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1 

 

 

 

Review 

Towards sustainable energy: a comprehensive 

review on hydrogen integration in renewable 

energy systems 
Wahid Bin Noor, MD. Tanvir Amin* 

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Chittagong University of Engineering and Technology, Bangladesh 

A R T I C L E   I N F O 
 

Article history: 
Received 23 April 2024  
Received in revised form 
01 June 2024 
Accepted 13 June 2024 
 
Keywords: 
Renewable energy, Fossil fuels,  
Hydrogen technology, Electrolysis,  
Hydrogen integration 
 
*Corresponding author 
Email address:  
u1903021@student.cuet.ac.bd 

 
DOI: 10.55670/fpll.fuen.3.4.1 

A B S T R A C T 
 

As the world shifts towards sustainable energy sources, incorporating 
hydrogen into renewable energy systems emerges as a critical pathway. This 
thorough analysis delves deeply into the various facets of hydrogen integration, 
exploring its potential to revolutionize the energy landscape. Drawing upon 
recent advancements and research findings, the review examines the 
production, storage, and utilization of hydrogen within renewable energy 
frameworks. Key topics include electrolysis methods, storage technologies, and 
diverse applications spanning transportation, residential sectors, and industry. 
Furthermore, the review examines the obstacles and prospects linked with 
hydrogen integration, shedding light on policy frameworks, economic 
implications, and technological innovations driving its adoption. By offering 
insights into the multifaceted role of hydrogen, this review aims to inform 
researchers, stakeholders, and policymakers about the transformative 
potential of integrating green hydrogen into renewable energy systems for a 
sustainable future. 
 

 
1. Introduction  

The annual growth of primary energy demand is 

forecasted to be 1.3%, driven by factors such as economic 

expansion, technological advancements, and population 

growth, consequently leading to increased demand for energy 

services, which is projected until 2040 [1-3]. Fossil fuels, 

encompassing coal, oil, and natural gas, have historically 

served as primary sources of energy generation and are 

projected to maintain their significant role in energy 

production until 2050 at least [4-6]. The utilization of fossil 

fuels results in the release of greenhouse gases, including 

volatile compounds, nitrogen oxides, and carbon dioxide, 

alongside solid particles, thereby playing a role in the 

alteration of the Earth's climate [7, 8]. Furthermore, carbon-

based fuels currently fulfill 85% of the requirements of the 

world's energy [5,9]. In 2019, the yearly global energy-related 

CO2 emissions amounted to 33.3 metric gigatons (Gt), 

increasing at a rate that poses a significant threat to elevate 

the Earth's temperature by multiple degrees unless mitigative 

measures are taken [10]. “Green” hydrogen serves as an 

alternative to fossil fuels, which is generated via the process 

of water electrolysis, wherein an electric current splits water 

into oxygen and hydrogen. This procedure results in zero 

greenhouse gas emissions, contingent upon the electricity 

powering it is sourced entirely from renewables. The 

lightweight properties, high mass-energy density, and 

efficient electrochemical conversion of hydrogen facilitate its 

ability to transport energy across geographical regions 

through pipelines or in the guise of liquid fuels like ammonia 

transported via freight ships [11]. Additionally, hydrogen can 

be produced locally, diminishing countries' reliance on 

external energy providers. Moreover, hydrogen can be 

derived from a diverse array of substances, including oil, 

sewage sludge, water, gas, biofuels, and more [12]. In the 

current era, the application of renewable-energy-driven 

green hydrogen production stands out as a progressively 

favored method for mitigating greenhouse gas emissions 

(GHGs) and environmental contamination in the global shift 

aimed at carbon reduction [9, 13]. Hydrogen (H2) presents an 

economical and sustainable alternative for both storage and 

energy consumption [14, 15]. Moreover, it has the potential to 

actualize a carbon-neutral society and significantly increase 

the utilization of hydrogen [16]. Hydrogen technologies have 

emerged as a strategy to fortify diverse economic sectors 

following the COVID-19 outbreak. There is currently a notable 

consensus surrounding the potential of hydrogen, driven in 

 

 

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WB. Noor & T. Amin /Future Energy                                                                                     November 2024| Volume 03 | Issue 04| Pages 01-17 

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part by an increasingly ambitious climate policy agenda [17, 

18]. Moreover, hydrogen finds applications in fuel cell 

technology across various sectors, including industry, power 

generation, residential settings, and transportation, 

underscoring its potential for facilitating decarbonization 

[19-21]. Many nations view hydrogen as the upcoming 

generation solution for energy supervision and are 

progressively endorsing the adoption of hydrogen technology 

to foster a low-carbon economy. Consequently, numerous 

plans and strategies have been formulated for the 

development and implementation of hydrogen [22]. Green 

hydrogen holds significant potential to contribute 

significantly to the energy transition by serving as a means to 

store renewable energies as chemical energy carriers over an 

extended period. Moreover, current infrastructure like 

underground gas storage facilities and natural gas grids in 

Germany can be repurposed, mitigating the need for 

additional investment costs [23]. Green hydrogen 

demonstrates remarkable capability for transportation and 

storage within the natural gas grid with minimal loss. 

Consequently, this green gas can be effectively provided to 

industrial sectors and households, offering flexibility for 

applications such as heating through heating systems 

powered by fuel cells or industrial operations like steel 

production. Additionally, industries can utilize hydrogen for 

producing ammonia-based fertilizers, food processing, metal 

treatment, and various other purposes [24, 25]. In the past, 

review papers covering diverse focal points within the 

hydrogen energy systems domain have been published. 

