


































Frontiers of Contemporary Education 
ISSN 2690-3520 (Print) ISSN 2690-3539 (Online) 

Vol. 6, No. 1, 2025 

www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/fce 

44 
 

Original Paper 

Women in Leadership and Organisational Change in Sport: A 

Critical and Intersectional Review 

Prof Ruth Forrest
1*

 & Prof Vincent English
1
 

1
 Longford International College, Ireland  

*
 Prof Ruth Forrest, E-mail: ruth.forrest@longfordcollege.com 

 

Received: November 7, 2025  Accepted: November 17, 2025   Online Published: December 3, 2025 

doi:10.22158/fce.v6n1p44              URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.22158/fce.v6n1p44 

 

Abstract 

The underrepresentation of women in leadership positions within the global sport industry remains a 

persistent and deeply entrenched challenge, despite decades of advocacy and the growing commercial 

and cultural prominence of women’s sport. This critical and intersectional review synthesises 

contemporary theoretical frameworks and empirical research to examine the complex dynamics of 

gender, power, and organisational change in sport. The review interrogates three established 

theoretical perspectives—transformational leadership, gendered organisations, and institutional 

change—and integrates intersectionality as a vital fourth lens to illuminate the diverse and 

compounded barriers faced by women from different backgrounds. The analysis demonstrates that 

women leaders are not merely subjects of exclusion but are active agents of organisational renewal, 

frequently introducing relational, ethical, and inclusive approaches that challenge entrenched 

hierarchies and foster adaptive change. However, their transformative potential is systematically 

constrained by structural barriers, cultural resistance, and the persistence of masculine-coded 

leadership ideals. Drawing on recent research, including studies on higher education pathways and 

leadership development programmes, this review formulates a set of evidence-based recommendations 

for sport organisations, higher education institutions, and aspiring women leaders. It concludes by 

proposing a multi-level model for transformative change that emphasises the need for simultaneous 

and coordinated action at the individual, organisational, and institutional levels to achieve genuine 

gender equity in sports leadership. 

Keywords 

women in sport, leadership, organisational change, gender equity, intersectionality, transformational 

leadership, higher education 

 



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1. Introduction 

1.1 Background and Rationale 

The leadership landscape within global sport remains a domain where gender inequality is profoundly 

entrenched. Despite decades of advocacy and the growing commercial and cultural visibility of 

women’s sport, women consistently occupy a minority of senior executive, coaching, and governance 

positions. As of 2024, despite significant progress in some areas, such as the International Olympic 

Committee (IOC) achieving a 40.6% female membership, the broader picture reveals persistent 

underrepresentation (Gerasimuk, D., 2025, pp. 1-15). This disparity is not merely a matter of numbers; 

it is a manifestation of what Acker (1990) termed the “gendered substructure” of organisations, where 

norms, values, and practices implicitly privilege masculinity as the default template for authority 

(Acker, J., 1990, pp. 139-158). This is particularly acute in the context of sport, where entrenched 

historical assumptions often associate effective leadership with masculine-coded traits such as 

competitiveness, control, and aggression (Burton, L. J., & LaVoi, N. M., 2021, pp. 405-417). 

However, the narrative is shifting. The global sport industry is undergoing a period of unprecedented 

commercial growth and cultural reappraisal, with women’s sport at the forefront of this transformation. 

Projections indicate that revenue for women’s sports, having surpassed $1 billion for the first time in 

2024, is on a trajectory to reach $2.5 billion by 2030 (Forbes, 2025, October 22). This economic boom, 

coupled with a series of high-profile governance and ethical crises in men’s sport, has created a 

powerful impetus for organisational change. In this context, the inclusion of diverse leadership voices 

is no longer viewed solely as a moral imperative but as a strategic necessity for institutional renewal, 

enhanced decision-making, and sustainable growth (Deloitte., 2025). 

This review problematizes the definition of “organisational change.” A central question is whether 

successful change is constituted merely by an increase in the number of women in leadership 

positions—an incremental change—or if it requires a more fundamental, transformative shift in power 

dynamics, organizational culture, and institutional structures (OECD, 2022, May 30). While the former 

is a necessary and visible metric of progress, this paper argues that a deeper, more sustainable change 

involves dismantling the very systems and norms that have historically excluded women and other 

marginalized groups. This transformative approach challenges the status quo, redefines leadership itself, 

and fosters a more equitable and inclusive environment for all (Utting, P., n.d.). 

