertheless, be recognized by a set of frequently cited variables that have in common the fact that they are transversal competencies. copain (2003, cited in bensghir and reghioui, op. cit., p. 68) has carried out a synthesis to list them. these take into account: self-confidence, creativity, imagination, innovation, communication, loquacity, perseverance, tenacity, opportunism, enthusiasm, optimism, independence, energy, practical knowledge, risk-taking, vision, sense of responsibility, curiosity, management and organizational skills, leadership, initiative, self-actualization, negotiation, intelligence, use of resources, ambiguity, uncertainty, passion, commitment, flexibility, ambiguity, uncertainty, boldness, motivation, aggressiveness, speed of learning and understanding, originality, knowledge of one‟s strengths and weaknesses, ambition, decision making, control, pressure, critical thinking, judgment, synthesis, strategist, achievement, and analytical ability (note 6) [my translation]. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 4, no. 2, 2023 12 published by scholink inc. given the diversity of variables in entrepreneurial culture, gibb (1992) postulates that the adoption of specific pedagogical methods is a prerequisite for their effective and efficient appropriation. thus, such pedagogy should follow his entrepreneurial model of learning supported by the following principles: reciprocal learning from each other (not just the teacher), learning by doing, learning through interpersonal exchange and debate/discussion, learning through guided discovery, learning from the reactions of many different people, learning in a flexible and informal environment, learning under pressure to achieve goals, learning by borrowing from others, learning by trial and error and problem-based learning (guided discovery). many other research works, although less explicit than gibb‟s (1992), have also subsequently shown the need for new models of entrepreneurship education that emphasize experimentation, action, or teaching by doing. thus, cronin (2007) analyzes the fact that the action-oriented approach is the most appropriate pedagogy for teaching entrepreneurship, as it is related to the holistic nature of the discipline. the latter, according to his logic, implies “an action-oriented teaching style that encourages learning through experimentation, problem-solving, and creativity on a project basis” (note 7) [our translation] (p. 165). speaking in the same vein, kirby et al. (2006) also advocated a pedagogy that fosters the development of qualities such as creativity, persuasion, critical thinking, leadership, and problem-solving. they also recognized, with shepherd and douglas (1996), that an individual can only really learn if she/he is confronted with an environment as close as possible to reality. as a result, project-based pedagogy, by simultaneously playing on different registers: knowledge, experience, skills, attitudes, and personality, seems particularly suited to entrepreneurship (lavoisier, op.cit, p. 165). our study will be based on the pedagogical principles of gibb‟s 1992 model, especially since it appears to be not only more detailed but also more appropriate in the context of appropriation of entrepreneurial culture in language teaching and learning. 4.2 the action-oriented approach 4.2.1 historical background and theoretical function the action-oriented approach is a new approach that has emerged in foreign language didactics since the 2000s; nevertheless, its theoretical foundations date back to the works of dewey at the end of the 19 th century, piaget (1923), and the pedagogue célestin freinet (1924). their philosophies of education all supported a pedagogy oriented toward action through project completion. however, the fundamental definition of the action-oriented approach comes from the council of europe‟s 2001 common european framework of reference for languages (cefr). according to this framework, “the perspective favored here is, very generally, also action-oriented in that it considers above all the user and the learner of a language as social actors having to accomplish tasks (which are not only linguistic) in circumstances and a given environment, within a particular field of action. if speech acts are carried out in linguistic activities, these activities are themselves inscribed within actions in a social context, which, alone, give www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 4, no. 2, 2023 13 published by scholink inc. them their full meaning. there is a task insofar as the action is the work of one (or more) subject(s) who strategically mobilize(s) the skills they have at their disposal with a view to achieving a specific result” (note 8) (p. 15). [my translation] in the light of this fundamental definition, the action-oriented approach integrates social coaction into language learning. the didactic innovation it brings advocates the use of communication, interaction, and coaction in order to refocus the language objective on the natural environment. in other words, communication and action are preferred to simple transmissive language learning in the classroom. thus, the philosophy of this approach is the training of a social actor in the language classroom instead of a simple user of the language. bourguignon (2006, p. 64) purposely specifies that it is a question of preparing learners to use the language in unexpected situations. doing so, the cognitive strategies developed should not only serve the learning of the language on a vertical axis (consisting in approaching structured texts in an increasingly complex way) but also serve the action on a horizontal axis, i.e., to enable him/her to approach increasingly complex situations (more or less familiar context, more or less stereotyped interlocutors, more or less targeted objective of the action...) (note 9) [my translation] in the context of the action-oriented approach, foreign language communication is no longer limited to “the written or oral expression of intelligible one-way information content. rather, it is about promoting communicative action that puts different speakers in perspective with their own background within socially and culturally meaningful interactions” (note 10) [my translation] (bagnoli et al., 2010, p. 2). the use of language in the action-oriented approach, thus, takes on a civic dimension and all the more so because, beyond its manifest content inherent to the stimulus-response paradigm, there is also an intentionality of the actors in presence who illustrate themselves for their own but together in the act of speech and in all the amplitude allowed by each communication situation. this demonstrates “the performativity of language, which, in an institutionalized setting such as the classroom, takes place in the realization of joint projects (macro & micro tasks) supported by different actions in which each player has the opportunity to interact and value divergent social points of view” (p. 2) (note 11). the key word in this approach becomes the collective project, through which the class performs actions, not simulations. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 4, no. 2, 2023 14 published by scholink inc. 4.2.2 pedagogical and didactic principles the educational website bienenseigner.com (note 12) lists four (04) main principles on which the action-oriented approach is based. the first principle states that learning is a non-linear process that manifests itself in unpredictable ways. this implies that the learner is considered and treated as a “social agent, meaning someone who exerts agency, or more simply put, acts with intentionality to accomplish tasks within a social context” (bandura, 2001). the second refers to directed participation. in other words, the learning process must combine social interaction and cognitive and reflective work in the classroom for the achievement of a concrete and specific learning objective. thus, offering learners the opportunity to develop new skills through choice and need. the third requires that the learner be conceived and treated as a whole person. the teacher, therefore, listens to and respects the learners as full speakers and agents of their own educational destiny. actions are initiated by the learners themselves rather than ordered by the teacher or the system. this stimulates their motivation and autonomy in learning. the fourth and last principle states that the learner is an active person who does not just memorize facts by heart or receive information, but who also engages in constructing knowledge. therefore, his experience can infer from the educational process, which requires his full inclusion, that is, his personal social, intellectual, and cultural inclusion, in order to ensure that she/he takes advantage of a social action for his own benefit and that of the society. in the words of puren (2004), the four principles listed above make project-based learning or problem-solving the ideal framework for the implementation of the action-oriented approach. to illustrate his point, puren relies on the following definition: project-based learning is, therefore, a systematic process of knowledge acquisition and transfer during which the learner anticipates, plans, and carries out, within a given time, alone or with peers and under the supervision of a teacher, an observable activity that results, in an educational context, in an assessable finished product (note 13). (p. 6). the following characteristics determine the task or project in the context of the action-oriented approach: learners see themselves as social agents acting in real, authentic, and meaningful learning situations, the action (i.e., the task or project) has a specific goal with a real-life application, there is a final product or artifact, learners process authentic, real-life texts, and experiences, there are conditions and constraints, there is collaboration, learners draw from all their resources and develop them, and learners make choices, think, and act strategically. (bienenseigner.com 2023, p. 2). www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 4, no. 2, 2023 15 published by scholink inc. it becomes clear that the action-oriented approach brings about a major change in the teaching-learning of languages in general and english in particular. from now on, english learning moves from a linear process focused mainly on linguistic structures to a process organized around the completion of real-life collaborative tasks or projects whose main objective is not the development of communicative competence in english. in the dynamics of the action-oriented approach, learners do not simply learn english but rather experience it as they engage in tasks or projects toward an assessable end product that is not limited to english language proficiency. also, considering english language learners as “social agents” places them at the core of learning. this implies that the learner should be actively involved in the learning process and be allowed to use all their resources to accomplish the task or project. this also involves recognizing the social nature of language use, in which meaning is co-constructed, and the interaction that occurs between the social and individual dimensions in the learning process (council of europe, 2020). 5. the action-oriented approach to english language teaching-learning and the development of entrepreneurial competence as mentioned earlier in this paper, entrepreneurship is the completion of a series of actions starting with the detection of a business opportunity leading to innovation and which materializes into an organization whose goal is to create value. thus, entrepreneurship refers to the ability of an individual or a group of individuals to transform ideas into action. in a nutshell, an individual is considered to have developed entrepreneurial competence when he or she is generally able to perform the following functions or responsibilities: take risks, make decisions, innovate, identify business opportunities, and employ product factors. it has equally been mentioned that, above all, the action-oriented approach considers the user and the learner of a language as social actors having to complete tasks (which are not only linguistic) in a given environment and circumstance, within a particular field of action. therefore, we have specified that it is implemented through the realization of projects or real-life tasks or through project completion. the section below lists some of the skills or responsibilities of entrepreneurial culture and shows clearly how the action-oriented approach favors their development or appropriation in language teaching-learning. 5.1 adopting the action-oriented approach to english language teaching-learning: an ideal framework for developing risk-taking and decision-making in line with what has already been said above, the action-oriented approach to language teaching-learning involves learning through real-life tasks or projects. applied to the teaching of english, the teacher conducts a needs analysis to come up with a list of tasks or projects that are targeted to real-life situations that the learners have to accomplish. in this way, the teacher ensures that these tasks or projects incorporate english language skills that learners use to interact in order to achieve an extralinguistic end product or meaningful artifact. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 4, no. 2, 2023 16 published by scholink inc. learners in this perspective work in groups and by negotiating in the english language to solve any problems or situations that stand in the way of achieving the final product. doing so, they judge the primacy of the meaning of the task or project and call upon their own resources for the completion of the task/project. the completion of the task/project is prioritized at their convenience. also, the implementation of the task/project as well as their own performance is evaluated in terms of results. project-based or task-based learning, therefore, requires the learner to make decisions and take risks in order to achieve the intended goal. such risk-taking and decision-making begin with the individual or collective organization of the task before extending to its completion and then to the presentation of the final product. indeed, here, since the learner is not in a context that favors memorization and mechanical repetition of meaning or language inputs imposed by the teacher, he or she is forced to decide on the linguistic structures that will enable him/her to convey the desired meaning. this also has to do with risk-taking on his part to the extent that the concerned structures may prove inappropriate. however, this risk-taking is salutary, especially since it contributes either to the consolidation of these structures, insofar as they are appropriate, or to the search for and discovery of those appropriate in the event that the former is not. in addition to taking risks and making decisions, the action-oriented approach as implemented through project or task/problem-solving pedagogy confers a certain autonomy to the learner in the english learning process. she/he, therefore, initiates her/his language learning actions with full autonomy, responsibility, and knowledge of her/his strengths and weaknesses, which are all key values of entrepreneurial competence. 5.2 adopting the action-oriented approach to english language teaching-learning: an approach that allows the development of learners’ capacity for innovation the previous section briefly presented the didactic and pedagogical practices of the action-oriented approach to english language learning. this section follows the same logic and will, therefore, highlight the development of the capacity for innovation offered by the action-oriented approach. english language learners in the context of the action-oriented approach are expected to process authentic, real-life texts and experiences in order to achieve a product that is not solely related to english language proficiency. to do so, not only do they draw from all of their prior linguistic and extra-linguistic resources, but they also target the ultimate goal of developing them, and this is where their capacity for innovation comes into play. in other words, the completion of the project or task does not imply a simple repetition of these previous resources but their use and evaluation in view of new constructions. for example, a project for an english course for tourism students consisting in elaborating and presenting in plenary a guide to convince and guide english-speaking tourists to visit their village would not be realized by tacitly reusing an existing guide. the students, in this case, would exploit or adapt existing guides to develop a new one that fits the specificities of the task assigned to them. innovation here, as in www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 4, no. 2, 2023 17 published by scholink inc. entrepreneurship, consists in using existing products, i.e., identifying their strengths and weaknesses, to produce new ones that respond to precise or specific needs. clearly, learning english from an action-oriented perspective, through its project-based and task-solving pedagogy, facilitates the development of learners‟ ability to innovate. besides, such pedagogy allows the learner to develop entrepreneurial values such as a sense of responsibility, curiosity, management and organizational skills, critical thinking, and judgment. the particularity of such a task lies in its alignment with the principles of the entrepreneurial learning model supported by gibb (1992) and developed above. 5.3 teaching english from an action-oriented perspective: a pedagogy to develop learners’ ability to identify business opportunities and use product factors one of the key values of entrepreneurial competence or culture is the ability to identify business opportunities in order to maximize them, i.e., to use product factors. it is possible to develop this value in the context of project-based pedagogy as advocated by the action-oriented approach. indeed, when given a task or a project, learners of english first analyze it in order to determine or identify the possibilities of its realization by them. they examine the conditions and constraints of the task/project, draw on all their resources to make choices, and think and act strategically. once this critical thinking exercise is conducted on the task or project, learners call upon and use linguistic and extra-linguistic resources to perform the task. in the above example, as the tourism students analyze the instruction to understand it, seek to identify the specific actions to be carried out for designing the guide as well as the various information to be inserted in it, and analyze other guides for inspiration, they are in the process of identifying the feasibility of the project, which, in entrepreneurship, corresponds to the ability to identify the business opportunity. the same way as in entrepreneurship, after identifying the business opportunity, one proceeds to maximize it. in english language learning, after analyzing the feasibility of the project, the students proceed to its completion in an effort to come up with the final product. they use the factors or the various resources at their disposal to achieve the design of the product, which is the tourist guide in this case. from the above, teaching english from an action-oriented perspective is a real means to develop learners‟ ability to identify real-life business opportunities and use the resources at their disposal to produce a final product. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 4, no. 2, 2023 18 published by scholink inc. 6. discussion faced with the challenge of socio-professional integration of their graduates, education systems worldwide, particularly those in underdeveloped and developing countries, are under great pressure that requires the development of innovative teaching processes that can enable learners to acquire and develop the skills needed to engage in real-life activities. in côte d‟ivoire, this urgency requires that the educational system, as a whole, be reviewed in order to offer an effective and efficient appropriation of entrepreneurial skills and competencies. the direct implication of such a reality is that from now on, any teaching-learning process will be invested with a double objective, namely the appropriation of knowledge of the discipline in question, on the one hand, and the development of entrepreneurial skills and competencies, on the other hand. the issue of entrepreneurial culture is, therefore, of national interest. thus, the present study on the development of entrepreneurial competence through the teaching-learning of languages in general, and english in particular, is of the same interest and relevance. this relevance is perceptible at two levels. first, the dominant thought in côte d‟ivoire, when it comes to addressing the question of entrepreneurship, concentrates on scientific, technical, or professional fields. the fields of arts and literature are generally, wrongly from our point of view, considered as being purely speculative and, therefore, not really contributing to the challenge of entrepreneurship. the current study takes the opposite view of such dominant thinking by highlighting the significant contribution of the action-oriented approach to language teaching in general and english in particular, to the development of the skills and attitudes that make up entrepreneurial competence. we can, therefore, conclude that language teaching-learning can, like other disciplines already considered as the traditional channels of entrepreneurship, lead to the development of an entrepreneurial culture. it will just be a matter of adopting approaches that favor such action, namely, the action-oriented approach. second, it is obvious that most educational policies and practices aimed at promoting entrepreneurial culture in côte d‟ivoire have so far opted for a purely deductive approach. this means that entrepreneurship in the ivorian educational system is taught explicitly. also noticeable is that such an approach has not yet achieved the desired objectives. indeed, teaching entrepreneurship modules, even if they are well assimilated, does not guarantee that learners have actually managed to develop the practical skills and attitudes required for entrepreneurial competence. the advantage of adopting the action-oriented approach to language teaching, particularly english, is the development and appropriation of these values in an inductive way. clearly, learners in the action-oriented perspective are engaged in real-life tasks or projects that require the mobilization of resources, skills, and attitudes that form the basis of entrepreneurial competence to achieve a final product that is not restricted to communication in english. thus, instead of memorizing concepts or notions related to entrepreneurship, learners in the language classroom unconsciously appropriate the entrepreneurial mindset and culture. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 4, no. 2, 2023 19 published by scholink inc. therefore, the reflection on the contribution of the action-oriented approach to english teaching-learning to the appropriation of the entrepreneurial culture is a good context to better understand how language teaching should be conceived. hence, this paper effectively responds to the current socio-professional realities in côte d‟ivoire. 7. conclusion it is commonly agreed that no major social change is possible without language. this implies that language always plays a core role in social life. in that light, the field of language teaching and learning should also play a crucial role in dealing with the challenges related to socio-professional integration of graduates faced with in underdeveloped and developing countries. that is, states‟ leaders in those counties resorting to entrepreneurship as the only way out, calls on language teaching-learning field to be vested with the double objective of appropriating the knowledge of the discipline in question and developing entrepreneurial skills and competencies. the action-oriented approach best responds to this requirement in language education as it leads to the appropriation of the three core entrepreneurial skills namely risk-taking and decision-making skills, the capacity to innovate and the ability to identify business opportunities and make use of them to manufacture a concrete product. howbeit, empirical implementation of action-oriented approach would depict the worries and pitfalls that might occur during its implementation. hence, further studies are needed to explore that path. references bagnoli et al. (2010). the action-oriented approach: didactics and action pedagogy in interlanguage. foro de lenguas de anep. montevideo. retrieved from https://tdm12016.wordpress.com/about/ bamba, m., tuo, s. k., & duguay, b. (2021). perception of entrepreneurship in côte d'ivoire: a preliminary state of affairs among students. journal of entrepreneurship and innovation, 3(10). bandura, a. (2001). social cognitive theory: an agentic perspective. annual reviews in psychology, 52, 1-26. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.52.1.1 bensghir, a., & reghioui, a. (2015). entrepreneurial culture: a comparative study of moroccan and mauritanian students. review imist, 4(2). bourguignon, c. (2006). “from the communicative approach to the communic‟ actional approach”: an epistemological break in language-culture didactics. synergie europe. in the richness of diversity: research and reflection in the europe of languages and cultures (no. 1, pp. 58-73). council of europe. (2001). common european framework of reference for languages: learning, teaching, assessment. cambridge university press. cambridge. european commission. (2006). fostering entrepreneurial mindsets through education and learning. brussels, com 33. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.52.1.1 www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 4, no. 2, 2023 20 published by scholink inc. gibb, a. (1992). the enterprise culture and education. understanding enterprise education and its links with small business. entrepreneurship and wider educational goals. international small business journal, 20-32. johannisson, b. (1984). a cultural perspective on small business—local business climate. international small business journal, 2(4), 32-43. lindner, j. (2021). entrepreneurship training for tvet institutions. in a practical guide. united nations educational, scientific and cultural organization and unesco-unevoc international centre for technical and vocational education and training (p. 100). philippart, p. (2016). entrepreneurial ecosystems and support logic (p. 280). collection gestion en liberté ems editions. puren, c. (2004). from the task-based approach to the action-oriented approach. les cahiers de l’apliut (journal of the association of university institutes of technology language teachers), xxiii(1), 116-130. québec, ministère de l‟éducation, du loisir et du sport. (2005). invitation to entrepreneurial culture (p. 80). québec, ministry of education, leisure and sport. rocher, g. (1992). introduction to general sociology (pp. 101-127). montréal: éditions hurtubise hmh ltée. third edition. tounes, a. (2003). entrepreneurial intention. a comparative study of business school students following entrepreneurship programs or training courses une étude comparative entre des étudiants d’écoles de management et gestion suivant des programmes ou des formations en entrepreneuriat and dess caae students, thesis in management sciences. university of rouen unesco. (1982). declaration on cultural policies. world conference on cultural policies. mexico city. 26 juillet-6 août 1982. notes note 1. l‟entrepreneuriat est la capacité de concrétiser une idée, de se mettre en projet, ce qui peut mener, entre autres, à la création d‟une entreprise, mais cela peut mener également à l‟intrapreneuriat (capacité collective et organisationnelle pour encourager et accompagner la prise d‟initiatives, à tous niveaux dans une entreprise) ainsi qu‟à une plus grande employabilité (capacité d'évoluer de façon autonome à l'intérieur du marché du travail, de façon à réaliser, de manière durable, par l'emploi, le potentiel qu'on a en soi…) (p. 2). note 2. l‟entrepreneuriat aide tout individu dans sa vie de tous les jours et sur son lieu de travail à être conscient du contexte dans lequel s‟inscrit son travail, et à être en mesure de saisir les occasions qui se présentent (commission européenne, 2006, p. 4). www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 4, no. 2, 2023 21 published by scholink inc. note 3. nous considérons l‟entrepreneuriat comme un processus dynamique et complexe. il est le fruit de facteurs psychologiques, socioculturels, politiques et économiques. il prend la forme d‟attitudes, d‟aptitudes, de perceptions, de normes, d‟intentions et de comportements qui se manifestent dans un contexte donné. il peut s‟exprimer sous diverses formes telles que l‟intrapreneuriat, l‟essaimage, la franchise ou la filialisation. cependant, la création d‟entreprise constitue pour nous la manifestation la plus visible de l‟entrepreneuriat. elle prend le sens de la concrétisation d‟une opportunité avec les risques y afférents. note 4. la culture entrepreneuriale est constituée de qualités et d‟attitudes exprimant la volonté d‟entreprendre et de s‟engager pleinement dans ce que l‟on veut faire et mener à terme: la confiance en soi, la motivation, l‟effort, le sens des responsabilités, l‟initiative, la persévérance, la solidarité, l‟esprit d‟équipe, la débrouillardise et la détermination (p. 11). note 5. vouloir uniformiser les caractéristiques et établir un profil unique composé d‟une liste limitative de variables est, à notre avis aberrant. d‟autant plus que les caractéristiques que présentent les entrepreneurs ne sont pas uniformes. note 6. la confiance en soi, la créativité, l‟imagination, l‟innovation, la communication, la loquacité, la persévérance, la ténacité, l‟opportunisme, l‟enthousiasme, l‟optimisme, l‟indépendance, l‟énergie, les connaissances pratiques, la prise de risque, la vision, le sens des responsabilités, la curiosité, le sens de la gestion et de l‟organisation, le leadership, la prise d‟initiative, l‟accomplissement de soi, la négociation, l‟intelligence, l‟utilisation des ressources, l‟ambiguïté, l‟incertitude, la passion, l‟engagement, la souplesse, la flexibilité, l‟ambiguïté, l‟incertitude, l‟audace, la motivation, l‟agressivité, la rapidité d‟apprentissage et de compréhension, l‟originalité, la connaissance de ses forces et de ses faiblesses, l‟ambition, la prise de décision, le contrôle, la pression, l‟esprit critique, le jugement, l‟esprit de synthèse, le stratège, la réalisation, la capacité d‟analyse. note 7. un style d‟enseignement orienté sur l‟action, qui encourage l‟apprentissage par l‟expérimentation, la résolution de problèmes, la créativité et ceci à partir d‟un projet (p. 165). note 8. la perspective privilégiée ici est, très généralement aussi, de type actionnel en ce qu‟elle considère avant tout l‟usager et l‟apprenant d‟une langue comme des acteurs sociaux ayant à accomplir des tâches (qui ne sont pas seulement langagières) dans des circonstances et un environnement donné, à l‟intérieur d‟un domaine d‟action particulier. si les actes de parole se réalisent dans des activités langagières, celles-ci s‟inscrivent elles-mêmes à l‟intérieur d‟actions en contexte social qui seules leur donnent leur pleine signification. il y a tâche dans la mesure où l‟action est le fait d‟un (ou de plusieurs) sujet(s) qui y mobilise(nt) stratégiquement des compétences dont il(s) dispose(nt) en vue de parvenir à un résultat déterminé. note 9. préparer les apprenants à utiliser la langue dans des situations imprévues. ainsi, les stratégies cognitives développées ne devront pas être uniquement au service de l‟apprentissage de la langue sur un axe vertical (consistant à aborder des textes structurés de manière toujours plus complexe) mais aussi au service de l‟action sur un axe horizontal, c‟est-à-dire pour lui permettre d‟aborder des www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 4, no. 2, 2023 22 published by scholink inc. situations de plus en plus complexes (contexte plus ou moins familier, interlocuteurs plus ou moins stéréotypés, objectif de l‟action plus ou moins ciblé…). note 10. l‟expression écrite ou orale de contenus informatifs intelligibles à sens unique. il s‟agit plutôt de promouvoir un agir communicationnel mettant en perspective les différents locuteurs avec leurs propres bagages au sein d‟interactions socialement et culturellement significatives. (bagnoli et al., 2010, p. 2). note 11. la performativité du langage et dans un cadre institutionnalisé comme la salle de classe, elle s‟opère dans la réalisation de projets en commun (macro & micro-tâches) étayés par différentes actions dans lesquelles chaque acteur a l‟occasion d‟interagir et de valoriser des points de vue sociaux divergents. note 12. bienenseigner.com is an educational website that aims to help teachers find effective methods, attractive and innovative tools, to teach well. visit on 10/04/2023 at 10:51pm. note 13. l‟apprentissage par projet est donc un processus systématique d'acquisition et de transfert de connaissances au cours duquel l‟apprenant anticipe, planifie et réalise, dans un temps déterminé, seul ou avec des pairs et sous la supervision d‟un enseignant, une activité observable qui aboutit, dans un contexte éducatif, à un produit fini évaluable. proulx (2004). frontiers of contemporary education issn 2690-3520 (print) issn 2690-3539 (online) vol. 2, no. 1, 2021 www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce 1 original paper pedagogical counselors’ self-exploration of writing feedback on preservice teachers’ teaching journals esther cohen-sayag 1* , nitzan cohen 1 , dita fischl 1 , anat kessler 1 & dafna govrin 1 1 kaye academic college of education, beersheba, israel * esther cohen-sayag, kaye academic college of education, beersheba, israel received: december 17, 2020 accepted: december 28, 2020 online published: february 4, 2021 doi:10.22158/fce.v2n1p1 url: http://dx.doi.org/10.22158/fce.v2n1p1 abstract the study examines types of feedback pedagogical counselors write in response to preservice teachers’ reflective writing in teaching journals during their practicum. the study also examines variables that can affect written feedback on reflective writing: year in the college, preservice teachers’ levels, changes in feedback over time and personal differences among counselors. 