Thema et al. [26] conducted a review of energy-to-gas 

projects, which generate either renewable or hydrogen 

substitutes for natural gas. Their study includes a forecast and 

analysis of the cost evolution concerning carbon dioxide 

methanation and electrolysis. Abe et al. [27] conducted a 

comprehensive review exploring the potential of hydrogen 

serving as a primary energy transporter, with a specific 

emphasis on the storage capabilities utilizing metal hydrides. 

Mazloomi et al. [28] outlined hydrogen as a highly 

encouraging option, serving not only as fuel for forthcoming 

vehicles but also as a pivotal energy preservation solution 

within expansive power systems. Their study 

comprehensively examines production and storage methods 

while also addressing the risk and safety considerations 

inherent in hydrogen technologies. Parra et al. [29] present a 

thorough technical-economic analysis of hydrogen-based 

energy systems. They outline strategies aimed at hastening 

the integration of hydrogen technologies, emphasizing key 

measures such as mass production, standardization, and the 

implementation of supportive policies. Moradi et al. [30] 

conducted a review of alternatives concerning the storage 

and delivery of hydrogen alongside an analysis of associated 

risk and safety considerations. Dutta [31] explored storage 

and production methodologies for hydrogen, with particular 

attention to risk and safety considerations. Yue et al. [9] 

conducted an extensive survey on hydrogen technologies 

within power systems, leveraging real-world projects as 

exemplars to elucidate diverse technologies and applications. 

Their techno-economic analysis integrated cost and technical 

considerations, emphasizing the imperative for ongoing focus 

on project scalability, technical advancements, political 

endorsement, and production expansion to attain cost 

competitiveness in hydrogen technologies. Bailera et al. [32] 

conducted a review encompassing the diverse methodologies 

employed to transform renewable energy into methane 

within power-to-gas initiatives, complemented by a summary 

of practical projects. Gahleitner [33] scrutinized pilot facilities 

for power-to-gas, focusing on instances where sustainable 

electricity was employed for hydrogen production via water 

electrolysis. Hanley et al. [34] conducted a survey on the 

integration of hydrogen within energy frameworks, 

examining potential drivers and policies that could promote 

hydrogen as a preferred option above alternative low-

emission energy technology. To the best of the author's 

understanding, scientific research has largely overlooked the 

environmental expenses associated with green hydrogen 

generation. Thus, this paper, which delves into the 

environmental implications of green hydrogen production as 

a means of renewable energy storage, presents a novel 

contribution and addresses a growing sphere of focus [35]. 

The study encompasses alternative energy sources such as 

solar, wind, and hydro energy, which are predominant in 

Europe, in addition to biomass [36]. 

2. The generation of hydrogen from renewable energy 

resources 

The utilization of renewable energy sources for 

hydrogen production stands as a highly promising avenue 

within the domain of sustainable energy. Ongoing endeavors 

in this field encompass a spectrum of technologies, notably 

encompassing the utilization of solar and wind power for 

water electrolysis [37], biomass-to-hydrogen processes 

including gasification and pyrolysis [38], and the deployment 

of solar energy-driven thermochemical reactions for water 

splitting [39]. The collaboration between renewable energy 

sources and hydrogen presents advantages like energy 

storage capabilities and the provision of on-demand energy 

supply [40]. Electrolysis, employing various types of 

electrolyzers, emerges as a pivotal step in green hydrogen 

production from renewables, with the prospect of achieving 

notable efficiency levels through optimization with 

renewable energy systems [41]. On the whole, the integration 

of renewable energy sources into hydrogen production holds 

considerable promise for realizing a sustainable and clean 

energy future. In broad terms, compounds originating from 

biomass or water have the capacity to be employed for 

hydrogen production via the process of extraction from 

natural resources [42]. 

2.1 Utilization of biomass for hydrogen generation 

Biomass emerges as a promising avenue for hydrogen 

production, outstripping fossil fuels owing to its abundant 

supply, facile oxidation, and substantial annual output [43]. 

Diverse biomass sources, ranging from agricultural waste to 

microalgae, exemplify the vast array of plant and animal 

components convertible into biomass, constituting a 

renewable primary energy source [44]. Thermochemical and 

biological mechanisms serve as the two primary 

methodologies for hydrogen production from biomass, 

detailed in subsequent sections. The technical and economic 

feasibility of hydrogen production from biomass and residual 

wastes is evident in numerous developed nations, 

underscoring a projected contribution of over 25% to global 

energy demands by 2050 [45]. In stark contrast to fossil fuels, 



WB. Noor & T. Amin /Future Energy                                                                                     November 2024| Volume 03 | Issue 04| Pages 01-17 

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biomass-to-power processes mitigate the emissions of CO2 

and facilitate CO2 absorption from the atmosphere, fostering 

a net-zero emissions scenario for greenhouse gases. Figure 1 

illustrates various pathways for hydrogen production from 

biomass, delineating gasification to yield syngas, pyrolysis for 

bio-oil generation, and cellulose hydrolysis for sugar 

monomer extraction [46]. Syngas, resulting from gasification, 

can undergo a water gas shift (WGS) reaction for hydrogen 

conversion, albeit necessitating CO removal from the gas 

stream. While pyrolysis-derived bio-oil can be transformed 

into liquid fuel, the conversion processes are intricate with 

limited efficiency. Conversely, hydrogen production from bio-

oil via autothermal reforming, particularly employing 

catalytic membrane reactors, boasts high conversion 

efficiency. Additionally, hydrogen generation from sugars and 

sugar alcohols, such as sorbitol, through aqueous phase 

reforming (APR) stands as a viable method. Although 

alternative biological pathways exist, encompassing 

enzymatic and bacterial routes, this article confines its 

discourse to heterogeneous catalytic approaches. Table 1 

outlines the fundamental technologies employed in both 

processes, detailing the biomass type utilized, operational 

parameters, and technological maturity levels. 