Recent scholarship increasingly positions women not merely as subjects of exclusion but as active 

agents of transformation capable of reshaping organisational cultures. Women leaders often introduce 

relational, ethical, and inclusive approaches to governance, actively challenging the historical 

hierarchies that have normalised exclusion (Eagly, A. H., & Carli, L. L., 2018). Their leadership styles 

frequently foster reflective and participatory management practices that align with the principles of 

organisational learning and adaptive change (Argyris, C., & Schön, D. A., 1996). This paper, therefore, 

extends the discourse from one of access to one of impact, exploring not only the barriers that women 

face in attaining leadership positions but, more importantly, how their leadership actively shapes 



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organisational ethos, performance, and the very definition of what it means to lead in the 21st-century 

sport industry. 

1.2 Aim and Objectives 

The aim of this review is to critically evaluate and synthesise the existing literature on the role of 

women as agents of organisational change within the global sport industry, with a particular focus on 

the intersectional nature of their experiences and the pathways to leadership. Its specific objectives are: 

• To examine the key theoretical frameworks that explain the complex relationship between gender, 

leadership, and organisational transformation in sport, incorporating a critical perspective on their 

limitations. 

• To critically analyse the empirical research on women’s influence on organisational culture, 

ethics, and governance, specifically interrogating the role of stereotypes, the paradox of relational 

leadership, and the strategic use of emotional intelligence. 

• To integrate the concept of intersectionality as a core analytical lens to understand the varied 

experiences and compounded barriers faced by women from diverse backgrounds in their pursuit 

of leadership roles. 

• To investigate the role of higher education and formal leadership development programmes in 

shaping women’s leadership trajectories and to identify best practices for supporting aspiring 

female leaders. 

• To identify the key structural, cultural, and systemic barriers that impede female-led change and 

to analyse the forms of resistance that women leaders encounter. 

• To formulate a set of evidence-based recommendations for practice for sport organisations, 

higher education institutions, and aspiring women leaders to foster a more equitable and inclusive 

leadership landscape. 

• To propose a multi-level model for transformative change that outlines how individual, 

organisational, and institutional actions can collectively advance women in sports leadership. 

1.3 Methodological Approach 

This review adopts a critical, integrative approach to synthesise a diverse body of knowledge on 

women, leadership, and organisational change in sport (Snyder, H., 2019, pp. 333-339). The 

methodology is designed to move beyond a simple aggregation of findings to construct a coherent and 

critical understanding of the phenomenon. The review encompasses both theoretical and empirical 

research, drawing from a wide range of academic disciplines, including sport management, sociology, 

gender studies, and organisational behaviour. To ensure the contemporary relevance of the analysis, the 

literature search prioritised publications from 2015 to 2025, while also incorporating foundational texts 

and seminal works that have shaped the field. In addition to peer-reviewed academic journals, this 

review also incorporates industry reports, white papers, and publications from leading sport 

organisations and think tanks to provide a more holistic and practice-oriented perspective. A critical 

lens was applied throughout the review process, evaluating not only the findings of the research but 



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also its methodological robustness, theoretical coherence, and underlying assumptions. The review 

prioritises scholarship that contributes to a nuanced understanding of how women influence and enact 

organisational reform, moving beyond purely descriptive accounts of underrepresentation to an analysis 

of agency, impact, and the complex dynamics of power. 

 

2. Theoretical Frameworks: Critical Interrogation and Integration 

To comprehend the multifaceted challenges and opportunities for women in sports leadership, it is 

essential to draw upon a range of theoretical frameworks. This section critically interrogates three 

established theories—Transformational Leadership, Gendered Organisations, and Institutional 

Change—and introduces intersectionality as a vital fourth lens. By integrating these perspectives, a 

more robust and nuanced understanding of the dynamics of gender, power, and organisational change 

in sport can be achieved. 

2.1 Transformational Leadership Theory: The Stereotype Trap 

Transformational leadership theory, as articulated by Bass and Riggio (2006), provides a foundational 

lens for understanding effective leadership (Bass, B. M., & Riggio, R. E., 2006). It distinguishes itself 

from transactional leadership, which focuses on rewards and punishments, by emphasising behaviours 

that inspire and motivate followers to achieve extraordinary outcomes. The core components of 

transformational leadership—idealised influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, and 

individualised consideration—are often associated with relational, empathetic, and collaborative 

approaches. A significant body of research suggests that women are more likely than men to adopt 

these transformational behaviours, fostering environments of trust, psychological safety, and open 

communication (Burton, L. J., & LaVoi, N. M., 2021, pp. 405-417; Eagly, A. H., & Carli, L. L., 2018). 