689 comments written by five counselors from 74 teaching journal entries were explored. the results showed eight feedback types, in which asking for clarifications and leading preservice teachers to infer from pupils’ responses, were the most frequent. differences of feedback types written to student teachers was affected by year in the college, by levels of the student teachers and by the context of the practicum. the discussion will focus on the eight feedback types and the linguistic aspect of the feedback. keywords teaching journal, written feedback, reflective writing 1. introduction teaching journals are a type of reflective writing that our preservice teachers have been engaging in as part of their practicum assignments for the last 20 years in special education department. our experience with teaching journals shows improvement in self-reflection although we did not found significant improvement in critical thinking. in our previous study, we found differences in level of reflection of two groups in which different feedback they received affected differences in level of reflectivity (cohen-sayag & fischl, 2012). our experience with face to face feedback suffers from gaps between our feedback/evaluation and student teachers’ point of view and evaluation. we tried alternative of collaborative reflection with colleagues as the respondents, but the results of this move ended with praising and left behind professional knowledge and critical thinking on the reflective writing. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 1, 2021 2 published by scholink inc. studies on the importance of feedback on reflective writing, led us to self-exploration of the feedback that we pedagogical counselors write. we expected that this self-exploration will give us insights to the interaction on the reflections with preservice students and understandings of the variables that affect this feedback. four years ago when we searched for studies on feedback on reflective writing, we did not find empirical descriptions of feedback given to reflective writing on teaching. we therefore decided to examine the type of comments we, as pedagogical counselors, write. we also wished to examine the variables that can affect feedback on reflective writing such as iteration of the reflective writing (first, second or third time), preservice teacher level, year in the college and individual differences among the pedagogical counselors. reflective writing: reflective writing in the teacher education practicum is a platform to promote professional development. it enables preservice teachers to examine pupils’ learning in light of their instructional techniques, test their planning ideas, observe their pupils’ achievements, analyze the dynamic of groups in class discourse and shape their beliefs and educational conceptions. one of the main ideas of reflective writing in teacher education is to connect theory to practice in order to construct pedagogy within an academic frame. mcguire, lay and peters (2009) describe the act of reflection as a “core skill for functioning effectively”. reflective writing mediates between existing and new knowledge and breaks habitual ways of thinking. the act of writing process is considered to generate ideas, organize and elaborate on them throughout drafting, revising and editing (scardamalia & bereiter, 1987, 1991). a highquality writing process is not a recall but rather a reconstruction of knowledge (flower, 1990). hence, the act of reflective writing can support and enhance critical thinking as part of meta-cognitive processes (davis, 2006; monyanont, 2014; ryan & ryan, 2015). although reflective writing is described as an act of self-exploration that enhances meta-cognition it requires formative feedback in order to reach a high level of reflection (bain, ballantyne, packer, & mills, 2002; davis, 2006; brookhart, 2008; fry, ketteridge, & marshall, 2009). since the nineties, reflective writing in teacher education developed in several forms, creating different kinds of feedback dialogue in writing journals. drawing on research and accounts of practice, lee (2008) described four types of reflective journals in teacher education and their benefits for preservice teachers: 1) dialogue journals involving reciprocal responses of college teachers and preservice teachers’ writing and the exchange of ideas. its benefit lies in promoting autonomous learning, enhancing confidence, and helping preservice teachers connect between different subjects in their teaching. 2) response journals relating to preservice teachers’ personal reactions to what they read, write, observe and hear, discussing their reactions with others and its benefits for learning. this is mainly a self-exploration journal. 3) teaching journals based on teaching experiences in the practicum aiming to involve preservice teachers in writing and exchanging ideas with their pedagogical counselor about teaching. this journal is very popular in field experience in teacher education. 4) collaborative/interactive group journals, focusing on group dynamics and www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 1, 2021 3 published by scholink inc. synergy created by the preservice teachers. it encourages preservice teachers’ responsibility for their learning by sharing ideas and developing insights among colleagues, skills that will benefit them throughout their careers. all forms of journals benefit from feedback, which deepens self-exploration. feedback: feedback can be a powerful tool if performed well. its power lies in addressing both cognitive and motivational factors, giving learners information they need so they can understand how to react and what to do next. hattie and timperley (2007) proposed a model describing the complexity of feedback in three dimensions: feed up, feedback, and feed forward, by asking three questions: where am i going? how am i going? and where to next? each question can address four levels of feedback: (1) about the task, (2) about the process (strategies that could be used), (3) about self-regulation (preservice teachers are informed how to continue), (4) about the preservice teacher as a person. in an instructional setting, feedback is described as one of the many procedures that inform a student whether his/her response is right or wrong. additionally, feedback can also provide instructional information to the student that gives a reason for why a response is correct or incorrect. the meta-analysis of hattie's database of 7000 studies (hattie, 2015) point at feedback as one of the most effective variables in improving learning. researchers in teacher education realized that feedback messages are filtered through the preservice teacher’s perception, influenced by their prior knowledge, experiences, and motivation (kagan, 1992). the research review of butler and winne (1995) revealed that external feedback (such as teacher feedback) and internal feedback (such as preservice teacher self-evaluation) affected preservice teacher knowledge and beliefs. kluger and denisi (1996) found that the effects of feedback depend on its nature. for example, feedback that includes what to do and why, helps preservice teachers develop a feeling of control over their learning, thus acting as a motivational factor (brookhart, 2008). preservice teachers must be engaged with the feedback process in order to develop self-regulated skills (tunstall & gipps, 1996). feedback to writing journals: the purpose of feedback in higher education is to help preservice teachers monitor, evaluate and regulate their own learning (nicol & macfarlane‐dick, 2013). although reflection is an act of self-exploration, researchers claim that reflective writing without feedback does not improve reflective thinking (bain, ballantyne, packer, & mills, 2002; davis, 2006; cohen-sayag & fischl, 2012). thomas and packer (2013) claim that preservice teachers need help in their reflective processes otherwise they will focus on “thinking about the tasks” and “thinking about the pupils” and will leave “thinking about myself as a teacher” behind. consequently, pedagogical counselors should encourage preservice teachers to rethink their values and recognize prejudices and contradictions between values and actions. descriptions of the dialogue during fieldwork in nickle’s (2013) study gave us a glance on feedback of the instructor and its importance on navigating students to delve into their reflection, but this study was among student teachers in their first semester of university and was not focused on teaching. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 1, 2021 4 published by scholink inc. as we inquire the research on reflective writing and the feedback of supervisors, we recognized two problems, which we experienced in our work as pedagogical counselors: first, dissatisfactions from the feedback on reflective writing: nicol (2010) described the dissatisfactions and difficulties of the feedback on the reflective writing from both sides, students claim on unclear feedback and pedagogical counselors’ report on misunderstandings, describing feedback as useless act which the student teachers did not change/improve their acts as suggested in the feedback. second, a contradicting point on writing feedback: immediate corrective feedback was found to be more effective than delayed feedback (gürkan serkan, 2018), without immediate feedback might leave the internal dialogue of the preservice teacher at a low and immature level of reflection. yet, feedback from the pedagogical counselor can be interpreted as an act of assessment and might limit the self-exploration process (ditchburn, 2015). considering these problems and the claim that reflective writing can be effective if preservice teachers take an active role in the process (nicol, 2010), we decided to explore our feedback in an open platform, which will not entail remarks on the quality of reflection but only on submitting teaching journals. preservice teachers were also encouraged to respond to our questions and were not evaluated on their level of reflective writing, but were rather credited for the act of submitting a reflective journal. creating the right environment of reflection on teaching we decided to delve into our written feedback in order to understand how we encourage students to take a critical position and what affect our feedback. our main question was: what are the characteristics of counselors’ feedback to reflective writing and which variables shape feedback to reflective writing? 2. method the study used a mixed method array regarding the following research questions: 1) what types of comments did we, the pedagogical counselors, write in response to the teaching journals? 2) to what extent did our comments on reflective teaching journals differ by year of learning in the college, iteration (first, second, third time of reflective writing), by teaching level of the preservice teachers in the practicum, and by individual differences among the counselors? questions 1, was analyzed qualitatively, while question 2 was explored quantitatively. 2.1 participants 25 preservice teachers and five pedagogical counselors from the special education department in a teacher education college in the south of israel participated in the study. two supervisors were relatively inexperienced (four years or less) and three had an average of 20 years of experience. three pedagogical counselors were experts in learning disabilities (ld) and two were experts in complex developmental disorders (cdd). three were supervisors in the second year and two in the third year. at the end of the year, each supervisor chose 5 preservice teachers from her group who displayed three levels of performance in field experience (low, moderate, high), in terms of planning and teaching in www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 1, 2021 5 published by scholink inc. class, which were classified with the consultant of the cooperative teacher. scores of 88-100 in field experience were considered “high level”, scores of 75-87 were considered “moderate level” and scores below that indicated “low-level” (table 1). these 25 preservice teachers submitted 74 teaching journals divided between second/third year and three levels of preservice teachers as follows: table 1. cross-tabulation of 74 journals preservice teachers’ level second year journals third year journals total low 13.6% (6) 20% (6) 16.2% (12) moderate 40.9% (18) 30% (9) 36.5% (27) high 45.5% (20) 50% (15) 47.3% (35) total 100% 59.5% (44) 40.5% (30) 100% levels of functioning in the practicum was similar across years in the college. no significant difference of teaching journal submission was found between the distribution of preservice teachers ( (1) 2 =1.105; n.s.). the context-practicum in special education department: the special education department enables the student to choose between focusing on learning disabilities (ld) practicum or complex developmental disorders (cdd). this focus starts in the second and continued in the third year of their learning. its meaning is mainly in the practicum but also in courses they can choose. ld needed to take 6 hours on reading, and language teaching and diagnosis and a course in emotional disturbances, while the focus on cdd courses on complex disability suggest, autism, social development issues of cdd children and a course on learning to use technology for the benefit of improving communication and learning. the practicum was two days a week, ld students in regular schools, small classes or individual teaching with children in the inclusive education program. the focus was on teaching reading and writing strategies at the different stages, alphabetic phase, solid alphabetic phase and fluency and reading comprehension. the student also practiced subject matter teaching history mathematics and other subjects according to their decision with the cooperative teacher in the classroom. student teachers in cdd focused in their teaching on literacy, communication capabilities and subjects related to daily life, holidays and seasons. 2.2 research tools and procedure 2.2.1 reflective writing a reflective writing guide (appendix 1) contained 10 questions which directed preservice teachers to different levels of reflective writing (a new version of the guide based on cohen-sayag & fischl, 2012). www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 1, 2021 6 published by scholink inc. we decided to use these question because we recognized in the questions potential to lead the students to the five levels of reflection which was described in bain, ballantyne, parker and mills (1999): reporting (simple descriptions of the lesson), responding (descriptions of writers’ responses to the occurrences in the lesson), relating (explanations of the occurrences), reasoning (analysis of the occurrences in the lesson based on educational literature) and reconstruction (integration of theoretical concepts, self experience and knowledge). the reflective writing guide according to the five levels: 1) explain the objectives of this lesson and the activities that you planned to achieve them. (reasoning) 2) what is the topic? why did you choose to teach this topic and what is its importance? (reasoning) 3) describe your lesson as it was performed. (reporting) 4) describe success or failure in your lesson. (reporting) 5) did you observe children’s resistance to the activity? if so, how did you handle it? (responding and reporting) 6) did you learn anything new about the pupils in your class? (relating) 7) do you think you should change the activities in some way? describe the change and your reason for it. (relating) 8) what did you do to encourage interaction between the children? (reporting) 9) can you connect between your personal learning experience and the occurrences in your lesson? (relating) 10) what kind of concepts that you learned in the special education department helped you understand your lesson? (reconstruction) 2.2.2 writing feedback pedagogical counselors wrote their feedback on the reflective writing of student teachers. in order to start a dialogue with the preservice teachers, each supervisor wrote comments on the preservice teachers’ reflective writing. the comments were intuitive and had no guide, but since starting a dialogue was in our mind we used a lots of questions which the students had to respond. we read the reflections and responded in various ways, relating to the lesson plan, its implementation, pupils’ responses and the preservice teachers’ critical thinking. we also responded to linguistic errors. this correspondence was conducted via google drive which enable us to create a follow up on the students reflective writing and on our responses on time. 2.2.3 research procedure as part of their practicum assignments, the preservice teachers reflected on their teaching experiences in teaching journals three times each semester. we, as pedagogical counselors, wrote feedback comments in order to deepen their critical thinking. the process involved five steps: www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 1, 2021 7 published by scholink inc. 1) each pedagogical counselor presented the reflective writing guide, explaining its importance to their practicum and to teacher education development in general. examples of reflective writing were exhibited in order to demonstrate different levels of writing. discussion was held in order to enable the students to ask questions. 2) the preservice teachers wrote teaching journals about a lesson we had not observed, since our presence ended with face-to-face feedback which gave the preservice teacher insights and ideas on the lesson and would affect their reflective writing. each reflection was written 1-4 days after the teaching lesson took place. 3) reflective writing was sent to the pedagogical counselor within a week of the lesson. 4) pedagogical counselor wrote feedback and sent it to the student by email. within a week of submission. 5) preservice students was encouraged to respond. the examples that follows will give a brief glance on the process. vignettes from the dialogue in the teaching journals with three different levels of preservice teachers (low, moderate and high in this order): 1) context: a preservice teacher wrote about her good feeling regarding pupils’ relations with them even when alone with the pupils. the preservice teacher wrote: it may be that the pupils perceive us now as an authority more than at the beginning of the semester. the pedagogical counselor’s comment: i think this is not a matter of authority but of your caring attitude towards them [pupils], they feel that you try very hard to promote their learning abilities. (preservice teacher did not respond). 2) context: a preservice teacher asked the pupils to discuss questions about a story they read in small groups and encountered pupil’s difficulties in maintaining the discussion in groups. the counselor’s comment: if you had to perform the activity again what change would you make? the preservice teacher wrote: if i had to teach the whole class again i would change the activity from a group activity to a whole class activity. the counselor’s response: why are you giving up on group work? the preservice teacher’s response: it is important to mention that i did not give up, and i’m a great believer in group work. but, because the pupils were asked to discuss in groups, i understood that the difficulty lay there. therefore, looking back, i would give them pair assignments. i think it would be easier for them and it could be a step towards group work. 3) context: a preservice teacher expresses her opinion on the importance of the subject she is teaching: the preservice teacher wrote: it is important to teach the students about the “seven species of fruits” (shiv’at haminim). it is a jewish tradition that the students should be aware of. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 1, 2021 8 published by scholink inc. the counselor’s comment: why is it so important to teach jewish heritage? what are, in your opinion, the difficulties of teaching tradition in a mixed population (jewish and muslims)? how can this problem be approached by the teacher? preservice teacher’s response: thank you for this comment honestly i did not think of it at all. it is part of the annual program. 2.3 data gathering the overall data of reflective writing included 74 teaching journals written by preservice teachers, 44 of which were written by second-year preservice teachers, and 30 by third-year preservice teachers. our data of comment types was based on 689 comments which we, the pedagogical counselors, had written as feedback to the teaching journals submitted by the preservice teachers across two semesters. the large number of comments enabled us to perform statistical analysis of the feedback with different variables as an answer to the second research question regarding differences of supervisors’ feedback by year of learning in the college, iteration (first, second, third time of reflective writing), by teaching level of the preservice teachers in the practicum, and by individual differences among the counselors. 2.4 data analysis feedback writing of the supervisors was analyzed qualitatively by grounded theory process: 1) analysis of comment type: we started by reading the data in pairs suggesting categories of comment types. the classification of the comments was analyzed in the group of all five researchers, in order to achieve consent. this process was repeated several times until the final version reported here was reached (table 2). table 2. types of counselors’ feedback comments categories sub-categories examples a. suggestions for instructional moves explicit suggestions i would suggest working in pairs. implicit suggestions did you write the numbers under the picture? b. express opinions and feelings expressing her opinion i think it is our duty to encourage interaction between pupils. asking preservice teacher to express her/his opinion what do you think about the event? asking preservice teachers to express her/his feelings how do you feel about it? expressing empathy with the preservice teacher. i can understand your conflict. c. asking for asking for clarification on how many times did the pupils read the www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 1, 2021 9 published by scholink inc. clarifications instructional moves text? asking for clarification on change in retrospect can you think of another option? asking for clarification on instructional aims and expectations pay attention to the time spent in reading those two words, is it the aim of this lesson? asking for clarification on assessment how do you know what your pupils learned? asking for information about pupils please write more about this pupil. d. praising the preservice teachers praising the preservice teachers with an explanation very good! i can see that you connect between the course content and your practice. general praise very nice; excellent! e. asking for conclusions reflecting on/interpreting preservice teacher writing i think this is not a matter of authority but of your caring attitude towards them [pupils]. asking for conclusions do you have any conclusions about peer learning? raising important issues why is it so important to teach jewish heritage? what are, in your opinion, the difficulties of teaching tradition in a mixed population (jews and muslims)? how can the teacher approach this problem? f. linguistic corrections linguistic corrections (syntax and spelling) please change the order of the words in this sentence. paraphrasing preservice teachers’ writing i think you mean that you changed your attitude. g. connecting theory to practice asking preservice teachers to connect theory to practice do you remember what you learned about reading fluency? directing preservice teachers to relevant reading i suggest reading about the difference between extrinsic and intrinsic motivation. suggesting a concept which generalizes preservice teacher descriptions by paying attention to pupils' needs you are improving their sense of autonomy. h. suggesting directing preservice teachers to did you watch the cooperative teacher? www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 1, 2021 10 published by scholink inc. 3. results the results will be presented in two parts: frequencies of feedback types, and differences that affect feedback types. 3.1 frequencies of feedback type the graph below shows that one quarter of all the comments appeared in the asking for clarifications category. the other six comment types were quite evenly distributed and ranged from 15% to 8%: expressing opinions and feelings, praising the preservice teachers, asking for conclusions, linguistic corrections, asking preservice teachers to connect theory to practice, and suggestions for instructional moves. referring preservice teachers to staff for consultation was the least frequent type, accounting for only 1.7% of the comments (table 3, 4). figure 1. frequencies of comment types: n=689 comments consultation with staff observe the cooperative teacher look at what she does with this pupil. asking preservice teachers to consult with the cooperative teacher please consult your cooperative teacher on this matter. asking preservice teachers to consult other members of staff i suggest consulting the speech therapist. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 1, 2021 11 published by scholink inc. table 3. counselors’ sub-categories frequencies of comment types on reflective writing categories sub-categories frequency of sub-categories a. suggestions for instructional moves explicit suggestions 65% implicit suggestions 35% b. expressing opinions and feelings pedagogical counselor expresses her opinion 43% asking preservice teacher to express her/his opinion 43% asking preservice teachers to express her / his feelings 7% pedagogical counselor expresses empathy with the preservice teacher. 7% c. asking for clarifications asking for clarification on instructional moves 48% asking for clarification on change in retrospect 15% asking for clarification on instructional aims and expectations 11% asking for clarification on assessment 12% asking for information about pupils 14% d. praising the preservice teachers praising the preservice teachers with explanation 62% general praise 38% e. asking for conclusions reflecting on/interpreting preservice teacher writing 14% asking for conclusions 60% raising important issues 26% f. linguistic corrections linguistic corrections (syntax and spelling) 70% paraphrasing preservice teachers' writing 30% g. connecting theory to practice asking preservice teachers to connect theory to practice 47% directing preservice teachers to relevant reading 18% suggesting a concept which generalizes preservice teacher descriptions 35% h. suggesting consultation with staff directing preservice teachers to observe the cooperative teacher 43% asking preservice teachers to consult with the 22% www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 1, 2021 12 published by scholink inc. table 4 shows the following: a. pedagogical counselors wrote twice as many explicit suggestions for instructional moves as implicit suggestions. b. pedagogical counselors expressed their opinions and asked for preservice teachers’ opinions equally. c. nearly half of the comments asking for clarifications related to instructional moves. d. praising the preservice teachers with explanations was twice as frequent as offering general praise. e. asking preservice teachers for conclusions was the most frequent feedback in that category out of three subtypes in this category. f. linguistic corrections referred more to syntax and spelling than to paraphrasing. g. the most frequent form of connecting theory to practice was asking to connect theory presented in the courses to their practice. h. directing preservice teachers to observe the cooperative teacher was more common than consulting with the cooperative teacher or other staff members. 3.2 differences that affect feedback types 3.2.1 differences by year (table 4) a pearson t-test between secondand third-year preservice teachers indicates statistically significant differences for three comment types: 1) suggestions for instructional moves were more frequent in the third year. 2) asking for conclusions was more frequent in the second year. 3) asking preservice teachers to consult cooperative teachers and other staff members were more frequent in the third year. table 4. differences of written comment types between second and third year comment types year n mean s. d t df sig. (2-tailed) suggestions for instructional moves second 44 4.28 6.76 -2.867 35 *.039 third 33 14.23 18.16 asking for conclusions and interpretations second 44 16.64 11.04 2.626 72 *.011 third 33 9.55 11.93 directing preservice teachers to cooperative teacher and the staff. second 44 0.15 1.00 -2.521 72 *.017 third 33 4.10 8.54 cooperative teacher asking preservice teachers to consult with other staff 35% www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 1, 2021 13 published by scholink inc. 3.2.2 differences by iteration (table 6) supervisors wrote more linguistic comments in the first teaching journal entry (20.7%) compared to the second (9.9%) and third ones (10.6%). expressing opinion/feelings was changed over time but these results is not statistically significant. asking for clarifications was stable as much as other comments. figure 2. differences between counselors’ comment types for three iterations of reflective writing 3.2.3 differences by preservice teacher level (tables 7, 8) overall, counselors wrote more comments to high-level preservice teachers (362 comments, 52.54%) compared to the number written to moderate (229 comments 33.24%) and low-level preservice teachers (98 comments 14.22%). however, linguistic comments were made more frequently to low-level preservice teachers (26.53%) compared to high and moderate levels (13%-11%). asking preservice teacher to connect theory to practice was less frequent for low-level preservice teachers (4.08%) than for high-level ones (11.33%). suggestions for instructional moves were minor for low-level preservice teachers (4.08%) compared to moderate and high-level preservice teachers (8.3% and 9.12%). www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 1, 2021 14 published by scholink inc. figure 3. differences between counselor comment types for three levels of preservice teachers two of these differences between writing comment types and preservice teachers’ levels were statistically significant: expression of opinions and feelings were more frequent for low-level preservice teachers, and asking preservice teachers to connect theory to practice was twice as high for high-level ones than for moderate ones and six times higher than for low-level ones. table 5. effect of preservice teachers’ levels on comment types comment types level mean s. d f df sig. (2-tailed) expressing opinions and feelings low 24.59 12.15 3.179* 71 0.04 moderate 16.97 12.06 high 14.30 12.31 asking preservice teachers to connect theory to practice low 2.79 5.13 ~2.925 71 0.06 moderate 6.95 11.04 high 12.20 15.17 www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 1, 2021 15 published by scholink inc. 3.2.4 differences by pedagogical counselors as individual three pedagogical counselors (a; g; e;) were experts in learning disabilities (ld) and (d; n) two were experts in complex developmental disorders (cdd). pedagogical counselors differed in writing feedback types as presented in table 6. table 6. differences in comments types among the pedagogical counselors comment type counselors m sd df f p value suggesting instructional moves a g d e n 6.42 4.08 13.60 2.34 14.85 6.90 7.98 22.91 4.98 12.55 4;69 *2.879 0.029 expressing opinions and feelings a g d e n 22.86 11.33 20.80 9.51 20.47 12.14 12.09 13.75 8.56 10.97 4;69 **4.126 0.005 asking for clarifications a g d e n 17.74 11.02 32.80 23.09 34.89 8.53 10.47 22.84 17.00 23.08 4;69 **4.954 0.001 asking for conclusions a g d e n 15.57 16.57 18.84 13.66 2.52 10.44 12.61 14.04 8.19 5.49 4;69 **5.824 0.000 linguistic corrections a g d e n 9.14 24.51 8.70 15.56 0.30 11.36 20.45 12.92 17.49 1.17 4;69 **5.928 0.000 connecting theory to practice a g d 11.23 9.22 2.02 13.00 11.51 4.49 4;69 *3.350 0.014 www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 1, 2021 16 published by scholink inc. e n 16.69 4.19 19.23 6.37 turning preservice teachers to consult with staff a g d e n 0.00 0.00 0.47 0.00 8.21 0.00 0.00 1.78 0.00 10.73 4;69 **8.199 0.000 post hoc duncan test indicates the source of these significant differences: 1) counselors a, d and n wrote more comments expressing opinions and feelings. 2) counselors g and e wrote more linguistic comments. 3) counselors d and n wrote more comments asking for clarifications. they also wrote more suggestions for instructional moves, fewer requests to connect theory to practice and more comments directing the preservice teachers to consult with school staff. it seemed as if n and d supervisors of the cdd had more in common than the supervisors of the ld. summary of results: the results presented a broad description of feedback types on reflective writing and several significant differences regarding the variables that we explored: 1) feedback comment types-eight feedback types aimed to encourage a high level of reflectivity by asking for more information about what happened in the class, leading preservice teachers to infer from pupils’ responses, urging the preservice teachers to express their opinions, asking them to link theory to practice and directing them to revise their writing. asking for clarifications was the most frequent comment type; counselors needed these clarifications in order to understand the procedures of instructional acts and the preservice teachers’ responses. we will discuss this result. 