







































A. Naseri et al. /Future Energy                                                                                                     August 2025| Volume 04 | Issue 03| Pages 18-34 

18 

 

 

 

Article 

Renewable energy in transportation: economic and 

environmental trade-offs 
Amir Naseri1, Amirali Saifoddin1,2*, Amin Zahedi1, Mahmood Abdoos1, Younes Noorollahi1 

1School of Energy Engineering and Sustainable Resources, College of Interdisciplinary Science and Technology, University 

of Tehran, Tehran, Iran 
2Institute of Soft Technologies, Faculty of Energy Engineering and Sustainable Resources, College of Interdisciplinary 

Science and Technologies, University of Tehran, Iran 

A R T I C L E   I N F O 
 

Article history: 
Received 15 April 2025  
Received in revised form 
28 May 2025 
Accepted 13 June 2025 
 
Keywords: 
Energy economics, Energy system modeling, 
Electric vehicles, Renewable energy,  
Greenhouse gas emission reduction,  
Sustainable transportation 
 
*Corresponding author 
Email address:  
saifoddin@ut.ac.ir 
  
 
DOI: 10.55670/fpll.fuen.4.3.3 

A B S T R A C T 
 

This paper explores the benefits and challenges of transitioning from fossil-
fueled vehicles to electric vehicles in Iran, with a focus on economic and 
environmental analysis. To this end, three different scenarios were considered 
to evaluate the impacts of this transition: the baseline system (fossil-fueled 
vehicles only), electric vehicles powered by fossil-based electricity, and electric 
vehicles powered by renewable energy. Each scenario was analyzed using 
various criteria, including fuel and maintenance costs, greenhouse gas 
emissions, required infrastructure investments, and return on investment. The 
results reveal that in the baseline scenario, annual CO₂ emissions of 73.25 
million tons and total annual costs of $1.92 billion are among the main 
challenges. In the second scenario, with a 50% penetration of electric vehicles 
powered by fossil-based electricity, CO₂ emissions are reduced by 36.76 million 
tons, and the return on investment is achieved within five years. In the third 
scenario, assuming renewable energy sources supply electricity and a 70% 
penetration of electric vehicles, CO₂ emissions are reduced by 114.49 million 
tons, and a return on investment of 32.6% is achieved. These findings 
underscore the importance of integrating electric vehicles with renewable 
energy to achieve economic and environmental sustainability. The study 
highlights the critical need for developing renewable energy infrastructure and 
implementing appropriate policies to accelerate the transition to electric 
vehicles. 
 

 
1. Introduction  

Due to global concerns such as climate change and 

environmental pollution, various countries are moving 

toward sustainable and green economic development [1, 2]. 

Among the critical sectors underpinning any country's 

economic development is the transportation sector. This 

highlights the importance of focusing on transportation to 

achieve sustainable and green economic development. 

According to data published by the IEA in 2023, global CO₂ 

emissions exceeded 30 billion tons in 2021, serving as a 

serious warning to the international community. The 

transportation sector is responsible for 25% of these 

emissions and accounts for 55% of global oil consumption [3-

6]. In recent years, governments worldwide have prioritized 

replacing fossil fuels with renewable energy sources in the 

transportation sector to achieve sustainable and green 

economic growth [1, 2]. One of the key strategies to reduce 

greenhouse gas emissions in transportation is the adoption of 

EVs, provided that their electricity is generated using 

renewable energy sources such as wind and solar power. 

According to statistics from the IEA, the sales of electric 

vehicles across various regions from 2012 to 2024, illustrated 

in Figure 1, demonstrate a growing global inclination toward 

EV adoption, especially in developed countries [7]. So far, 

extensive research has been conducted on the use of electric 

vehicles and their role in addressing environmental, 

economic, and energy network challenges across different 

countries, some of which are discussed below. Li et al. [8] 

investigated various scenarios for the deployment of electric 

vehicles in their country, focusing on their impact on the 

energy mix, economic outcomes, and environmental 

consequences, considering expected developments by 2030. 

Li et al. [8] also aimed to develop the electric vehicle market 

through improving charging strategies and power system 

design in China.  

 

 

 

Future Energy 

Open Access Journal 

https://doi.org/10.55670/fpll.fuen.4.3.3 

 

August 2025| Volume 04 | Issue 03 | Pages 18-34 

Journal homepage: https://fupubco.com/fuen 

 
ISSN 2832-0328 

mailto:saifoddin@ut.ac.ir
https://doi.org/10.55670/fpll.fuen.4.3.3
https://fupubco.com/fuen


A. Naseri et al. /Future Energy                                                                                                     August 2025| Volume 04 | Issue 03| Pages 18-34 

19 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Their findings indicated that, from an environmental 

perspective, the adoption of electric vehicles in China does not 

effectively reduce CO₂ emissions. This is primarily because 

the electricity required for these vehicles is generated using 

coal rather than renewable energy sources. As a result, the 

electrification of vehicles merely shifts the energy mix rather 

than improving CO₂ emissions, with coal replacing gasoline as 

the energy source. Economically, electric vehicles outperform 

gasoline vehicles in terms of average fueling costs. The study 

suggested that, from both environmental and economic 

perspectives, it would be more beneficial for electric vehicles 

to rely on renewable energy or even natural gas for electricity 

generation. Additionally, establishing CO₂ emission 

regulations for electricity production and transmission could 

significantly contribute to the development of electric 

vehicles. In another study conducted by García-Olivares et al 

[9], a 100% renewable energy system for the transportation 

sector was proposed. This study examined existing and 

emerging technologies for replacing fossil fuels in 

transportation and estimated the energy requirements and 

costs associated with transitioning to a fully renewable 

transportation system. The results revealed that such a 

system could reduce global transportation energy 

consumption by 18%, with a 69% reduction expected in road 

transportation. However, aviation and maritime 

transportation are projected to see increases of 149% and 

163%, respectively.  

 

The study concluded that transitioning to a 100% 

renewable transportation system is feasible but would 

require careful management of natural resources and 

overcoming challenges related to material and energy 

consumption across various sectors. Another study by Ding et 

al [1] focused on promoting sustainable and green economic 

development. Using a two-stage least squares regression 

approach, this research analyzed the impact of renewable 

energy adoption on achieving sustainability in China’s 

transportation sector. The results indicated that renewable 

energy utilization and investments in green financing are two 

key factors for establishing an environmentally friendly 

transportation system. Furthermore, these factors play a 

significant role in reducing carbon emissions and fostering 

green economic growth. The research by Zahoor et al. [10] 

focused on the development of electric vehicles and their role 

in reducing carbon emissions. It examined technologies and 

policies that could facilitate the adoption of electric vehicles 

in China. The findings revealed that government policies, such 

as tax exemptions, advancements in innovative technologies, 

expansion of charging infrastructure, and easing traffic 

restrictions, could significantly boost the adoption of electric 

vehicles and reduce CO₂ emissions. The analysis showed that 

the share of renewable energy in China’s electricity mix could 

increase from 42% in 2030 to 93% by 2060, while the reliance 

on fossil fuels could decrease from 55% to 4%. In another 

study conducted by Taghizad et al. [5], the focus was on the 

role of electric vehicle charging stations and load distribution 

management within power grids to support electric vehicle 

development. The researchers emphasized that establishing 

charging stations powered by renewable energy sources 

could further enhance the adoption of electric vehicles and 

reduce environmental pollution. The study analyzed global 

standards for EV charging, different types of EVs, and 

converter architectures (AC-DC and DC-DC) to address 

challenges related to peak demand and ensure the efficiency 

of charging infrastructure. The results indicated that smart 

and controlled charging strategies could alleviate grid 

pressures, enhance the integration of renewable energy 

sources, and optimize the design and implementation of EV 

charging infrastructure. 

 

 

Abbreviations 

BEVs  Battery Electric Vehicles  

CPVT  Concentrated Photovoltaic-Thermal  

EVs  Electric Vehicles 

FCEVs  Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles  

HO  Highway Operator  

IEA  International Energy Agency 

ILUC  Indirect Land Use Change  

MESV  Mobile Energy Storage Vehicle  

MILP  Mixed Integer Linear Programming  

RES  Renewable Energy Systems  

 

Figure1. The number of sales of electric cars in different regions of the world [7] 



A. Naseri et al. /Future Energy                                                                                                     August 2025| Volume 04 | Issue 03| Pages 18-34 

20 

 

Table 1 (Appendix I) presents additional research that 

reviews the articles in terms of content, furthering our 

understanding of previous research. 

Considering the review of previous studies, although 

various research efforts have sought to highlight the role of 

renewable energy in the transportation sector by introducing 

diverse technologies and assessing the environmental 

benefits of these resources, as well as analyzing the impact of 

incorporating renewable energy into transportation from the 

perspective of national energy networks, a comprehensive 

study addressing the balance and trade-offs between the 

economic and environmental advantages and disadvantages 

of using such energy sources remains absent. The significance 

of this research lies in the fact that merely examining 

environmental and technical aspects is insufficient for the 

development of renewable energy in the transportation 

sector. A thorough and simultaneous evaluation of economic 

costs and benefits alongside environmental aspects is 

essential. Consequently, this study aims to achieve a deeper 

understanding of how to create a relative balance between 

environmental and economic factors in a manner that fosters 

the sustainable development of renewable energy in 

transportation. It can serve as a foundation for policymaking 

and the sustainable development of renewable energy in this 

sector. This paper seeks to provide a comprehensive analysis 

of the economic and environmental impacts of utilizing 

renewable energy in transportation, focusing on how to 

balance economic benefits, such as reducing operational costs 

and improving energy efficiency, with environmental 

advantages, such as reducing emissions and preserving 

ecosystem sustainability. Through a quantitative and 

qualitative analysis of these aspects, the study aims to identify 

the opportunities and challenges of sustainable renewable 

energy development in transportation and offer policy 

recommendations to optimize this balance. The ultimate goal 

of this research is to propose an approach that minimizes the 

negative economic and environmental impacts while paving 

the way for more informed and effective decision-making 

toward sustainable transportation development. 