However, the application of this theory to women in sport leadership requires critical scrutiny due to a 

pervasive stereotype threat. Attributing “transformational” traits to women risks reinforcing essentialist 

gender stereotypes that cast women’s leadership as inherently nurturing or emotionally intelligent, a 

phenomenon often referred to as the “double bind” or the “think manager-think male” paradigm (Hoyt, 

C. L., & Murphy, S. E., 2016, pp. 387-399). This can subtly devalue other crucial leadership qualities, 

such as assertiveness, strategic decision-making, and financial acumen, which are also essential for 

executive roles but are traditionally coded as masculine. As Fink (2016) observes, even the most 

visionary female leaders operate within sport organisations that are sites of institutionalised masculinity 

and structural resistance, a reality that the transformational framework often underrepresents (Fink, J. 

S., 2016, pp. 176-188). The challenge, therefore, is to acknowledge the strategic strengths of relational 

leadership styles without essentialising them as innate feminine traits or overlooking the structural and 

political dimensions of power that women must navigate. 

 

 

 



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2.2 Gendered Organisations Theory: Systemic Inequality 

Joan Acker’s (1990) gendered organisations theory provides a powerful corrective to individualistic 

leadership theories by positing that gender is not an external variable but is fundamentally embedded in 

the very fabric of organisational life (Acker, J., 1990, pp. 139-158). Acker argues that organisations are 

not gender-neutral entities; rather, their structures, processes, hierarchies, and cultural norms are 

constructed in ways that reflect and reproduce gendered power relations. In the context of sport, this 

manifests through the valorisation of masculine-coded traits such as aggression, dominance, and a 

win-at-all-costs mentality, which are often presented as the natural and necessary attributes of effective 

leadership (Adriaanse, J. A., & Claringbould, I., 2016, pp. 547-564). This creates a form of “symbolic 

violence” (Bourdieu, P., 1991), subtly marginalising women and devaluing feminine-coded traits, even 

in the presence of formal equality policies. Inequality is thus reproduced not merely by individual bias 

but by the impersonal and seemingly rational systems of the organisation itself, including recruitment 

and promotion criteria, informal social networks (the “old boys’ club”), and the unequal distribution of 

resources and opportunities (Chu, J., Leberman, S., & Taylor, T., 2022, pp. 789-802). 

While Acker’s framework is indispensable for illuminating the systemic and often invisible nature of 

gender inequality, critics have argued that it can be overly deterministic, offering limited insight into 

the possibilities for agency, resistance, and transformation (Britton, D. M., 2017, pp. 5-27). An 

over-reliance on a binary gender analysis can also obscure the reality that women’s experiences of 

leadership are not monolithic. The ways in which gender intersects with other dimensions of identity, 

such as race, class, sexuality, and disability, create vastly different experiences of marginalisation and 

opportunity. This highlights the need to move beyond a singular focus on gender and to adopt a more 

intersectional approach to understanding power and inequality in sport organisations. 

2.3 Institutional Change and Organisational Learning 

Institutional theory, particularly the work of DiMaggio and Powell (1983) on institutional isomorphism, 

helps to explain the persistence of gender inequality in sport organisations, even in the face of 

mounting pressure to change (DiMaggio, P. J., & Powell, W. W., 1983, pp. 147-160). They identify 

three mechanisms through which organisations come to resemble one another: coercive isomorphism 

(resulting from pressure from other organisations and the legal environment), mimetic isomorphism 

(resulting from organisations imitating others that they perceive as successful or legitimate), and 

normative isomorphism (resulting from professionalisation and the influence of shared norms and 

values). In the context of gender equity, many sport organisations adopt policies such as gender quotas 

or diversity statements due to coercive or mimetic pressures, leading to a form of “paper compliance” 

or “performative legitimacy” where the organisation adopts the superficial appearance of change 

without genuinely altering its underlying culture or power structures (Adriaanse, J. A., & Claringbould, 

I., 2016, pp. 547-564; Adriaanse, J. A., 2022, pp. 1-20). Women leaders can play a crucial role in 

driving deeper, normative change by challenging existing assumptions and modelling new values and 

behaviours from within. 