2) changes of feedback over time-feedback changed over time but only linguistic comments lessened significantly over time. we do not think that the preservice teachers improved their writing through such short experience of reflective writing, but perhaps they became more aware of their writing after reading the linguistic comments. 3) writing feedback to second or third year students-the pedagogical counselors wrote more comments with practical suggestions and comments about turning to the cooperative teacher and the staff to third-year preservice teachers. but we wrote more feedback asking for conclusions to second year students. directing third-year preservice teachers to consult with staff might be due to different goal-setting in the third year, expanding the practicum to the school system beyond the class. more feedback asking for conclusion in second year, might be due to absence of conclusion in their first reflective writing. 4) writing feedback to different level of students-the dialogue with low-level preservice teachers focused mainly on linguistic corrections and asking for expression of their feelings and opinions. the www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 1, 2021 17 published by scholink inc. linguistic corrections that we focused on was partly due to their poor level of articulation in hebrew. but the explanation for the second comment type we used might be that with low-level preservice teachers we did not felt free to raise doubts in order not to undermine their confidence; instead we asked them to explain their feelings and express their opinions. 5) writing feedback and the context of the practicum-all comment types were affected by the complex developmental disorders context (second and third year). the complex developmental disorders cdd counselors made more suggestions for instructional moves and directing preservice teachers to consult with cooperative teachers than other counselors. this result might be due to the complex difficulties dealing with individuals complex difficulties. research limitations: this study has two limitations: conclusions from these findings need to be handled with caution due to the small sample of counselors all from one college in one special education department. these might significantly limit the generalizability of the results. 4. discussion the discussion will focus on the eight feedback types and the context of feedback. the second part will discuss on asking for clarifications as major result and as linguistic aspect of the feedback. our motive to portray the types of written feedback was to reduce the gaps on the interpretation of teaching lessons between preservice teachers and their pedagogical counselors. the process we created in five steps invited the students to respond to feedback they received. this was an act of changing view on their teaching lessons, not an act of evaluation as dylan (2016) suggest. in order to achieve this goal our feedback was delivered without evaluation of the reflective writing of each student. our self-exploration pointed out on eight feedback types which can be concluded to four levels directing student teacher's to professional development: (a) empowerment of the preservice teachers-by praising, sharing opinions and feelings; (b) improving teaching skills by explicit and implicit suggestions for instructional moves; (c) reconstructing instructional knowledge-by asking them to connect theory to practice, read up on the matter they were writing about and suggesting they consult with staff; (d) encouraging critical thinking-by asking for conclusions and clarifications on teaching moves and on pupils’ behaviors. our findings on eight types have some similarity to late publication we found of novillo paula and pujolà (2019) which pointed out on explicit and implicit suggestions in e-tutoring and asking for clarifications which was named inquiring for reflection and our finding on praising was named in this study as giving positive feedback. this similarity supports our thought that the reflection dialogue in special education context is similar to other teacher education programs. but, on the other hand, we found significant differences between learning disabilities and complex developmental disorders. the explanation can be that dealing with complex disorders in special education is a challenging field and differs from the regular education environment where learning disabilities classes are included. the preservice teachers dealing with complex disorders need more suggestions for instructional moves as www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 1, 2021 18 published by scholink inc. well as consulting with cooperative teachers than in the learning disabilities field experience. this result was found in our previous study (cohen-sayag & fischl, 2012) indicating the context of field experience affecting the type of comments pedagogical counselors make on reflective writing. since our main feedback was asking for clarifications we wondered to what extent our feedback was mainly linguistic. although asking for clarification might appear to be a merely linguistic matter, we distinguished them from the linguistic comments because this was characterized by focusing on the content of the lessonasking questions about class activities, plans, interactions and navigation. these questions usually caused rethinking the teaching moves and interactions as demonstrated in the example dialogues. we can conclude that, the pedagogical counselors’ feedback, demanded clarity from student teachers’ reflective writing above all by asking for clarifications more than any other feedback type. clarity is one of the main demand of writing in general, but here our clarity demands was in context of teaching and thus lead students to rethink and rephrase their teaching descriptions. the very act of writing can support and enhance critical thinking as part of the writing processes (monyanont, 2014), by our demands for clarity we widened their critical point of view. most of the pedagogical counselors were convinced that linguistic comments are important. nevertheless, the common thinking was that linguistic comments might hurt the writer’s feelings. furthermore, focusing on linguistic comments is not the main aim of reflective writing in teaching journal. in order to overcome this difficulty, we asked the preservice teachers whether they would like us to give feedback with linguistic comments or to ignore the linguistic aspect. all the preservice teachers were enthusiastic about improving their writing, some of them set a meeting to discuss their writing difficulties. a discussion like this is a strategy recommended by kohn (1992), who argues that advancing reflective thinking in reflective writing depends on the comment type and context. he suggests encouraging discourse between the writer and the commenter. implications for teacher education: the implications of this study to teacher education are four: a. self-exploration of pedagogical counselors’ feedback was our main derive of this research and we think it should be an important act of teacher education staff. this research experience is vital to the development of pedagogical counselors in their efforts to create significant field experience for their preservice teachers. we recommend this self-exploration process for beginner pedagogical counselors, to explore their own feedback through such process. we think this point of observation can pave the way to reduce gaps and tensions between preservice teachers and their counselors that have been reported in several studies (frankel, 2002; cohen-sayag, hoz & kaplan, 2012). b. the use of comment type that we found can be used as indicators for self-exploration of pedagogical counselors to look at their feedback from different point of view. further studies are needed to give a broad perspective on feedback types to reflective writing from different teaching education programs. c. our main suggestion is to promote preservice teachers’ writing abilities through reflective writing. although it is not the aim of reflection, but since reflection is vital in the process of writing, it seemed www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 1, 2021 19 published by scholink inc. that reflective writing is a good platform to enhance writing abilities in the context of professional environment. d. the research process not only revealed differences between us, but also raised questions about the differences in the feedback given to second/third year preservice teachers and to the varying performance levels of the preservice teachers. we recommend that counselors be aware of these variables, mainly of the type of feedback we write to low-level preservice teachers in their field experience. acknowledgement we thank the management board of kaye college of education, beersheba, israel, which funded and supported this research. references bain, j. d., ballantyne, r., packer, j., & mills, c. 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(2010). from monologue to dialogue: improving written feedback processes in mass higher education. assessment & evaluation in higher education, 5(5), 501-517. https://doi.org/10.1080/02602931003786559 nicol, d. j., & macfarlane‐dick, d. (2013). formative assessment and self‐regulated learning: a model and seven principles of good feedback practice. studies in higher education, 31(2), 199-218. https://doi.org/10.1080/03075070600572090 https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203891414 https://doi.org/10.13189/ujer.2018.060530 https://doi.org/10.1037/stl0000021 https://doi.org/10.3102/003465430298487 https://doi.org/10.1207/s15326985ep2701_6 https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.119.2.254 https://doi.org/10.1177/002205749217400204 https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203870402 https://doi.org/10.1080/02602931003786559 https://doi.org/10.1080/03075070600572090 www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 1, 2021 21 published by scholink inc. novillo, p., & tomàs, p. j. (2019). analysing e-tutoring strategies to foster pre-service language teachers’ reflective practice in the first stages of building an e-portfolio. journal of educational research, 7(5), 1234-1246. https://doi.org/10.13189/ujer.2019.070509 ryan, m., & ryan, m. (2015). sustainable pedagogical change for embedding reflective learning across higher education programs. in m. e. ryan (ed.), teaching reflective learning in higher education: a systematic approach using pedagogic patterns (pp. 213-227). switzerland: springer, chum. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-09271-3_15 scardamalia, m., & bereiter, c. (1987). knowledge telling and knowledge transforming in written composition. in s. rosenberg (ed.), advances in applied psycholinguistics, reading, writing, and language learning (vol. 2, pp. 142-175). cambridge: cambridge university press. scardamalia, m., & bereiter, c. (1991). higher levels of agency for children in knowledge-building: a challenge for the design of new knowledge media. the journal of the learning sciences, 1(1), 37-68. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327809jls0101_3 thomas, s., & packer, d. s. (2013). a reflective teaching road map for pre-service and novice early childhood educators. international journal of early childhood special education, 5(1), 1-14. https://doi.org/10.20489/intjecse.107923 tunstall, p., & gipps, c. (1996). teacher feedback to young children in formative assessment: a typology. british educational research journal, 22, 389-404. https://doi.org/10.1080/0141192960220402 appendix appendix 1. a guide to reflective writing please write your reflections on the lesson according to these questions and attach the lesson plan. 1. explain the objectives of this lesson and the activities that you planned to achieve them. 2. what is the topic? why did you choose to teach this topic and what is its importance? 3. describe your lesson as it was performed. 4. describe success or failure in your lesson. 5. did you observe children’s resistance to the activity? if so, how did you handle it? 6. did you learn anything new about the pupils in your class? 7. do you think you should change the activities in some way? describe the change and your reason for it. 8. what did you do to encourage interaction between the children? (reporting) 9. can you connect between your personal learning experience and the occurrences in your lesson? 10. what kind of concepts that you learned in the special education department helped you understand your lesson? https://doi.org/10.13189/ujer.2019.070509 https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-09271-3_15 https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327809jls0101_3 https://doi.org/10.20489/intjecse.107923 https://doi.org/10.1080/0141192960220402 frontiers of contemporary education issn 2690-3520 (print) issn 2690-3539 (online) vol. 2, no. 2, 2021 www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce 80 original paper mathematics teacher’s content knowledge and pedagogical content knowledge in learner-centred approaches in secondary schools makungu bulayi 1* , vincent naano anney 2 & loyce kiiza kobosingye 3 1 ruaha catholic university, department of education foundation curriculum and instructions, iringa tanzania 2 university of dar es salaam, school of education, department of educational psychology and curriculum studies, tanzania 3 makerere university, school of psychology, department of educational, social and organisational psychology * makungu bulayi, email: bscit113@gmail.com received: october 14, 2021 accepted: november 3, 2021 online published: january 20, 2022 doi:10.22158/fce.v2n2p80 url: http://dx.doi.org/10.22158/fce.v2n2p80 abstract this paper describes how mathematic teacher’s content knowledge informs teachers’ pedagogical content knowledge in the use learner-centred approaches and decision when teaching mathematics. two trained mathematics teachers in the use of learner-centred approaches who were teaching mathematics at ordinary secondary school level in tanzania were involved. data was collected through classroom observation, video recording of classroom events and teacher’s self-reflections. thematic analysis procedure both at conceptual and manifest level was employed. the findings indicated that, teacher’s weak knowledge of contents as a component of pedagogical content knowledge in the use of learner-centred approaches led to teacher’s inability to help students’ construct knowledge of the subject matter that teachers taught. the trained teachers did not teach lessons that were learners’ focused and were unable to help students discover the relationship between contents they taught with other contents in the syllabus. teachers’ lack of content knowledge led to teachers’ communication of their misunderstanding to students through teacher-centred teaching approaches. in addition, these experienced teachers were unable to help students describe the rationale for learning contents. it is recommended that cementing on leaner-centred approaches during teachers’ professional development programs should go hand in hand with capitalizing on teacher’s knowledge of contents. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 2, 2021 81 published by scholink inc. keywords teachers’ pck, learner-centred, teaching approaches, content knowledge 1. introduction pedagogical content knowledge (pck) was introduced by shulman (1986) as a specialized professional knowledge for teachers that distinguish the teaching profession from other professions. apart from being a specialized knowledge for teachers, researchers in different subjects has agreed on its contribution in the improvement of students’ learning outcomes in a subject that students are learning (lange, kleickmann, & moller, 2012). teacher’s pck is described as a teacher’s personal construct and implicit (kind, 2009; garritz, 2015) and is revealed in different forms ranging from topic and discipline specifics (abell, 2007; park & oliver, 2008; mavhunga & rollnick, 2013) to subject specifics nature (andrews, 2001; kitta, 2004; magnusson, krajacik, & borko, 1999). high level of teacher’s pck helps a teacher to deliver contents to learners in the most effective, appropriate and organized way that positively influence learners’ achievement in the subject matter (shulman, 1986; shulman, 1987). teacher’s pck help teachers to refine their explanations, make decisions during teaching and learning process, formulate questions, ask questions and deal with students’ learning aspects. teacher’s pck as a personal construct grows stronger with external experiences such as professional training (loughran, milroy, berry, gunston, & mulhall, 2001). a strong and well developed teacher’s pck is indicated by teacher’s strong knowledge of subject contents, general pedagogy, curriculum, learners and their characteristics, educational contexts, education ends, purposes, values and learners’ psychological historical background (shulman, 1986). when teachers are implementing curriculum through teaching subject contents, teacher’s pck informs both their general performance of their day-to-day functions and when helping students to build their own knowledge on contents. mathematic teacher’s pck for teaching mathematics is reported to be divided into two categories; subject matter knowledge (smk) and pck categories (hill, ball, & schilling, 2008). the smk is composed of three sub-elements; common content knowledge (cck), specialized content knowledge (sck) and horizontal content knowledge (hck) in mathematics subject. the cck is recognized when a person is using mathematics in everyday life, sck is recognized through teacher’s knowledge of the subject matter when teaching, while hck helps teachers to recognize and helps students to construct relationship between concepts in the field of mathematics. in fact, during teaching and learning process, smk helps a teacher to identify important ideas in the subject matter that students are supposed to acquire (hauk, jackson, toney, nair, & tsay, 2014). in mathematics, the teacher’s pck category is composed of three sub-elements; teacher’s knowledge of contents and students (kcs) which helps teachers to understand how learner’s learn contents, knowledge of content and teaching (kct) which helps teachers to represent contents and help learners’ to learn and the third one is, knowledge of content and curriculum (kcc) which help teacher’s to organize content www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 2, 2021 82 published by scholink inc. in the curriculum so that students can best learn. therefore, a mathematics teacher with well-developed pck in the use of learner-centred approaches (lca) is likely to have strong knowledge of both smk and have developed pck categories in the use of lca. with the focus on both smk and pck, three research questions were answered by the researchers; how does mathematics teacher’s content knowledge as component of pck in the use of lca inform teacher’s decision on the use of lca when teaching mathematics? how does mathematics teacher’s content knowledge as a component of pck contributes to teacher’s growth of pck in the use of lca? in what ways do mathematic teacher’s content knowledge as a component of pck in the use of lca contributes to students’ knowledge of contents? 1.1 conceptualizing and assessing content knowledge as a component of pck in lca the conceptual framework for assessing teacher’s pck in the use of lca in this qualitative study are five as were adapted from magnusson et al. (1999). these components are; the teacher’s orientation to teaching mathematics, teacher’s knowledge of mathematics contents, teacher’s knowledge of students’ understanding of mathematics concepts, teacher’s knowledge of instructional strategies and teacher’s knowledge of assessing students’ learning when employing lca. magnusson et al. (1999) had earlier proposed five components of pck; teacher’s orientation towards teaching science, teacher’s knowledge and beliefs about science curriculum, teacher’s knowledge and beliefs about students’ understanding science topics, teacher’s knowledge and beliefs about assessment in science, and teacher’s knowledge and beliefs about instructional strategies for teaching science. since teacher’s pck is recognized as an algamation of both pedagogical and content knowledge (magnusson et al., 1999), these construct in mind helped the researchers to assess content knowledge as a component of teacher’s pck in the use of lca as a teacher’s personal construct. the focus on teaching approaches based on shulman (1987) argumentation that, teacher’s pck is a knowledge base which includes teacher’s decision on which approach fits to the teaching of contents. therefore, the study assessed ways in which a trained mathematics teacher make decision on when to use lca for specific learners, group of learners and organize contents while putting learners at the centre of teaching and learning process. in addition, hill, ball, and schilling (2008) knowledge base for teaching mathematics guided the assessment of content knowledge as a component of pck in lca using both the smk and pck categories (figure 1). measuring pck as a knowledge base, a pck rubric was developed to aid assessing teachers while teaching. the pck rubric was adapted from the work of hume and berry (2010), gardener and gess-newsome (2011) and that of anney and hume (2014). in terms of credibility, the pck rubrics have been documented to well represent teacher’s pck (loughran, berry, & mulhall, 2006). kct and kcs was captured through teacher’s evidence of knowledge of lca and teacher’s practices such as ability to ask higher order thinking questions, involving students and other actions that revealed teacher’s intention to put learners at the focal point while teaching. cochran and jones (1998) identified four elements of content knowledge (ct); knowledge of majour facts and concept of a discipline, knowledge of basic principles, knowledge of how validity and invalidity are established within a discipline and knowledge of connecting topic to www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 2, 2021 83 published by scholink inc. other entities in the discipline. sck was captured through evidence of teacher’s knowledge of mathematics concepts, knowledge of variety of correct explanations of a concept, knowledge of how errors are established and knowledge of connecting concepts with other mathematics concepts. for documentation purposes, each teacher’s content knowledge data was finally presented in a continuum with weak content knowledge attributes on one end and strong content knowledge on the other end. figure 1. pck in lca for teaching mathematics as adapted from hill, ball, and schilling (2008) 2. literature review previous studies have shown that, science teachers with strong pck are successful when teaching specific science topics (mulhall, berry, & loughran, 2003). these studies have also confirmed that, for effective teaching of a topic, teacher’s knowledge about common students’ misconceptions in that topic is necessary. it was further concluded that, teacher’s development of topic specific pck is embedded in teacher’s classroom practice on the same topic. this implies that, successful teachers who have taught a particular topic not only promote students’ learning but also have well developed pck in that specific content area (gess-newsome & lederman, 1999; hill, ball, & schilling, 2008; kitta, 2004; magnusson et al., 1999; van driel, verloop, & de vos, 1998). being recognized through a teacher’s classroom practice and use of approaches to teach contents is a common view that researchers agree upon the nature of teacher’s pck. in american teacher’s education programmes, teacher’s content knowledge and pck have been identified to be important components of teacher’s competence (nctm, 2000; mewborn, 2003). in addition, there is an agreement that, all american teachers’ training programmes must seek to achieve a balance between ck and pck. similarly, all teachers’ training programmes in tanzania are approved by education authorities after they verify that there is a balance between ck and pck in the programme seeking for approval. since 2005 when the competence based curriculum was innovated, teacher’s competence in the use of lca in teachers’ preparation and other education programmes gained emphasis (moevt, 2005). the government through the ministry of education and vocational training (moevt)’s innovation focused on a paradigm shift from the then content-based curriculum to a competency-based www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 2, 2021 84 published by scholink inc. curriculum (cbc) that could enhance learners’ competency. since then, the emphasis in the education provision is more on the improvement of students’ learning, improvement in the teaching and learning process and quality of learning outcomes (tie, 2005) rather than the teaching, content delivery and coverage (richards & rodgers, 2001). the cbc is in place to address more on what the learners can do rather than what they should cover during the learning process. in addition, secondary school teachers, and tutors in teachers training colleges are encouraged to the use of lca (moevt, 2005). in mathematics teaching and learning process, lca are recommended for the purpose of raising students’ learning and participation in the learning process (philemon, 2010; tie, 2010a). the use of lca is expected to develop students’ high level of competencies in different education levels (tie, 2010b). since its introduction in tanzania, the government has been emphasizing on changing roles of teachers and tutors from that of teaching by imparting knowledge to facilitating students’ learning (vavrus, 2009). for about two to three years of cbc implementation (from 2005 to 2008), the education system in tanzania began recruiting teachers who had already been trained in the cbc curriculum. since then a number of studies have been conducted with the focus of generating knowledge on the use of lca in the classrooms in tanzania. research reports are indicating that lca is not fully implemented by teachers in classrooms (kitta & tilya, 2010; mosha, 2012; msonde, 2011; philemon, 2010). challenges to the use of lca have included class size, curriculum being overloaded with contents, and teachers with inadequate pck (anney, 2013; kitta & tilya, 2010). teachers’ orientation to teaching has remained to be a teacher-centred pedagogy. top-down dissemination of emphasis on pedagogy has neglected teaching environment and therefore discouraged to bring expected changes in instructional methods (mosha, 2012; thornberg, 2010). curriculum overloaded with contents has not encouraged the development of students’ competence through the use of learner-centred approaches (tilya & mafumiko, 2010). teachers are reported to be concerned mostly with coverage of all contents in the syllabus with a belief that they have all knowledge to transfer to learners (mosha, 2012). researchers have also reported that, the reasons for dominant teacher-centred orientation in teaching is attributed to the fact that during the paradigm shift in education, not all teachers were educated with emphasis in cbc. this implies that, teachers who are implementing the cbc at the secondary school level in tanzania are those who had specifically followed cbc and who did not go through a cbc during their training. since pck grows with experience there are teachers in tanzania whose pck is underdeveloped due to lack of experience. the untrained teachers in cbc as compared to experienced teachers are therefore unlikely to effectively enhance students’ learning outcomes in the context of lca. available findings in tanzania on the use of lca show that, pre-service teachers have underdeveloped pck (anney, 2013). a study by anney (2013) in tanzania did not assess pck as a whole rather on licensed and in-service teachers’ effectiveness in the implementation of learner-centred pedagogy. an action research study by kitta (2004) focused on enhancing teacher’s topic specific pck skills. secondly, www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 2, 2021 85 published by scholink inc. although there is an emphasis on use of lca in tanzania, teacher-centred teaching approaches in classroom are still dominant which suggested a need to assess teachers’ pck in the use of lca. thirdly, some teachers who are implementing the cbc are untrained in the use of lca, hence assessing trained teachers’ pck in the use of lca was necessary. 3. method the nature of pck as a tacit knowledge demanded to obtain deep insights into what is in the mind of the participants’ teachers through a qualitative approach. the participants in this study were two trained mathematic teachers in the use of lca. the two teachers were identified by this study as mtr1 and mtu2. the first two letters m and t were used to identify mathematics teachers while r1 and u2 are identify a teacher in a rural and urban area respectively. mtr1 was purposively selected from a group of low performing schools in rural area while mtu2 was purposively selected from a group of low performing schools in an urban area. mtr1 had a degree in mathematics with education qualification while mtu2 had had a diploma in mathematic with education qualification. both teachers were trained in the use of lca and had completed their studies in 2010. both teachers had been recruited as mathematics teachers by the government and worked for at least five years in one of the political administrative districts in tanzania. the fact that pck is a personal construct, interpretivism paradigm guided data collection and analysis of the findings. a multiple case study design was employed whereby each individual teacher was treated as a case study. a multiple case study design ensured transferability of the findings. data was collected through classroom observation, video recording of at least three lessons of each teacher’s classroom practices and teacher’s self-reflection after the classroom observation. since teacher’s pck is a personal knowledge, the researchers agreed with the teachers on the lesson that best represented teacher’s pck before documentation. therefore, this study presents one of the best lessons that each teacher thought it well represented their pck. the choice of these teachers began with discussion on their teaching plans, their syllabus coverage and finally the topic that they were ready to be observed and videotaped by the researcher while teaching was later on agreed. since the purpose of the study was to measure a personal construct, teacher’s plans and teacher’s choice of topic was a priority. the purpose of the observation schedule was to formulate each teacher’s content representation (cores) and finally represent each teacher’s pck. loughran et al. (2006) and hume and berry (2010) guided the identification of themes. each teacher’s self-reflection on classroom practices as guided by gardner and gess-newsome (2011) helped to capture and represent each teacher’s professional development repertoires (pap-ers). due to the implicit nature of pck and this study being purely qualitative, braun and clarke’s (2006) and creswell’s (2009) six steps thematic analysis procedures was adapted. the analysis process in this study was data driven and allowed capturing the themes they emerged from participant teachers. thematic analysis allowed data analysis both at manifest and theoretical level as the data collection procedures was going on and from different sources. the themes that emerged during classroom www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 2, 2021 86 published by scholink inc. observation and during interview were used to locate evidence of teacher’s use of lca and the level of teacher’s pck in the use of lca. the analysis process began with transcription and describing each case with the data in order to become familiar with the data. this was followed by coding and organizing data from both video record and interview sessions into themes. fitzgerald (2012) stipulates that analysis of events in video records should be guided by research questions. the events from video records that was gauged from each teacher’s classroom practices was then matched with each teacher’s pck in the use of lca and the teacher’s self-reflection during a min interview with the researcher. this stage helped the researcher to obtain general meaning of the data and extracting supporting evidence from data. this stage was followed by description and interpretation of the themes. after individual case study analysis, crosscase analysis followed whereby, similarities and differences in the teacher’s classroom practices in the use of lca were done. triangulation of the data from classroom observation, teaching plans, and teacher’s self-reflection helped to formulate each teacher’s profile of pck in the use of lca. a summary of the themes that emerged from both cases was formulated before documenting each teacher’s pck as contributed by their knowledge of contents that they taught. the themes as emerged during classroom practices (lessons) are represented in italic form in each teacher’s lesson as teacher’s content representations (cores). 4. results and discussion we begin by presenting each teacher’s content representation as were captured through video recording of each teacher’s classroom practices (box 1 and box 2). each teacher’s classroom practice is followed by each teacher’s self-reflection to document each teacher’s pap-ers. box 1: lesson 1 by mtr1: topic “graphs of a relation” lesson beginning: … “we want to see how we can make graphs of different relations”. mtr1’s wrote an example from the textbook. example 1: “draw the graph of a relation  22:),(  yandyxyxr ”. mtr1 read the example, then continued … “now, listen to me” ... “when you see this symbol or have a symbol, < or > in a relation, what you do is to draw a dotted line. but when you have a symbol  or in a relation, you draw a full line” “do you understand?”