2. Methodology 

This section explains the research process, various 

scenarios, and data used in the economic and environmental 

analysis of transitioning from fossil-fuel vehicles to EVs in 

Iran. The statistics and figures employed in this research, 

which serve as the foundation for calculations in subsequent 

sections, are based on the most recent and reliable data from 

the Iranian Energy Balance Sheet (2021). These data form the 

primary basis for all calculations and analyses. The main 

objective of this research is to analyze the economic and 

environmental advantages and disadvantages of using 

electric vehicles powered by various energy sources. 

2.1 Research objectives 

The primary goal of this paper is to examine and analyze 

the economic and environmental impacts of transitioning 

from fossil-fuel vehicles to electric vehicles in Iran. The 

specific objectives of this research are: 

• To compare the economic and environmental costs of using 

fossil-fuel vehicles versus electric vehicles. 

• To analyze various energy supply scenarios for electric 

vehicles and their impact on reducing CO2 emissions. 

• To evaluate the environmental and economic benefits of 

using electric vehicles powered by renewable energy 

sources. 

2.2 Research methodology and models 

This research is based on three main scenarios and three 

sub-scenarios, which are explained in detail below: 

• Scenario 1 (Baseline System): In this scenario, all vehicles 

are fossil-fuel-based, and no electric vehicles are used. This 

scenario serves as the baseline for comparison with other 

scenarios. 

• Scenario 2 (Electric Vehicles with Fossil-Fuel Electricity): 

In this scenario, it is assumed that electric vehicles are 

solely powered by fossil-fuel energy sources. This scenario 

is analyzed under the following three conditions: 

o Case 1 (30%): 30% of vehicles are electric. 

o Case 2 (50%): 50% of vehicles are electric. 

o Case 3 (70%): 70% of vehicles are electric. 

• Scenario 3 (Electric Vehicles with Renewable Electricity): 

In this scenario, it is assumed that electric vehicles are 

powered solely by renewable energy sources (e.g., solar, 

wind, etc.). This scenario is also analyzed under the following 

three conditions: 

o Case 1 (30%): 30% of vehicles are electric. 

o Case 2 (50%): 50% of vehicles are electric. 

o Case 3 (70%): 70% of vehicles are electric. 

Table 2 contains the economic and environmental data used 

for analyzing the transition from fossil-fuel vehicles to electric 

vehicles in Iran. All statistics and figures in this study are 

extracted from the Iranian Energy Balance Sheet (2021) and 

are considered the most up-to-date and reliable data available 

in this field. To determine the required investment for 

charging stations, Equation (1) will be used. 

Total Investment for Charging Stations = Number of Stations × 

Cost per Charging Station                            (1) 

In Equation (1), the number of charging stations will be 

calculated using Equation (2). 

Ncar

Nday×Ncs
= Ns             (2) 

In this context,  Ncar represents the number of electric 

vehicles, Nday is the number of operational days for a station 

in a year, Ncs refers to the daily capacity of a station for 

charging vehicles, and Ns represents the number of charging 

stations. The number of operational days will be considered 

as 365 days, and the daily capacity of the station will be set to 

20 vehicles in this study. 

Additionally, the cost for equipment, installation, and 

necessary infrastructure for one charging station in Iran is 

approximately 875 USD. The internal rate of return is 

calculated using the cash flow of the project over time, as 

expressed in Equation (3). 

∑
(𝑁𝐶𝐹)𝑡

(1+IRR)t
n
t=0 = 0 = 𝑁𝑃𝑉            (3) 

NCF refers to the net cash flow, which is obtained according 

to Equation (4). 

NCF=Annual Income−Annual Operational Costs        (4) 

 



A. Naseri et al. /Future Energy                                                                                                     August 2025| Volume 04 | Issue 03| Pages 18-34 

21 

 

Table 2. Comparison of economic and environmental data of fossil 

and electric vehicles 

Item Details 

Total number of fossil-fuel vehicles 41 million units 

Average fuel consumption of fossil-fuel 
vehicles 

6.9 liters per 100 
kilometers 

Average distance traveled per vehicle per 
month 

400 kilometers 

Annual gasoline consumption 
31,851.4 million 
liters 

Annual LPG consumption 
2,545 million cubic 
meters 

Annual crude oil equivalent natural gas 
consumption 

54.6 million barrels 
of oil equivalent 

Cost per liter of gasoline 2.8 cents 

Fuel cost per kilometer for fossil-fuel 
vehicles 

0.18 cents 

Charging cost per kilometer for electric 
vehicles 

0.09 cents 

Average purchase price of fossil-fuel 
vehicles 

$437.50 

Average purchase price of electric vehicles $4,375 

Annual maintenance cost of fossil-fuel 
vehicles 

$25 

Annual maintenance cost of electric 
vehicles 

33% less than 
fossil-fuel vehicles 
($16.75) 

Electricity cost for electric vehicles 
0.68 cents per 
kilowatt-hour 

The average battery capacity of electric 
vehicles 

50 kilowatt-hours 

Range of electric vehicles on a single 
charge 

400 kilometers 

CO2 emissions from fossil-fuel vehicles 
2.3 kilograms of 
CO2 per liter of 
gasoline 

CO2 emissions from electric vehicles using 
fossil-fuel electricity 

0.6 kilograms of 
CO2 per kilowatt-
hour 

CO2 emissions from electric vehicles using 
renewable electricity 

Negligible (can be 
ignored) 

Average energy consumption of EVs 
12.5 kilowatt-hours 
per 100 kilometers 

 

The annual income is derived from Equation (5). 

Annual Income=Number of Electric Vehicles×Average Annual 

Kilometer×Charging Rate           (5) 

• Number of electric vehicles: Variable in each scenario 

• Average annual kilometers: 4,800 kilometers (400 

kilometers per month) 

• Charging rate: 0.09 cents 

• Annual operational costs: These include maintenance costs 

of the stations and electricity consumption, which in this 

study are considered to be approximately 10% of the initial 

investment cost. 

The payback period is calculated using Equation (6). 

𝐶𝐴𝑃𝐸𝑋 

NCF
= Payback Period          (6)   

 𝐶𝐴𝑃𝐸𝑋 The cost is the initial investment. 

2.3 Analysis method 

For each scenario and its respective sub-cases, separate 

economic and environmental calculations are conducted. 

These calculations include costs associated with fuel, 

maintenance, and vehicle purchase, as well as CO2 emissions 

resulting from fuel consumption and energy supply. Finally, 

the results are presented comparatively among the scenarios. 

In the Results section, these calculations are fully examined, 

and comparisons between the proposed scenarios are carried 

out. 

3. Results and discussion 

This section analyzes and interprets the economic and 

environmental results related to the transition from fossil fuel 

vehicles to electric vehicles in Iran. Using the provided data, 

three different scenarios for this transition are evaluated. 

Each scenario is assessed based on economic criteria (e.g., 

purchase cost, maintenance cost, electricity cost, and return 

on investment) and environmental criteria (e.g., reduction of 

greenhouse gas emissions). The ultimate goal is to identify the 

most suitable strategy for developing electric vehicles in Iran 

and mitigating the environmental impacts of fossil fuel 

vehicles. 

• Scenario 1: Base system (only fossil fuel vehicles) 

This scenario serves as the baseline for comparison, and its 

economic and environmental results are shown in Table 3. 

The baseline system represents the current conditions with 

widespread use of fossil fuel vehicles. This scenario imposes 

substantial economic and environmental costs. Emitting 73 

million tons of CO2 annually from road transportation alone 

poses a significant environmental challenge for Iran. 

Additionally, annual fuel and maintenance expenses place a 

heavy financial burden on households and the national 

economy. 

• Scenario 2: Electric vehicles powered by fossil-fueled 

electricity 

In this scenario, it is assumed that the electricity required for 

electric vehicles (EVs) is generated using fossil fuel-based 

energy sources. The penetration of electric vehicles in this 

scenario is divided into three levels: 30%, 50%, and 70%. 

Case 1: 30% Electric vehicles 

Table 4 presents the economic and environmental status of 

the transportation sector, assuming 30% adoption of electric 

vehicles. 

The fuel cost for the remaining fossil fuel vehicles decreases 

to $0.63 billion, while the electricity cost for electric vehicles 

reaches $0.18 billion. The maintenance cost for electric 

vehicles amounts to $0.2 billion. The reduction in CO2 

emissions in this scenario is 22,077,160 tons. The required 

investment for charging infrastructure is $105,000, with an 

internal rate of return (IRR) of 29.5%, and a payback period 

of 5.2 years. 