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This is where organisational learning theory, particularly the concepts of “single-loop” and 

“double-loop” learning developed by Argyris and Schön (1996), becomes highly relevant (Argyris, C., 

& Schön, D. A., 1996). Single-loop learning involves correcting errors and improving performance 

within the existing framework of assumptions and values. Double-loop learning, in contrast, involves 

questioning and transforming the underlying assumptions and values themselves. Women leaders, with 

their often more relational and reflective approaches, can act as catalysts for double-loop learning, 

creating the conditions for a deeper cultural transformation. By fostering psychological safety, 

encouraging open dialogue, and challenging the taken-for-granted norms of the organisation, they can 

enable a process of collective self-examination and renewal. The most robust analytical framework, 

therefore, is one that integrates an understanding of institutional constraints with an appreciation for the 

agency of individual leaders to drive normative change and organisational learning. 

2.4 A New Theoretical Lens: Intersectionality in Sport Leadership 

A significant limitation of early research into women in sport leadership has been its tendency to treat 

“women” as a monolithic category, implicitly focusing on the experiences of white, middle-class, 

cisgender, and able-bodied women from Western countries. This approach overlooks the rich diversity 

of women’s lived experiences and fails to account for the ways in which different dimensions of 

identity intersect to create unique and compounded forms of both privilege and oppression. The 

theoretical framework of intersectionality, originally developed by Crenshaw (1989) and further 

elaborated by scholars such as Collins and Bilge (2020), provides an essential lens for rectifying this 

oversight (Crenshaw, K., 1989, pp. 139-167; Collins, P. H., & Bilge, S., 2020). Intersectionality posits 

that social identities such as race, gender, class, sexual orientation, and disability are not independent 

variables but are interlocking systems of power that shape individuals’ experiences and opportunities in 

distinct and complex ways. 

Adopting an intersectional framework is therefore crucial for developing a more accurate and 

comprehensive understanding of the challenges and opportunities for women in sport leadership. It 

moves the analysis beyond a binary focus on gender to a more nuanced appreciation of the multiple and 

intersecting power dynamics at play. This allows for the development of more targeted and effective 

strategies for promoting equity, diversity, and inclusion that address the specific needs and experiences 

of women in all their diversity. The following Table 1 provides an illustrative, though not exhaustive, 

overview of how an intersectional lens can illuminate the distinct barriers faced by different groups of 

women in sport leadership. 

 

 

 

 

 

 



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Table 1. An Intersectional Analysis of Barriers in Sport Leadership 

Identity Dimension Primary Barriers 

Compounded Barriers from 

Intersectionality 

White, Cisgender, 

Able-Bodied 

Women 

Gender stereotypes (the “double 

bind”); exclusion from informal 

male networks; work-life 

integration challenges; unequal 

pay. 

While facing significant gender-based 

barriers, this group often benefits from 

racial, cisgender, and able-bodied 

privilege, which can provide access to 

resources and networks unavailable to 

other women. 

Women of Colour 

(e.g., Black, Asian, 

Hispanic/Latina) 

All barriers faced by white 

women, plus: overt and covert 

racism; racial stereotypes (e.g., 

the “angry Black woman”); lack 

of representation in leadership, 

leading to isolation; pressure to 

represent their entire 

racial/ethnic group. 

The intersection of race and gender creates 

a “concrete ceiling” that is thicker and 

more difficult to penetrate than the “glass 

ceiling.” They may be excluded from both 

male-dominated and 

white-female-dominated networks. 

Women with 

Disabilities 

All barriers faced by 

non-disabled women, plus: 

ableism and assumptions of 

incompetence; physical and 

infrastructural barriers; lack of 

accessible facilities and 

resources; attitudinal barriers 

and prejudice. 

The intersection of gender and disability 

can lead to infantilisation or a perception 

of asexuality, further undermining their 

authority as leaders. They may be seen as a 

“burden” or an “inspiration,” but rarely as 

simply a competent leader. 

LGBTQ+ Women 

(e.g., Lesbian, 

Bisexual, 

Transgender) 

All barriers faced by 

heterosexual, cisgender women, 

plus: homophobia, biphobia, and 

transphobia; pressure to conceal 

their identity; discrimination in 

hiring and promotion; lack of 

inclusive policies and workplace 

cultures. 

Transgender women in sport face intense 

scrutiny and discrimination related to their 

gender identity, often overshadowing their 

leadership capabilities. Lesbian and 

bisexual women may face the “double 

jeopardy” of sexism and homophobia. 