. mtr1 asked. “yes”. students yield in a chorus. mtr1 continued: the inequality 2y is very much known by everyone while the inequality 2 yx is the same as 2 yx . so, what you do here is to make a table of values. you assume that, the symbol > is equal to = because you cannot draw a table of values with inequalities”. mtr1 prepared a table of values with x and y intercepts  0,2)2,0( and . “having 2y you regard this as 2y , this is a full line”. mtr1 made a sketch of this relation on the chalk board (see figure 1). figure 1 showed mtr1’s knowledge of concept of a line segment and a line (knowledge of content, orientation to teacher-centred approaches (tca)). www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 2, 2021 87 published by scholink inc. figure 1. mtr1’s representing steps when sketching graph of a relation mtr1 continued … “look at this graph. each graph divides the plane into two parts; the down and upper part” (see figure 1 and the part referred). “you choose any part, either the up or down part that will satisfy the relation. this will be the part that will be shaded. now, suppose i choose a point )4,3( and then substitute into 2 yx . this means now 4,3  yx then 27,243  then , this is not true. what you do is to shade the other part that agrees. for example, choose )1,2( this gives 212,2  thenyx which gives 21 . is this true?”. mtr1 asked. “yes”. student replied in a chorus. lesson continued: “after that you go to the other inequality 2y . “would you shade up or below?”. mtr1 asked. “i am asking you … where do we shade? is it below or up?”. mtr1 asked again after a long silence. “below” the students responded in a chorus (orientation to tca). “our interest is to find the part of intersection. the shading now will be as shown” (see figure 2). after that, mtr1 pointed the intersection that was earlier mentioned by mtr1 (orientation to teaching). this was then followed by mtr1’s oral questions. “any question?” mtr1’s asked. however, students were silent (knowledge of assessing students). figure 2. asrl’s representation of a graph of a relation  22:),(  yandyxyxr “suppose the words; find domain and range are added in the question, what will be the domain and range?” (knowledge about leaching and students learning). mtr1 added these words in the example. “domain are values of x that satisfy the equation while range are all values of y that satisfy the equation”. mtr1 provided the definition of domain and range (knowledge of contents). “this means if you proceed with the shading, all values of x will be included. the shading takes all values of x and that of y. therefore, domain  xnumberrealall while range  ynumberrealall ”. mtr1 pointed on the shaded part while giving explanation about domain and range of relation. “on the second inequality 2y the shading stops at 2y and don’t go above. so, range  2:  yy ”. mtr1 explained (tca orientation). “any question?”. mtr1 asked, but www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 2, 2021 88 published by scholink inc. students remained silent (knowledge of assessing students). “let us have another example number 2”. mtr1 wrote example 2 on the chalkboard. example 2: “draw the graph of the relation  xyyxr  :),( ”. mtr1 allowed students to copy the question in their notebooks after had already written the example on the chalkboard. later on, mtr1 sketched the graph on the chalkboard (see figure 3). (mtr1’s knowledge of the concepts of a line and line segments). this indicated mtr1’s inadequate knowledge of the concepts. in mathematics, a line has no end and is indicated by arrows on both ends while a segment has end points on both ends. figure 3. mtr1’s procedure when drawing a graph of a relation  xyyxr  :),( lesson continued: “you construct a table of values. what will be the value of y when x is -2, -1, 0, 1, and 2?”. mtr1 continued on by asking a question. after had asked the same question to the students for several times, one student at a time, mtr1 finally filled the table of values (see figure 3). at this time, mtr1’s students responded to mtr1 by raising their hands up. however, similar students participated (knowledge of lca). “you can now see the line that divides the plane into two equal parts. taking any point above or below xy  for example, take )3,2(  (tca orientation), then 23  is true. “is this true?”. mtr1 asked (knowledge of assessing students). “yes”. students yielded in a chorus. lesson continued: “this part agrees. automatically, the other part will not agree. for example, )1,2( , then 21  , is also true. is this true?”. mtr1 asked. “no”. students’ responded in a chorus. “this means that we are still in the right truck”. mtr1 commented that, the answer was correct. lesson continued: “what is a domain?”. mtr1 asked. “all real numbers” the students shouted in a chorus “why?” mtr1 asked a follow up question but students remained silent. lesson continued: “i agree with you but why” (knowledge about students and learning). there was a silence moment. “don’t claim”. mtr1 insisted. after such a silence moment, mtr1 wrote: “  xnumberrealalld  ”. “look here, the shading takes the negative and positive values”. mtr1 explained (tca orientation). “what is the range?” mtr1 asked. however, students remained silence. “range  ynumbersrealall ” mtr1 wrote on the chalkboard “why?” you see here, if this line goes infinitely the shading will take all positive and negative numbers. this means that, all real numbers” mtr1’s question and explanations. “is there any question before i give you an exercise?”. mtr1 asked, but there was silence (knowledge of assessment). www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 2, 2021 89 published by scholink inc. lesson continued: “organize yourself in groups of five students then do the following” (knowledge of instructional strategies). after that moment, mtr1 wrote a question on the chalkboard which read; “draw a graph of the relation   rangeanddomainfindandxyyxr  :),( ”. at this time, mtr1 gave an opportunity for each student to work in small groups. mtr1 was passing through different groups as students worked (knowledge of strategies). “who can help us to do the work”. after about 5 minutes, mtr1 asked for a student who can show how to solve the problem (knowledge of group accountability). a student’s response was read as: “we assume that xy  is equal to xy  then make a table of values” (students’ knowledge of contents). using the chalkboard, the student who had been appointed by mtr1 showed how to solve the problem. the student started by making a table of values, then drew a graph of the equation but did not shade. “our line must be full line and we will find the domain and range”. the student explained (students’ knowledge of content). “what about shading?”. mtr1 interrupted. “now, we shade”. the student incorporated the idea. “take )2,2(  so you get 22  . is it correct? the student asked. “no”. some students replied in a chorus. “so, the upward side is not correct. we shade the downward part”. the student shaded the downward part (see figure 4). figure 4 show how teacher’s knowledge of contents is transferred to students and then reflected through students’ knowledge of contents. figure 4. mtr1’s student presenting a graph of a relation  ( , ) :r x y y x  lesson continued: “is he correct? what is a mistake? make sure you take a point which is above or below”. mtr1 interrupted after a time. “don’t take a point within the line so that you cannot confuse. after that, do a test” (mtr1 continued with explanations). “what is the mistake here? mtr1 added. in your case take a coordinate point )3,2( then test whether 23  is true then shade”. mtr1 added (tca orientation). “is there anybody who has not understood? mtr1 asked (knowledge of assessment). students remained silent. “so, you don’t have any question?” mtr1 added after noticing that students were silent. “note the use of dotted and full line. when you are given either a symbol < or > then, use a dotted line where the point within are not included. when you are given either a symbol  or then, use a full line, whereby the points within the line are included”. mtr1’s commented before ending the lesson (tca orientation). ending the lesson: before ending the lesson, mtr1 introduced the next lesson and finally ended the lesson by providing an exercise. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 2, 2021 90 published by scholink inc. mtr1’s self-reflection and the components of pck in lca the following extract from mtr1’s self-reflection as was interviewed by the researcher revealed that, mtr1 had adequate hck but this knowledge did not adequately inform both kcs and kct; researcher: what is the relationship between the subtopic you were teaching and other mathematics topics or subtopics that you teach at this level? mtr1: in drawing graphs of relation, you need to know about intercepts or the point where the lines cuts the y-axis and where the lines cuts x-axis. there is a relationship between the topic called algebra whereby you will need to find the x and y intercepts when constructing the table of values for an equation. researcher: how useful was the relationship in the lesson that you taught? mtr1: the use of x and y intercepts was useful when drawing graphs. box 2: lesson 2 by mtu2: topic “graphs of relations” lesson beginning: mtu2 wrote the subtopic on the chalkboard “graphs of relations”, later on, announced orally “today you will learn about the process of making graphs of relations”. “how do we make graphs of different relations?” mtu2 asked. at this time, students remained silent. “these are examples of relations. at this time, essul began demonstrating ways to make graphs. “let us see how we can make graphs of the relations”. while demonstrating the nature of the graphs and how the graph are drawn, mtu2 continued on by writing different examples of relations on the chalk board (orientation to teaching). example 1: “(i) draw the graph of a relation   22:,  yandyxyxr and determine the domain and range”. mtu2 wrote this first example on the chalkboard (see figure 5). figure 5. mtu2 demonstrating on how to draw graphs of relations lesson proceeding: “note that; when drawing graphs, you show these two symbols;  by a dotted lines and these two;  by a full lines. is it understood?” mtu2 asked. “yes”. the class yielded in a chorus (orientation to teaching). before proceeding on with the first example, mtu2 decided to demonstrate on how inequality signs are represented on graphs of relations. “we shall see this through examples. so, what you do, is first to construct a table of values using the equation 2 yx . a simple way to do this is to use x-intercept and y-intercept. who knows? what is an x-intercept and what is a y-intercept?” “class, what is an x-intercept?” “what is a y-intercept?” mtu2 www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 2, 2021 91 published by scholink inc. asked again (knowledge of students and orientation to teaching). two students raised their hands up at this moment. mtu2 picked one of the two students. “the x-intercept is 2 and the y-intercept is 2” a student answered. “can you show us how you got 2?” mtu2 asked after the student had answered (knowledge of teaching and students’ learning). “you plus two (2) and zero (0)” the student replied. it meant to the researcher that, you add 2 and 0. “who can show the points (0, 2) and (2, 0) on a number plane?” mtu2 asked then picked two students one after the other. the two students went to the front of the class in order to indicate the points on the number line (see figure 6) (knowledge of teaching and students). figure 6. mtu2’s student locating a coordinate point on a number plane after that session, mtu2 constructed a table of values, a number plane and a sketch of the graph (figure 7). “these two lines divide the plane into a number of regions”. mtu2 explained. “how many regions are there?” mtu2 asked. the class remained silent while gazing at mtu2. after about 3 minutes of such a silence moment, there was an attempt from some students who answered orally. “9, 6, 5, 8,”. the students answered. the researcher noted that, the students’ answers ranged between a number 5 and 9. however, mtu2 did not comment on any of the students’ answers (knowledge of teaching and students). “there are four regions”. mtu2 gave an answer after the students had answered (orientation to teaching). while pointing on the graph with a ruler and without exactly showing the named regions, mtu2 gave an answer which was quite different from the students’ answers (see figure 7). (knowledge of content and students) figure 7. mtu2 demostratng on the four regions in a graph of a relation on a plane lesson continued: “now what follows is shading. where do we shade?” esul asked. “you shade any part; down or up, then you test” mtu2 answered the question that had earlier asked (knowledge of content and teaching, orientation to teaching) “which part of the regions should we choose to shade now?” mtu2 asked for the second time. the whole class was silent; nobody attempted to answer (knowledge of content and teaching, knowledge of instructional strategies). in addition, mtu2 did not www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 2, 2021 92 published by scholink inc. show the part on the graph that was above and the part which was below on the number plane. “can you choose any point below this point? )1,1( or )1,2( ?” mtu2 asked while pointing the graph on the chalkboard. “now, i choose a point )4,3( ”. mtu2 chose a coordinate point )4,3( . “we take the point )4,3( then substitute in the inequality. we shall have, 27,243  ”. “is this 27  true?” mtu2 asked. however, students remained silent. having student remaining silent, mtu2 commented; “no, the part does not agree, so you take the opposite. mtu2 added. (orientation to teaching, knowledge of content and teaching) “the opposite is the point )2,3( . mtu2 indicated the point )2,3( on a graph (see figure 8). figure 8. mtu2’s identifying a domain and rrange of a relation on a graph “after that, substitute the point in the equation. you get 21,212,2  yx . which is now true” mtu2 continued, “we now shade the part which is true (figure 8).” after knowing this, our next interest is to see the point of intersection” (orientations to teaching, knowledge of content and teaching). “we then go back to the next part 2y and find the domain and range. any question? do you have any question?” mtu2 asked (knowledge of content and teaching, orientation to teaching). the whole class was silent. “domain will be all values of x”. mtu2’s demonstrated that the domain is all values of x. “of course, if you proceed along the line, then all values of x will be included. so, domain is  xnumberrealalld : and range r is  2:: yyr ”. “is there any question?” mtu2 asked. the class was silent. “i hope there is no question”. mtu2’s hoped that there were no questions (knowledge of instructional strategies). “i give you two (2) minutes to finish this example 2” mtu2 wrote another example which was named example 2 on the chalkboard. example 2; “draw a graph of the relation  2:),(  yyxr then find the domain and range”. none of mtu2’s students managed to attempt this task. the question was written with some mathematical mistakes. however, both mtu2 and the students did not identify the mistakes. after about 5 minutes had elapsed, mtu2 noticed the mistake, made some correction on example 2 which had written then asked students to work in small groups. group activity: after had improved the example, mtu2 asked student to work on the new and improved example 2 in their small groups. the new example 2 was written as; “  xyyxr  :),( ”. mtu2 changed the question from  2:),(  yyxr to  xyyxr  :),( ). “let us work together”. mtu2 decided to continue working with the whole class after had corrected the mistakes. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 2, 2021 93 published by scholink inc. “note that, in constructing graphs of this inequality, we assume that xy  when preparing a table of values. remember this will be a dotted line” mtu2 proceeded with construction of a table of values and a graph (orientation to teaching, knowledge of content and teaching). “here is the table of values and the graph we are looking for” mtu2 prepared a table of values and sketched a graph without the dotted lines (see figure 9). mtu2 had forgotten the initial statement about dotted and full lines. also, mtu2 had forgotten labeling and differentiating graphs of lines and segments (knowledge of contents, knowledge of content and teaching). figure 9. mtu2’s representation of graphs of a relation  xyyxr  :),( lesson proceeding: “suppose, i choose/take any point above or below the line xy  then test for the inequality xy  , say, if i take a point )3,2(  , we shall have 23  (knowledge of content and teaching). the inequality shows that, 2 is greater than -3. class, is the inequality true? or is it false?” after mtu2 had asked wrote the words; “yes or no?” on the chalkboard. class, is it “yes or no?” mtu2 asked again (knowledge of content and teaching). the class was silence. “now, what is the domain and what is the range?” mtu2 asked again. “all real numbers x” a class replied in a chorus. “why?” mtu2 asked after the class had responded. none of the students tried to answer this question (knowledge of content and teaching). “you will agree with me that the domain is all real numbers x”. mtu2 commented after such a moment of silence (orientation to teaching, knowledge of students). “what is the range?” silence continued. it appeared to the researcher that, students had no clear knowledge of the two concepts; “domain and range” (knowledge of contents and students). “the range is all real number y” mtu2 answered. however, it also appeared to the researcher that mtu2 had forgotten that the relation that was referred involved an inequality sign (knowledge of contents and students). this part of the lesson was followed by students’ work in small groups. small group activity session: after such initial instruction, mtu2 wrote a problem on the chalkboard then asked students to continue working in small groups: “draw the graph of the relation  xyyxr  :),( then find the domain and range”. as students were working, mtu2 passed through different groups to see how students worked (knowledge of content and teaching). after about 5 minutes, mtu2 discovered that some groups had failed to follow the steps or procedures. after such observation, mtu2 decided to provide an outline of all the steps on the chalkboard (orientation to teaching, knowledge of contents and teaching). “the first step is to make a table of values, second is www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 2, 2021 94 published by scholink inc. graphing either with a dotted or full line and finally testing points” (orientation to teaching, knowledge of content and teaching). after about 15 minutes had elapsed, mtu2 chose randomly a student from one of the groups so as to present their solution to the problem. the student began with a table of values, plotted points on a number plane then chose a point )2,2(  in order to test for a region which satisfied the inequality. however, the student got stuck and could not proceed. “use this point )3,2( ”. mtu2 advised the student to use a point )3,2( after had observed that the student used a point )2,2(  (knowledge of content and teaching). the student’s answer was read as: “the domain d is,  xnumberrealall while the range is,  ynumberrealall ” (see figure 10). the student finished after some assistance from mtu2 (knowledge of students, knowledge of content and teaching). figure 10. mtu2’s student’s graph of a relation  xyyxr  :),( later on, mtu2 continued on with a third example. example 3 read as: “draw a graph of  2:),( xyyxr  then find the domain and range”. mtu2 asked students to continue working in groups. however, there was no chance for small group discussion due to a shortage of instructional time as per school timetable. having this situation, mtu2 decided to go on solving the problem (orientation to teaching). (see 11). figure 11. mtu2 sketching a graph of a relation  2:),( xyyxr  ending the lesson: to wind up the lesson, mtu2 decided to provide a home work which was found in the students’ textbook. the homework marked the end of mtu2’s lesson (see figure 12). www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 2, 2021 95 published by scholink inc. figure 12. mtu2 writing homework for the students mtu2’s self-reflection and the components of pck in lca data from mtu2’s self-reflection revealed that, mtu2 had adequate hck but weak sck which did not inform kct. the extract from the mtu2’s self-reflection session with the researcher revealed; researcher: what is the relationship between the graphs of relations and other mathematics topics or subtopics within the topic of relations? mtu2: there is no any subtopic that relate with relations. the topic relates with other mathematics topic like linear programming and coordinate geometry. this is because, in order to draw the graph of relation, you must first of all have the knowledge of coordinate geometry on how to locate points in the xy plane. in linear programming this knowledge is used to show the feasible region by shading (horizontal content knowledge). researcher: if the topic you mentioned is in form four then how useful was that relationship in the lesson that you taught? mtu2: i think shading and drawing are applied here. experienced teachers’ knowledge of content as a component of pck in the use of lca the participant experienced teachers in this study lacked knowledge of concepts such as; mathematical relations, domain and range which led to communicating their misconceptions to the students. for example, during a mathematics lesson, students had a misconception that domain means; “values of “x” while range “values of y”. during individual activities, the students copied the same in their exercise books. mtr1 was unable to differentiate between “a line” and “a line segment”, the mathematics concepts which have both similarities and differences in the study of geometry. this finding is contrary to the expectation that when teaching mathematics, the experienced teachers are able to help students identify important ideas in the subject and lesson (hill, ball, & schilling, 2008). in different occasions, there were evidences of the experienced teachers use of wrong concepts and in particular when drawing graphs of equations. instead of employing lca, the experienced teachers directly communicated errors and misunderstanding to their students. this implies that the experienced teachers lacked the pck categories in the use of lca. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 2, 2021 96 published by scholink inc. the curriculum developer recommended raising students’ participation in the teaching and learning process (tie, 2010a), however this expected outcome will not be achieved as the findings shows that, the experienced teachers lacked pck categories in the use of lca. both experienced teachers in the study lacked questioning skills that hindered their ability to ask provoking questions so as to stimulate students’ thinking. as a result, the teachers were unable to manage instructional time, provide constructive feedback to students and involve students in their lessons. since teachers’ lacked content knowledge for teaching, the teachers were forced to the use of demonstration method in order to finish what they planned to teach. demonstration method misguided students’ learning which led to students’ misconception. in addition, lack of content knowledge lowered teacher’s confidence which indirectly diminished teacher’s growth of pck in the use of lca. experienced teacher’s content knowledge and their decision on the use of lca the literature review is indicating that the inexperienced teachers in the use of lca are unlikely to effectively enhance students learning outcomes in the use of lca (anney, 2013). however, the findings from this study show that, the participant experienced teachers had inadequate horizontal content knowledge and were oriented to tca. these participant teachers who were oriented to teacher centered approaches were unable to decide and make use of lca. if this situation continues on, it will discourage the government effort to have lca implemented in classrooms. the teacher’s lessons will continue to be dominated by telling facts about concepts which will finally not improve students’ performance in mathematics. the experienced mathematics teachers’ classroom practices which were more teachers’ centred weakened their ability to help students to construct knowledge of contents that they taught. the participants’ teachers made few attempts to assist students to construct, identify and understand concepts or ideas on their own. these suggested that, the participant teachers had underdeveloped pck categories in lca and smk categories. 5. conclusion and recommendation based on the findings, it is concluded that, the experienced mathematics teacher’s lack of content knowledge led to the teacher’s difficulties in decision, planning and implementing learning activities that are students’ focused. in addition, teacher’s growth of pck is limited by their weakness in guiding learners at the centre of their lessons. this will un address both teacher’s growth of pck in lca and students’ learning of contents. students’ misunderstanding of content will leave students’ learning needs and problems unaddressed. furthermore, this teaching and learning situation will not improve students’ learning outcomes and achievements in the subject. since teachers underdeveloped pck in lca hinder their decision and use of lca when teaching of mathematics, it is recommended that, teachers’ professional development programmes should cement on both teacher’s content knowledge and pck categories in the use of lca. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 2, 2021 97 published by scholink inc. references abell, s. 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(2010). school democratic meetings: pupil control discourse in disguise. teaching and teacher education, 26(4), 924-932. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2009.10.033 tie. (2005). the national curriculum development framework. dar-es-salaam, tanzania: tanzania institute of education. tie. (2010a). curriculum for ordinary level secondary education. dar-es-salaam, tanzania: tanzania institute of education. tie. (2010b). module on competence-based teaching, learning and assessment in secondary schools: module discussed during training of mazindejuu secondary school teachers held in 3th to 5 th march, 2010. dar-es-salaam, tanzania: tanzania institute of education. tilya, f. n., & mafumiko, f. (2010). the compatibility between methods and competence-based curriculum in tanzania. papers in education and development, (29), 37-56. van driel, j., verloop, n., & de vos, w. (1998). developing science teachers’ pedagogical content knowledge. journal of research in science teaching, 35(6), 673-695. https://doi.org/10.1002/(sici)1098-2736(199808)35:6<673::aid-tea5>3.0.co;2-j vavrus, f. (2009). the cultural politics of constructivist pedagogies: teacher educational reform in the united republic of tanzania. international journal of educational development, 29(3), 303-311. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedudev.2008.05.002 https://doi.org/10.1007/s11165-007-9049-6 https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189x015002004 https://doi.org/10.17763/haer.57.1.j463w79r56455411 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2009.10.033 https://doi.org/10.1002/(sici)1098-2736(199808)35:6%3c673::aid-tea5%3e3.0.co;2-j https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedudev.2008.05.002 frontiers of contemporary education issn 2690-3520 (print) issn 2690-3539 (online) vol. 6, no. 1, 2025 www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce 44 original paper women in leadership and organisational change in sport: a critical and intersectional review prof ruth forrest 1* & prof vincent english 1 1 longford international college, ireland * prof ruth forrest, e-mail: ruth.forrest@longfordcollege.com received: november 7, 2025 accepted: november 17, 2025 online published: december 3, 2025 doi:10.22158/fce.v6n1p44 url: http://dx.doi.org/10.22158/fce.v6n1p44 abstract the underrepresentation of women in leadership positions within the global sport industry remains a persistent and deeply entrenched challenge, despite decades of advocacy and the growing commercial and cultural prominence of women’s sport. this critical and intersectional review synthesises contemporary theoretical frameworks and empirical research to examine the complex dynamics of gender, power, and organisational change in sport. the review interrogates three established theoretical perspectives—transformational leadership, gendered organisations, and institutional change—and integrates intersectionality as a vital fourth lens to illuminate the diverse and compounded barriers faced by women from different backgrounds. the analysis demonstrates that women leaders are not merely subjects of exclusion but are active agents of organisational renewal, frequently introducing relational, ethical, and inclusive approaches that challenge entrenched hierarchies and foster adaptive change. however, their transformative potential is systematically constrained by structural barriers, cultural resistance, and the persistence of masculine-coded leadership ideals. drawing on recent research, including studies on higher education pathways and leadership development programmes, this review formulates a set of evidence-based recommendations for sport organisations, higher education institutions, and aspiring women leaders. it concludes by proposing a multi-level model for transformative change that emphasises the need for simultaneous and coordinated action at the individual, organisational, and institutional levels to achieve genuine gender equity in sports leadership. keywords women in sport, leadership, organisational change, gender equity, intersectionality, transformational leadership, higher education www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 6, no. 1, 2025 45 published by scholink inc. 1. introduction 1.1 background and rationale the leadership landscape within global sport remains a domain where gender inequality is profoundly entrenched. despite decades of advocacy and the growing commercial and cultural visibility of women’s sport, women consistently occupy a minority of senior executive, coaching, and governance positions. as of 2024, despite significant progress in some areas, such as the international olympic committee (ioc) achieving a 40.6% female membership, the broader picture reveals persistent underrepresentation (gerasimuk, d., 2025, pp. 1-15). this disparity is not merely a matter of numbers; it is a manifestation of what acker (1990) termed the “gendered substructure” of organisations, where norms, values, and practices implicitly privilege masculinity as the default template for authority (acker, j., 1990, pp. 139-158). this is particularly acute in the context of sport, where entrenched historical assumptions often associate effective leadership with masculine-coded traits such as competitiveness, control, and aggression (burton, l. j., & lavoi, n. m., 2021, pp. 405-417). however, the narrative is shifting. the global sport industry is undergoing a period of unprecedented commercial growth and cultural reappraisal, with women’s sport at the forefront of this transformation. projections indicate that revenue for women’s sports, having surpassed $1 billion for the first time in 2024, is on a trajectory to reach $2.5 billion by 2030 (forbes, 2025, october 22). this economic boom, coupled with a series of high-profile governance and ethical crises in men’s sport, has created a powerful impetus for organisational change. in this context, the inclusion of diverse leadership voices is no longer viewed solely as a moral imperative but as a strategic necessity for institutional renewal, enhanced decision-making, and sustainable growth (deloitte., 2025). this review problematizes the definition of “organisational change.” a central question is whether successful change is constituted merely by an increase in the number of women in leadership positions—an incremental change—or if it requires a more fundamental, transformative shift in power dynamics, organizational culture, and institutional structures (oecd, 2022, may 30). while the former is a necessary and visible metric of progress, this paper argues that a deeper, more sustainable change involves dismantling the very systems and norms that have historically excluded women and other marginalized groups. this transformative approach challenges the status quo, redefines leadership itself, and fosters a more equitable and inclusive environment for all (utting, p., n.d.). recent scholarship increasingly positions women not merely as subjects of exclusion but as active agents of transformation capable of reshaping organisational cultures. women leaders often introduce relational, ethical, and inclusive approaches to governance, actively challenging the historical hierarchies that have normalised exclusion (eagly, a. h., & carli, l. l., 2018). their leadership styles frequently foster reflective and participatory management practices that align with the principles of organisational learning and adaptive change (argyris, c., & schön, d. a., 1996). this paper, therefore, extends the discourse from one of access to one of impact, exploring not only the barriers that women face in attaining leadership positions but, more importantly, how their leadership actively shapes www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 6, no. 1, 2025 46 published by scholink inc. organisational ethos, performance, and the very definition of what it means to lead in the 21st-century sport industry. 