 
Figure 1. Diverse strategies for extracting hydrogen from biomass 

 

Table 1. Summary of techniques for hydrogen production from 

biomass 

Methods Principle 
Source 

of 
energy 

Operating 
conditions 

Maturity 

Pyrolysis Thermochemical 
Dried 

biomass 

300-
1000°C in 

the 
absence of 

oxygen 

Commercial 

Hydrothermal 
liquefaction 

Thermochemical 
Wet 

biomass 
250-370°C 

Research 
and 

development 

Gasification Thermochemical 
Dried 

biomass 
800-900°C Commercial 

 

2.1.1 Gasification 

Biomass gasification stands as a versatile and 

sustainable method for clean energy generation, with various 

approaches, such as steam gasification, demonstrating 

efficacy in hydrogen production [47, 48]. Particularly 

noteworthy is catalytic steam gasification utilizing calcium 

oxide (𝐶𝑎𝑂), which exhibits the capacity to yield high-purity 

hydrogen through simultaneous 𝐶𝑂2 absorption and catalytic 

action [49]. Moreover, the utilization of waste biomass or 

agricultural residues presents dual benefits in renewable 

energy production and waste management [50]. Gasification, 

occurring at temperatures surpassing 1000K, entails a 

complex interplay of pyrolysis, partial oxidation, and steam-

reforming reactions [51]. Oxygen or air facilitates partial 

oxidation, yielding gaseous products, including 𝐻2 and 𝐶𝑂𝑥 , 

alongside bio-oils, tar, and charcoal [51]. Optimization of 

parameters such as temperature and residence time 

minimizes tar formation, with thermal cracking and the 

introduction of catalytic additives further augmenting 

efficiency [51, 52]. Advanced technologies like HyPr-RING 

integrate gasification with the water-gas shift reaction, aimed 

at enhancing hydrogen yield while curbing pollutants [53]. A 

diverse range of organic materials can undergo gasification 

using various agents, like oxygen, air, carbon dioxide, or 

steam, each imparting distinct effects on gas composition. 

Despite its heightened energy cost, steam gasification 

produces a gas with superior heating value and higher 

hydrogen content in comparison to air gasification. 

Furthermore, the presence of 𝐶𝑂2 in the synthesis, gas holds 

promise for specific process applications [54]. In summary, 

biomass gasification represents a pivotal pathway for 

sustainable clean energy production, with ongoing 

advancements in technology and process refinement aimed at 

optimizing efficiency and minimizing environmental impact. 

2.1.2 Pyrolysis 

Biomass pyrolysis emerges as a promising avenue for 

hydrogen production, particularly when accompanied by 

innovative methodologies. Notably, investigations reveal that 

the fast pyrolysis of algae pellets in molten 𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻-𝑁𝑎2𝐶𝑂3 at 

elevated temperatures can yield stable hydrogen, boasting a 

notable theoretical efficiency of 84.86% [55]. Furthermore, 

the integration of advanced artificial intelligence models, 

combining support vector machines and artificial bee colony 

optimizers, enhances our understanding of the generation of 

hydrogen gas from biomass composition and pyrolysis 

processes [56]. These advancements underscore the pivotal 

role of thermochemical processes such as pyrolysis and 

biomass gasification in deriving hydrogen from renewable 

biomass, emphasizing the necessity for enhanced selectivity 

and efficiency to realize economically viable industrial 

applications [47]. The efficacy of pyrolysis is contingent upon 

a multitude of parameters, incorporating heating rate, 

pressure, residence time, biomass type, and moisture content. 

Notably, the absence of air or oxygen during pyrolysis 

eliminates the risk of dioxin production and mitigates 

emissions. Additionally, the exclusion of air or water obviates 

the requirement for secondary reactors to produce carbon 

dioxide (CO2) or carbon monoxide (CO), further contributing 

to emission reduction. Pyrolysis presents numerous benefits, 

incorporating fuel flexibility, reduced COx emissions, and 

operational simplicity, compactness, and a clean carbon 

byproduct. Nevertheless, the existence of air or water can 

result in significant COx emissions. Pyrolysis operations can 

be conducted at high (>800°C), moderate (500-800°C), or low 

(500°C) temperatures, with fast pyrolysis (FP) serving as a 

method to convert organic matter into products with 



WB. Noor & T. Amin /Future Energy                                                                                     November 2024| Volume 03 | Issue 04| Pages 01-17 

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increased energy content, albeit with challenges such as 

potential fouling from carbon buildup [57]. 

2.1.3 Hydrothermal liquefaction 

Hydrothermal liquefaction (HTL) is emerging as a 

promising method for harnessing hydrogen from biomass. 

HTL processes involve the conversion of wet biomass into 

biocrude oils and valuable biochemicals under high 

temperature and pressure conditions, utilizing water or 

water-alcohol blends, often with the incorporation of 

catalysts [58]. Studies have demonstrated that the use of 

catalysts such as Ni/AL2O3 and Fe can significantly enhance 

bio-crude yields, with optimal performance achieved at 330°C 

and a reaction duration of 10 minutes, leading to improved 

higher heating values for the biomass [59]. Additionally, 

research has explored hydrogen production from household 

mixed waste through HTL and hydrothermal gasification 

(HTG). HTG exhibits a maximum hydrogen yield of 39 wt%, 

while HTL yields a bio-oil output of 33 wt% with notable 

heating values [60]. 