 

 



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3. The Impact of Women’s Leadership on Organisational Change 

The increasing presence of women in leadership roles is not merely a demographic shift; it is a catalyst 

for profound organisational change. This section examines the empirical evidence on how women 

leaders influence organisational culture, ethics, and governance, while also navigating the complex 

interplay of stereotypes and resistance. 

3.1 Reshaping Organisational Culture and Ethics 

Women leaders often bring a distinct set of values and priorities to their roles, which can significantly 

reshape organisational culture. Research consistently shows that companies with a higher 

representation of women in senior leadership are more likely to prioritise ethical behaviour, corporate 

social responsibility, and a collaborative work environment (Aman, M. S., Hussein, N., & Shahid, S., 

2019, pp. 821-840). Women are more likely to adopt a transformational leadership style, which, as 

discussed, is characterised by a focus on mentorship, employee development, and a shared vision 

(Burton, L. J., & LaVoi, N. M., 2021, pp. 405-417; Eagly, A. H., & Carli, L. L., 2018). This approach 

stands in contrast to the more transactional, command-and-control style that has traditionally 

dominated many sport organisations. 

Furthermore, the presence of women in leadership can have a powerful impact on an organisation’s 

ethical climate. Studies have shown that gender-diverse boards are more likely to hold executives 

accountable for ethical lapses and to prioritise the interests of a broader range of stakeholders, not just 

shareholders (Adriaanse, J. A., & Schofield, T., 2014, pp. 485-497). In the context of sport, which has 

been plagued by a series of high-profile corruption and abuse scandals, the ethical leadership that 

women often bring is not just a desirable trait but a critical necessity for restoring public trust and 

ensuring the long-term health of the industry. 

3.2 The Paradox of Relational Leadership and Emotional Intelligence 

Relational leadership and emotional intelligence are frequently cited as key strengths of female leaders. 

Emotional intelligence, popularised by Goleman (1998), refers to the ability to recognise, understand, 

and manage one’s own emotions and the emotions of others (Goleman, D., 1998). Women, on average, 

tend to score higher on measures of emotional intelligence, particularly in areas such as empathy, 

interpersonal relationships, and social responsibility (Brown, D., & Potrac, P., 2022, pp. 382-397). 

These skills are invaluable in leadership, as they enable leaders to build trust, motivate teams, and 

navigate complex social dynamics. 

However, there is a paradox at play. While relational skills are essential for effective leadership, they 

are also often stereotypically associated with femininity and can be devalued in masculine-coded 

environments like sport. Women who exhibit these traits may be perceived as “soft” or not “tough 

enough” to make difficult decisions (Hoyt, C. L., & Murphy, S. E., 2016, pp. 387-399). This creates a 

double bind, where women are expected to be both relational and authoritative, a tightrope that their 

male counterparts are rarely forced to walk. The strategic use of emotional intelligence, therefore, 

becomes a critical skill for women leaders, who must learn to deploy their relational strengths in a way 



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that is perceived as both authentic and authoritative. 

3.3 Agency and Resistance: Navigating the Labyrinth 

Women in sport leadership are not passive victims of a biased system; they are active agents of change 

who employ a variety of strategies to navigate the labyrinth of power and resistance (Eagly, A. H., & 

Carli, L. L., 2018). These strategies range from individual acts of resilience and self-advocacy to 

collective action and the creation of supportive networks. Women often leverage their outsider status to 

challenge the status quo and to introduce new ideas and perspectives that can lead to innovation and 

growth (Ibarra, H., 2019). 

However, this agency is almost always met with resistance, which can take both overt and subtle forms. 

Overt resistance may include sexism, harassment, and exclusion from informal networks (the “old 

boys’ club”) (Chu, J., Leberman, S., & Taylor, T., 2022, pp. 789-802). Subtle resistance, on the other 

hand, can be more insidious and difficult to challenge. This can include being held to a higher standard 

than male colleagues, having their contributions ignored or attributed to others, and being subjected to 

a constant stream of microaggressions (Britton, D. M., 2017, pp. 5-27). The concept of “gender 

fatigue” has been used to describe the exhaustion that women experience from having to constantly 

navigate these forms of resistance (Hoeber, L., & Shaw, S., 2022, pp. 515-532). Overcoming this 

resistance requires not only individual resilience but also a concerted effort from organisations to create 

a culture where women’s leadership is not just tolerated but actively valued and supported. 

However, it is important to recognise that resistance is not always a purely negative force. 