1.2 aim and objectives the aim of this review is to critically evaluate and synthesise the existing literature on the role of women as agents of organisational change within the global sport industry, with a particular focus on the intersectional nature of their experiences and the pathways to leadership. its specific objectives are: • to examine the key theoretical frameworks that explain the complex relationship between gender, leadership, and organisational transformation in sport, incorporating a critical perspective on their limitations. • to critically analyse the empirical research on women’s influence on organisational culture, ethics, and governance, specifically interrogating the role of stereotypes, the paradox of relational leadership, and the strategic use of emotional intelligence. • to integrate the concept of intersectionality as a core analytical lens to understand the varied experiences and compounded barriers faced by women from diverse backgrounds in their pursuit of leadership roles. • to investigate the role of higher education and formal leadership development programmes in shaping women’s leadership trajectories and to identify best practices for supporting aspiring female leaders. • to identify the key structural, cultural, and systemic barriers that impede female-led change and to analyse the forms of resistance that women leaders encounter. • to formulate a set of evidence-based recommendations for practice for sport organisations, higher education institutions, and aspiring women leaders to foster a more equitable and inclusive leadership landscape. • to propose a multi-level model for transformative change that outlines how individual, organisational, and institutional actions can collectively advance women in sports leadership. 1.3 methodological approach this review adopts a critical, integrative approach to synthesise a diverse body of knowledge on women, leadership, and organisational change in sport (snyder, h., 2019, pp. 333-339). the methodology is designed to move beyond a simple aggregation of findings to construct a coherent and critical understanding of the phenomenon. the review encompasses both theoretical and empirical research, drawing from a wide range of academic disciplines, including sport management, sociology, gender studies, and organisational behaviour. to ensure the contemporary relevance of the analysis, the literature search prioritised publications from 2015 to 2025, while also incorporating foundational texts and seminal works that have shaped the field. in addition to peer-reviewed academic journals, this review also incorporates industry reports, white papers, and publications from leading sport organisations and think tanks to provide a more holistic and practice-oriented perspective. a critical lens was applied throughout the review process, evaluating not only the findings of the research but www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 6, no. 1, 2025 47 published by scholink inc. also its methodological robustness, theoretical coherence, and underlying assumptions. the review prioritises scholarship that contributes to a nuanced understanding of how women influence and enact organisational reform, moving beyond purely descriptive accounts of underrepresentation to an analysis of agency, impact, and the complex dynamics of power. 2. theoretical frameworks: critical interrogation and integration to comprehend the multifaceted challenges and opportunities for women in sports leadership, it is essential to draw upon a range of theoretical frameworks. this section critically interrogates three established theories—transformational leadership, gendered organisations, and institutional change—and introduces intersectionality as a vital fourth lens. by integrating these perspectives, a more robust and nuanced understanding of the dynamics of gender, power, and organisational change in sport can be achieved. 2.1 transformational leadership theory: the stereotype trap transformational leadership theory, as articulated by bass and riggio (2006), provides a foundational lens for understanding effective leadership (bass, b. m., & riggio, r. e., 2006). it distinguishes itself from transactional leadership, which focuses on rewards and punishments, by emphasising behaviours that inspire and motivate followers to achieve extraordinary outcomes. the core components of transformational leadership—idealised influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, and individualised consideration—are often associated with relational, empathetic, and collaborative approaches. a significant body of research suggests that women are more likely than men to adopt these transformational behaviours, fostering environments of trust, psychological safety, and open communication (burton, l. j., & lavoi, n. m., 2021, pp. 405-417; eagly, a. h., & carli, l. l., 2018). however, the application of this theory to women in sport leadership requires critical scrutiny due to a pervasive stereotype threat. attributing “transformational” traits to women risks reinforcing essentialist gender stereotypes that cast women’s leadership as inherently nurturing or emotionally intelligent, a phenomenon often referred to as the “double bind” or the “think manager-think male” paradigm (hoyt, c. l., & murphy, s. e., 2016, pp. 387-399). this can subtly devalue other crucial leadership qualities, such as assertiveness, strategic decision-making, and financial acumen, which are also essential for executive roles but are traditionally coded as masculine. as fink (2016) observes, even the most visionary female leaders operate within sport organisations that are sites of institutionalised masculinity and structural resistance, a reality that the transformational framework often underrepresents (fink, j. s., 2016, pp. 176-188). the challenge, therefore, is to acknowledge the strategic strengths of relational leadership styles without essentialising them as innate feminine traits or overlooking the structural and political dimensions of power that women must navigate. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 6, no. 1, 2025 48 published by scholink inc. 2.2 gendered organisations theory: systemic inequality joan acker’s (1990) gendered organisations theory provides a powerful corrective to individualistic leadership theories by positing that gender is not an external variable but is fundamentally embedded in the very fabric of organisational life (acker, j., 1990, pp. 139-158). acker argues that organisations are not gender-neutral entities; rather, their structures, processes, hierarchies, and cultural norms are constructed in ways that reflect and reproduce gendered power relations. in the context of sport, this manifests through the valorisation of masculine-coded traits such as aggression, dominance, and a win-at-all-costs mentality, which are often presented as the natural and necessary attributes of effective leadership (adriaanse, j. a., & claringbould, i., 2016, pp. 547-564). this creates a form of “symbolic violence” (bourdieu, p., 1991), subtly marginalising women and devaluing feminine-coded traits, even in the presence of formal equality policies. inequality is thus reproduced not merely by individual bias but by the impersonal and seemingly rational systems of the organisation itself, including recruitment and promotion criteria, informal social networks (the “old boys’ club”), and the unequal distribution of resources and opportunities (chu, j., leberman, s., & taylor, t., 2022, pp. 789-802). while acker’s framework is indispensable for illuminating the systemic and often invisible nature of gender inequality, critics have argued that it can be overly deterministic, offering limited insight into the possibilities for agency, resistance, and transformation (britton, d. m., 2017, pp. 5-27). an over-reliance on a binary gender analysis can also obscure the reality that women’s experiences of leadership are not monolithic. the ways in which gender intersects with other dimensions of identity, such as race, class, sexuality, and disability, create vastly different experiences of marginalisation and opportunity. this highlights the need to move beyond a singular focus on gender and to adopt a more intersectional approach to understanding power and inequality in sport organisations. 2.3 institutional change and organisational learning institutional theory, particularly the work of dimaggio and powell (1983) on institutional isomorphism, helps to explain the persistence of gender inequality in sport organisations, even in the face of mounting pressure to change (dimaggio, p. j., & powell, w. w., 1983, pp. 147-160). they identify three mechanisms through which organisations come to resemble one another: coercive isomorphism (resulting from pressure from other organisations and the legal environment), mimetic isomorphism (resulting from organisations imitating others that they perceive as successful or legitimate), and normative isomorphism (resulting from professionalisation and the influence of shared norms and values). in the context of gender equity, many sport organisations adopt policies such as gender quotas or diversity statements due to coercive or mimetic pressures, leading to a form of “paper compliance” or “performative legitimacy” where the organisation adopts the superficial appearance of change without genuinely altering its underlying culture or power structures (adriaanse, j. a., & claringbould, i., 2016, pp. 547-564; adriaanse, j. a., 2022, pp. 1-20). women leaders can play a crucial role in driving deeper, normative change by challenging existing assumptions and modelling new values and behaviours from within. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 6, no. 1, 2025 49 published by scholink inc. this is where organisational learning theory, particularly the concepts of “single-loop” and “double-loop” learning developed by argyris and schön (1996), becomes highly relevant (argyris, c., & schön, d. a., 1996). single-loop learning involves correcting errors and improving performance within the existing framework of assumptions and values. double-loop learning, in contrast, involves questioning and transforming the underlying assumptions and values themselves. women leaders, with their often more relational and reflective approaches, can act as catalysts for double-loop learning, creating the conditions for a deeper cultural transformation. by fostering psychological safety, encouraging open dialogue, and challenging the taken-for-granted norms of the organisation, they can enable a process of collective self-examination and renewal. the most robust analytical framework, therefore, is one that integrates an understanding of institutional constraints with an appreciation for the agency of individual leaders to drive normative change and organisational learning. 2.4 a new theoretical lens: intersectionality in sport leadership a significant limitation of early research into women in sport leadership has been its tendency to treat “women” as a monolithic category, implicitly focusing on the experiences of white, middle-class, cisgender, and able-bodied women from western countries. this approach overlooks the rich diversity of women’s lived experiences and fails to account for the ways in which different dimensions of identity intersect to create unique and compounded forms of both privilege and oppression. the theoretical framework of intersectionality, originally developed by crenshaw (1989) and further elaborated by scholars such as collins and bilge (2020), provides an essential lens for rectifying this oversight (crenshaw, k., 1989, pp. 139-167; collins, p. h., & bilge, s., 2020). intersectionality posits that social identities such as race, gender, class, sexual orientation, and disability are not independent variables but are interlocking systems of power that shape individuals’ experiences and opportunities in distinct and complex ways. adopting an intersectional framework is therefore crucial for developing a more accurate and comprehensive understanding of the challenges and opportunities for women in sport leadership. it moves the analysis beyond a binary focus on gender to a more nuanced appreciation of the multiple and intersecting power dynamics at play. this allows for the development of more targeted and effective strategies for promoting equity, diversity, and inclusion that address the specific needs and experiences of women in all their diversity. the following table 1 provides an illustrative, though not exhaustive, overview of how an intersectional lens can illuminate the distinct barriers faced by different groups of women in sport leadership. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 6, no. 1, 2025 50 published by scholink inc. table 1. an intersectional analysis of barriers in sport leadership identity dimension primary barriers compounded barriers from intersectionality white, cisgender, able-bodied women gender stereotypes (the “double bind”); exclusion from informal male networks; work-life integration challenges; unequal pay. while facing significant gender-based barriers, this group often benefits from racial, cisgender, and able-bodied privilege, which can provide access to resources and networks unavailable to other women. women of colour (e.g., black, asian, hispanic/latina) all barriers faced by white women, plus: overt and covert racism; racial stereotypes (e.g., the “angry black woman”); lack of representation in leadership, leading to isolation; pressure to represent their entire racial/ethnic group. the intersection of race and gender creates a “concrete ceiling” that is thicker and more difficult to penetrate than the “glass ceiling.” they may be excluded from both male-dominated and white-female-dominated networks. women with disabilities all barriers faced by non-disabled women, plus: ableism and assumptions of incompetence; physical and infrastructural barriers; lack of accessible facilities and resources; attitudinal barriers and prejudice. the intersection of gender and disability can lead to infantilisation or a perception of asexuality, further undermining their authority as leaders. they may be seen as a “burden” or an “inspiration,” but rarely as simply a competent leader. lgbtq+ women (e.g., lesbian, bisexual, transgender) all barriers faced by heterosexual, cisgender women, plus: homophobia, biphobia, and transphobia; pressure to conceal their identity; discrimination in hiring and promotion; lack of inclusive policies and workplace cultures. transgender women in sport face intense scrutiny and discrimination related to their gender identity, often overshadowing their leadership capabilities. lesbian and bisexual women may face the “double jeopardy” of sexism and homophobia. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 6, no. 1, 2025 51 published by scholink inc. 3. the impact of women’s leadership on organisational change the increasing presence of women in leadership roles is not merely a demographic shift; it is a catalyst for profound organisational change. this section examines the empirical evidence on how women leaders influence organisational culture, ethics, and governance, while also navigating the complex interplay of stereotypes and resistance. 3.1 reshaping organisational culture and ethics women leaders often bring a distinct set of values and priorities to their roles, which can significantly reshape organisational culture. research consistently shows that companies with a higher representation of women in senior leadership are more likely to prioritise ethical behaviour, corporate social responsibility, and a collaborative work environment (aman, m. s., hussein, n., & shahid, s., 2019, pp. 821-840). women are more likely to adopt a transformational leadership style, which, as discussed, is characterised by a focus on mentorship, employee development, and a shared vision (burton, l. j., & lavoi, n. m., 2021, pp. 405-417; eagly, a. h., & carli, l. l., 2018). this approach stands in contrast to the more transactional, command-and-control style that has traditionally dominated many sport organisations. furthermore, the presence of women in leadership can have a powerful impact on an organisation’s ethical climate. studies have shown that gender-diverse boards are more likely to hold executives accountable for ethical lapses and to prioritise the interests of a broader range of stakeholders, not just shareholders (adriaanse, j. a., & schofield, t., 2014, pp. 485-497). in the context of sport, which has been plagued by a series of high-profile corruption and abuse scandals, the ethical leadership that women often bring is not just a desirable trait but a critical necessity for restoring public trust and ensuring the long-term health of the industry. 3.2 the paradox of relational leadership and emotional intelligence relational leadership and emotional intelligence are frequently cited as key strengths of female leaders. emotional intelligence, popularised by goleman (1998), refers to the ability to recognise, understand, and manage one’s own emotions and the emotions of others (goleman, d., 1998). women, on average, tend to score higher on measures of emotional intelligence, particularly in areas such as empathy, interpersonal relationships, and social responsibility (brown, d., & potrac, p., 2022, pp. 382-397). these skills are invaluable in leadership, as they enable leaders to build trust, motivate teams, and navigate complex social dynamics. however, there is a paradox at play. while relational skills are essential for effective leadership, they are also often stereotypically associated with femininity and can be devalued in masculine-coded environments like sport. women who exhibit these traits may be perceived as “soft” or not “tough enough” to make difficult decisions (hoyt, c. l., & murphy, s. e., 2016, pp. 387-399). this creates a double bind, where women are expected to be both relational and authoritative, a tightrope that their male counterparts are rarely forced to walk. the strategic use of emotional intelligence, therefore, becomes a critical skill for women leaders, who must learn to deploy their relational strengths in a way www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 6, no. 1, 2025 52 published by scholink inc. that is perceived as both authentic and authoritative. 3.3 agency and resistance: navigating the labyrinth women in sport leadership are not passive victims of a biased system; they are active agents of change who employ a variety of strategies to navigate the labyrinth of power and resistance (eagly, a. h., & carli, l. l., 2018). these strategies range from individual acts of resilience and self-advocacy to collective action and the creation of supportive networks. women often leverage their outsider status to challenge the status quo and to introduce new ideas and perspectives that can lead to innovation and growth (ibarra, h., 2019). however, this agency is almost always met with resistance, which can take both overt and subtle forms. overt resistance may include sexism, harassment, and exclusion from informal networks (the “old boys’ club”) (chu, j., leberman, s., & taylor, t., 2022, pp. 789-802). subtle resistance, on the other hand, can be more insidious and difficult to challenge. this can include being held to a higher standard than male colleagues, having their contributions ignored or attributed to others, and being subjected to a constant stream of microaggressions (britton, d. m., 2017, pp. 5-27). the concept of “gender fatigue” has been used to describe the exhaustion that women experience from having to constantly navigate these forms of resistance (hoeber, l., & shaw, s., 2022, pp. 515-532). overcoming this resistance requires not only individual resilience but also a concerted effort from organisations to create a culture where women’s leadership is not just tolerated but actively valued and supported. however, it is important to recognise that resistance is not always a purely negative force. paradoxically, the very act of navigating and overcoming resistance can become a powerful site of learning and transformation. women who strategically challenge the barriers they face often develop advanced adaptive and political skills. they become adept at building coalitions, negotiating conflict, and influencing change from the margins. in doing so, they can become the catalysts for the kind of double-loop learning (argyris & schön, 1996) that is necessary for genuine organisational self-examination and renewal (norman, 2021). the following diagram illustrates the cyclical nature of organisational resistance, showing how various elements interact to maintain the status quo (figure 1). www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 6, no. 1, 2025 53 published by scholink inc. figure 1. the cycle of organisational resistance to women’s leadership 4. pathways to leadership: higher education and development programmes developing a pipeline of talented and prepared women leaders is crucial for driving organisational change. this section explores the role of higher education and formal development programmes in creating these pathways. 4.1 the role of higher education in shaping future leaders higher education institutions play a pivotal role in shaping the next generation of sport leaders. sport management programmes, in particular, are a key pipeline for talent into the industry. however, research suggests that these programmes have been slow to adapt their curricula to address the specific challenges and opportunities for women in sport leadership (walker, n. a., & bopp, t., 2020, pp. 509-522). many programmes continue to rely on outdated, male-centric models of leadership and fail to adequately integrate issues of gender, diversity, and inclusion into their core curriculum. this not only fails to prepare women for the realities of the sport industry but also perpetuates the very biases and inequalities that they will face in their careers. however, there are also signs of positive change. a growing number of universities are developing specialised programmes and initiatives designed to support aspiring female leaders. these include mentorship programmes, networking events, and leadership development workshops that are tailored to the specific needs of women in sport (pike, e., white, a., matthews, j., & southon, s., 2017, pp. 709-725). furthermore, recent research by english and braybrook (2025) highlights the transformative www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 6, no. 1, 2025 54 published by scholink inc. potential of design-based research in higher education to create more equitable and effective pathways to leadership for women (english, v., & braybrook, k., 2025, pp. 56-79). their study demonstrates how a curriculum that is co-designed with industry partners and grounded in the lived experiences of women leaders can empower students with the skills, confidence, and networks to succeed. 4.2 leadership development programmes and mentorship formal leadership development programmes and mentorship have emerged as key strategies for accelerating women’s advancement in sport leadership. these programmes can provide women with the skills, knowledge, and networks to overcome the barriers they face. research has shown that effective leadership development programmes are those that are tailored to the specific needs of women, provide opportunities for experiential learning, and create a supportive peer network (burton, l. j., & leberman, s., 2017). mentorship, in particular, has been identified as a critical factor in the career progression of women leaders. a good mentor can provide not only career advice and guidance but also sponsorship, which involves actively advocating for their mentee and creating opportunities for them to advance (kanter, r. m., 1977). however, women often face challenges in finding suitable mentors, particularly in male-dominated fields like sport. the lack of senior female leaders means that there are fewer role models and potential mentors for aspiring women. this highlights the importance of formal mentorship programmes that can connect women with experienced leaders, both male and female, who are committed to supporting their development. the effectiveness of these programmes is a subject of ongoing research and debate. some studies suggest that they can be highly effective in building confidence, enhancing skills, and expanding networks (pike et al., 2017). the design-based research by english and braybrook (2025) provides strong evidence for the positive impact of a well-designed, university-based programme. however, critics caution that if these programmes focus solely on “fixing the women”—that is, on equipping them with the skills to fit into the existing masculine-coded organisational culture—they may have limited impact on systemic change. for these programmes to be truly transformative, they must not only empower individual women but also seek to influence the organisations to which those women belong. the most effective programmes are those that are part of a broader, integrated strategy for organisational change, which includes a commitment from senior leadership to address systemic barriers and create a more inclusive culture. the following table 2 synthesises the key features of effective women’s leadership development programmes, as identified in the literature. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 6, no. 1, 2025 55 published by scholink inc. table 2. key features of effective women’s leadership development programmes feature description rationale & supporting evidence holistic & intersectional curriculum the curriculum addresses not only traditional leadership skills (e.g., finance, strategy) but also the specific challenges women face, such as unconscious bias, stereotype threat, and work-life integration. it adopts an intersectional approach, acknowledging the diverse experiences of women. a “one-size-fits-all” approach is ineffective. tailored content that addresses the lived realities of women leads to greater engagement and impact (english & braybrook, 2025). an intersectional lens ensures the programme is relevant to all women, not just the dominant group (crenshaw, 1989). focus on sponsorship, not just mentorship the programme actively facilitates connections between participants and senior leaders who can act as sponsors, not just mentors. this includes structured networking events and formal sponsorship initiatives. sponsorship is a more powerful driver of career advancement than mentorship. sponsors use their influence to create opportunities, which is critical for breaking through the “glass ceiling” (ibarra, 2019). creation of a supportive peer cohort the programme is designed to foster a strong sense of community and peer support among participants. this is achieved through collaborative projects, peer coaching, and ongoing networking opportunities. a strong peer network provides a vital source of support, advice, and solidarity, helping to mitigate the feelings of isolation that many women in leadership experience (pike et al., 2017). integration with organisational change the programme is not a standalone initiative but is integrated into a broader organisational strategy for gender equity. this includes securing buy-in from senior leadership and linking the programme to talent management and succession planning processes. to be sustainable, individual development must be coupled with organisational change. without this link, women may gain new skills but still face the same systemic barriers upon returning to their organisations (adriaanse & claringbould, 2019). www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 6, no. 1, 2025 56 published by scholink inc. 5. barriers and resistance to female-led change despite the clear benefits of gender-diverse leadership, women continue to face a formidable array of barriers and resistance in their pursuit of leadership roles in sport. these barriers are not just individual or isolated incidents but are systemic and deeply embedded in the culture and structure of sport organisations. 5.1 structural and cultural barriers structural barriers are the formal and informal rules, policies, and practices that systematically disadvantage women. these can include biased recruitment and promotion processes, unequal pay, and a lack of family-friendly policies (hoeber, l., 2007, pp. 259-280). the “old boys’ club,” a powerful and exclusionary informal network of men, remains a significant barrier for women, who are often excluded from the key conversations and decisions that shape their careers (chu, j., leberman, s., & taylor, t., 2022, pp. 789-802). cultural barriers are the shared values, beliefs, and norms that create a hostile or unwelcoming environment for women. these can include a culture of sexism and misogyny, the normalisation of masculine-coded leadership styles, and the devaluation of feminine-coded traits (adriaanse, j. a., & claringbould, i., 2016, pp. 547-564). the media also plays a significant role in perpetuating these cultural barriers, often portraying female athletes and leaders in a way that reinforces gender stereotypes (fink, j. s., 2016, pp. 176-188). 5.2 the intersectional nature of barriers it is crucial to recognise that the barriers to leadership are not the same for all women. an intersectional perspective reveals that women from marginalised groups face unique and compounded barriers. for example, women of colour may face both racism and sexism, while women with disabilities may face ableism in addition to gender bias (hancock, m., & hums, m. a., 2023). research has shown that women from culturally diverse backgrounds are significantly underrepresented in sport leadership and face a unique set of challenges, including cultural stereotypes, a lack of role models, and a sense of isolation (dadswell, k., mandicos, m., et al., 2023, pp. 135-155). the sport intersectional model of power (simp), developed by simpkins (2019), provides a useful framework for understanding how these intersecting systems of power operate in sport (simpkins, s., 2019, pp. 493-515). the model highlights the need to move beyond a single-axis analysis of gender and to consider how race, class, sexuality, and other dimensions of identity shape the experiences of women in sport leadership. a truly inclusive approach to gender equity must be an intersectional one that recognises and addresses the unique challenges faced by all women. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 6, no. 1, 2025 57 published by scholink inc. 6. discussion and conclusion 6.1 key findings and implications this review has synthesised a wide range of literature to provide a comprehensive and critical analysis of the role of women in leadership and organisational change in sport. the key findings are: • women leaders are not just a matter of equity; they are a source of competitive advantage, bringing diverse perspectives and skills that can drive innovation and growth. • the definition of organisational change must be expanded beyond simply increasing the number of women in leadership to include a fundamental transformation of power dynamics and organisational culture. • women face a complex and multi-layered system of barriers, including stereotypes, bias, and resistance, which are compounded for women from marginalised groups. • higher education and leadership development programmes have a crucial role to play in creating a pipeline of talented and prepared women leaders. • a multi-level model of change is needed that addresses the individual, organisational, and institutional dimensions of gender inequality. the implications of these findings are clear. sport organisations must move beyond tokenistic gestures and commit to a deep and sustained process of organisational change. this requires a willingness to challenge the status quo, to dismantle systemic barriers, and to create a culture where women’s leadership is not just tolerated but actively celebrated. 6.2 gaps in the literature and future research while the body of research on women in sport leadership is growing, there are still significant gaps in the literature. the most significant of these is the need for more intersectional research that explores the experiences of women from diverse backgrounds. future research should also focus on the following areas: • the long-term impact of gender-diverse leadership on organisational performance and culture. • the effectiveness of different strategies for overcoming resistance to female-led change. • the role of men as allies in promoting gender equity in sport leadership. • the impact of new technologies and media on the representation and perception of women in sport. 6.3 a model for transformative change based on the synthesis of the literature, it is possible to propose a multi-level model for advancing women in sports leadership. this model, illustrated in the diagram below, posits that sustainable change requires simultaneous and coordinated action at the individual, organisational, and institutional levels. at the individual level, the focus is on empowering women with the skills, networks, and resilience to navigate their careers. at the organisational level, the focus is on creating inclusive cultures and equitable systems. and at the institutional level, the focus is on challenging the broader norms, policies, and power structures that shape the entire sport ecosystem. change at any one level is www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 6, no. 1, 2025 58 published by scholink inc. unlikely to be sufficient; it is the interplay and mutual reinforcement of actions across all three levels that will drive transformative and lasting change as summarized in figure 2. figure 2. a multi-level model for advancing women in sports leadership 6.4 conclusion this critical and intersectional review of the literature demonstrates unequivocally that women leaders are not merely a desirable addition to the sport industry but are vital agents of organisational transformation, cultural renewal, and ethical governance. the evidence synthesised in this paper indicates that female leaders frequently bring relational, reflective, and inclusive strengths that can enable sport institutions to move beyond outdated, hierarchical models of leadership and to embrace a more adaptive and resilient future. their leadership is a powerful catalyst for the kind of double-loop learning that is essential for addressing the complex challenges facing the contemporary sport ecosystem, from governance crises to the demands for greater social responsibility. however, this transformative potential is far from being fully realised. it is systematically constrained by a deeply entrenched and multi-layered system of barriers. these include the pervasive influence of masculine-coded organisational cultures, the persistence of gendered stereotypes and unconscious bias, the exclusionary nature of informal male networks, and the insufficient integration of an intersectional perspective that recognises and addresses the compounded barriers faced by women from diverse backgrounds. the journey to leadership for women in sport is not simply a climb up a ladder; it is a complex navigation of a labyrinth fraught with subtle and overt forms of resistance. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 6, no. 1, 2025 59 published by scholink inc. the central implication of this review is that achieving genuine gender equity in sport leadership requires a paradigm shift. efforts must move beyond a narrow focus on representational targets and “fixing the women” to a more holistic and systemic approach that addresses the deeper cultural and structural dimensions of power. sustainable transformation requires a concerted and coordinated effort from all stakeholders. sport organisations must proactively dismantle systemic barriers and cultivate inclusive cultures. higher education institutions must reimagine their role in developing the next generation of leaders, creating equitable pathways and providing tailored support. and aspiring women leaders must continue to build their skills, networks, and resilience, while strategically challenging the status quo. ultimately, this review calls for a fundamental reframing of what constitutes effective leadership in sport. the future of the industry depends on its ability to move away from a hierarchical model rooted in command and control and towards a more relational and networked paradigm 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(2022). gender fatigue and the illusion of progress in sport organizations. journal of sport and social issues, 46(6), 515-532. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315542775 https://doi.org/10.1177/01937235221134612 https://doi.org/10.2307/2095101 https://doi.org/10.1002/ltl.40619981008 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0432.2007.00342.x www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 6, no. 1, 2025 61 published by scholink inc. hoyt, c. l., & murphy, s. e. (2016). managing to clear the air: stereotype threat, women, and leadership. the leadership quarterly, 27(3), 387-399. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2015.11.002 ibarra, h. (2019). act like a leader, think like a leader. boston, ma: harvard business review press. kanter, r. m. (1977). men and women of the corporation. new york, ny: basic books. oecd. 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(2020). the underrepresentation of women in sport leadership: a content analysis of sport management literature. journal of sport management, 34(6), 509-522. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2015.11.002 https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-53318-0_51 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2019.07.039 frontiers of contemporary education issn 2690-3520 (print) issn 2690-3539 (online) vol. 2, no. 1, 2021 www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce 22 original paper the modification of boerkaert’s (1999) model of self-regulation to include younger learners sue taylor 1 1 department of social work, education and community wellbeing, northumbria university, newcastle, uk received: february 8, 2021 accepted: february 22, 2021 online published: april 5, 2021 doi:10.22158/fce.v2n1p22 url: http://dx.doi.org/10.22158/fce.v2n1p22 abstract this study of self-regulation draws on boerkaert’s (1999) model but proposes adaptations. in particular, it examines the role of the teacher in the promotion of self-regulation, and the importance of curriculum for creating opportunities for autonomous learning. since boerkaert’s model was devised for older learners, adaptations are proposed to reflect its possible meaning for younger learners, particularly through the supportive scaffolding of their learning and development toward self-regulation. the study uses an international sample survey of children’s responses to curricular experiences, as well as making comparisons between different educational systems and environments. the article concludes with suggestions for changes in practice to develop self-regulated learners from the early primary years. keywords self-regulation, younger learners, research informed, teaching strategies 1. introduction self-regulation has grown in importance as a new idea in education. self-regulation is a self-directed process according to zimmermann (2002). pupils who are self-regulated set their own goals, possess superior motivation and utilise adaptive learning methods. winne (1997) sees young learners as self-regulated when they are able to adapt their approaches to learning. for the purposes of this article young learners are defined as early primary children aged 5-7 years. paris and paris (2001) speak of the self-regulated individual who “monitors, directs and regulates” their work towards their own set goals. self-regulated learning includes knowledge activation, metacognitive monitoring, regulation and reflection according to azevedo (2009). www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 1, 2021 23 published by scholink inc. “self-regulated learning is an active, constructive process whereby learners set goals for their learning and then attempt to monitor, regulate, and control their cognition, motivation, and behaviour, guided and constrained by their goals and the contextual features in the environment”. (pintrich, 2000, p. 453) this quote locates the goal-directed, self-regulatory process at the pupil level in the environmental context, however the teachers’ role in the development of self-regulatory practices is omitted from this definition. the pupil’s individual motivation is seen as important as the active process of self-regulation depends upon the learner setting goals for their learning and assessing their progress and achievements. with regard to the part that the environment plays in the development of self-regulated learners, butler (2002) charts the progress of the concept of self-regulation as moving from the self to the “self in context”. earlier studies looked more at individuals’ processes and now research is focusing on the social process, seeing the growth of the autonomous learner as related to both the individual’s predilection to self regulation and the learner’s environment as pivotal factors. this article particularly focuses on boerkaert’s (1999) theory of the self-regulatory process. boerkaerts (1999) sees the construct of self-regulation as inherently complex and related to research into learning needs, metacognition and theories of the self. figure 1. representation of boerkaert’s (1999) model of self-regulation as you can see from the figure above, boekaerts’ (1999) model of self-regulation consists of three areas. unlike some models there is not a sense of development through the layers, more a sense that a truly autonomous learner will have developed all three areas. self/learning to learn the centre of the model is concerned with the regulation of processing modes. this relates to the learner understanding how they learn, their learning styles and how they process information. in relation to the pupils, knowing themselves in relation to their learning and which strategies work best for them will aid their autonomous learning ability. for example, children may experience different ways of discovering www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 1, 2021 24 published by scholink inc. information: asking other people, learning how to ask questions using a search engine or summarising information from texts. the notion of learning how to learn is key in self-regulation. the responsibility for learning shifts to the learner and the role of the teacher is more autonomy-supportive. learning to learn is essential in the development of a self-regulated, autonomous pupil. directing own learning/growing independence the middle layer is focused on the regulation of the learning process. this is the ability of the individual pupil to direct his or her own learning. this could relate to choices made as to the media in which to present their ideas or the generation of questions to pursue the answers to. the pupils can be given choices as to how to present the information discovered on a particular topic after explicitly being taught how to use powerpoint, make a poster or create a booklet. this ability will vary for different areas of the curriculum and the age of the child. vygotsky (1986) believed that metacognition is not realised in children until adolescence. he alleged that children could master the rules for directing their own attention, thought and behaviour but that this mastery does not become fully conscious until the children are able to think about the rules themselves, which means thinking about their own thinking. however, perry’s later research (1998) examined young children’s self-regulatory practices when writing. she found that young pupils are indeed capable of managing their own learning. perry reported that the seven and eight year olds in her study displayed an awareness of their own thinking processes and were able to stay focused on the task in hand. goal setting/strategies/reflection-self regulation the outside layer of the model is concerned with the regulation of the self and goal setting. boekaerts (1999) specifically references personally chosen goals. self-regulated learners should be able to select and be committed to goals for their learning and this was explored with the pupils in the study for this reason. this practice would need careful scaffolding and instruction as effective goal setting is a skill, which would need to be developed by the pupils. this layer also includes strategies and reflection as truly self-regulated learners will have developed their own strategies for learning independently and will naturally reflect on the process of learning. again the process of reflection can be explicitly framed and taught to the children. different forms of reflection can be introduced and practiced. self-regulated learning embraces the three areas and links all of the sections of the model. the role of the teacher the limitation of this model is the role of the teacher in the development of self-regulation. the teacher in this context is as a facilitator, to provide feedback and to aid the pupil’s reflective processing and analytical skills as well as to scaffold the learning where appropriate. in fact it is the teacher that holds the key to the development of autonomous learning through their pivotal place in facilitating their pupils’ motivation. an interesting point is made by boekaerts (1999) with regard to the relationship between the learning environment and self-regulated learning, that it is in fact a bidirectional relationship. a powerful and challenging learning environment promotes the application of self-regulatory skills. the skills that an autonomous learner acquires allow them to access fully the learning experiences the environment www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 1, 2021 25 published by scholink inc. provides. the teacher’s role includes the provision of the classroom environment and other areas where learning takes place. boekaerts and cascaller (2006) explored the social context of learning further by looking at the social origins of student actions. cues in the environment were stressed as well as the importance of student goal setting. the culture of the school, its leadership, ethos and community has an effect on the teachers, the pupils and their learning experience. other work by boekaerts and corno (2005) involved a top down and bottom up model of self-regulation. self-regulated learning is seen as having two distinct sides. one is the teaching of strategies to support the learner and the other is the development of the pupil as the individual becomes more self-regulatory in their learning and constructs their own strategies. autonomy is the goal in education, the ability to guide one’s own learning is shaped by the learning experiences the student receives and as teachers we hope all pupils become autonomous learners eventually. these two views of self-regulated learning are both useful as they are focused on the processes of learning, the development of the individual child as well as the variety of instruction. regardless of the view one takes, pupils do become more self-regulatory with age, experience, opportunity and motivation. a teacher may have to take a more direct approach initially as the pupil is in the process of developing their autonomous behaviour. a teacher would explicitly teach those skills required by the pupil to develop independent self-regulation, supporting pupils with planning a task or project through scaffolding research, assisting with time management of the task and helping the pupil to become more self-regulated in their learning. as the pupil gains the confidence to work more independently and develops the awareness of their learning process, then the teacher’s role changes to be more of a facilitator, supporting the individual’s work and encouraging them in their autonomy. it is the role of the teacher, particularly with relation to younger learners, that is missing from boerkaert’s (1999) model. prior to learning to learn the pupil needs to be explicitly taught the skills necessary. practices relating to the development of self-regulatory autonomous learning would be modeled, demonstrated, rehearsed and eventually independently applied. children may also have natural emergent abilities in relation to self-regulation, which could be repressed by the tasks they are directed to do by a more controlling teacher. garner (2009) examined the executive functions of the brain in relation to how these processes support the development of self-regulation. for example self-monitoring and impulse control would aid pupils in planning and goal setting. the executive function of motivational drive relates to strategy use and the regulation of effort. an autonomy-supportive teacher would be more likely to encourage child-led learning, which would nurture the child’s innate abilities and intrinsic motivation. barrable & arvanitis (2019) linked theories of self-determination to autonomy-supportive teaching practices. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 1, 2021 26 published by scholink inc. 2. method in the study a pupil questionnaire was created to ascertain the level of self-regulation exhibited by learners at the end of the primary years, i.e., at ten or eleven years old. the results showed that 83.5% of the pupils in the research study demonstrated a high level of self-regulatory behaviour with regard to the answers given. five of the questions, which reference aspects of self-regulatory behaviour, are examined in more detail in the results section. the generalised results in relation to these five questions had positive responses from 76% to 93%. looking at the results of the study, both the quantitative and qualitative results would indicate the need to re-think boerkaerts’ (1999) model to include younger learners’ move to develop the required skills and strategies in order to learn to learn to be self-regulative. the mixed methods research was carried out in twelve schools in eight countries. it involved questionnaires being given to 404 pupils and 20 teachers in the last year of primary school. the head teachers of the schools involved gave their permission for the questionnaire to be given to the pupils in year 6 age classes in their schools and the study received ethical clearance from durham university in england. there were five international baccalaurate (ib) schools and seven other curriculum schools involved in the study. ten individual pupil interviews were conducted after obtaining permission from their parents. table 1. participating schools’ curricula school curriculum pilot school uk england national curriculum british school dubai england national curriculum south african school national curriculum south africa nigerian school 1 (ns1) montessori nigerian school 2 (ns2) nigerian national curriculum nigerian school 3 (ns3) nigerian & british national curriculum nigerian school 4 (ns4) montessori & edexcel international international school dubai ib primary years programme international school germany ib primary years programme international school vietnam ib primary years programme international school singapore ib primary years programme international school denmark ib primary years programme www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 1, 2021 27 published by scholink inc. the pupil questionnaire created for the purposes of this study was based on the academic self-regulation questionnaire (srq-a) from rochester university’s self-determination theory (sdt) website. the series of studies outlined in the paper by ryan and connell (1989) validates the srq-a questionnaire, they worked with the assistance of primary school teachers to identify the four areas considered central for academic performance. the pupil questionnaire adapted for use in this study has a likert-type four-point scale. a four-point scale was used as this has been found by researchers at rochester to be the optimum number for younger pupils to rate themselves on. as the pupils at the end of the primary years are ten or eleven years of age and are in the younger range of the target audience for this questionnaire the same scale was selected for use. twelve “i” statements were constructed, which if all were “very true” would indicate that the pupil had developed a reasonable level of autonomy and that they are becoming self-regulatory in their learning. the “i” statements were formed to be as neutral as possible without using any curriculum specific terminology. the target children’s teachers gave the pupil questionnaire to their pupils. as the stance of the teacher with regard to supporting self-regulation is an important consideration, the problems in schools questionnaire (ps) was obtained from the rochester university website. it was given to the teachers who taught the pupils in the study. the questionnaire aims to identify autonomy-supportive teachers and how they teach and motivate their pupils. access was requested from rochester university sdt website and permission was given to access and use the questionnaire for research purposes. reeve et al. (1999) critically evaluated the problems in schools (ps) instrument in their research paper. 3. result 3.1 questionnaires the questions were selected to reflect aspects of self-regulatory behaviour and were expressed in simple terms to aid understanding for the children across the various schools studies. looking at the questionnaire a sample of the questions, which highlight the area of independent, self-regulated learning are included in the table below with justification of the questions’ inclusion. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 1, 2021 28 published by scholink inc. table 2. pupils’ questionnaire question: results: q7 i think about my work to help me improve in the future 88% here the focus is on self-assessment and the cycle of self-evaluation, goal setting and feeding forward for improvement. this statement links to q8 as considering your work could lead you to goal setting for further tasks. black and wiliam (2001, p. 7) stated that, “pupils should be trained in self-assessment so that they can understand the main purposes of their learning and thereby grasp what they need to do to achieve”. q8 i set myself learning goals 76% the setting of goals is an important part of regulating one’s own learning. explicit teaching of this skill through the creation of smart goals for example aids the process. practicing goal setting and reflecting on the completion of these goals are important self-regulatory skills. daniels and bizar (2005) cited the implementation of goal setting as an important tool in aiding pupils with planning, monitoring, and evaluating their own learning. q10 i feel i am able to work on my own 92% we are aiming to develop independent learners who can sustain their intrinsic motivation and work alone when required. this is not to say that group work and collaboration are not important skills as well. the teacher’s role is vital as their passion for the subject being taught can motivate the pupils to pursue more independent investigations on their own (malone & smith, 1996). q11 i have learnt new skills and strategies to help me learn 93% part of the autonomy-supportive teacher’s role is to provide a range of strategies, which the pupils can try out and adapt to their needs. these could be note-taking strategies or forming efficient research questions for example. the sutton trust’s report: what makes great teaching (2014) highlighted quality instruction as an important component of effective learning. having a number of strategies or skills explicitly taught and modeled as well as scaffolded, with time to practice, are components of quality teaching approaches, which aid the pupils’ progress and self-regulation. q12 i am excited about learning 90% motivation toward learning is a key component of self-regulation particularly with relation to resilience and coping with setbacks or experiencing difficulties. we can teach pupils how to fail better, develop their motivation and help them to understand that learning happens through failure, effort and hard work. dweck’s (2006) growth mindset is utilised in a number of schools to support this process. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 1, 2021 29 published by scholink inc. the highest percentage of pupils from the questionnaire believed they had learnt new skills and strategies to support their self-regulated learning. the second highest result demonstrated that pupils felt that they were able to work independently. it is also heartening to see that across the schools and the different countries, 90% of the children surveyed at the end of their primary school were excited about learning. the percentage of children thinking about their work towards improvement in the future was quite high. the role their teacher may have played here was not explored in the questionnaire, however autonomy-supportive teachers would build in regular reflection for their pupils to help the children set goals for their own learning. setting goals was the lowest of the five results here. there are a number of variables, which may affect these results. we do not know if the teachers in the various schools generally set learning goals or specifically taught supporting strategies. teacher effect is one factor to consider with regard to comparing pupils’ development of self-regulatory learning. however there are many variables in the schools that impact the results. for example, in the pupil questionnaire there was one question that was concerned with the setting of learning goals, an important part of self-regulatory practice. in the results there were some large percentages in “not at all true” responses from non-ib schools. sitzmann and ely (2011) found that student achievement was related to setting goals as well as persistence, concentration and confidence. these aspects all are important for individual motivation. goal setting is referenced in the outside layer of boerkaert’s model (1999). for this study the schools’ websites were examined as well as using information from colleagues through contact with the individual schools. curriculum background, mission statements and information regarding aspects of self-regulated learning were collected. the relationship between teachers’ approach to pupil autonomy and the pupils’ autonomy is a key issue along with the classroom environment. in the teachers’ results the ps questionnaire continuum ranges from highly controlling teachers through moderately controlling and moderately autonomy supportive to highly autonomy-supportive. the teachers’ results from the questionnaire could be related to the pupil questionnaire results. the highly autonomy-supportive teachers with single classes were in three schools: an international school in denmark, one of the nigerian schools and the pilot uk school. in denmark 90% of the pupils scored in the top quartile. in the nigerian school all of the pupils were in the top quartile. in the pilot school there were 87% of the pupils who scored 37+ points. highly self-regulating pupils were matched here by highly autonomy supportive teachers. the nigerian schools are interesting in that in ns2 and ns3, both teachers scored very low on the teacher questionnaire (0 and 2 points) and are therefore highly controlling teachers by the questionnaire results. however their students scored highly on the student questionnaire, ns3 had 84% of their students score in the top quartile and ns2 had 100% of the students score as highly self-regulated. it would have been interesting to see the questionnaire being presented to these students and whether extra information as to the completion of the questionnaires were given on top of the instruction sheet provided. in a school www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 1, 2021 30 published by scholink inc. where there is a high incidence of tests and exams, would a questionnaire like the student questionnaire be an unusual occurrence and therefore maybe treated more like another test to try to attain the highest mark? do the students think that there are right answers to the questions on the student questionnaire, maybe seeing the very true answer as the required answer? de leeuw (2011) explored the surveying of children and cites the notion of desirability in the way that pupils may answer questionnaires. “in early middle childhood (7 to 10) children have a tendency to please and are afraid of doing something wrong. this may result in more superficial answers and in an inclination towards social desirability”. (de leeuw, 2011, p. 8) one of the teachers surveyed (international school in vietnam) contacted me with regard to feeling that her pupils might have selected the answer they believed that she would want them to choose. as part of my reflection on the research process i do acknowledge that having the pupils’ teachers administer the questionnaires may have affected some results. the teacher questionnaire focused on the teacher’s stance in relation to the continuum of teacher stance from controlling to autonomy supportive. flink, boggiano and barratt (1990) examined controlling teachers and described how, in a class with a controlling teacher, the intrinsic motivation and the level of performance of the pupils both decreased. the motivation of the pupils is linked to their teacher’s approach and support of self-regulated learning. mccombs and marzano (2010) talked of the pupils’ “will” to learn, their motivation to become independent learners. again the teacher’s role in inspiring, engaging and motivating the pupils’ own desire to learn is central. zimmermann’s model of self-regulated learning ability (schunk & zimmermann, 1997) was socially based and environmentally linked with the teacher playing a key part in this process. at the lower levels of zimmermann’s model, feedback from the teacher was seen as important as supporting pupil autonomy. the role of the teacher and the pupil/teacher relationship is essential to the pupil’s development of self-regulatory learning. a number of studies stressed this vital factor. deci (1991), larkin (2009), hattie (2011) and de jäger, jansen and reezigt (2002) all emphasized the importance of the autonomy-supportive teacher and how the teacher enhances the intrinsic motivation of the pupils. engle and conant (2002) talked of pupils being the “authors and producers of knowledge”, the ownership of learning belonging to the pupils. again the teacher’s approach to the pupils’ autonomy is critical here. a controlling teacher would not allow the pupils to be “authors and producers” and would take more ownership of their pupils’ learning processes and products. therefore, autonomy-supportive teachers are a very important part of the development of self-regulated learning in their pupils. the christian centred nigerian school (ns3) stated that they encouraged independent learning but there are also regular national tests. the teacher of this class was the highest controlling teacher with a score of zero on the teacher questionnaire. is more control required, when there are national requirements for tests? www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 1, 2021 31 published by scholink inc. the teacher at ns3 scored on the pis as a highly controlling teacher. the school follows the nigerian national assessments and there is regular testing. when with regard to developing independence, it was stated on the school’s website that, “the pupils have been trained to work independently but are to signify when they need help”. this does not indicate the teacher’s role in supporting the students as it sounds as though the responsibility for learning on their own is the students’. working independently and having developed self-regulatory practices and strategies are not necessarily the same. as already stated more information and first-hand experience of the school would be beneficial here. the school environment was described as one that encouraged, “participation, curiosity and inquiry”. it would be interesting to find out more about how the curriculum was delivered by the teachers. one of the nigerian schools mentions “interactive lessons” where, “pupils are made to participate”. this is an interesting statement, as interactive lessons would appear to indicate more engagement and participation o the part of the pupils. the notion of forcing participation however is very counter to self-regulation and autonomous learning. the “power of praise”, is stated as being used in the school, which would suggest that the pupils are positively encouraged in their learning. however, the teacher for this class scored as highly controlling on the teacher questionnaire. as part of the student questionnaire one sentence starter (“learning is….) was included and the responses were analysed to discover if the learning experiences the pupils experienced were supportive of self-regulatory learning. a pupil from one of the uk curriculum schools commented on the method of learning: “learning is a bit fun but it needs to be more hands on sort of stuff instead of text book stuff”. in comparison to the ib programme, which incorporates a range of assessments, one pupil from the south african school completed the first sentence starter with an answer that indicated how test driven the curriculum is in their school. “learning is … something you learn to take a test”. one of the ib pupils wrote, “learning is… joy and a great opportunity in my perspective. learning new skills and strategies is a very important part of learning and i feel i do it”. a pupil from the international english national curriculum school stated that, “learning is … sometimes fun but mainly copying from the board”. the highly-supportive teachers’ pupils also referenced their teachers’ pedagogy and demonstrated their motivation for learning. “learning is … like not really exciting and not hard but learning should be fun that is how we learn better”. and “learning is … discovering new methods and ways to do something”. (both from the international english national curriculum school) “learning is … very interesting for me depending on the way my teacher teaches me because sometimes i don’t pay attention to him”. (nigerian school 1) this statement highlights the importance of the teacher’s stance in regard to their teaching and how successfully they engage their pupils in their learning. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 1, 2021 32 published by scholink inc. 3.2 interviews i undertook a series of interviews with a number of pupils from the international school i was based in at the time of the study. it was easier in person to correlate the teacher’s stance to the results from their pupils’ questionnaires as i had observed the class. the pupils were asked to read four statements regarding how they learned best. they commented on each one and discussed aspects of learning and teaching. the pupil then suggested a statement about learning that they believed was how they learned best. the interviews were recorded and transcripts written. the responses of the pupils interviewed were initially sorted by the categories of the individual statements as they related to the pupils’ learning. these quotes were then analysed for content. statements relating to the way pupils learn, their ideas relating to independent learning and teacher stance were the principal categories identified. the focus for these interviews was to see how pupil motivation related to the ways pupils learn and the role of the teacher. the students expressed their interest in working on their own and finding out about a topic for themselves or discovering more about themselves. this relates to the centre of boerkaert’s model (1999) when the student is learning about themselves and how to learn. one of the pupils interview expressed their feeling that, “it’s just like you’re unlocking something in yourself, and without people telling you what to do or friends giving ideas and then you have to do that idea. you’re unlocking something you’re unlocking yourself and learn more about yourself”. the students demonstrated their appreciation of the hands-on, experiential approach, as a more effective learning experience. by learning for themselves they are developing the self-regulatory skills. one of the pupils stated, “when we get to actually do things we learn better because we were trying it out instead of just listening to the person trying it out”. an independent, self-regulated learner who reflects on his or her learning will also learn from mistakes. in an inquiry based programme teachers support the pupils in their inquiries by allowing them to struggle at times, to make mistakes and to learn from these and to set themselves goals based on their work. all of the pupils interviewed agreed that hands-on practical lessons helped them to understand more. individuals referenced science, music and mathematics as subject areas where this type of learning deepened their understanding. the pupils discussed group work and how they felt that they learnt from each other in collaborative tasks. as one of the international pupils interviewed said, “you can share knowledge through yours and other people’s mistakes. so if you make a mistake you know what you need to improve next time. you can learn from other people’s information, you are sharing the knowledge”. the ib’s primary years programme includes the elements required to support self-regulated, autonomous learners. however the quantitative data from the pupil questionnaire showed that pupils from other curriculum schools also have developed self-regulatory practices. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 1, 2021 33 published by scholink inc. 4. my revision of boerkaert’s model in boerkaert’s (1999) original model the role of the teacher in the development of self-regulation is not outlined. in the revised model within the new emergent self-regulation learning centre is where the skills, strategies and practices essential to the development of independent, autonomous learners are initiated and encouraged by the teacher. this adapted model could be seen from the centre to the outside as growing independence for the pupil and diminishing support from the teacher as self-regulation develops, this is developmental and not age-related. figure 2. adapted boerkaert’s model for younger learners details of the adapted boerkaert’s model for younger learners emergent self-regulated learning developing understanding introduction to skills/strategies/reflection self / learning to learn explicit teaching of transdisciplinary skills self management social skills research skills thinking skills communication skills growing independence/directing own learning explicit teaching of strategies related to unit or specific subject teaching www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 1, 2021 34 published by scholink inc. goal setting/ strategies/reflection-self-regulation explicitly encouraging and developing reflective practices use of reflection tools independent goal setting portfolios including self-assessment emergent self-regulated learning the focus in this area of the model would be on understanding of the required skills and strategies for all areas of the curriculum. the practice of reflection would be introduced slowly with a lot of scaffolding with examples and pictorial representations for the youngest learners. technology could be utilised effectively here recording via audio or video the children’s reflections on their learning. this emergent layer would be characterised by explicit teaching of transdisciplinary skills such as self-management, social and communication skills initially then developing thinking and research skills to support pupils’ learning development. with regard to strategies, these should be explicitly taught through subject areas, as there are specific strategies for mathematics, writing, science processes, etc. the encouragement and development of reflective practices would be scaffolded though teacher modeling and positive praise. various tools would be introduced and utilised in aiding the pupils to set small achievable goals for their individualized learning. portfolios either in file form or online would be collated to chart the child’s learning journey. hattie (2012) examined teaching and the effect of teachers. in “visible learning” he refers to self-regulated feedback for the pupils, “this level of feedback describes how learners can monitor, direct, and regulate their own actions as they work toward the learning goal. feedback at this level fosters the willingness and capability to seek and effectively deal with feedback, to self-assess and self-correct, to attribute success to effort more than to ability, and to develop effective help-seeking skills”. (hattie, 2012, p. 20) here the focus is on the feedback given by the teacher to aid the pupil with the development of self-regulative skills. this could involve asking the pupil as to the strategy used for information retrieval or to prompt the pupil into considering other strategies to try if they were having difficulty with problem solving for example. as a teacher we need to encourage the pupils to develop effective skills across the curriculum. the importance of the teacher’s role has come to be a central issue in this study. the teacher and pupil relationship with regard to teaching and learning is a vital area for the pupils’ development of self-regulatory practices. having pupils take more responsibility for their learning and for them to teach others is a powerful concept. this research study was focused on the influence of the curriculum but the teacher is the pivotal player in the delivery of the curriculum. the teacher’s stance with regard to www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 1, 2021 35 published by scholink inc. supporting autonomy is also crucial. the english national curriculum information does include some reference to “independent learning”. the major curriculum documentation focuses more on the knowledge required at the various key stages and is still test based. the effective lifelong learning inventory (elli) a project, from bristol university identified seven characteristics of effective lifelong learners and has been explored by a number of educational practitioners in the uk. these seven characteristics are changing and learning, critical curiosity, meaning making, creativity, resilience, strategic awareness and learning relationships. all of these attributes contribute to the development of an independent learner. linking to boerkaert’s model (1999) changing and learning relates to the self and learning to learn original centre where pupils start to develop a sense of themselves as learners. critical curiosity can be matched with directing one’s own learning. pupils’ interest in topics introduced can lead to them having the self-motivation to want to find out more. the notion of criticality can be encouraged and developed by questioning and articulation of thoughts and ideas. from the pupil’s research they can make meaning of what they have personally discovered. creativity can be developed by the learning environment and encouragement from the teacher for the pupil to move out of their comfort zone and try new activities and pursuits they may not have previously considered. the notion of resilience relates to the growing independence of the pupil as their self-regulative abilities increase they are ready to persevere in their own development as a learner. strategic awareness likewise demonstrates the pupil’s independence as they are aware of their thoughts, feeling and actions as a learner and can utilise this awareness to manage their own learning process. the learning relationships characteristic relates more to the confidence and ability to work with others on cooperative tasks and also to be able to work independently when required. prior to boerkaert’s centre of the model, which was concerned with the self and metacognition when pupils learn how to learn, i would suggest that younger primary age pupils in many schools can be introduced to aspects of self-regulation and autonomous learning. my revised boerkaert’s model with its new “emergent self-regulated learning” centre relates to the role of the teacher in introducing, modeling and teaching the skills and strategies needed by the pupil in order to develop as autonomous, self-regulated learners. grow (1991) charted the stages the teacher moves through from the centre of the revised boerkaert’s model (figure 2) to the outside layer as from authority coach through motivator and guide to consultant and delegator. the teacher explicitly teaches the skills and strategies required for the pupil to become more self-regulated acting like a coach. then as the pupil becomes more independent the teacher guides and motivates the pupil in their adoption and practice of these skills and strategies until the teacher withdraws further as they become more of the “guide on the side” as a consultant for the pupil when required as well as delegating more of the organisational tasks to the pupils themselves. the skill of the teacher lies in developing the pupils’ readiness for learning and openness to the learning opportunities. the teacher also needs to be able to gauge the individual learner’s development, knowing when to encourage and when to let the pupil lead. this relates to the www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 1, 2021 36 published by scholink inc. teacher training and continuous professional development, which is required to support the teacher. the pupils’ own self-awareness as to their effectiveness as learners, their creativity and their abilities to use problem solving are all scaffolded and encouraged by the autonomy supportive teacher. darby (2005) also highlighted the pivotal influence of the teacher with regard to pupil engagement. the autonomy-supportive teacher models self-regulatory practices for their pupils. they can also demonstrate how failures and mistakes can lead to learning. the teacher’s passion and excitement for their subject can be infectious, increasing motivation to learn for their pupils. if the pupils are excited to learn they will try out new strategies and experiment with their ideas more independently when they have the optimal environment created by their teacher. there has been some research into younger learners’ self-regulatory development, which outlines suggestions for supportive strategies and approaches. joyce and hipkins (2004) investigated children’s emergent self-regulatory learning skills in science lessons. they found that with the appropriate support year 1, 2 and 3 children (aged 5-8) demonstrated foundational aspects of self-regulated learning. the teachers planned a series of learning opportunities for the pupils, which started with free exploration, then modeling, structured investigation and independent investigation. the classroom environment reflected the optimum conditions for peer interactions by being socially supportive and intellectually challenging (fredricks et al., 2004). the developmental plan included plenty of time for discussion before and/or after the practical activities. the teachers outlined and discussed the learning objectives and success criteria making the objectives clear to the pupils. they modeled their thinking out loud as they demonstrated practical tasks and developed teacher questions and visual prompts to scaffold the children’s learning. with relation to recording, the teachers discovered that writing reflections took too long for the children and they utilised alternative recording formats using video/audio recording and children’s drawings to explain ideas. pino-pasternak et al. (2014) examined the interventions and classroom contexts, which promote self-regulated learning. the activities highlighted as supportive included collaborative learning, meaningful tasks which were authentic for the children, the encouragement of group decision-making and play. play was seen as the opportunity for children to rehearse strategies (whitbread, 2010, 2011). explicit instruction in strategy selection as well as goal setting is seen as vital, along with dialogic questioning and teaching the skills required for collaborative work. these collaborative skills include listening, helping and conflict management. scaffolding tasks and involving the pupils in self-assessment of their progress are also important aspects for self-regulation. a classroom ethos where mistakes are viewed as learning opportunities and children are encouraged to have positive feelings toward tackling challenging tasks is paramount as are the clear communication of expectations. these expectations should be co-constructed with the children to ensure their commitment and engagement. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 1, 2021 37 published by scholink inc. the education endowment foundation (eef) made recommendations in 2018 regarding metacognitive strategies, which are taught with subject specific content. these involve the pupils planning, monitoring and evaluating their learning. prior knowledge activation initiates a new topic where the pupils share their understanding and pose questions to explore. structured reflections and modelling strategies were included as well as making sure there was an appropriate level of challenge for all pupils. class dialogue and discussions are seen as building knowledge and understanding. pupils should be explicitly instructed as to how to organise and manage their learning. the seventh, and i would suggest the most important recommendation, highlighted the importance of professional development for teachers. this change in approach to teaching involves teachers in adopting or adapting pedagogy and examining their teaching philosophy. meyer (2010, p. 1) emphasised the importance of the role teachers play in developing self-regulated, independent learners. “pupils do not become effective independent learners by themselves. there is a well-documented repertoire of strategies teachers can use. this has significant implications for the training and development of teachers both in understanding their role and in deploying appropriate strategies for independent learning”. within teacher training the students need to be taught explicitly with regard to self-regulation with relation to the pupils they will eventually teach. existing teachers’ continuing professional development (cpd) could also include sessions on self-regulatory practice. 5. conclusion in this article boerkaert’s (1999) model of self-regulation has been adapted to include younger learners and to acknowledge the pivotal influence of the teacher on a pupil’s development of self-regulation. this adaptation of the model has developed from a research study, which originally focused on the curriculum as the main driver for the growth of self-regulatory practice in primary school. the results and analysis of the survey shifted the emphasis away from the curriculum to the teacher. in order for a pupil to develop as an autonomous, self-regulated learner they require the supportive scaffolding of their teacher as they increase in their understanding of how they learn and become aware of the skills and the strategies they can use in their learning. the development of a supportive learning environment is teacher directed but the teacher is not controlling, they are autonomy-supportive. this support involves explicit teaching and modelling of skills and strategies for the pupils to practice, developing goal setting and reflective practice in the classroom. teachers include prompts and cues in the classroom such as “working walls” to enable pupils to independently access the information to answer questions, check work or self assess their work through shared checklists for example. the inclusion of self-regulated learning in teacher training and teachers’ cpd is an important component in education. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 2, no. 1, 2021 38 published by scholink inc. the adapted model’s inclusion of an emergent self-regulated learning centre sees the model as developing outwards towards pupils’ independent self-regulation. the adapted model also highlights the role of the teacher in explicitly teaching the skills and strategies required for self-regulated learning. this article has also considered the importance of the learning environment but it is the effect of the teacher, who ignites the pupils’ development as self-regulated, independent learners and it is the pupil/teacher interaction that is vital and the teacher who is the key. 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(2002). becoming a self-regulated learner: an overview. theory into practice, 64-70. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15430421tip4102_2 https://doi.org/10.1207/s15326985ep2501_5 https://doi.org/10.1207/s15326985ep3602_4 https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.90.4.715 https://doi.org/10.7764/psykhe.23.2.739 https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-012109890-2/50043-3 https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.91.3.537 https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.57.5.749 https://doi.org/10.1207/s15326985ep3204_1 https://doi.org/10.1037/a0022777 https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.89.3.397 https://doi.org/10.1207/s15430421tip4102_2 frontiers of contemporary education issn 2690-3520 (print) issn 2690-3539 (online) vol. 5, no. 1, 2024 www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce 1 original paper large discussion groups’ impact on engagement and community jane costello 1 & linda e. rohr 2* 1 centre for innovation in teaching and learning, memorial university of newfoundland, st. john’s, nl, canada 2 faculty of human kinetics, university of windsor, windsor, ontario, canada * linda e. rohr, faculty of human kinetics, university of windsor, windsor, ontario, canada received: january 14, 2024 accepted: january 24, 2024 online published: february 5, 2024 doi:10.22158/fce.v5n1p1 url: http://dx.doi.org/10.22158/fce.v5n1p1 abstract to address the solitary nature of online learning, asynchronous micro discussion tools can be implemented to enrich students’ learning experiences by encouraging interaction among students, nurturing social presence, and facilitating community development. students’ experiences using an asynchronous micro discussion tool in online learning were investigated, with a focus on engagement in learning with peers, sense of community, and technology’s effectiveness. survey data was analyzed from two sections of an online introductory course from 458 postsecondary university students. as part of the course evaluation, students were asked to participate in three, intentionally designed discussions using an asynchronous micro discussion tool. in each instance, the discussion topic was tightly linked to course content, promoting collaborative, reflective learning. results indicated that while students felt that learning through asynchronous micro discussions was effective, they did not feel a strong sense of community using this method. however, students who experienced increased engagement also reported having a better understanding of the course material, fewer technological issues, and felt a stronger peer-to-peer connection. importantly, collaborative learning that increases engagement does not appear to be negatively influenced by large group size in higher education. given the prevalence of the online learning environment this is valuable course design information. keywords online learning, asynchronous micro discussion, engagement, community www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 5, no. 1, 2024 2 published by scholink inc. 1. introduction as the use of technology in post-secondary education for learning evolves, so too does the popularity of online learning (chen et al., 2018; jan & vlachopoulous, 2018; wang, 2019). while many students are opting to take online courses out of convenience, more courses are routinely offered exclusively online in response to market demands (jan & vlachopoulous, 2018; osborne et al., 2018). notably, covid-19 has dramatically altered learning environments, further elevating online learning as a common course delivery method (lockee, 2021). one residual outcome is high enrollment online courses. careful consideration of the pedagogical challenges of these high enrollment courses which, ultimately impacts student learning is needed. one such challenge is determining the best size of asynchronous discussion groups in high enrolment higher education courses which foster community, engagement and student learning. the literature points to contrasting views on the optional size of discussion groups. for some, small groups benefited from high instructor involvement, guided discussions, (chen et al., 2018; peddibholta & jani, 2019). in large group discussions, the presence of the instructor with structured discussions tended to stimy participation (chen et al., 2018). increased social presence, connection, feelings of community and engagement were found in smaller sized groups (akcaoglu & lee, 2016; qui & mcdougall, 2015). with a moderate group size of 30 and 38, respectively, chen and liu’s (2020) and lou et al.’s (2023) works revealed similar results. many online courses have higher enrolment rates of 60+ students. little research investigating the impact of large groups on student learning, engagement and community have been reported. this is an area our current work explored, with class sizes of 80 divided into groups of 80, 40 and 20 students. online learning offers many benefits to students. these range from flexibility of location and time, scheduling ease, access to courses at other institutions, an opportunity to review and reflect on discussion content, positive educational experiences, and overall strong assessment results and achievement (alzahrani, 2017; delahunty, 2018; koszalka et al., 2021; massey et al., 2019; niinivaara & vaattovaara, 2018; ronto et al., 2021; wang, 2019). facilitators should work toward establishing a collaborative learning space wherein frequent interaction, meaningful discussion and interactions among the group, and enforcement of guidelines such as respectful conduct (osborne et al., 2018) exist to promote a healthy online community that fosters student learning and success. saraja et al. (2018) recommend having a clear understanding of the interface and course structure. the intentional design of this collaborative learning space, routed in social constructivism vygotsky (1968, 1978), supports knowledge development of all users through socially meaningful interactions. additionally, akpan, igwe, mpamah and okoro (2020) suggest that this socially constructivist collaborative learning include opportunities for discussion and sharing among students. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 5, no. 1, 2024 3 published by scholink inc. 2. literature review careful pedagogical design considerations are needed to deliver a meaningfully successful online learning experience. three such considerations include providing and supporting a sense of community; opportunities for positive engagement in learning; and successful integration and use of technology for educational purposes (amry, 2018; jones-roberts, 2018). each of these elements is explored, as they form the foci of the work presented in this paper. 2.1 community community is a keystone aspect of online learning. community in online learning may be defined as connection, social interaction with peers, and feeling a sense of belonging and has been shown to positively influence success of student’s learning and outcome (jones-roberts, 2018). according to wang (2019), social interaction is “fundamental in human learning and development” (p. 114). delahunty (2018) reported that the quality of the educational experience increases when social interaction is promoted and supported, fostering a sense of belonging; furthermore, individuals who are actively engaged in discussion forums created a commitment to fostering community. chen et al. (2018) echo this, noting that the quality of social interactions and discussions influenced the strength of a course’s sense of community and ultimately, the level of student success. fostering community is a key component to a student’s academic success and ultimately meeting the learning outcomes behaviorally, cognitively and affectively (busselli et al., 2023; chen et al., 2018; galikyan & admiraal, 2019; jones-roberts, 2018; peddibhotla & jani, 2019; wang, 2019). a strong online community however provides a positive social presence, affirmatively impacting students’ motivation, engagement, participation, and overall success (jones-roberts, 2018). social presence is identifiable through connection, group cohesion, and good communication; characteristics linked to helping students experience a feeling of belonging (baisley-nodine et al., 2018). students who experience a higher feeling of social presence, authentically representing their personal identity to their peers, are more likely to contribute quality content to discussions, participate in higher-level thinking, and are less likely to drop their course (baisley-nodine et al., 2018; jones-roberts, 2018). social presence aids in countering feelings of loneliness or disconnectedness imposed by technology. like any learning environment, challenges may arise in online learning related to cultivating an environment that facilitates social interaction (jones-roberts, 2018; niinivaara & vaattovaara, 2018). amry (2018) suggested that a tool’s usability and students’ habits influence their perceptions of social presence, which correlates with their participation levels. strategies to support student’s improved academic performance and cultivate feelings of community include implementing an introductory post at the beginning of the course to help foster and encourage social presence, and holding regular, weekly, or bi-weekly discussions to provide opportunities for post-secondary students to express their personality to peers and learn about each other (jones-roberts, 2018). www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 5, no. 1, 2024 4 published by scholink inc. 2.2 engagement in learning student engagement is meaningful student involvement throughout the learning environment and learning process (coates, 2006; osborne et al., 2018). traditional learning environments often offer inadequate supportive opportunities for student engagement, potentially leading to feelings of isolation (amry, 2018). students in large classes can feel disengaged, hesitant to share in discussions, and are more likely to remain anonymous due to pressures and discomfort with class size (west et al., 2015). creating a space of unity and maintaining social and teacher presence, as well as being appropriately competent with the digital tools used (massey et al., 2019; niinivaara & vaattovaara, 2018) are meaningful ways to keep students engaged in the higher-education learning process. quality engagement fosters students’ development of belonging and a strengthened identity (delahunty, 2018; korhonen et al., 2019). this, in turn, may lead to feeling accepted, encouraged, and valued by both peers and instructors (delahunty, 2018; korhonen et al., 2019). ultimately, the online space allows all students to contribute to the learning environment, rather than only the most outspoken students (busselli, holdan & rota, 2023). further, better and improved quality of knowledge, career readiness, improved grades, as well as links to a better professional identity, overall well-being, a general satisfaction, and improved ethical qualities are also noted as positive outcomes of meaningful engagement (jones-roberts, 2018; korhonen et al., 2019; massey et al., 2019; osborne et al., 2018). osborne et al. (2018), investigating collaboration and participation among students and facilitators in discussion forums, noted many students posted the minimally required content or posted near the due date, hampering the opportunity for discussion and learning. these students suggested expectations for posts were not clearly communicated, contributing to poor assessment results, nor was it clear to these students how much opinion and personal reflection should be used versus academic literature. students suggested that assessing discussion posts was counter-intuitive to promoting organic discussion and they found it difficult to create conversation and meaningful discussion online. finally, students suggested having an instructor present hampered their ability to have candid discussions and suggested that smaller groups could better facilitate connection and meaningful discussion. for students to feel successful and to avoid ambiguity around expectations, facilitators must outline clear objectives and learning outcomes. work by peddibhotla and jani (2019) promoted using targeted, specific prompts and examples to encourage students to think at a higher level and contribute in-depth responses while engaging in quality discussion. facilitators should provide examples and model the qualities of a good post to set academic expectations and help students make well-informed judgements about their own and others’ posts. creating structure within the discussion helps increase quality of engagement and overall learning (sarja et al., 2018). there is an art to the facilitation of discussions, to finding the right balance of student autonomy versus interjection to help keep them on track. conflicting research appears in relation to the optimal size of discussion groups and amount of instructor interaction. peddibhotla and jani (2019) noted that participation increased in smaller groups when the instructor was more involved, helping guide a www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 5, no. 1, 2024 5 published by scholink inc. structured discussion. these guided small group discussions revealed a diverse sample of students with varying experience and points of view, contrary to general preconceptions. chen et al. (2018) concluded that high enrolment courses need small group-based discussions to help facilitate discussion in a more connected and meaningful way. in contrast, participation increased in larger groups when the facilitator was less engaged in guiding the discussion and there was less structure. the authors suggest that this was due to some individuals in a large group feeling motivated to take the lead in discussion (peddibhotla & jani, 2019). regardless of group size, peddibhotla and jani (2019) demonstrated that students found structured discussion to be the most engaging for their learning. these findings influenced our design of course discussions as things of which to be mindful. 2.3 asynchronous discussion technology a common form of knowledge sharing and building in online learning is through asynchronous discussion tools or forums. asynchronous discussions are a popular communication vehicle in online courses, across a wide variety of disciplines (tang & hew, 2017) as their flexibility helps facilitate stronger social interaction and overall learning (kurnaz et al., 2018) while providing ample time to respond to posts in a thoughtful, organized manner. discussion tools provide virtual community spaces for students to collaborate, share ideas and engage with one another, (galikyan & admiraal, 2019) while potentially reducing feelings of isolation (delahunty, 2018). additionally, their use has been shown to improve literacy skills, enhance learning and reflection, promote community, and facilitate exploratory learning (baisley-nodine et al., 2018; chen et al., 2018; osborne et al., 2018). discussion participation creates social presence, which foster feelings of belonging (baisley-nodine et al., 2018). increases in student belonging and engagement are positively correlated with student success (baisley-nodine et al., 2018). shy or insecure students often perform better in asynchronous discussion as they can express their thoughts without the stunning spotlight sensation (busselli et al., 2023; kurnaz et al., 2018; peddibhotla & jani, 2019) while having sufficient time to research appropriate responses. discussion tools afford active learning wherein students are encouraged to participate collaboratively and equally, ultimately making them more accountable as their work is captured in a digital record (alzahrani, 2017; peddibhotla & jani, 2019). opportunities for networking and creating other academic and professional connections is also a potential attraction. students are more in charge of their learning and report positive influences on their studies (amry, 2018) within flexible learning environments, such as discussion forums. discussion-based tools enable students to connect with instructors in a semi-formal manner, which, for some students, is appealing (ronto et al., 2021; west et al., 2015). allocating grades to discussions motivates students to engage with one another and the course material (osborne et al., 2018; wang, 2019). www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 5, no. 1, 2024 6 published by scholink inc. similar to regular discussion tools, micro discussions tools, like x (formerly twitter), help facilitate engagement through increased communication among all class members, collaboration with peers and engagement with course material (amry, 2018; osborne et al., 2018; rohr, costello & squires, 2023; rohr, squires & peters, 2022; west et al., 2015). this engagement allows students to share their knowledge by connecting the course material and real-world events while negotiating understanding and co-constructing knowledge with their peers (woods et al., 2023). micro discussion tools, which employ concise posts (a couple of sentences long), are often adopted in hopes of increasing student participation, supporting a communal learning environment, and promoting collaboration (kurnaz et al., 2018; tang & hew, 2017). since 2007 twitter has been one of the top user-friendly tools adopted by educators (tang & hew, 2017). from an academic perspective, the challenge of posting one’s thoughts within a tight character limit of 140 or 280 requires students to hone their critical thinking skills while focusing on the discussion topic. a similar experience may be achieved through other social networking or in-house discussion tools, configured with post length limits. in-house discussion tools see students communicating within controlled networks while maintaining a stronger degree of privacy than open micro discussion tools. this additional security fosters students’ comfort and connectedness to others within the course. asynchronous discussions present some challenges in higher education. the threads of conversations are sometimes difficult to navigate, as posts can be disjointed, disorganized, duplicated, and not directly related to the original thread. discussion forums may further divide stronger students from weaker students (chen et al., 2018). massey et al. (2019) suggests students may feel judged by their peers based on their thoughts and quality of their post. this is particularly true for international students who report feeling insecure when speaking in class due to language barriers (zhang & kenny, 2010). lurking behavior, wherein students read others’ posts but do not fully participate in discussions (alzahrani, 2017; delahunty, 2018), could also amplify this divide. such behavior can negatively affect discussion quality and others’ learning due to the reduced interaction between students. as with any educational technology, micro discussions may both positively and negatively impact student engagement and learning (charbonneau-gowdy & chavez, 2019; massey et al., 2019). while the 2017 increase in tweet characters from 140 to 280 provided learners more space to share their thoughts (rohr, costello & hawkins, 2018), it is not clear how group size impacts learners’ engagement and social presence when interacting through micro discussions. 