2.2 Water electrolysis 

In contemporary industrial contexts, primary 

methodologies for hydrogen production include coal 

gasification, steam reforming, and water electrolysis. 

Although alternative approaches such as ethanol and sugar 

reforming, photocatalytic water splitting, water 

biophotolysis, and high-temperature water splitting are 

currently undergoing development, they have yet to achieve 

widespread industrial deployment. Presently, there is a 

growing fascination with hydrogen production via water 

electrolysis, attributable to the declining costs associated 

with renewable electricity. This method entails utilizing 

electricity to separate hydrogen from water, thereby 

circumventing the generation of carbon byproducts such as 

CO2 [9]. Within the configuration of a water electrolysis cell, 

two electrodes are immersed in an electrolyte solution and 

linked to a power source to enable the flow of electrical 

current, as demonstrated in Figure 2. Upon application of a 

sufficiently elevated voltage between the electrodes, water 

undergoes decomposition, yielding hydrogen at the cathode 

and oxygen at the anode. The introduction of the electrolyte 

serves to augment the conductivity of the water medium, thus 

enabling uninterrupted electrical flow. Commonly employed 

electrolytes in water electrolysis encompass acids and solid 

polymer materials, which utilize a variety of ions, including 

𝐻+, 𝑂𝐻−,  𝑂2
−, and others, as charge carriers [9]. During water 

electrolysis, water acts as the input reactant and undergoes 

dissociation into hydrogen and oxygen due to the application 

of direct current. 

Anode: 𝐻2𝑂 → 
1

2
𝑂2 + 2𝐻+ + 2𝑒−          (1) 

Cathode: 2𝐻+ + 2𝑒− → 𝐻2          (2) 

Overall: 𝐻2𝑂 → 𝐻2 +
1

2
𝑂2                            (3) 

An array of electrolyte systems has been devised for 

water electrolysis, encompassing alkaline water electrolysis 

(AWE), solid oxide water electrolysis (SOE), alkaline anion 

exchange membranes (AEMs), and proton exchange 

membranes (PEMs). These systems are distinguished by their 

employment of diverse materials and operational parameters 

while adhering to shared foundational operating principles. 

Furthermore, depending on the temperature regimes applied, 

both high and low-temperature water electrolysis 

configurations are viable [61]. 

 
Figure 2. Water electrolysis principle 

 

2.2.1 PV-electrolysis system 

This system comprises photovoltaic cells, which 

generate electricity to operate an electrolysis unit, as depicted 

in Figure 3. Water electrolysis, an electrochemical reaction 

delineated in Figure 4, facilitates the disintegration of water 

molecules (H2 O) into oxygen (O2) and hydrogen (H2) gases 

[62]. The O2 and H2 ions migrate to the anode and cathode, 

respectively, within the water medium. The resultant 

hydrogen boasts numerous merits, including its utility in 

welding applications and fuel cells, particularly when blended 

with O2 to produce oxyhydrogen gas. This approach yields a 

substantial volume of high-purity hydrogen with minimal 

ecological ramifications, leveraging solar energy as its power 

source. 

 

Figure 3. Diagram illustrating the PV-electrolysis apparatus [63] 



WB. Noor & T. Amin /Future Energy                                                                                     November 2024| Volume 03 | Issue 04| Pages 01-17 

5 

 

 

Figure 4. Electrolysis of water [63] 

 

2.2.2 Hybrid photovoltaic/thermal (PV/T)-electrolysis 

system 

A Hybrid PV/T-Electrolysis System represents a 

sophisticated integration of photovoltaic (PV) and thermal 

technologies to concurrently produce electricity and heat, 

thereby offering a sustainable solution for hydrogen 

production [64]. This sophisticated system harnesses solar 

energy through both electricity generation and thermal 

absorption, driving an electrolyzer via water electrolysis and 

presenting a renewable substitute for conventional hydrogen 

production methods. Consisting of photovoltaic panels and a 

Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM) electrolysis unit, its 

components include a PV-thermal array, a DC/DC converter, 

and the electrolysis unit, as delineated in Figure 5. 

2.2.3 Wind-electrolysis system 

A Wind-Electrolysis System is engineered to utilize 

wind energy for hydrogen production via electrolysis. This 

innovative setup incorporates wind turbines to capture 

kinetic energy from the wind and transform it into electricity.  

 

Figure 5. A schematic representation of the envisaged system [63] 

This electricity then powers an electrolyzer, facilitating the 

separation of hydrogen and oxygen from water. By 

harnessing wind power, this system presents a sustainable 

and renewable approach to hydrogen production, thereby 

contributing significantly to the transition towards cleaner 

energy sources and reducing dependency on fossil fuels. The 

components of a wind-electrolysis device typically include a 

wind turbine generator, a water electrolyzer, and a converter 

(AC/DC) [65]. This system can be deployed in various 

configurations tailored to different operational scenarios: 

firstly, the direct wind-electrolysis configuration is suitable 

for remote regions equipped with wind farms [66]. Secondly, 

the hybrid wind/grid-electrolysis setup enables the grid to 

provide supplementary energy during periods of low wind 

activity. Thirdly, surplus wind energy can be supplied back to 

the grid while hydrogen is concurrently produced. Lastly, in 

the fourth scenario, excess hydrogen can be stored for future 

utilization, facilitating electricity generation through a fuel 

cell [67]. Figure 6 illustrates the distinct elements comprising 

the wind-electrolysis system. 