A. Naseri et al. /Future Energy                                                                                                     August 2025| Volume 04 | Issue 03| Pages 18-34 

22 

 

Table 3. Current status of Iran's transportation system (baseline 

scenario) 

Parameter Value 
Total number of fossil fuel 
vehicles 

41 million vehicles 

Annual fuel consumption of 
fossil vehicles 

31,851.4 million liters of gasoline 

Annual fuel cost $0.9 billion (at a rate of $0.028 
per liter) 

Annual CO2CO_2CO2 
emissions (tons) 

73,257,220 tons CO2CO_2CO2 
(considering 2.3 kg CO2CO_2CO2 
per liter of gasoline consumed) 

Annual maintenance costs $1.02 billion ($25 per vehicle) 
Total annual costs $1.92 billion (fuel and 

maintenance costs) 
 

Table 4. Economic and environmental status of transportation in the 

second scenario, assuming 30% electric vehicle use 

Parameter Value 
Number of Electric Vehicles 12.3 million units 
Fuel Cost for Remaining 
Fossil Fuel Vehicles 

$0.63 billion 

Electricity Cost for Electric 
Vehicles 

$0.18 billion (at $0.085 per 
kilometer for 12.3 million 
vehicles) 

Maintenance Cost for Electric 
Vehicles 

$0.2 billion ($16.75 per year for 
12.3 million vehicles) 

Annual CO2CO_2CO2 
Emissions from Fossil-Fueled 
Electricity 

27,720,000 tons CO2CO_2CO2 
(based on 60.8 billion kWh 
electricity generated from fossil 
fuel sources) 

Reduction in CO2CO_2CO2 
Emissions 

22,077,160 tons CO2CO_2CO2 
(compared to the baseline 
scenario) 

Total Investment in Charging 
Stations 

$105,000 

Internal Rate of Return (IRR) 29.50% 
Payback Period 5.2 years 

 

Case 2: 50% Electric vehicles 

Table 5 presents the economic and environmental status of 

the transportation sector, assuming 50% of vehicles are 

electric. The fuel cost for the remaining fossil fuel vehicles 

decreases to $0.45 billion, while the electricity cost for 

electric vehicles rises to $0.3 billion. The maintenance cost for 

electric vehicles increases to $0.34 billion. The reduction in 

CO2 emissions reaches 36,760,000 tons. The investment 

required for charging infrastructure rises to $175,000, with 

an IRR of 30.2% and a payback period of 5 years. 

Case 3: 70% Electric vehicles 

Table 6 presents the economic and environmental status of 

the transportation sector, assuming 70% electric vehicle 

penetration. In this scenario, fuel costs for fossil vehicles 

decrease to $0.27 billion, while electricity costs for electric 

vehicles rise to $0.41 billion. The maintenance costs for 

electric vehicles increased to $0.48 billion, and CO2 emissions 

decreased by 51,443,040 tons. The investment required for 

charging infrastructure is $5,000, with an IRR of 30.8% and a 

payback period of 4.8 years. Despite reduced fuel and 

maintenance costs, the environmental benefits are limited 

due to reliance on fossil-based electricity. This highlights the 

need for a transition to renewable energy sources to fully 

harness the potential of electric vehicles. 

 

Table 5. Economic and environmental status of transportation in the 

second scenario, assuming 50% electric vehicle use 

Parameter Value 

Number of Electric Vehicles 21 million vehicles 

Fuel Cost for Remaining Fossil Fuel 
Vehicles 

$0.45 billion 

Electricity Cost for Electric Vehicles 
$0.3 billion (0.085 cents 
per km for 21million 
vehicles) 

Maintenance Cost for Electric Vehicles $0.34 billion 

Annual CO2 Emissions from Fossil-
Fueled Electricity 

46,200,000 tons CO2 

Reduction in CO2 Emissions 36,760,000 tons CO2 

Total Investment in Charging Stations $175,000 

Internal Rate of Return (IRR) 30.20% 

Payback Period 5 years 

 

Scenario 3: Electric vehicles with renewable energy 

In this scenario, it is assumed that the electricity consumed by 

electric vehicles is entirely sourced from solar energy. The 

impacts of this scenario are evaluated under three levels of 

electric vehicle penetration: 30%, 50%, and 70%. 

Case 1: 30% Electric vehicles 

Table 7 presents the economic and environmental status of 

the transportation sector in Scenario 3, assuming 30% 

adoption of electric vehicles. The fuel cost for the remaining 

fossil fuel vehicles decreases to 0.63 billion dollars, while the 

electricity cost for electric vehicles reaches 0.18 billion 

dollars, and the maintenance cost amounts to 0.2 billion 

dollars. The CO2 reduction is equivalent to 49,797,160 tons. 

The required investment for the solar power plant is 

480,343.75 dollars, with an internal rate of return (IRR) of 

31.67% and a payback period of 5 years. 

 
Table 6. Economic and environmental status of transportation in the 

second scenario, assuming the use of 70% electric vehicles 

Parameter Value 

Number of Electric Vehicles 29million units 

Fuel Cost for Remaining Fossil Vehicles $0.27 billion 

Electricity Cost for Electric Vehicles $0.41 billion 

Maintenance Cost for Electric Vehicles $0.48 billion 

Annual CO2 Emissions from Fossil 
Electricity 

64,680,000 tons CO2 

Reduction in CO2 Emissions 51,443,040 tons CO2 

Total Investment in Charging Stations $245,000 

Internal Rate of Return (IRR) 30.80% 

Payback Period 4.8 years 

 

 



A. Naseri et al. /Future Energy                                                                                                     August 2025| Volume 04 | Issue 03| Pages 18-34 

23 

 

Table 7. Economic and environmental status of transportation in the 

third scenario and assuming the use of 30% electric vehicles 

Parameter Value 

Number of Electric Vehicles 12 million units 

Fuel Cost for Remaining Fossil Vehicles $0.63 billion 

Electricity Cost for Electric Vehicles $0.18 billion 

Maintenance Cost for Electric Vehicles $0.2 billion 

Investment in Solar Power Plants $480343.75 

Reduction in CO2 Emissions (tons) 
49,797,160 tons 
CO2 

Rate of Return on Power Plant Investment 31.67% 

Payback Period for Power Plants 5 years 

 

Case 2: 50% Electric vehicles 

Table 8 shows the economic and environmental status of the 

transportation sector in Scenario 3, assuming the use of 50% 

electric vehicles. The fuel cost for fossil fuel vehicles has 

decreased to 0.45 billion USD, while the electricity cost for 

electric vehicles reaches 0.3 billion USD. The maintenance 

cost increases to 0.34 billion USD, and the reduction in CO2 

emissions amounts to 39,837,728 tons. The investment in 

solar power plants rises to 800,573.75 USD, with an Internal 

Rate of Return (IRR) of 32.1% and a payback period of 4.8 

years. 

Case 3: 70% Electric vehicles 

Table 9 presents the economic and environmental status of 

the transportation sector in Scenario 3, assuming 70% 

adoption of electric vehicles. 

Table 8. Economic and environmental status of transportation in the 

third scenario, assuming 50% electric vehicle use 

 

 

 

 

Table 9. Economic and environmental status of transportation in the 

third scenario, assuming 70% use of electric vehicles 

 

The fuel cost for fossil fuel vehicles decreases to 0.27 

billion USD, while the electricity cost for electric vehicles rises 

to 0.42 billion USD. Maintenance costs increase to 0.48 billion 

USD, and CO2 reduction reaches 31,870,182 tons. The 

investment required for solar power plants reaches 1.12 

million USD, with an IRR of 32.6% and a payback period of 4.6 

years. This scenario is the most optimal in terms of both 

environmental and economic factors. In this scenario, due to 

the use of renewable energy sources, a significant reduction 

in CO2 emissions is achieved, and a favorable and quick return 

on investment in solar power plant projects is observed 

(Figure 2). This scenario highlights the importance of 

integrating renewable energy sources with the transition to 

electric vehicles to achieve both economic and environmental 

sustainability. 

 

 
 

Figure 2. Carbon dioxide emissions in different scenarios 

 

The findings of this study demonstrate that electric 

vehicles have significant potential in reducing economic costs 

and environmental impacts. The results show that even with 

fossil fuel-based electricity, the adoption of electric vehicles 

will lead to a substantial reduction in operational costs and 

CO2 emissions. However, the greatest environmental benefits 

are achieved when the electricity used to charge electric 

vehicles comes from renewable energy sources. An analysis 

of various electric vehicle penetration scenarios indicates that 

Parameter Value 

Number of electric vehicles 21million units 

Remaining fuel cost for fossil vehicles 0.45 billion USD 

Electricity cost for electric vehicles 0.3 billion USD 

Maintenance cost for electric vehicles 0.34 billion USD 

Investment in solar power plant 800,573.75 USD 

CO2 emission reduction (tons) 
39,837,728 tons 
CO2 

Internal rate of return (IRR) for power plants 32.10% 

Payback period for power plants 4.8 years 

Parameter Value 

Number of Electric Vehicles 29 million units 

Fuel Cost for Remaining Fossil Fuel 
Vehicles 

0.27 billion USD 

Electricity Cost for Electric Vehicles 0.42 billion USD 

Maintenance Cost for Electric Vehicles 0.48 billion USD 

Investment in Solar Power Plants 1.12 million USD 

CO2 Emission Reduction (tons) 31,870,182 tons CO2 

Internal Rate of Return (IRR) 32.60% 

Payback Period for Solar Power Plants 4.6 years 



A. Naseri et al. /Future Energy                                                                                                     August 2025| Volume 04 | Issue 03| Pages 18-34 

24 

 

increasing the share of electric vehicles, coupled with the 

integration of renewable energy, can result in a substantial 

reduction in greenhouse gas emissions. Furthermore, 

investments in charging infrastructure and renewable energy 

generation provide attractive returns, with payback periods 

ranging from 4.6 to 5.2 years. As a result, the transition to 

electric vehicles, supported by renewable energy 

infrastructure, presents a promising path for economic and 

environmental sustainability in Iran. To fully capitalize on the 

benefits of this transition, efforts must be made to accelerate 

the adoption of electric vehicles and renewable energy 

sources. 