2.3.1 group size it has been suggested that group size affects social presence and engagement in online learning (akcaoglu & lee, 2015; peddibhotla & jani, 2019; qui & mcdougall, 2015) where discussion forums and other collaborative asynchronous tools are integrated. peddibhotla and jani (2019) found that a structured discussion within a smaller group was more effective for supporting student engagement and learning, while a less structured discussion was more effective for a large group. qui and mcdougall (2015) suggest that students in larger groups do not participate or contribute as actively when compared www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 5, no. 1, 2024 7 published by scholink inc. to smaller groups. higher quality and more frequent posts were found to be associated with smaller sized groups, as well as increased demonstration of engagement and community (qui & mcdougall, 2015). akcaoglu and lee (2016) echoed that increased connection, social presence, and feelings of community were found in smaller groups. in a survey they gave to students regarding the small discussion group size, one student reported, “it was easier for them to get to know one another, engage in deeper conversations, and think more deeply” (p 11). more recently, chen and liu (2020) noted a similar pattern of engagement when group size was around 30 students. though, some may consider 30 to be a large discussion group size. 2.4 research focus in our study, we investigated whether group size affected students’ perceived learning, engagement and sense of community while using asynchronous micro discussions. we looked at survey results from three sections of a high enrolment first-year university course. with a focus on pedagogy, each section’s intentional course design and delivery were similar except for the teaching assistant assigned to each section and the members of the discussion groups, which were of different sizes, with 80, 40 or 20 students in each section. 3. methods 3.1 research model and procedure this research used survey data collected anonymously from postsecondary students enrolled in an introductory course at a comprehensive, mid-sized university in eastern canada over two semesters. although sought, it was determined by the interdisciplinary committee on ethics in human research (irb) that ethics clearance was not required for this evaluative project of an instructional intervention. the survey instrument was validated in a previous study (rohr, costello & hawkins, 2018; rohr, costello & squires, 2023). in fall 2019 and winter 2020, 234 and 224 undergraduate students, respectively, completed a first-year online course focused on fitness and wellness. this course is a popular elective, offering students an opportunity to explore factors that may influence overall wellness and learn to identify strategies to maintain and potentially improve their own health. 3.2 research context and sample although open to all undergraduate students, first year students, with limited prior online learning experience, typically register for this course. as students self-selected to register for all elective courses, our sample was one of convenience. for the purposes of management and organization, students self-selected one of three sections offered in each semester, each capped at 80 students. on average, students were 21.8 years of age with the majority of students identifying as first or third year. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 5, no. 1, 2024 8 published by scholink inc. to explore the impact of cohort size on engagement and social presence, sections of the courses were organized in varying group sizes using the learning management system (lms) supported by the university. one section remained as a cohort of 80 students (g80), another was separated into two groups of 40 students (g40), and the final section into four groups of 20 students (g20). this grouping was always indiscernible to students. the students were auto assigned to the groups using features of the lms. as part of the course requirements, students were asked to complete three discussion events, scheduled during weeks 6, 10 and 12 of each semester. the asynchronous micro discussion tool was developed in-house and was designed to emulate the experience of a twitter chat. the tool was pilot-tested for its usability with experienced and unexperienced microbloggers. refinements were made to it prior to deployment in the course. the tool was embedded in the course home page and secured within the lms. unlike twitter, the discussions were closed to anyone not enrolled in the course. each of the three discussion events had a topic or question to which students were required to first, complete an original post, and second, complete a response post to a comment made by another student in their group. students were free to contribute more to the discussions if desired. students were required to type their posts in a designated area and submit for group members to review, effectively limiting the discussions to their respective groups of 80, 40 or 20 peers. events were graded using the same rubric for consistency and provision of expectations. students received instructions on how to use the tool and the university learning support help desk provided assistance as requested. topics for the three discussion events were tightly linked to course content following work of (rohr, costello & hawkins, 2015). the first event asked students to comment on the results of a student-completed survey that explored students’ relationships with different aspects of wellness. survey aggregate data was posted, and students were specifically asked to link survey results to course content to complete their assignment. in the second discussion event, students were asked to share a recent (12-month-old or less) news story, related to course concepts of health and wellness. students were asked to reflect critically on the news source and again link the story to course materials in their post. for the final discussion event, students were asked to reflect on the information they had learned from both monitoring their mood throughout the semester and reviewing course material. specifically, students were asked to comment on how daily life events and daily routines effected their mood and to highlight any activities or thought processes, or both, that have positively impacted their mood. students were also encouraged to share tips for improving mental health and wellbeing or comment on things to be aware of when observing friends and family members’ low moods, or both. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 5, no. 1, 2024 9 published by scholink inc. 3.3 instrument used an anonymous survey was administered in the final two weeks of each semester, through the lms’s survey tool to all three course sections. the questions were developed based on existing literature, our research questions, and our earlier work on engagement in online learning environments (rohr, costello & hawkins, 2018; rohr, costello & squires, 2023; rohr, squires & peters, 2022). all students were invited to complete the 24-question survey, containing almost exclusively close-ended questions, with one final open-ended comment question. the primary focus of the survey was to assess students’ experiences with the asynchronous micro discussion tool during the semester: did students use the tool? did the asynchronous micro discussion tool encourage interactions and engagement in learning, and did it contribute to a sense of community in the online environment? 3.4 data analysis the post-semester survey covered a range of topics including feelings of belonging, sense of community, engagement in learning, and the use of the discussion technology. the results from two course offerings (six sections) are combined and presented here. for each of the areas under investigation, community, engagement in learning, and technology, the results are presented in tabular format, per section. novel or key findings are highlighted. student responses to the open-ended question are also presented, where novel or contradictory to the close-ended questions’ responses were found. 4. results survey responses were received from 185 students, out of a possible 458; 99 from the fall semester and 86 from the winter. this equates to a 40.4% response rate. from fall 2019 responses received per section were 26 from g80, 41 from g40 and 32 from g20. winter 2020 received 26 from g80, 31 from g40, and 29 from g20. although it was embedded in the course requirements, not all students participated in all three discussion events (g80, 74%; g40, 61%; and g20, 50%), with two out of three events being the next highly reported (g80, 18%; g40, 28%; and g20, 30%). no details about student’s ethnicity, gender identity or other demographic information was available or requested. 4.1 community three survey questions focused on students’ perceptions of the sense of community stemming from their interactions within the discussion tool found in their respective sections. results of these questions are shown in table 1. some findings of note are discussed here. in response to the question regarding feeling a sense of community, g80 reported the highest result for feeling “really connected”, and feeling “connected with a few individuals”, compared to g40 and g20. fewer respondents indicated they did not feel connected to their classmates, but it would have been nice to feel connection when compared to those who felt some degree of connection. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 5, no. 1, 2024 10 published by scholink inc. when students were asked how the discussion tool use compared to other online courses in terms a creating a sense of community and belonging, the results were similar across the groups. while some students reported feeling more connected in this course, most students across all three sections reported feeling the same degree of connectedness in this course as others. small percentages, (g80, 6%; g40, 21%; and g20, 22%), reported feeling less connected in this course than other online courses. students were asked if they felt the use of the discussion tool helped bring them closer to their classmates. the majority (see table 1) responded “no”. however, the written feedback reflected some positive experiences. one student responded, “i feel that the discussion events in […] allowed us students, as a class, to connect with one another and gave us a place to share our thoughts and opinions about the course material.” (student p) table 1. percentages of responses regarding sense of community question focus options provided g80 g40 g20 feeling a sense of community as a result of the discussion tool use really connected 20 14 19 feeling connected with a few individuals 43 27 24 did not feel connected to their classmates but it would have been nice 24 31 36 means to an end-communications and grades, period 14 27 22 how the discussion tool compares to other online courses in terms a creating a sense of community and belonging more connected 22 23 25 the same degree of connectedness 57 40 44 feeling less connected 6 21 22 not applicable 16 16 8 use of the discussion tool helped bring them closer to their classmates yes 49 42 39 no 51 58 61 www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 5, no. 1, 2024 11 published by scholink inc. 4.2 engagement in learning seven survey questions focused on students’ experience of engagement in learning. the results, shown in table 2, show combined responses for strongly agree and agree, or strongly disagree and disagree. overall, in terms of learning and understanding the course material, students reported gaining a stronger understanding of course material using the discussion tool. when asked whether the discussion events enhanced understanding of the course material, most students strongly agreed or agreed (g80, 88%; g40, 64%; g20, 74%). while some students indicated they hoped they did not have to use the tool in another course, others indicated they wished more classes would integrate the discussion tool into course activities (g80, 64%; g40, 56%; and g20, 63%). students were in favor of using the discussion tool as part of the course requirements (evaluation) with results (g80, 69%; g40, 54%; and g20, 64%) showing agreement. students agreed the discussion events required a reasonable effort for the value of the assigned grade (g80, 82%; g40, 85%; and g20, 80%). further, students indicated the discussion tool helped them engage more with real life examples and strongly agreed that the discussion event encouraged them to read the news and learn about current events in a way that they would not have otherwise (g80, 81%; g40, 67%, and g20, 67%). one student responded, “it created an informal environment to comfortably share thoughts and feelings as they related to course material.” (student r) discussion events were one aspect of assessment in the course. students were asked how these events compared to in-class assignments in terms of workload. though marginally, most students selected “less work” (g80, 62%; g40, 48%; and g20, 50%). another student commented, “this was my first experience with this type of discussion tool and i really, really enjoyed it! i hope this type of tool is added to other online courses!!” (student e) www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 5, no. 1, 2024 12 published by scholink inc. table 2. percentages of responses regarding engagement in learning question focus options provided g80 g40 g20 if the discussion events enhanced understanding of the course material agree 88 64 74 disagree 12 36 26 if they would like to have other courses use the discussion in course activities agree 64 56 62 disagree 36 44 38 if they hoped they did not have to use the tool in another course agree 31 45 46 disagree 69 55 54 use of the tool helped them to understand the course material better agree 88 65 71 disagree 12 35 29 encouraged them to read the news and current events more actively agree 81 67 67 disagree 19 33 33 discussion events required a reasonable effort for value of assignment grade agree 82 85 80 disagree 18 15 20 how discussion events compared to in-class assignments more work 0 4 7 about the same 30 39 32 less work 62 48 50 i don’t know 8 23 8 4.3 asynchronous discussion technology four questions focused on students’ experience in using the discussion tool. the results are shown in table 3. some findings of note follow. most students in each group agreed or strongly agreed that the discussion was a straightforward way to use information learned from class (g80, 92%; g40, 75%; and g20, 81%). students’ thoughts on whether more classes should integrate discussions into course evaluations indicated high levels of agreement (g80, 69%; g40, 54%; g20, 64%). when compared to use of discussion forums in other online courses, students liked the discussion tool better or about the same (g80, 30%; g40, 43%; and g20, 38%). however, one-fifth, to one-quarter of the students could not say, as they had not participated in asynchronous discussions in other courses (g80, 8%; g40, 23%; and g20, 8%). when asked about communication challenges with the discussion tool, few students reported trouble with communicating through the tool. some students reported having technological issues such as with hardware or their computer while other students reported having issues using the tool due to inexperience. in all groups, students identified “not having enough characters to express their thoughts” as the main issue in using the discussion tool (g80, 39%; g40, 38%; g20, 31%). www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 5, no. 1, 2024 13 published by scholink inc. when asked to select responses from a list of 12 options provided in relation to what they felt the discussion provided, students top responses included: interaction with classmates (g80, 12%; g40, 15%; and g20, 13%), engagement with real-life examples (g80, 12%; g40, 14%; and g20, 13%), engagement with course material (g80, 12%; g40, 11%; and g20, 11%), a way to show my understanding of course material (g80, 13%; g40, 11%; and g20, 12%), and greater course participation (g80, 11%; g40, 10%; and g20, 11%). responses to both interaction with the course instructor and the course did not promote any interaction were selected two percent or less of the time in all sections. students were asked an open-ended question to provide final feedback on their experience with the discussion tool. the comments were broken down into themes, of which 12 were identified. g20 students reported the most trouble with technology (g80, 25%; g40, 24%; and g20, 39%). one student’s response in relation to technological difficulties was, “i feel that it is a good concept, however, the technology used for it could have been better. sometimes it can be slow, glitchy, and difficult to post. i only tried it on my laptop but i feel that it would likely be more difficult on a cell phone, if someone had to do that.” (student k) other suggestions noted by the g20 students included: the character limit was too small, they received a poor grade, they had difficulty finding the tool, and that notifications could be helpful. g80, the larger group size, reported having a good experience with no major issues (45%), whereas notably fewer students in the other two, smaller group-sized sections (g40, 22%; and g20, 6%) reported having a good experience with no major issues. in relation to the word count, one student’s feedback was, “the character limit did help in writing critically; however, it took me a great deal of time to try to word my post in fewer words while still getting my message across. i would spend a few hours just trying to refine my post, which makes me feel like perhaps they should be worth more.” (student n) www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 5, no. 1, 2024 14 published by scholink inc. table 3. percentages of responses regarding technology used question focus options provided g80 g40 g20 wish more classes would integrate discussions in course evaluation agree 69 54 64 disagree 21 46 36 events were a straightforward method to use information gained in class agree 92 75 81 disagree 8 25 19 sorts of issues, if any, experienced when using the discussion tool for the course i had no issues. 27 14 21 i had issues with the character limitation of the discussion tool 39 38 31 i had software issues (first time using the discussion tool, etc.) 14 28 26 i had technology issues (hardware, computers, phone, etc.) 20 20 23 how discussion event compared to discussion forums in other online courses i like them better than discussion forum activities 35 31 24 i like them about the same than discussion forum activities 25 24 22 i like them less than discussion forum activities 14 24 36 i cannot say as i’ve never used the discussion forum in a course before 25 20 19 5. discussion participation among students is central to building connection in the online learning environment. palloff and pratt (1999) state, “without the support and participation of a learning community, there is no online course” (p. 29). in terms of engagement, community, and tool usability, the largest group, g80, responded more favorably, though not substantially so, in the majority of categories including feeling more connected to classmates, having fewer issues with the technology, and gaining a better understanding the course material. interestingly, this contrasts chen et al. (2018) who suggest smaller groups help facilitate discussion among students and peddibhotla and jani (2019) who demonstrated that larger and therefore, more unstructured groups were supportive of learning outcomes, but not necessarily student engagement or building community. interestingly however, luo et al. (2023) noted group sizes of approximately 38 students demonstrated enhanced student interaction compared to groups with three students. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 5, no. 1, 2024 15 published by scholink inc. while many of our results mirror others (amry, 2018; baisley-nodine et al., 2018; delahunty, 2018; jones-roberts, 2018; lou et al., 2023; massey et al., 2018; osborne et al., 2018; west et al., 2015), a few were in notable contrast (akcaoglua & lee, 2016; chen et al., 2018; peddibhotla & jani, 2019; qui & mcdougal, 2015). the discussion section is organized by the three primary points of interest: community, engagement in learning, and technology. 5.1 community classroom and community connection received roughly half the responses to questions relating to community and connection, with feeling connected to other students being a top theme. this may be due to students’ interpretation of the term posed in the question; “interaction” versus “connection”. it is important to note the difference between “community”, and “engagement”, as students can be engaged and continue to learn, but not necessarily feel part of a community, or vice versa. students felt the online discussion tool promoted interaction between peers, but not with instructors. although the instructor accessed the discussion forum and was able to interact, there was very limited instructor contribution to the micro discussion. intentional instructor interaction may be a key for community building (chen et al., 2018). furthermore, peddibhotla and jani (2019) demonstrated that larger and therefore, more unstructured groups were supportive of learning outcomes, but not necessarily student engagement or building community. sixty-one percent of students in g20 responded “no”, when asked if the discussion tool brought them closer to their classmates. this aligns with luo et al. (2023) who found that group sizes of approximately 38 students demonstrated enhanced student interaction compared to groups with three students. however, when asked what value the discussions provided, students indicated interaction with classmates (g80, 12%; g40, 15%; and g20, 13%). these findings are in alignment with most of the literature (baisley-nodine et al., 2018; delahunty, 2018; jones-roberts, 2018; kurnaz et al., 2018; west et al., 2015) that explores social connection and asynchronous discussions. our results reinforce that the technological piece worked well; students were able to use the tool effectively, learn the course content and interact with one another. where the data showed lower values was how the asynchronous micro discussion tool supported and influenced a sense of community among students. it has been generally supported that discussions enhance feelings of community and connection among students (delahunty, 2018; jones-roberts, 2018; wang, 2019), however, this was not reflected in our results. when compared to other online courses students undertook at this university, it was found that most students in all groups experienced approximately the same level of connectedness as within this course. further exploration of the type and amount of interaction may reveal more about the sense and strength of community in a higher education online course. this is an area of potential further research. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 5, no. 1, 2024 16 published by scholink inc. 5.2 engagement in learning overall, in terms of learning and comprehending course material, students reported feeling they gained a stronger understanding of course concepts through use of the discussion tool, similar to alzahrani (2017). other researchers echoed this (chen et al., 2018; massey et al., 2019; west et al., 2015), by demonstrating that participation in online discussion tools enhanced learning and understanding of course material. students in g80 indicated that the discussion tool provided greater course participation, overall, aligning with amry (2018) who suggests that discussion tools can help enhance students’ learning through self-guided and self-motivated research and interaction, as well as a flexible learning environment that encourages students to take responsibility of their learning experience. this strategy was reflected in the course’s learning design. similarly, massey et al. (2019) found that students who participated in discussions felt encouraged to engage with peers as well as the material; resulting in enhanced interactions among peers and learning. previous literature reported similar results (baisley-nodine et al., 2018; delahunty, 2018; korhonen et al., 2019; west et al., 2015). to increase engagement further, and to provide a better understanding of course outcomes, using a rubric and providing clear descriptions of assessment requirements when using an online discussion tool are needed for students to fully understand expectations (massey et al., 2019); both of which were incorporated into this course’s design. 5.3 asynchronous discussion technology students in all sections reported having varying degrees of technological difficulty, with significantly more complaints related to technological issues from the smallest group, g20 (39%). we are unable to explain this finding as group assignments were randomized by the lms. additionally, the survey did not define “difficulty with technology” which could have included challenges resulting from their devices, poor browser choice, the lms or something else entirely. in their work, niinivaara and vaattovaara (2018) investigated technological challenges with discussion tools and confirmed students’ concerns included poor usability and a lack of tool understanding. both complaints surfaced from students in all sections of the courses we investigated. similarly, massey et al. (2019) found students’ uncertainty around discussion tool use fostered disengagement, primarily due to lack of understanding or technological knowledge, as well as privacy concerns of the platform. they suggested tutorials might be an effective way to help bridge this gap for many students. while we provided instructions on how to use the discussion tools in the events, it is possible that some students did not refer to them when they encountered technological challenges. many responses from our students, in all groups, voiced frustrations or concerns with the shorter character limit imposed with the discussion tool (280 characters), stating they were unable to fully express their thoughts and ideas with this constraint. some students suggested using multiple posts to enhance communication, aligning with tang and hew (2017) where students reported the 140-character limit was too short, limiting their opportunity to create in-depth posts and therefore www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 5, no. 1, 2024 17 published by scholink inc. leading to misinterpretations and poor communication. based on our data it is difficult to suggest an optimal character limit for micro discussion posts. further inquiry about the specifics of character length optimization may be an area of future study. 5.4 implications the implications of this study relate to how asynchronous micro discussions are used in high enrolment undergraduate courses. consideration for carefully designed intentional learning activities and assessments in a course’s design is paramount. discussions need to be driven by the course learning outcomes. micro discussions may be a way to increase and maintain connection, build community and foster engagement in learning. smaller discussion groups respond well to structured discussions that involve instructor interaction. when larger groups are used for discussions, they should be loosely structured. here, the instructor should take on a primarily observer role, interjecting to keep the discussion on track or clarify misunderstandings. clear explanations of activities and expectations of participation, including assessment grading, must be explicitly stated. selection of asynchronous discussion technologies should take into consideration the affordances the technology offers and desire to use an open or public tool versus a restricted or course-only discussion space. consideration of the value of restricting students’ responses versus the development of critical thinking skills and disposition should be weighed. potential rewards for thoughtful course design may reveal students who take responsibility for their learning, engagement in real-world activities, and provide opportunities for students to hone critical thinking through data analysis, introspection and concise reporting of results. 5.5 limitations and future research one limitation relates to the lack of demographic data gathered from participants. convenience sampling was used wherein all students enrolled in the course were invited to participate in the survey. as we did not collect details about student’s ethnicity, gender identity or other demographic information, we were unable to analyze our results in relation to any of these factors. by consequence, without additional demographic data, we are restricted from generalizing the results beyond the introductory, online, high enrolment post-secondary environment. however, our focus did not include differentiating results based on demographic information, so its absence is less significant in this reporting. as the world evolves in its understanding of gender, it begs the question of whether bi-lateral gender-related differences in research remain relevant. potential future research could focus on interaction type and community and character limits. for example, the relationship between interaction type in asynchronous micro discussions and its connection or prediction about the sense and strength of community in adult learning online courses is of interest. here, students felt more engaged in their learning and connected to their peers, but did not feel a strong sense of community. therefore, the relationship between community and engagement needs further exploration. distinguishing between connection, cohesion and community could be explored more fully to determine which aspect is most at play in micro discussions and which more closely influences engagement in learning. another area needing more study is determining the optimal www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 5, no. 1, 2024 18 published by scholink inc. group size to build community and provide engaged learning when using asynchronous micro discussions in online courses. this is an area which hails varying results in the literature. in other words, how small does a discussion group need to be to foster a sense of community while strengthening student engagement in learning? to this could be added the question of how frequent and of what nature should the group interaction be to best foster community. 6. conclusion this paper reported on a comparison of three course sections over two semesters, each with different discussion group sizes to determine whether and how asynchronous micro discussions affected students’ sense of community and engagement in learning in an introductory university course. findings echoed others’ results relating to the impact of group size on sense of community, engagement in learning and use of asynchronous discussions in higher education (qui & mcdougall, 2015; luo et al., 2023). a notable result, little reported in the literature, was that our data reinforced that larger groups. in this instance a group size of 80 students, had the greatest positive impact on community and engagement compared to the smaller groups. regardless of discussion tool type, be it a typical discussion forum with 300+ characters or a micro discussion tool with lower character limits (140 or 280+), student experiences are generally similar. these experiences ranged from enjoying and finding the activity interesting; technical issues that impeded discussion; the need for clear expectations to improve the likelihood of successful, appreciation of engaging discussion and co-creation of knowledge; and to the need to share of oneself and engage in supportive interaction with peers to foster a positive sense of belonging (connection) and community. these results emphasize the importance of pedagogical or instructional (learning) design, including clear instructions and expectations, degree of instructor participation in active discussions, mechanisms that foster student responsibility for their learning through active participation and collaboration, and learning to reflect on the opinions of others in micro discussions. overall, the asynchronous micro discussion tool was generally effective in facilitating student interaction and engagement with course material in large groups. while students felt more engaged with and connected to their peers this did not, however, translate into a strong sense of community. it may be reasonable to say that community was burgeoning. larger sized groups with structured activity and minimal instructor interaction seemed to exhibit stronger engagement in learning. www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce frontiers of contemporary education vol. 5, no. 1, 2024 19 published by scholink inc. references akcaoglu, m., & lee, e. 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