2.2.4 Thermolysis system 

The Thermolysis System utilizes solar energy to drive 

the disintegration of water into hydrogen and oxygen gases 

by concentrating solar radiation onto a reactor containing 

water, achieving elevated temperatures conducive to the 

endothermic water-splitting reaction. This approach presents 

potential advantages over conventional electrolysis, 

including enhanced efficiency and reduced costs, particularly 

when integrated with high-temperature electrolysis. 

Nevertheless, significant challenges persist in scaling up and 

optimizing this technology for large-scale hydrogen 

production. Ongoing research endeavors are dedicated to 

surmounting these hurdles and fully realizing the potential of 

thermolysis for sustainable hydrogen production.  

 

 



WB. Noor & T. Amin /Future Energy                                                                                     November 2024| Volume 03 | Issue 04| Pages 01-17 

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Figure 6. The fundamental concept of the wind-electrolysis system 

entails harnessing wind energy to drive the process of electrolysis for 

hydrogen generation [63] 

Furthermore, the amalgamation of solar thermal dissociation 

with high-temperature electrolysis has demonstrated a lower 

production cost compared to PV-electrolysis, as evidenced in 

Reference [68]. Through the strategic utilization of 

concentrators, thermal energy is generated to heat water or 

fossil fuels within the thermolysis system, thus presenting a 

promising avenue for hydrogen production. Additionally, the 

high-temperature decomposition of natural gas emerges as a 

particularly promising method for producing hydrogen. 

2.2.5 Thermochemical system 

The Thermochemical System employs both heat and 

chemical reactions to initiate the disintegration of water into 

hydrogen and oxygen. This intricate process involves the 

recycling of chemicals through successive thermochemical 

cycles. Three critical prerequisites for its success include the 

availability of a high-heat source, the use of materials resilient 

to such extreme temperatures, and the application of 

sophisticated chemical methodologies for the effective 

separation of hydrogen and oxygen [69]. This 

thermochemical process entails the breakdown of water into 

its constituent elements through the synergistic application of 

heat sources and chemical reactions. 

 

Figure 7. Depiction of an electrochemical cell [63] 

These reactions rely on chemicals that undergo recycling 

within a series of thermochemical cycles. The successful 

execution of this method hinges upon meeting three 

fundamental conditions: the provision of a high-heat source, 

the utilization of materials capable of enduring these elevated 

temperatures, and the implementation of intricate chemical 

techniques to facilitate the separation of hydrogen and 

oxygen. 

2.2.6 Steam electrolysis 

Steam electrolysis is a process utilized for hydrogen 

production by passing steam through an electrolyzer. Within 

the electrolyzer, electrical energy is applied to split water 

molecules (H2O) into oxygen gas (O2) and hydrogen gas (H2). 

This method is regarded as environmentally benign as it 

emits no greenhouse gases when powered by renewable 

energy sources. Its utility lies in its ability to utilize water as a 

readily available resource, albeit it demands substantial 

energy input. Ongoing research endeavors aim to enhance its 

efficiency and cost-effectiveness. The cornerstone of High-

Temperature Steam Electrolysis (HTSE) is the 

electrochemical cell, typically composed of ceramics due to 

the elevated operating temperature [70]. This cell, referred to 

as the solid oxide electrolysis cell (SOEC), comprises three 

ceramic layers: a dense electrolyte and two porous electrodes 

(a cathode for H2 and an anode for O2), as depicted in Figure 

7. Table 2 presents a comparative analysis of different 

methods, outlining their respective benefits, drawbacks, and 

associated references. 

3. Hydrogen's role in storing energy within renewable 

systems 

According to forecasts by the IEA, approximately one-

third of the world's electricity generation is projected to come 

from intermittent renewable sources such as wind and solar 

by 2040 [86]. To meet this demand, long-term solutions for 

large-scale electricity storage are necessary. Hydrogen 

storage and production emerge as prospective technology, as 

depicted in Figure 8 [87]. 

 

 



WB. Noor & T. Amin /Future Energy                                                                                     November 2024| Volume 03 | Issue 04| Pages 01-17 

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The extensive utilization of hydrogen as a sustainable 

and clean energy source, applicable to various sectors, 

including energy storage and transportation, hinges on 

advancements in storage technologies. Therefore, the 

immediate development of improved storage methods with 

the potential for higher energy density is imperative. In 

contemporary times, hydrogen is stored for onboard 

applications using high-pressure tanks for compressed gas, in 

cryogenic liquid form (below the critical temperature of 33 

K), or in solid-state compounds like complex hydrides, metal 

hydrides, or porous materials. Figure 9 illustrates the 

practical methods for hydrogen storage, which are 

categorized into four main types: hydrogen liquefaction, 

physical adsorption, chemical absorption, and pressurized 

gas storage. Hydrogen gas possesses remarkable energy value 

per unit mass due to its high molar combustion heat and low 

molecular weight [88]. Currently, the most common method 

for hydrogen storage is compressed gas. Commercial 

hydrogen storage tanks, such as those utilized in Toyota's 

Mirai fuel cell car, can accommodate hydrogen gas at 

pressures reaching 700 bar [90].  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Typically, the compression process consumes roughly 

20% of the energy held within the hydrogen [91]. Utilizing 

compressed hydrogen storage offers advantages in terms of 

technical simplicity and relatively low cost. Downsides 

involve relatively lower system energy density compared to 

fossil fuel-based systems, alongside safety considerations due 

to high pressure [92].  Hydrogen can alternatively be stored 

in liquid form, significantly boosting its volumetric energy 

density compared to storage as a compressed gas. Liquid 

hydrogen exhibits an energy density of 2.2 kWh/L, while 

compressed hydrogen gas provides 1.3 kWh/L at 700 bar and 

0.8 kWh/L at 350 bar [93]. The drawbacks of liquid hydrogen 

encompass the significant energy consumption during the 

liquefaction process, hydrogen boil-off, and the considerable 

expense of storage systems. Due to the boil-off issue, liquid 

hydrogen is primarily suited for applications where rapid 

consumption is anticipated, such as transport scenarios with 

frequent refilling options. Consequently, it is not regarded as 

a feasible option for long-term energy storage in stationary 

power systems [92]. 