4. Conclusion 

The findings of this research show that the transition to 

electric vehicles has a significant impact on reducing 

economic costs and greenhouse gas emissions. Even in the 

scenario of using electricity generated from fossil fuels, a 

reduction of 36.76 million tons of CO2 and an investment 

return rate of 30.2% reflect the positive impact of this 

transition. However, the greatest environmental benefits are 

realized when the electricity used by electric vehicles comes 

from renewable sources. In this case, a reduction of 114.49 

million tons of CO2 and an investment return rate of 32.6% 

are achieved, showing a remarkable improvement in 

environmental impact reduction. Additionally, the payback 

period for solar power plant projects is estimated to be 

between 4.6 and 5 years, highlighting the economic 

importance of utilizing renewable energy. An analysis of 

various scenarios shows that increasing the share of electric 

vehicles, particularly when combined with the integration of 

renewable energy, can provide a sustainable solution to 

reduce dependence on fossil fuels and strengthen energy 

security. In this process, investment in charging 

infrastructure and the development of renewable energy are 

essential. This research emphasizes the importance of precise 

planning and policymaking to accelerate the transition to 

electric vehicles and optimally leverage the economic and 

environmental benefits. Ultimately, the development of 

electric vehicles alongside renewable energy infrastructure 

can play a key role in achieving economic and environmental 

sustainability. This strategy not only leads to a significant 

reduction in greenhouse gas emissions but also provides a 

favorable investment return. Therefore, the transition to 

electric vehicles and the integration of renewable energy 

present a unique opportunity to reduce environmental 

impacts, enhance energy security, and achieve sustainable 

development in Iran. 

Ethical issue 
The authors are aware of and comply with best practices in 
publication ethics, specifically concerning authorship 
(avoidance of guest authorship), dual submission, 
manipulation of figures, competing interests, and compliance 
with policies on research ethics. The authors adhere to 
publication requirements that the submitted work is original 
and has not been published elsewhere in any language. 

Data availability statement 
The manuscript contains all the data. However, more data will 

be available upon request from the corresponding author. 

 

Conflict of interest 

The authors declare no potential conflict of interest. 

References 

[1] Ding, X. and X. Liu, Renewable energy development 

and transportation infrastructure matters for green 

economic growth? Empirical evidence from China. 

Economic Analysis and Policy, 2023. 79: p. 634-646. 

[2] Li, C. and M. Umair, Does green finance development 

goals affects renewable energy in China. Renewable 

Energy, 2023. 203: p. 898-905. 

[3] Singh, S., et al., Hydrogen: A sustainable fuel for future 

of the transport sector. Renewable and Sustainable 

Energy Reviews, 2015. 51: p. 623-633. 

[4] Zulfhazli, et al., Analysis of prospective demand for 

hydrogen in the road transportation sector: Evidence 

from 14 countries. International Journal of Hydrogen 

Energy, 2024. 56: p. 853-863. 

[5] Taghizad-Tavana, K., et al. A Comprehensive Review of 

Electric Vehicles in Energy Systems: Integration with 

Renewable Energy Sources, Charging Levels, Different 

Types, and Standards. Energies, 2023. 16,  DOI: 

10.3390/en16020630. 

[6] Sadeghian, O., et al., A comprehensive review on 

electric vehicles smart charging: Solutions, strategies, 

technologies, and challenges. Journal of Energy 

Storage, 2022. 54: p. 105241. 

[7] IEA, IEA analysis based on data from EV Volumes 

(2024) and the China Passenger Car Association 

(2024).. 2024. 

[8] Li, Y., et al., Electric vehicle charging in China’s power 

system: Energy, economic and environmental trade-

offs and policy implications. Applied Energy, 2016. 

173: p. 535-554. 

[9] García-Olivares, A., J. Solé, and O. Osychenko, 

Transportation in a 100% renewable energy system. 

Energy Conversion and Management, 2018. 158: p. 

266-285. 

[10] Zahoor, A., et al., The carbon neutrality feasibility of 

worldwide and in China's transportation sector by E-

car and renewable energy sources before 2060. 

Journal of Energy Storage, 2023. 61: p. 106696. 

[11] Badrudeen, T.U., L. Opeyemi David, and N. Nwulu, 

Management of environmental and economic tradeoffs 

for the optimization of renewable energy scheme. 

International Journal of Sustainable Energy, 2024. 

43(1): p. 2355645. 

[12] Hossain, M.T., S.I. Khan, and Z. Al Dodaev, A 

Comprehensive Study of Effects of Renewable Energy 

Based Electric Vehicles on Environment. Control 

Systems and Optimization Letters, 2024. 2(2): p. 234-

240. 

[13] Holmatov, B. and A.Y. Hoekstra, The environmental 

footprint of transport by car using renewable energy. 

Earth's Future, 2020. 8(2): p. e2019EF001428. 

[14] Ajanovic, A. and R. Haas, Renewable energy systems 

implementation in road transport: prospects and 

impediments. Renewable Energy and Environmental 

Sustainability, 2021. 6: p. 39. 

[15] Wang, D., et al., Enhancing the utilization of renewable 

generation on the highway with mobile energy storage 



A. Naseri et al. /Future Energy                                                                                                     August 2025| Volume 04 | Issue 03| Pages 18-34 

25 

 

vehicles and electric vehicles. Electric Power Systems 

Research, 2024. 231: p. 110311. 

[16] Saray, M., et al., Optimization of renewable energy 

usage in public transportation: Mathematical model 

for energy management of plug-in PV-based electric 

metrobuses. Journal of Energy Storage, 2024. 78: p. 

109946. 

[17] Al-Thani, H., et al., A review of the integrated 

renewable energy systems for sustainable urban 

mobility. Sustainability, 2022. 14(17): p. 10517. 

[18] Birur, D.K., et al., Externalities of transportation fuels: 

assessing trade-offs between petroleum and 

alternatives. 2013: RTI Press. 

[19] Wulff, N., et al., Energy system implications of demand 

scenarios and supply strategies for renewable 

transportation fuels. Available at SSRN 4989757, 2024. 

[20] Aydogan, H. Electric Vehicles and Renewable Energy. 

in Journal of Physics: Conference Series. 2024. IOP 

Publishing. 

[21] Franzitta, V., et al., Energy saving in public transport 

using renewable energy. Sustainability, 2017. 9(1): p. 

106. 

[22] Lakshmi, G.S., O. Rubanenko, and I. Hunko. Renewable 

energy generation and impacts on E-mobility. in 

Journal of Physics: Conference Series. 2020. IOP 

Publishing. 

[23] Pata, U.K., et al., Do patents, renewable energies and 

energy taxes in the transport sector reduce 

transportation carbon emissions in the European 

Union? International Journal of Sustainable 

Development & World Ecology, 2024: p. 1-12. 

[24] Kwilinski, A., O. Lyulyov, and T. Pimonenko, Reducing 

transport sector CO2 emissions patterns: 

Environmental technologies and renewable energy. 

Journal of Open Innovation: Technology, Market, and 

Complexity, 2024. 10(1): p. 100217. 

[25] Tomac, M., Utjecaj obnovljivih izvora energije na 

prijevoz. 2019, Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of 

Osijek. Faculty of Electrical …. 

[26] De Schepper, E., et al., Economic and environmental 

multi-objective optimisation to evaluate the impact of 

Belgian policy on solar power and electric vehicles. 

Journal of Environmental Economics and Policy, 2016. 

5(1): p. 1-27. 

[27] Wei, W., et al., The effectiveness and trade-offs of 

renewable energy policies in achieving the dual 

decarbonization goals in China: a dynamic computable 

general equilibrium analysis. International Journal of 

Environmental Research and Public Health, 2022. 

19(11): p. 6386. 

[28] Ogden, J.M., E.D. Larson, and M.A. Delucchi, A technical 

and economic assessment of renewable transportation 

fuels and technologies. 1994. 

https://escholarship.org/uc/item/1n69849j 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 
This article is an open-access article distributed under the 

terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution 

(CC BY) license 

(https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). 

https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/


A. Naseri et al. /Future Energy                                                                                                     August 2025| Volume 04 | Issue 03| Pages 18-34 

26 

 

Appendix I 

Table 1. Summary of past research on using renewable energy in the transportation sector 

REF Papers Results Research Gap Challenges Methods Used 

[11] Management of 
environmental 
and economic 
tradeoffs for the 
optimization of 
renewable energy 
scheme  

• The study employed two 
qualitative methods: bibliometric 
analysis and systematic literature 
review, focusing on Scopus-based 
articles related to renewable 
energy optimization. 

• VOSviewer software was utilized 
to conduct the analysis, which 
helped in identifying prevalent 
environmental and economic 
tradeoffs in renewable energy 
schemes. 

• The study identifies prevalent 
environmental tradeoffs in 
renewable energy schemes, such 
as habitat loss, fragmentation, 
sediment transportation, and 
deforestation, but does not 
explore specific case studies or 
empirical data that illustrate the 
extent and impact of these trade-
offs in different contexts. 

• While the research suggests 
solutions for managing economic 
tradeoffs like high initial costs and 
supply chain risks, it lacks a 
detailed analysis of the 
effectiveness of these solutions in 
real-world applications or their 
potential barriers to 
implementation. 