Paradoxically, the very act of navigating and overcoming resistance can become a powerful site of 

learning and transformation. Women who strategically challenge the barriers they face often develop 

advanced adaptive and political skills. They become adept at building coalitions, negotiating conflict, 

and influencing change from the margins. In doing so, they can become the catalysts for the kind of 

double-loop learning (Argyris & Schön, 1996) that is necessary for genuine organisational 

self-examination and renewal (Norman, 2021). The following diagram illustrates the cyclical nature of 

organisational resistance, showing how various elements interact to maintain the status quo (Figure 1).  

 



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Figure 1. The Cycle of Organisational Resistance to Women’s Leadership 

 

4. Pathways to Leadership: Higher Education and Development Programmes 

Developing a pipeline of talented and prepared women leaders is crucial for driving organisational 

change. This section explores the role of higher education and formal development programmes in 

creating these pathways. 

4.1 The Role of Higher Education in Shaping Future Leaders 

Higher education institutions play a pivotal role in shaping the next generation of sport leaders. Sport 

management programmes, in particular, are a key pipeline for talent into the industry. However, 

research suggests that these programmes have been slow to adapt their curricula to address the specific 

challenges and opportunities for women in sport leadership (Walker, N. A., & Bopp, T., 2020, pp. 

509-522). Many programmes continue to rely on outdated, male-centric models of leadership and fail 

to adequately integrate issues of gender, diversity, and inclusion into their core curriculum. This not 

only fails to prepare women for the realities of the sport industry but also perpetuates the very biases 

and inequalities that they will face in their careers. 

However, there are also signs of positive change. A growing number of universities are developing 

specialised programmes and initiatives designed to support aspiring female leaders. These include 

mentorship programmes, networking events, and leadership development workshops that are tailored to 

the specific needs of women in sport (Pike, E., White, A., Matthews, J., & Southon, S., 2017, pp. 

709-725). Furthermore, recent research by English and Braybrook (2025) highlights the transformative 



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potential of design-based research in higher education to create more equitable and effective pathways 

to leadership for women (English, V., & Braybrook, K., 2025, pp. 56-79). Their study demonstrates 

how a curriculum that is co-designed with industry partners and grounded in the lived experiences of 

women leaders can empower students with the skills, confidence, and networks to succeed. 

4.2 Leadership Development Programmes and Mentorship 

Formal leadership development programmes and mentorship have emerged as key strategies for 

accelerating women’s advancement in sport leadership. These programmes can provide women with 

the skills, knowledge, and networks to overcome the barriers they face. Research has shown that 

effective leadership development programmes are those that are tailored to the specific needs of women, 

provide opportunities for experiential learning, and create a supportive peer network (Burton, L. J., & 

Leberman, S., 2017). 

Mentorship, in particular, has been identified as a critical factor in the career progression of women 

leaders. A good mentor can provide not only career advice and guidance but also sponsorship, which 

involves actively advocating for their mentee and creating opportunities for them to advance (Kanter, R. 

M., 1977). However, women often face challenges in finding suitable mentors, particularly in 

male-dominated fields like sport. The lack of senior female leaders means that there are fewer role 

models and potential mentors for aspiring women. This highlights the importance of formal mentorship 

programmes that can connect women with experienced leaders, both male and female, who are 

committed to supporting their development. 

The effectiveness of these programmes is a subject of ongoing research and debate. Some studies 

suggest that they can be highly effective in building confidence, enhancing skills, and expanding 

networks (Pike et al., 2017). The design-based research by English and Braybrook (2025) provides 

strong evidence for the positive impact of a well-designed, university-based programme. However, 

critics caution that if these programmes focus solely on “fixing the women”—that is, on equipping 

them with the skills to fit into the existing masculine-coded organisational culture—they may have 

limited impact on systemic change. For these programmes to be truly transformative, they must not 

only empower individual women but also seek to influence the organisations to which those women 

belong. The most effective programmes are those that are part of a broader, integrated strategy for 

organisational change, which includes a commitment from senior leadership to address systemic 

barriers and create a more inclusive culture. The following Table 2 synthesises the key features of 

effective women’s leadership development programmes, as identified in the literature. 

 

 

 

 

 

 



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Table 2. Key Features of Effective Women’s Leadership Development Programmes 

Feature Description Rationale & Supporting Evidence 

Holistic & 

Intersectional 

Curriculum 

The curriculum addresses not only 

traditional leadership skills (e.g., 

finance, strategy) but also the specific 

challenges women face, such as 

unconscious bias, stereotype threat, 

and work-life integration. It adopts an 

intersectional approach, 

acknowledging the diverse 

experiences of women. 