 

Table 2. A comparison of various methods for producing hydrogen utilizing wind and solar energy 

H2 Production Methods Advantages Disadvantages Ref. 

Wind-Electrolysis system 

• Suitable in remote areas 
• Wind intermittency 
• Low electricity production 

cost 
• Technically mature and has 

already been commercialized 

• Power fluctuation varies 
according to wind speed 

[66], [67], [71], [72], [73], 
[74], [75], [76] 

Steam electrolysis 

• Less energy is needed to 
separate steam compared to 
liquid water. 

• The lifespan of the hydrogen 
electrode is constrained by 
degradation. 

[77] 

PV-Electrolysis system 

• Quick response time and rapid 
startup. 

• Elevated levels of hydrogen 
purity. 

• Reduced cost of electricity 
production. 

• Delayed loading response. 
• Decreased current density. 

[62], [71] 

Hybrid PV/T-Electrolysis 
system 

• Readily adjustable to achieve 
the desired rate of hydrogen 
production or to correspond 
with the output of PV energy. 

• The feedwater undergoes 
preheating. 

• It generates highly pure 
hydrogen while 
simultaneously demanding 
significantly lower 
maintenance. 

• Distilled or deionized water is 
required instead of tap water. 

[78- 82] 

Thermolysis system 

• Optimal efficiency. 
• Cost-effective. 

• Necessitates elevated 
temperatures. 

• Inapplicable for practical use 
because of the elevated 
temperature requirement. 

• Challenging to timely 
separate hydrogen and 
oxygen. 

[68], [83], [84] 

Thermochemical system 

• Significant potential for 
theoretical efficiency. 

• Minimal or absent 
greenhouse gas emissions. 

• Sophisticated chemical 
techniques are employed for 
the separation of H2 and O2. 

• Produces a substantial 
amount of waste. 

[69], [77], [85] 

 



WB. Noor & T. Amin /Future Energy                                                                                     November 2024| Volume 03 | Issue 04| Pages 01-17 

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Figure 9. Processes and phenomena of different hydrogen storage 

systems [89] 

 

Solid-state storage emerges as a secure, promising, and 

efficient method for hydrogen storage. This approach 

involves storing hydrogen within a material, either in atomic 

form or as H2 molecules, through two established processes: 

physisorption and chemisorption [94]. Physisorption 

presents an additional approach to hydrogen storage. In this 

method, hydrogen gas molecules adhere to the surface of a 

solid material through adsorption and are subsequently 

released as gas when required, such as in fuel cell 

applications. The prevalent materials utilized for hydrogen 

gas adsorption include metal-organic frameworks and 

carbon-based materials [91].  

 

 

Hydrogen storage through physisorption offers 

advantages such as simplified system design, low-pressure 

requirements, and the use of relatively inexpensive materials. 

Challenges include the relatively low hydrogen density 

achieved on carbon and the requirement for low 

temperatures [95]. Another method for hydrogen storage is 

chemisorption in metal hydrides, where hydrogen gas is 

absorbed and retained within a metal powder, which can be 

either a metal alloy or a pure metal. Heat is generated during 

the absorption of hydrogen gas into the metal hydride 

material, and conversely, applying heat is essential to 

facilitate the release of hydrogen from the metal hydride. A 

limitation of the metal hydride storage method, observed 

with certain materials, is the strong bonding between 

hydrogen and the metal hydride, requiring relatively high 

temperatures for hydrogen release. For instance, 

temperatures exceeding 650°C are necessary for lithium. Yet, 

one advantage is that certain materials boast remarkably high 

gravimetric hydrogen capacities, reaching up to 18 wt% for 

LiBH4 [91]. Hydrogen stands at the forefront of renewable 

energy storage solutions, offering a versatile and scalable 

option to address the intermittent of renewable sources. Its 

potential for long-term storage, coupled with its versatility in 

various applications, makes it a compelling choice for 

integration into renewable energy systems. 

4. Hydrogen's role in future energy generation and 

applications 

Both developed and developing nations increasingly 

acknowledge the significance of hydrogen energy as an 

energy carrier for achieving sustainable growth on a global 

scale [96]. Despite its remarkable power generation 

capacities, hydrogen is predominantly utilized in sectors 

beyond power generation. A considerable portion of 

commercially generated hydrogen finds application in 

diverse sectors such as oil refining, recycling, metalworking, 

chemical processing, and fertilizer production, as shown in 

Figure 10.  