• The study identifies prevalent 
environmental tradeoffs in 
renewable energy schemes, 
which include habitat loss, 
fragmentation, sediment 
transportation, and 
deforestation, highlighting the 
negative impacts on 
ecosystems and biodiversity 
associated with renewable 
energy development. 

• Economic tradeoffs are also 
discussed, such as high initial 
costs, intermittency, reliability 
challenges, job security, 
resource scarcity, and supply 
chain risks, which pose 
significant challenges to the 
economic viability and stability 
of renewable energy initiatives. 

• The study identified significant 
environmental tradeoffs in 
renewable energy schemes, 
including issues such as habitat 
loss, fragmentation, sediment 
transportation, and 
deforestation, which need to be 
addressed to enhance 
sustainability in energy 
production. 

• Economic tradeoffs were also 
highlighted, including high 
initial costs, intermittency, 
reliability challenges, job 
security concerns, resource 
scarcity, and supply chain risks, 
leading to the recommendation 
of strategic planning, 
continuous monitoring, and 
diversification of renewable 
energy sources to manage these 
challenges effectively. 

[12] A Comprehensive 
Study of Effects of 
Renewable Energy 
Based Electric 
Vehicles on 
Environment  

• The study conducts a thorough 
analysis of existing literature, 
empirical studies, and modeling 
approaches to evaluate the 
environmental implications of 
electric vehicles (EVs) powered 
by renewable energy sources. 
This comprehensive review helps 
in understanding the life cycle 
emissions of EVs compared to 
conventional cars, considering 
factors such as production, 
electricity generation, and end-
of-life disposal. 

• It examines the integration of 
renewable energy sources like 
solar, wind, and hydropower into 
the electrical grid for powering 
EVs, highlighting the synergistic 
effects on both the energy and 
transportation sectors. The study 
also addresses potential 
opportunities and challenges 
associated with the widespread 
adoption of renewable energy-
powered EVs, including 
infrastructure requirements, 
legislative incentives, and 
consumer behavior. 

• The study addresses the 
environmental implications of 
renewable energy-powered 
electric vehicles (EVs) but does 
not explicitly identify specific 
research gaps or areas that 
require further investigation, such 
as the long-term impacts of EV 
adoption on biodiversity or the 
socio-economic effects on 
communities transitioning to 
renewable energy sources. 

• While the paper discusses the 
integration of renewable energy 
sources into the electrical grid for 
powering EVs, it does not delve 
into the technological 
advancements or innovations 
needed to enhance this 
integration, nor does it explore 
the potential barriers to 
widespread adoption of such 
technologies in different regions. 

• The study addresses potential 
challenges associated with the 
widespread adoption of electric 
vehicles (EVs) powered by 
renewable energy, including 
infrastructural needs that must 
be met to support the 
integration of EVs into existing 
transportation networks and 
the electrical grid. 

• It also highlights the 
importance of legislative 
incentives and customer 
behavior as factors that could 
influence the successful 
implementation and 
acceptance of renewable 
energy-powered EVs, 
indicating that these elements 
may pose challenges to 
achieving a sustainable 
transition in transportation. 

• The study highlights that 
electric vehicles (EVs) powered 
by renewable energy sources 
can significantly reduce air 
pollution and greenhouse gas 
emissions compared to 
conventional internal 
combustion engine vehicles, 
emphasizing the potential for 
cleaner transportation 
networks as the world shifts 
towards greener energy 
solutions. 

• It provides insights into the life 
cycle emissions of EVs, 
comparing them to traditional 
cars by considering factors such 
as manufacturing processes, 
electricity generation methods, 
and end-of-life disposal, 
ultimately guiding decision-
making for sustainable 
transportation and energy 
transitions. 



A. Naseri et al. /Future Energy                                                                                                     August 2025| Volume 04 | Issue 03| Pages 18-34 

27 

 

[13] The 
environmental 
footprint of 
transport by car 
using renewable 
energy  

• The paper compares and 
contrasts the carbon, land, and 
water footprints per driven 
kilometer in midsize cars that 
utilize different energy sources, 
including conventional gasoline, 
biofuels, bioelectricity, solar 
electricity, and solar-based 
hydrogen. 

• The analysis focuses on assessing 
the environmental impacts of 
these various fuel types to 
understand the trade-offs 
involved in replacing fossil fuels 
with renewable energy in the 
transport sector. 

 
• The transition from fossil fuels 

to renewable energy in the 
transport sector may lead to 
trade-offs concerning land and 
water resources, which could 
impact environmental 
sustainability. 

• While renewable energy 
sources can lower greenhouse 
gas emissions, the 
environmental footprints 
associated with different fuel 
types vary significantly, with 
biofuel-driven cars exhibiting 
the largest footprints compared 
to solar-powered electric and 
hydrogen cars. 

• Solar-powered electric cars 
have the smallest 
environmental footprints per 
kilometer driven, indicating 
they are the most sustainable 
option among the alternatives 
analyzed. 

• Biofuel-driven cars have the 
largest environmental 
footprints per kilometer, 
suggesting that while they are 
an alternative to fossil fuels, 
they may not be the most 
environmentally friendly 
choice. 

[14] Renewable energy 
systems 
implementation in 
road transport: 
prospects and 
impediments  

• The paper conducts a detailed 
literature review to assess the 
current state of major renewable 
energy systems in road transport, 
focusing specifically on the 
European Union. This review 
includes an analysis of the 
prospects and impediments for 
the future use of biofuels, 
renewable electricity, and green 
hydrogen in road transport. 

• The authors discuss the 
implications of various policies 
implemented and emission 
reduction targets set for the 
future, particularly in relation to 
passenger car transport, to 
provide a comprehensive 
overview of the challenges and 
opportunities for renewable 
energy systems in the transport 
sector. 

• The paper highlights that most 
literature focuses either solely on 
biofuels, battery electric vehicles, 
or hydrogen and fuel cell vehicles, 
indicating a research gap in 
comprehensive analyses that 
consider all these renewable 
energy systems together. This lack 
of integrated studies limits the 
understanding of the overall 
potential and challenges of 
renewable energy systems in the 
transport sector. 

• There is a noted immaturity in the 
production processes of advanced 
biofuels, which could be produced 
from lignocellulosic materials and 
do not compete with food 
production. The paper suggests 
that further research is needed to 
improve these production 
processes and reduce costs, 
indicating a gap in the 
development and 
commercialization of advanced 
biofuels. 

• The high investment costs 
associated with BEVs and 
FCEVs present a significant 
barrier to their faster market 
penetration. Although these 
costs may decrease in the 
future due to technological 
advancements, they currently 
hinder the widespread 
adoption of these alternative 
automotive technologies. 

• The competition for arable land 
between biofuels production 
and food/feed production 
poses a critical challenge for 
the future of renewable energy 
in the transport sector. The 
sustainability issues related to 
biofuels, particularly the ILUC, 
complicate their viability as a 
low-carbon fuel option, raising 
concerns about their overall 
environmental benefits. 

• The paper concludes that while 
there are prospects for 
increased use of RES in the 
transport sector, particularly in 
the EU, the overall life-cycle 
emissions must be carefully 
considered to avoid negative 
environmental impacts, such as 
those associated with the Green 
Paradox. The competition 
between biofuels and food 
production is highlighted as a 
critical issue for the future of 
biofuels. 

• It identifies high investment 
costs as a significant barrier to 
the faster market penetration of 
BEVs and FCEVs. Although the 
number of BEVs is increasing 
globally, the costs of green 
hydrogen remain prohibitively 
high compared to fossil fuel-
derived hydrogen, which limits 
the growth of hydrogen and fuel 
cell technologies in the 
automotive sector. 



A. Naseri et al. /Future Energy                                                                                                     August 2025| Volume 04 | Issue 03| Pages 18-34 

28 

 

[15] Enhancing the 
utilization of 
renewable 
generation on the 
highway with 
mobile energy 
storage vehicles 
and electric 
vehicles  

• The paper proposes a co-
optimization method for the 
EVcharging scheme and MESV 
scheduling on the highway, 
which takes into account 
locational marginal price, 
renewable generation, and the 
benefits for EV users. 

• A bi-level optimization model is 
developed to simulate the 
interaction between EV users and 
the HO, where the upper-level 
model focuses on optimizing EV 
charging pricing and MESV 
scheduling to maximize HO 
profit, while the lower-level 
model aims to minimize EV 
users' charging-parking costs. 

• The paper does not address the 
potential impacts of varying traffic 
patterns and their influence on 
the scheduling of MESVs and EV 
charging loads, which could affect 
the overall efficiency of the 
proposed co-optimization method. 

• There is a lack of exploration into 
the integration of different types 
of renewable energy sources and 
their specific characteristics, 
which may further enhance the 
utilization of renewable 
generation on the highway 
beyond the current focus on 
scheduling MESVs and EV 
charging. 

• The paper discusses the 
challenge of reshaping EV 
charging loads to address the 
imbalance between energy 
supply from renewable 
generation and the electricity 
demand from traffic on the 
highway. This imbalance is 
expected to grow with the 
increasing number of EVs and 
renewable energy sources. 

• Another challenge highlighted 
is the optimization of 
scheduling MESVs to consume 
renewable energy effectively. 
This involves developing a co-
optimization method that 
considers various factors such 
as locational marginal price, 
renewable generation, and the 
benefits to EV users, which 
complicates the scheduling and 
charging strategies. 