A “one-size-fits-all” approach is 

ineffective. Tailored content that 

addresses the lived realities of women 

leads to greater engagement and impact 

(English & Braybrook, 2025). An 

intersectional lens ensures the 

programme is relevant to all women, not 

just the dominant group (Crenshaw, 

1989). 

Focus on 

Sponsorship, Not 

Just Mentorship 

The programme actively facilitates 

connections between participants and 

senior leaders who can act as 

sponsors, not just mentors. This 

includes structured networking events 

and formal sponsorship initiatives. 

Sponsorship is a more powerful driver of 

career advancement than mentorship. 

Sponsors use their influence to create 

opportunities, which is critical for 

breaking through the “glass ceiling” 

(Ibarra, 2019). 

Creation of a 

Supportive Peer 

Cohort 

The programme is designed to foster a 

strong sense of community and peer 

support among participants. This is 

achieved through collaborative 

projects, peer coaching, and ongoing 

networking opportunities. 

A strong peer network provides a vital 

source of support, advice, and solidarity, 

helping to mitigate the feelings of 

isolation that many women in leadership 

experience (Pike et al., 2017). 

Integration with 

Organisational 

Change 

The programme is not a standalone 

initiative but is integrated into a 

broader organisational strategy for 

gender equity. This includes securing 

buy-in from senior leadership and 

linking the programme to talent 

management and succession planning 

processes. 

To be sustainable, individual 

development must be coupled with 

organisational change. Without this link, 

women may gain new skills but still face 

the same systemic barriers upon 

returning to their organisations 

(Adriaanse & Claringbould, 2019). 

 

 

 

 



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5. Barriers and Resistance to Female-Led Change 

Despite the clear benefits of gender-diverse leadership, women continue to face a formidable array of 

barriers and resistance in their pursuit of leadership roles in sport. These barriers are not just individual 

or isolated incidents but are systemic and deeply embedded in the culture and structure of sport 

organisations. 

5.1 Structural and Cultural Barriers 

Structural barriers are the formal and informal rules, policies, and practices that systematically 

disadvantage women. These can include biased recruitment and promotion processes, unequal pay, and 

a lack of family-friendly policies (Hoeber, L., 2007, pp. 259-280). The “old boys’ club,” a powerful 

and exclusionary informal network of men, remains a significant barrier for women, who are often 

excluded from the key conversations and decisions that shape their careers (Chu, J., Leberman, S., & 

Taylor, T., 2022, pp. 789-802). 

Cultural barriers are the shared values, beliefs, and norms that create a hostile or unwelcoming 

environment for women. These can include a culture of sexism and misogyny, the normalisation of 

masculine-coded leadership styles, and the devaluation of feminine-coded traits (Adriaanse, J. A., & 

Claringbould, I., 2016, pp. 547-564). The media also plays a significant role in perpetuating these 

cultural barriers, often portraying female athletes and leaders in a way that reinforces gender 

stereotypes (Fink, J. S., 2016, pp. 176-188). 

5.2 The Intersectional Nature of Barriers 

It is crucial to recognise that the barriers to leadership are not the same for all women. An intersectional 

perspective reveals that women from marginalised groups face unique and compounded barriers. For 

example, women of colour may face both racism and sexism, while women with disabilities may face 

ableism in addition to gender bias (Hancock, M., & Hums, M. A., 2023). Research has shown that 

women from culturally diverse backgrounds are significantly underrepresented in sport leadership and 

face a unique set of challenges, including cultural stereotypes, a lack of role models, and a sense of 

isolation (Dadswell, K., Mandicos, M., et al., 2023, pp. 135-155). 

The Sport Intersectional Model of Power (SIMP), developed by Simpkins (2019), provides a useful 

framework for understanding how these intersecting systems of power operate in sport (Simpkins, S., 

2019, pp. 493-515). The model highlights the need to move beyond a single-axis analysis of gender and 

to consider how race, class, sexuality, and other dimensions of identity shape the experiences of women 

in sport leadership. A truly inclusive approach to gender equity must be an intersectional one that 

recognises and addresses the unique challenges faced by all women. 

 

 

 

 

 



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6. Discussion and Conclusion 

6.1 Key Findings and Implications 

This review has synthesised a wide range of literature to provide a comprehensive and critical analysis 

of the role of women in leadership and organisational change in sport. The key findings are: 

• Women leaders are not just a matter of equity; they are a source of competitive advantage, 

bringing diverse perspectives and skills that can drive innovation and growth. 