 

Figure 8. Analyzing Storage Capacity and Discharge Time Across Diverse Energy Storage Solutions [87] 



WB. Noor & T. Amin /Future Energy                                                                                     November 2024| Volume 03 | Issue 04| Pages 01-17 

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Figure 10. Present and prospective industrial uses of hydrogen 

 

While hydrogen products currently serve as 

foundational resources within the industrial sector, their 

potential as a comprehensive energy carrier remains largely 

untapped. Of the approximately 50 million metric tons 

produced annually worldwide, the primary application is as a 

feedstock for ammonia production, with oil refining 

accounting for 35% of its usage [34]. Fuel cells and hydrogen 

are widely regarded as pivotal technologies for a sustainable 

future energy source. Projections suggest that increasing 

renewable energy shares to 36% by 2025 and 69% by 2050 

could result in hydrogen shares rising to 11% by 2025 and 

34% by 2050, contributing significantly to meeting total 

energy demand [97]. Hydrogen holds the potential to 

generate electricity, produce synthetic fuels, and perform 

mechanical work [98]. Fuel cells possess the capability to 

convert hydrogen into electrical energy, facilitating its 

transfer and storage for subsequent use [99]. One of the main 

reasons for considering hydrogen is its ability to complement 

electricity in energy transport. Currently, a prominent 

application of hydrogen occurs within the transportation 

sector. While electric vehicle users often express concerns 

about limited range and long recharge times, these worries 

are alleviated by hydrogen-powered fuel cell electric vehicles, 

which offer significantly faster refueling times, minimal 

behavioral adjustments, and extended range compared to 

electric vehicles [100]. Hydrogen shows promising potential 

for utilization in spark ignition engines [101].  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 
Internal combustion engines (ICEs) utilize the energy 

from a fuel, like hydrogen, to generate mechanical power, 
which in turn drives a shaft. In power generation, a generator 
is coupled to convert this mechanical energy into electrical 
power. Hydrogen-fueled ICEs emit fewer pollutants, mainly 
nitrous oxides, compared to traditional ICEs. Moreover, they 
exhibit up to 25% higher fuel efficiency than standard 
gasoline engines, with conventional car fuels typically 
achieving efficiencies of only 20-25%, while hydrogen ICEs 
can reach rates of 30-40% [102]. Hydrogen is regarded as a 
promising energy source with the potential to mitigate CO2 
emissions. Figure 11 illustrates a comparison between fossil 
fuels and hydrogen technologies. It is estimated that 
employing hydrogen derived from conventional methods can 
reduce carbon emissions by nearly 20% when utilized in fuel 
cells. Thus, the production of hydrogen using RS could 
substantially mitigate carbon emissions [103]. The research 
conducted by the Hydrogen Council indicates that demand 
and supply for hydrogen (H2) could potentially reach 10 
exajoules annually by 2050, with further anticipated growth 
of approximately 5%–10% per year beyond 2050. Therefore, 
it can be asserted that hydrogen is poised to emerge as a 
formidable contender in the future global energy landscape 
[104]. 

5. Challenges and perspectives  

The cost dynamics associated with hydrogen production 

are contingent upon numerous factors, with the primary 

determinant being the expense linked to the electricity 



WB. Noor & T. Amin /Future Energy                                                                                     November 2024| Volume 03 | Issue 04| Pages 01-17 

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required for electrolysis. Additional considerations include 

investments in diverse equipment for establishing 

sustainable energy sources, land procurement expenses, and 

the anticipated lifespan of the infrastructure. These financial 

commitments can be categorized into two main areas: 

production and logistical costs. Furthermore, local regulatory 

frameworks and financial variables such as capital outlays 

play a significant role in determining the final delivery cost. 

Throughout the production process, the pricing mechanisms 

governing renewable energy and fossil fuels, like coal and 

natural gas, significantly influence variable costs, thereby 

shaping the comparative competitiveness of each technology. 

 

Figure 11. The influence of combustion and hydrogen production on 

carbon emissions [103] 

 

 

The data illustrated in Figure 12 indicates that 

renewable electricity, both on average and in the best-case 

scenario, may present competitive supply costs when 

compared to fossil fuels with carbon capture and storage 

(CCS). This suggests that under specific circumstances, 

renewables could potentially emerge as one of the most 

economically feasible options for producing hydrogen, even 

in the current landscape. In this optimal scenario, a low-cost 

electrolyzer priced at USD 200/kW is considered, a milestone 

expected to be widely achievable by 2040, although some 

Chinese manufacturers claim its present feasibility. 

Furthermore, there are instances of low-cost renewable 

power, exemplified by wind projects in countries like Brazil 

and Saudi Arabia, where electricity costs are as low as USD 

23/MWh [105]. Electricity, the primary output of renewable 

energy sources, is important for powering electrolysis units 

in hydrogen generation. Consequently, electricity price plays 

a significant role in determining the overall expense of 

hydrogen production. This cost is contingent upon various 

factors, including the installation of renewable energy 

infrastructure, geographical considerations, land costs, and 

the design and scale of renewable energy systems. Figure 13, 

which outlines the cost ranges associated with hydrogen 

production utilizing different renewable energy sources [106, 

107], illustrates pertinent insights. It reveals that 

conventional energy sources like nuclear and coal generally 

offer lower production costs compared to renewables. 

However, their environmental impact, characterized by 

greenhouse gas emissions, poses notable concerns.  

 

Figure 12. The expenses associated with generating hydrogen from renewable sources and fossil fuels are currently being examined [105] 



WB. Noor & T. Amin /Future Energy                                                                                     November 2024| Volume 03 | Issue 04| Pages 01-17 

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In contrast, despite the relatively higher costs associated 

with hydrogen production from green energy sources, there 

exists a prevailing global preference for their adoption due to 

their emission-free attributes. Efforts are actively underway 

to mitigate the costs associated with renewable energy 

sources. As delineated in Figure 13, renewable energy 

systems for hydrogen production typically entail higher 

expenses compared to conventional energy sources. 