• The study demonstrates a 
32.0% increase in the 
utilization of renewable energy 
on the highway, indicating a 
significant improvement in the 
integration of renewable 
generation with electric vehicle 
charging demands. 

• There is a reduction of 3190.1 
kWh in electricity purchased 
from the main grid, which 
contributes to promoting both 
environmental and economic 
sustainability for the highway 
operator. 

[16] Optimization of 
renewable energy 
usage in public 
transportation: 
Mathematical 
model for energy 
management of 
plug-in PV-based 
electric 
metrobuses  

• The study employs a Metrobus 
Charging Station Optimization 
Model that integrates grid and 
renewable energy systems, 
allowing for energy exchange 
with the grid when necessary. 
This model is specifically 
designed for the IETT Avcılar 
Metrobus garage in Istanbul, 
focusing on static conditions and 
optimal scheduling. 

• A single objective MILP approach 
is utilized to maximize the usage 
of renewable energy while 
minimizing the cost associated 
with non-renewable energy 
usage. The model also 
determines the best assignment 
of metrobuses to their scheduled 
departures, ensuring an 
environmentally friendly and 
cost-effective solution. 

• The study focuses specifically on 
the optimization of renewable 
energy usage in the context of 
metrobuses in Istanbul, Turkey, 
but does not address the potential 
applicability of the proposed 
model to other cities or public 
transportation systems, which 
could limit the generalizability of 
the findings. 

• While the model aims to maximize 
the usage of renewable energy 
and minimize costs, it does not 
explore the long-term impacts of 
integrating such systems on the 
overall sustainability of public 
transportation or the potential 
challenges in implementation, 
such as infrastructure 
requirements or policy support. 

• The paper highlights the 
challenge of reducing carbon 
emissions from public 
transportation systems that 
traditionally rely on internal 
combustion engines, 
emphasizing the need for 
greener solutions to meet 
sustainability targets and 
decrease the carbon footprint 
associated with these vehicles. 

• Another challenge addressed is 
the optimization of energy 
management for electric 
metrobuses, specifically in the 
context of integrating 
renewable energy systems with 
the grid, which requires 
effective scheduling and 
assignment of metrobuses to 
ensure maximum utilization of 
renewable energy while 
minimizing costs associated 
with non-renewable energy 
usage. 

• The study developed a 
Metrobus Charging Station 
Optimization Model that 
integrates renewable energy 
systems with the grid, allowing 
for energy exchange when 
necessary, specifically designed 
for the IETT Avcılar Metrobus 
garage in Istanbul. This model 
focuses on maximizing the 
usage of renewable energy 
while minimizing the costs 
associated with non-renewable 
energy usage. 

• The model was solved using the 
GAMS solver, and the results 
indicated that adopting an 
environmentally friendly 
approach to public 
transportation through the 
electrification of metrobuses is 
not costly, demonstrating the 
feasibility of sustainable energy 
management in public transport 
systems. 



A. Naseri et al. /Future Energy                                                                                                     August 2025| Volume 04 | Issue 03| Pages 18-34 

29 

 

[17] A Review of the 
Integrated 
Renewable 
Energy Systems 
for Sustainable 
Urban Mobility  

• The paper reviews various 
renewable energy integration 
methods for electric vehicle 
charging stations, including the 
use of CPVT systems, wind 
turbines, and biomass-based 
Rankine cycles to generate 
electricity and thermal energy for 
vehicle charging and hydrogen 
production. 

• It discusses the prioritization of 
energy storage systems, starting 
with hydrogen fuel cells, followed 
by ammonia fuel cells, and lastly 
conventional battery storage, to 
ensure a reliable power supply 
for electric vehicles when 
renewable energy generation is 
insufficient. 

• The paper highlights the 
challenges of integrating 
renewable energy into existing 
electric power systems, pointing 
out the technical and economic 
difficulties due to the varying and 
unreliable nature of renewable 
energy sources compared to 
traditional methods. 

• The research identifies the need 
to understand the three main 
operational planning scopes 
crucial to renewable energy 
integration before considering 
how renewable resources impact 
these planning processes, 
indicating a gap in comprehensive 
understanding and analysis in this 
area. 

• The integration of renewable 
energy into existing electric 
power systems is technically 
and economically challenging 
due to the ingrained nature of 
these systems in daily life and 
the variability and unreliability 
of renewable energy sources 
compared to traditional 
methods. 

• There are several 
implementation challenges 
related to consumer incentives, 
infrastructure, and the need for 
a sustainable energy supply for 
charging stations in urban 
regions, which are crucial for 
promoting the use of cleaner 
vehicles and reducing 
pollution. 

• The paper highlights the 
adverse impacts of air 
pollutants emitted from internal 
combustion engine vehicles, 
emphasizing the need for 
transitions to cleaner fuels and 
electric vehicles to reduce 
pollution and encourage the use 
of clean vehicles for urban 
mobility. 

• It discusses the integration of 
electric vehicle stations with 
renewable energy sources, 
showcasing how certain 
components within the 
integrated system can provide 
uninterrupted power supply to 
electric vehicles, leading to less 
pollution and promoting the 
adoption of clean vehicles. 

[18] Externalities of 
transportation 
fuels: Assessing 
trade-offs 
between 
petroleum and 
alternatives  

• The study utilized the GREET life-
cycle analysis model to assess the 
environmental externalities 
associated with different types of 
transportation fuels, providing a 
comprehensive evaluation of 
their impacts throughout their 
life cycles. 

• Additionally, the research 
employed several other models, 
including the FASOM-GHG model 
for agriculture and forestry, the 
APEEP integrated assessment 
model for calculating the 
marginal damage of emissions, 
the GTAP-BIO computable 
general equilibrium model for 
estimating land use changes, and 
the OSIRIS model for estimating 
species extinctions due to 
deforestation. 

• The study indicates that many 
previous analyses have not 
included all elements that 
constitute the true cost of oil, 
suggesting a gap in 
comprehensive assessments of oil 
dependence costs across various 
studies. This highlights the need 
for more inclusive research that 
captures the full spectrum of 
economic and environmental 
impacts associated with oil 
consumption. 

• There is a call for a holistic 
framework to assess the relative 
costs and benefits of alternative 
transportation fuels, indicating a 
gap in existing research 
methodologies that fail to 
integrate economic, 
environmental, and societal costs 
comprehensively. This suggests 
that future studies should aim to 
develop and apply such 
frameworks to better inform 
policy initiatives related to 
transportation infrastructure. 

• Achieving energy security by 
reducing dependence on 
imported oil is highlighted as a 
foremost challenge for the 
United States, which currently 
imports about 50 percent of its 
oil consumption, accounting for 
25 percent of world oil 
consumption. 

• The study indicates that many 
existing analyses do not 
account for the full range of 
costs associated with oil 
dependence, suggesting that a 
comprehensive understanding 
of these costs is necessary for 
effective policy-making 
regarding transportation fuels. 

• The study estimates the costs 
associated with energy security 
and the dependence on oil, 
highlighting that many studies 
have not fully accounted for the 
true costs of oil, which include 
various economic and 
environmental factors. 

• The research utilizes multiple 
models, such as GREET and 
APEEP, to assess environmental 
externalities of different 
transportation fuels, suggesting 
a need for a holistic framework 
to evaluate the relative costs 
and benefits of alternative fuels 
for future energy needs. 



A. Naseri et al. /Future Energy                                                                                                     August 2025| Volume 04 | Issue 03| Pages 18-34 

30 

 

[19] Energy System 
Implications of 
Demand 
Scenarios and 
Supply Strategies 
for Renewable 
Transportation 
Fuels  

• The paper employs a 
combination of bottom-up and 
top-down energy modeling 
approaches to address 
shortcomings in energy planning 
for renewable transportation 
fuels. This dual methodology 
allows for a more comprehensive 
analysis of energy demands and 
supply strategies. 

• The study designs a set of eight 
scenarios that vary in climate 
ambition, the share of indirect 
electrification of transport final 
energy demand, and biofuel 
availability, enabling a detailed 
examination of the implications 
of different demand scenarios on 
energy supply infrastructure. 

• The impacts of sustainable 
biofuels on the required electricity 
supply infrastructure are not well 
understood, indicating a gap in 
knowledge regarding how biofuel 
availability influences energy 
demand and infrastructure needs 
in the transport sector. 

• There is a lack of sufficient 
justification for the assumption of 
large shares of imported gaseous 
and liquid energy carriers, which 
neglects the needs of local 
societies and highlights a gap in 
addressing the socio-economic 
implications of renewable fuel 
imports in energy planning. 

• The transport sector faces 
significant challenges in 
reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) 
emissions due to the complex 
interplay of social behavioral, 
technical factors, political 
decisions, and economic 
conditions, necessitating 
detailed sub-sector demand 
modeling for effective energy 
planning. 

• The energy supply for climate-
neutral transportation services 
is expected to strain electricity 
supply infrastructure, with 
studies often overlooking local 
societal needs while assuming 
large shares of imported 
renewable fuels, highlighting a 
gap in understanding the 
impacts of sustainable biofuels 
on electricity supply 
infrastructure. 

• The study finds that bottom-up 
demand modeling of transport 
final energy demand 
significantly narrows down the 
ranges of renewable fuel energy 
demands that were previously 
assumed in top-down 
approaches. This indicates that 
more accurate demand 
modeling can lead to better 
energy planning and 
infrastructure development. 