• The definition of organisational change must be expanded beyond simply increasing the number 

of women in leadership to include a fundamental transformation of power dynamics and 

organisational culture. 

• Women face a complex and multi-layered system of barriers, including stereotypes, bias, and 

resistance, which are compounded for women from marginalised groups. 

• Higher education and leadership development programmes have a crucial role to play in creating 

a pipeline of talented and prepared women leaders. 

• A multi-level model of change is needed that addresses the individual, organisational, and 

institutional dimensions of gender inequality. 

The implications of these findings are clear. Sport organisations must move beyond tokenistic gestures 

and commit to a deep and sustained process of organisational change. This requires a willingness to 

challenge the status quo, to dismantle systemic barriers, and to create a culture where women’s 

leadership is not just tolerated but actively celebrated. 

6.2 Gaps in the Literature and Future Research 

While the body of research on women in sport leadership is growing, there are still significant gaps in 

the literature. The most significant of these is the need for more intersectional research that explores the 

experiences of women from diverse backgrounds. Future research should also focus on the following 

areas: 

• The long-term impact of gender-diverse leadership on organisational performance and culture. 

• The effectiveness of different strategies for overcoming resistance to female-led change. 

• The role of men as allies in promoting gender equity in sport leadership. 

• The impact of new technologies and media on the representation and perception of women in 

sport. 

6.3 A Model for Transformative Change 

Based on the synthesis of the literature, it is possible to propose a multi-level model for advancing 

women in sports leadership. This model, illustrated in the diagram below, posits that sustainable 

change requires simultaneous and coordinated action at the individual, organisational, and institutional 

levels. At the individual level, the focus is on empowering women with the skills, networks, and 

resilience to navigate their careers. At the organisational level, the focus is on creating inclusive 

cultures and equitable systems. And at the institutional level, the focus is on challenging the broader 

norms, policies, and power structures that shape the entire sport ecosystem. Change at any one level is 



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unlikely to be sufficient; it is the interplay and mutual reinforcement of actions across all three levels 

that will drive transformative and lasting change as summarized in Figure 2. 

Figure 2. A Multi-Level Model for Advancing Women in Sports Leadership 

 

6.4 Conclusion 

This critical and intersectional review of the literature demonstrates unequivocally that women leaders 

are not merely a desirable addition to the sport industry but are vital agents of organisational 

transformation, cultural renewal, and ethical governance. The evidence synthesised in this paper 

indicates that female leaders frequently bring relational, reflective, and inclusive strengths that can 

enable sport institutions to move beyond outdated, hierarchical models of leadership and to embrace a 

more adaptive and resilient future. Their leadership is a powerful catalyst for the kind of double-loop 

learning that is essential for addressing the complex challenges facing the contemporary sport 

ecosystem, from governance crises to the demands for greater social responsibility. 

However, this transformative potential is far from being fully realised. It is systematically constrained 

by a deeply entrenched and multi-layered system of barriers. These include the pervasive influence of 

masculine-coded organisational cultures, the persistence of gendered stereotypes and unconscious bias, 

the exclusionary nature of informal male networks, and the insufficient integration of an intersectional 

perspective that recognises and addresses the compounded barriers faced by women from diverse 

backgrounds. The journey to leadership for women in sport is not simply a climb up a ladder; it is a 

complex navigation of a labyrinth fraught with subtle and overt forms of resistance. 

 

 



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The central implication of this review is that achieving genuine gender equity in sport leadership 

requires a paradigm shift. Efforts must move beyond a narrow focus on representational targets and 

“fixing the women” to a more holistic and systemic approach that addresses the deeper cultural and 

structural dimensions of power. Sustainable transformation requires a concerted and coordinated effort 

from all stakeholders. Sport organisations must proactively dismantle systemic barriers and cultivate 

inclusive cultures. Higher education institutions must reimagine their role in developing the next 

generation of leaders, creating equitable pathways and providing tailored support. And aspiring women 

leaders must continue to build their skills, networks, and resilience, while strategically challenging the 

status quo. 

Ultimately, this review calls for a fundamental reframing of what constitutes effective leadership in 

sport. The future of the industry depends on its ability to move away from a hierarchical model rooted 

in command and control and towards a more relational and networked paradigm grounded in trust, 

ethics, and collective growth. The advancement of women into leadership is not simply a women’s 

issue; it is central to the future health, integrity, and success of the entire global sport industry. 

 

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