Achieving optimal, reliable, cost-effective, environmentally 

sustainable, and efficient hydrogen generation presents a 

multifaceted challenge, as no single technique can satisfy all 

these objectives simultaneously. Hence, additional 

investigation is warranted to address the remaining 

complexities outlined as follows [108]. Given that hydrogen is 

not naturally occurring and must be synthesized, there is a 

pressing need to innovate manufacturing methods that 

consume less energy and facilitate large-scale production. 

Moreover, prioritizing water as a feedstock is advantageous 

due to its potential to mitigate environmental impact by 

eliminating CO2 emissions. As hydrogen exists in a gaseous 

state at room temperature, it possesses a notably low 

volumetric density, necessitating a volume exceeding 3000 

times that of typical liquid fuels to produce equivalent energy. 

Thus, it is pertinent to decrease the volume of hydrogen to 

streamline its storage and transportation processes. Due to 

hydrogen's increased flammability relative to other fuels, 

safety becomes a significant concern. 

 

 

 

 

 

Additionally, as an asphyxiant gas, it can result in 

suffocation by depleting oxygen levels in the atmosphere. 

Consequently, meticulous attention to various safety and 

security protocols is essential when handling or storing 

hydrogen. Once hydrogen is prepared for utilization, it should 

be employed with utmost efficiency to generate heat or 

power. Due to its production process rather than natural 

occurrence, hydrogen commands a cost threefold higher than 

fossil fuels. Moreover, storage considerations may exacerbate 

expenses, particularly with the utilization of high-pressure 

technologies. A projection of production costs for renewable 

hydrogen can be extrapolated and juxtaposed against fossil 

fuel alternatives integrating carbon capture and storage 

(CCS). A portion of CO₂ remains unsequestered in CCS 

facilities, prompting consideration of carbon pricing, as 

delineated in Figure 14. Forecasts indicate that hydrogen 

production from low-cost solar and wind photovoltaic (PV) 

projects is poised to attain competitiveness with fossil fuels 

within the upcoming five years, particularly in comparison to 

steam methane reforming (SMR) from natural gas with CCS, 

assuming a natural gas price of USD 8 per million British 

thermal units (Btus). In the case of low-cost PV projects, this 

equilibrium is anticipated within eight years. Subsequently, 

from 2030 to 2040, renewable hydrogen costs are projected 

to fall below those of fossil fuels with CCS across all scenarios. 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Figure 13. The expense of generating hydrogen fluctuates depending on the energy source used [63] 



WB. Noor & T. Amin /Future Energy                                                                                     November 2024| Volume 03 | Issue 04| Pages 01-17 

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6. Conclusion 

The transition to utilizing renewable energy sources, like 

wind and solar, for hydrogen production is a pivotal step 

toward achieving sustainable energy objectives. Cutting-edge 

technologies, including water electrolysis and biomass 

conversion, offer efficient pathways to produce 

environmentally friendly hydrogen. Emphasizing the 

potential for energy storage and reliable supply underscores 

the strategic importance of this approach. Future initiatives 

are focused on optimizing electrolysis systems and enhancing 

biomass conversion techniques to accelerate the transition to 

a cleaner energy landscape. In tandem with renewable energy 

production, hydrogen offers diverse storage options, ranging 

from compressed gas to liquid and solid-state storage. Each 

method presents unique advantages and challenges related to 

energy usage and safety. Ongoing efforts are directed toward 

enhancing storage technologies to minimize energy 

consumption and ensure broader acceptance. The versatility 

and scalability of hydrogen position it as a promising 

candidate for integrating renewable energy solutions, thus 

fostering sustainability across various sectors. Recognized as 

a cornerstone of sustainable global development, hydrogen is 

increasingly valued for its multifaceted applications. 

Projections indicate a substantial rise in its role in meeting 

energy demands by 2050, particularly as renewable energy 

adoption accelerates. Its versatility extends to electricity 

generation, synthetic fuel production, and beyond, with fuel 

cell electric vehicles offering enhanced efficiency and range.  

 

 

 

 
Additionally, hydrogen holds promise in reducing CO2 

emissions, particularly when derived from renewable 

sources. To fully capitalize on its potential, ongoing efforts are 

essential to advance production, storage, and utilization 

technologies, ensuring maximum efficiency and 

sustainability. Despite the complexities associated with 

hydrogen production costs, renewable energy sources offer 

promising avenues for achieving competitive pricing. 

Addressing challenges such as innovative manufacturing, 

storage optimization, and safety protocols is paramount for 

cost-effective and efficient hydrogen generation. Future 

endeavors should prioritize research into enhancing 

electrolysis efficiency, storage, and transportation alongside 

advancements in renewable energy technologies. These 

collective efforts will facilitate the widespread adoption of 

hydrogen as a renewable energy solution, thus contributing 

to a greener and more resilient energy landscape. 

Ethical issue 
The authors are aware of and comply with best practices in 
publication ethics, specifically concerning authorship 
(avoidance of guest authorship), dual submission, 
manipulation of figures, competing interests, and compliance 
with policies on research ethics. The authors adhere to 
publication requirements that the submitted work is original 
and has not been published elsewhere in any language. 

 

 

Figure 14. The expenses related to generating hydrogen from wind and solar energy are compared to those from fossil fuels [109] 



WB. Noor & T. Amin /Future Energy                                                                                     November 2024| Volume 03 | Issue 04| Pages 01-17 

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Data availability statement 
Data sharing does not apply to this article as no datasets were 

generated or analyzed during the current study.  

Conflict of interest 

The authors declare no potential conflict of interest. 

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