• The availability of biofuels may 
considerably reduce the 
demand for e-fuels, which in 
turn lowers the required 
expansion of energy 
infrastructure. This results in a 
more gradual distribution of 
renewable energy expansions 
over the next 25 years and 
reduces the cost-optimal 
hydrogen production capacity 
and necessary grid expansion in 
Germany beyond 2030. 

[20] Electric Vehicles 
and Renewable 
Energy  

• The paper discusses various 
charging methods for electric 
vehicles, including home solar 
systems, public charging stations 
with renewables, and smart 
charging systems. 

• It highlights the importance of 
integrating electric vehicles with 
renewable energy sources like 
solar, wind, and hydropower to 
minimize their carbon footprint 
and promote sustainability. 

  
• The paper demonstrates that 

the environmental impact of 
electric vehicles (EVs) is 
significantly influenced by the 
source of their electricity, 
highlighting the importance of 
renewable energy sources such 
as solar, wind, and hydropower 
in reducing the carbon footprint 
of EVs. 

• It presents the advantages of 
electric vehicles over gasoline 
vehicles, including lower 
maintenance needs, cost-
effectiveness, quieter operation, 
energy efficiency, and a positive 
impact on air quality, thereby 
promoting the transition 
towards a more sustainable and 
environmentally friendly 
energy landscape. 



A. Naseri et al. /Future Energy                                                                                                     August 2025| Volume 04 | Issue 03| Pages 18-34 

31 

 

[21] Energy Saving in 
Public Transport 
Using Renewable 
Energy  

• The paper evaluates the 
economic viability of hydrogen 
production through a discounted 
cash flow analysis, considering 
two different hypotheses: one 
focusing on the installation of a 
hydrogen station powered by 
grid electricity and the other 
incorporating the initial 
investments of renewable energy 
sources (biomass, wind, and sea 
wave) alongside the hydrogen 
station. 

• Hydrogen production is primarily 
analyzed through the electrolysis 
process, which utilizes electrical 
energy supplied by various 
renewable sources, including 
wind, biomass, and sea wave, to 
generate hydrogen, thereby 
facilitating the replacement of 
diesel buses with hydrogen-
powered vehicles in urban 
transport. 

• The paper does not provide a 
comprehensive analysis of the 
long-term sustainability and 
economic viability of the proposed 
hydrogen production methods, 
particularly regarding the 
operational and maintenance 
costs of the renewable energy 
sources (wind, biomass, and sea 
wave) over time, which could 
impact the overall feasibility of 
the project. 

• There is a lack of detailed 
exploration into the potential 
challenges and limitations 
associated with the 
implementation of hydrogen 
filling stations and the 
infrastructure required for 
supporting fuel cell vehicles, 
including regulatory, logistical, 
and technological barriers that 
may arise in the transition from 
diesel to hydrogen-powered 
public transport. 

• The variability of the sea wave 
energy source presents a 
challenge, as its availability is 
higher during the winter 
season and lower in the 
summer season. This 
variability can be addressed 
through the use of appropriate 
storage tanks to ensure a 
consistent supply of energy for 
hydrogen production. 

• The economic analysis of the 
hydrogen production system 
requires consideration of initial 
investments for the biomass 
power plant, wind farm, wave 
farm, and hydrogen station. 
The viability of the project 
depends on accurately 
estimating these costs and the 
potential avoided purchase of 
fossil fuels, which complicates 
the financial planning and 
investment decisions. 

• The study demonstrates that 
utilizing renewable energy 
sources such as wind, biomass, 
and sea waves for hydrogen 
production can effectively 
replace the entire fleet of diesel-
powered buses in Trapani with 
hydrogen vehicles, leading to 
significant reductions in 
greenhouse gas emissions. In 
the best-case scenario, the 
annual avoided emissions are 
quantified as 1444 tons of CO2, 
7.64 tons of CO, 1.12 tons of 
PM10, 2.1 tons of NMVOC, and 
22.85 tons of NOx. 

• The economic analysis indicates 
that while the production of 
hydrogen from a self-sufficient 
renewable energy plant is not 
economically viable without 
incentives, the discounted cash 
flow for purchasing electrical 
energy for hydrogen production 
becomes comparable within 
five years under different 
scenarios, highlighting the 
financial challenges associated 
with transitioning to hydrogen 
fuel in public transport. 

[22] Renewable 
Energy 
Generation and 
Impacts on E-
Mobility  

  
• The paper highlights the need 

for a fundamental change in the 
road transportation sector to 
achieve a long-term transition 
to a low-carbon economy, 
which poses challenges in 
adapting existing infrastructure 
and services to meet 
demographic and economic 
growth without increasing 
pollution and congestion. 

• It emphasizes the requirement 
for affordable, secure, and 
inclusive sustainable solutions 
that are integrated with 
customer-centric 
infrastructure, indicating the 
challenge of developing such 
systems while ensuring they 
are efficient and effective for all 
users. 

• The paper highlights that the 
integration of Electric Vehicles 
(EVs) with Renewable Energy 
Sources can significantly reduce 
future emissions of greenhouse 
gases and air pollutants from 
road transport, contributing to 
a long-term transition to a low-
carbon economy. 

• It emphasizes the necessity for 
a fundamental change in the 
road transportation sector, 
advocating for the development 
of affordable, secure, and 
sustainable infrastructure and 
services that are customer-
centric, in order to adapt to 
demographic and economic 
growth while minimizing 
pollution and congestion. 



A. Naseri et al. /Future Energy                                                                                                     August 2025| Volume 04 | Issue 03| Pages 18-34 

32 

 

[23] Do patents, 
renewable 
energies and 
energy taxes in 
the transport 
sector reduce 
transportation 
carbon emissions 
in the European 
Union?  

• The study analyzes the impact of 
renewable energy use, patent 
development, and energy taxes in 
the transport sector on the three 
different modes of transport-
related emissions (aviation, road, 
and rail) in the 10 highest-
income countries of the 
European Union over the period 
2008–2020. 

• The study uses the novel half-
panel jackknife estimator for the 
analysis of the impact of patents, 
renewable energies, and energy 
taxes on carbon dioxide (CO2) 
emissions in the transportation 
sector. 

 
• The transportation industry in 

the European Union has not 
succeeded in reducing 
greenhouse gas emissions, 
making it the sole economic 
sector with increasing 
emissions, which poses a 
significant challenge in meeting 
climate targets. 

• The study highlights the need 
for effective strategies, such as 
promoting electric vehicles and 
eco-friendly transportation 
through energy taxes, and 
supporting renewable energy 
sources and patents for green 
innovations, to address the 
ongoing issue of CO2 emissions 
in various modes of transport. 

• Patents have been found to 
contribute to the reduction of 
CO2 emissions specifically in 
aviation and rail transportation, 
indicating that innovation in 
these sectors can lead to lower 
greenhouse gas emissions. 

• Renewable energies are 
effective in reducing emissions 
only in rail transportation, 
while energy taxes are effective 
in mitigating CO2 emissions in 
road transportation, suggesting 
that different strategies may be 
needed for different modes of 
transport. 

[24] Reducing 
transport sector 
CO2 emissions 
patterns: 
environmental 
technologies and 
renewable 
energy  

• The research employs panel 
corrected standard error 
methods to analyze the data, 
which helps in addressing 
potential issues of 
heteroscedasticity and 
autocorrelation in the panel data 
set. 

• Additionally, feasible generalized 
least squares methods are 
utilized to estimate the 
relationships between 
environmental technologies, 
renewable energy, and CO2 
emissions, allowing for more 
efficient and consistent 
parameter estimates in the 
presence of panel data 
characteristics. 

• The research does not explicitly 
identify specific gaps in existing 
literature or methodologies 
related to the impact of 
environmental technologies and 
renewable energy on CO2 
emissions in the EU transport 
sector, which could provide a 
clearer context for the study's 
contributions and limitations. 

• There is a lack of detailed 
exploration into the socio-
economic factors that may 
influence the adoption of 
renewable energy and 
environmental technologies in 
transportation, which could affect 
the overall effectiveness of the 
proposed strategies for emission 
reduction. 

• The study emphasizes the 
necessity for heightened EU 
investment in sustainable 
transport infrastructure and 
clean energy solutions, 
indicating that a lack of 
investment could hinder the 
adoption of environmental 
technologies and renewable 
energy, which are crucial for 
reducing CO2 emissions in the 
transport sector. 

• It highlights the need for a 
multifaceted approach that 
includes comprehensive 
strategies for cleaner 
transportation, innovation, and 
education, suggesting that 
without these elements, the 
transition towards sustainable 
practices in the EU may be 
slowed or obstructed. 

• The study reveals a significant 
and variable effect of 
environmental technologies and 
renewable energy on CO2 
emissions in the EU transport 
sector, indicating that increased 
adoption of renewable energy is 
positively correlated with 
emission reduction. 

• The research emphasizes the 
necessity for heightened EU 
investment in sustainable 
transport infrastructure and 
clean energy solutions, 
recommending initiatives such 
as electric vehicles, hydrogen 
fuel cells, and biofuels to align 
with the goals of the European 
Green Deal and the EU Climate 
Law. 



A. Naseri et al. /Future Energy                                                                                                     August 2025| Volume 04 | Issue 03| Pages 18-34 

33 

 

[25] Utjecaj 
obnovljivih 
izvora energije 
na prijevoz  

• The paper discusses the use of 
photovoltaic modules in various 
vehicles, including solar and 
biodiesel vehicles, highlighting 
their ability to convert solar 
energy into electricity to power 
electric motors and other devices 
within the vehicles. This method 
emphasizes the importance of 
renewable energy sources in 
reducing greenhouse gas 
emissions and promoting 
environmental protection. 

• It also examines the integration 
of solar technology in marine 
applications, where photovoltaic 
modules are used to maintain 
battery charge levels in boats, 
addressing the increasing 
demand for electricity during 
periods of inactivity and 
preventing battery damage, 
thereby extending their lifespan. 

• The paper does not explore the 
economic feasibility and cost-
effectiveness of implementing 
renewable energy sources in 
transportation, particularly in 
comparison to traditional fossil 
fuels. A detailed analysis of the 
financial implications for 
consumers and manufacturers 
could provide insights into the 
broader adoption of these 
technologies. 

• There is a lack of discussion on 
the long-term sustainability and 
environmental impact of the 
production and disposal of 
renewable energy vehicles, such 
as solar and electric vehicles. 
Research could focus on the 
lifecycle assessment of these 
vehicles, including the sourcing of 
materials, manufacturing 
processes, and end-of-life 
recycling or disposal methods. 

• Not all renewable energy 
technologies are perfect, 
indicating that while they 
contribute significantly to 
environmental protection, 
there are still limitations and 
challenges in their efficiency 
and implementation in the 
transport sector. 

• Electric vehicles, although 
environmentally friendly, face 
challenges related to their 
range and the need for 
recharging, which can limit 
their practicality compared to 
hybrid vehicles that can utilize 
both electric and fossil fuel 
power sources. 

• The increasing use of renewable 
energy sources in 
transportation, such as solar 
and biodiesel vehicles, 
significantly reduces 
greenhouse gas emissions, 
contributing to environmental 
protection and addressing 
global warming caused by non-
renewable energy depletion. 

• The integration of photovoltaic 
systems in vehicles, including 
boats, enhances battery 
longevity and efficiency, 
particularly during periods of 
inactivity, thereby addressing 
common issues related to 
battery depletion and damage, 
which ultimately supports the 
sustainability of marine and 
land transportation. 

[26] Economic and 
environmental 
multi-objective 
optimisation to 
evaluate the 
impact of Belgian 
policy on solar 
power and 
electric vehicles  

• The research employs a multi-
objective branch and bound 
algorithm, originally developed 
by Mavrotas and Diakoulaki, 
which has been improved for the 
bi-objective case. This algorithm 
is designed to find all efficient 
solutions of multi-objective 
mixed integer linear 
programming (MOMILP) 
problems exactly, ensuring that 
the solutions are not dominated 
by any other feasible solutions. 

• The methodology distinguishes 
between energy generating 
technologies and transportation 
technologies, incorporating 
constraints that account for 
economies of scale. The model 
uses binary variables to indicate 
active technology intervals, 
allowing for a structured 
comparison of the economic and 
environmental impacts of various 
energy and transportation 
technologies while satisfying 
specific demand constraints. 

• The paper acknowledges the 
limitations of the model, 
particularly in differentiating 
between rational investors who 
consider life cycle costs and 
bounded rational investors who 
focus on required investments 
only. This distinction suggests a 
gap in understanding how 
different investor behaviors 
impact the adoption of energy and 
transportation technologies under 
varying policy measures. 

• The research highlights the need 
for further exploration of the 
impact of subsidies on the Pareto 
frontier, indicating a gap in 
assessing how different subsidy 
structures could influence the 
optimal mix of energy and 
transportation technologies, 
particularly in terms of economic 
and environmental outcomes. 

• The paper highlights the 
challenge of differentiating 
between rational investors, 
who consider life cycle costs, 
and bounded rational 
investors, who often focus 
solely on required investments. 
This distinction affects the 
effectiveness of current policy 
measures aimed at promoting 
technologies like solar power 
and electric vehicles. 

• Another challenge discussed is 
the limitation of grid-powered 
battery electric vehicles (BEVs) 
in significantly reducing 
greenhouse gas (GHG) 
emissions compared to solar 
panels, despite their lower 
costs. This raises questions 
about the optimal mix of 
technologies and the impact of 
policy on achieving 
environmental goals. 

• The research demonstrates the 
use of multi-objective mixed 
integer linear programming 
(MOMILP) to identify optimal 
solutions for energy and 
transportation technologies, 
highlighting the differences in 
outcomes when considering the 
minimisation of total economic 
life cycle costs versus solely the 
initial investment. The results 
are illustrated through the 
Pareto frontier, which shows 
the trade-offs between life cycle 
emissions and life cycle costs, 
both with and without the 
impact of policy measures. 

• The findings indicate that 
current policy measures 
effectively target rational 
investors who prioritize life 
cycle costs, while private 
investors, who may exhibit 
bounded rationality, tend to 
focus on required investments. 
This distinction reveals the 
limitations of policy 
effectiveness in addressing the 
needs of all investor types, 
particularly in the context of 
reducing greenhouse gas 
emissions through the adoption 
of various energy and 
transportation technologies. 



A. Naseri et al. /Future Energy                                                                                                     August 2025| Volume 04 | Issue 03| Pages 18-34 

34 

 

[27] The Effectiveness 
and Trade-Offs of 
Renewable 
Energy Policies 
in Achieving the 
Dual 
Decarbonization 
Goals in China: A 
Dynamic 
Computable 
General 
Equilibrium 
Analysis  

• The study employs a dynamic 
general equilibrium model to 
assess the effectiveness and 
trade-offs of various renewable 
energy policies in achieving 
China's dual decarbonization 
goals by 2060. This model 
captures both direct and indirect 
effects of changes in the economy 
and identifies impact 
mechanisms across different 
sectors. 

• An indicator measuring the 
efficiency of carbon emission 
abatement is calculated by 
dividing the percentage changes 
in China's GDP by the amount of 
carbon emission abatement. This 
indicator helps evaluate the 
average economic loss associated 
with abating per billion tons of 
CO2 through renewable energy 
policies, allowing for a 
comparative analysis of the 
policies' impacts on GDP and 
carbon emissions. 

• The paper highlights that previous 
studies have shown great 
disparity in the effectiveness and 
suitability of renewable energy 
policies in abating carbon 
emissions, indicating a lack of 
consensus and comprehensive 
understanding in the existing 
literature regarding the impact of 
these policies on carbon 
reduction. 

• While the study evaluates the 
effectiveness and trade-offs of 
various renewable energy 
policies, it acknowledges that the 
implications and limitations of the 
results are discussed, suggesting 
that further research is needed to 
explore the long-term effects and 
potential unintended 
consequences of these policies on 
the economy and energy 
structure. 

• The effectiveness of renewable 
energy policies in abating 
carbon emissions varies 
significantly, with some 
policies like the Renewable 
Energy Cost (REC) showing 
greater effectiveness in 
reducing CO2 emissions while 
also benefiting GDP, whereas 
others like the Carbon Market 
(CRP) and Renewable Portfolio 
Standards (REP) can lead to 
greater GDP losses despite 
their ability to reduce 
emissions. 

• Most renewable energy policies 
tend to sacrifice internal and 
external demand in the 
economy, which poses a 
challenge for policymakers 
who must balance the need for 
carbon emission reductions 
with the potential negative 
impacts on economic growth 
and demand. 

• The study finds that renewable 
energy policies could abate 
China’s CO2 emissions by 2.57 
billion tons by 2060, with 
varying effectiveness among the 
policies. The reduction of 
renewable energy costs (REC) is 
identified as the most effective 
policy, followed by renewable 
portfolio standards (REP) and 
carbon market (CRP). 

• While most renewable energy 
policies may lead to a sacrifice 
in China’s internal and external 
demand, they are expected to 
benefit employment and cause 
relatively slight damage to the 
GDP, with the REC actually 
raising GDP by 1.1713%. 

[28] A Technical and 
Economic 
Assessment of 
Renewable 
Transportation 
Fuels and 
Technologies  

 
• The paper does not explicitly 

identify specific research gaps, but 
it implies a need for further 
exploration into the economic 
feasibility of producing renewable 
transportation fuels on a large 
scale from domestic resources, as 
well as the technological 
advancements required to 
enhance the efficiency of vehicles 
that utilize these fuels. 

• There is a lack of detailed analysis 
on the integration of renewable 
fuels with existing transportation 
infrastructure and the potential 
challenges that may arise in 
transitioning from petroleum-
based fuels to renewable 
alternatives, particularly in terms 
of supply chain logistics and 
consumer acceptance. 

• The current transportation 
system is heavily reliant on 
petroleum-based fuels, making 
it vulnerable to supply and 
price volatility in the world oil 
market, which poses a 
significant challenge for energy 
security and stability. 

• Despite advancements in 
reducing tailpipe emissions, 
motor vehicles still contribute 
significantly to urban air 
pollution and greenhouse gas 
emissions, indicating a need for 
the development and adoption 
of lower-polluting alternatives 
to internal combustion engines. 

• The paper highlights that 
transitioning to renewable 
transportation fuels derived 
from sources such as solar, 
wind, hydropower, and biomass 
could significantly reduce 
greenhouse gas emissions and 
local air pollutants, especially 
when used in zero or near-zero 
emission vehicles like battery-
powered electric vehicles or 
fuel cell electric vehicles. 

• It emphasizes the potential for 
large-scale economic 
production of renewable fuels 
from domestic resources, which 
could alleviate the 
vulnerabilities associated with 
petroleum-based fuels and 
contribute to a more 
sustainable and 
environmentally friendly 
transportation system. 

 


