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38 

 

 

 

Review 

The feasibility and analysis of electric taxi 

vehicles in Singapore: A review 
Rehan Khalid, Vishtreet Conjobeeharry, Abdullah Saif Sanai, Chelward T. H. Brown, Hadi 
Nabipour Afrouzi*, Ateeb Hassan 

Faculty of Engineering, Computing and Science, Swinburne University of Technology Sarawak, 93350 Kuching, Malaysia 

A R T I C L E   I N F O 
 

Article history: 
Received 02 December 2023  
Received in revised form 
12 January 2023 
Accepted 18 January 2023 
 
Keywords: 
Electric taxis, Transportation, Feasibility,  
Analysis, Singapore 
 
*Corresponding author 
Email address:  
HAfrouzi@swinburne.edu.my  

 
DOI: 10.55670/fpll.fuen.2.3.5 

A B S T R A C T 
 

Taxi is one of the essential ways of transportation, which contributes to the 
depletion of non-renewable resources, congestion, emissions of harmful gases, 
energy consumption, and noise pollution. One way to reduce the environmental 
pollution caused by the road transportation system is to replace conventional 
and hybrid vehicles with pure electric-driven powertrains. In fact, EVs were 
announced as the key element in the sustainable transport strategy in urban 
areas, but the company operating transport services using vehicle fleets should 
increase the demand for electric vehicles to spread awareness. This paper 
reviews the feasibility of EV taxis in Singapore by analyzing the available 
infrastructure and energy prices. To introduce the electric vehicle in Singapore 
as an electric taxi, the construction along with the location of charging 
infrastructure need to be properly planned. Initiatives taken by different 
countries and the large-scale transition have also been reviewed. Despite the 
drawbacks of battery electric vehicles (BEVs), such as charging inconvenience 
and limited range, promising potential for EV taxis has been presented by the 
technological progress This paper also compared different aspects of the 
currently used taxis with EV taxis in Singapore. For the augmentation of this 
transition, improvement of the business model, dissemination of charging 
infrastructure, and policy support can play a vital role. 

 
1. Introduction  

Singapore contributes about 0.14% to global carbon 

emissions, but considering its relatively small population size, 

its average yearly emissions per capita is about 8 tons. In 

2016, an average of 7,214,000 people used public transport in 

Singapore daily. Of that, 954,000 people commuted by taxis. 

The MRT, which is the most frequently used form of public 

transport, is already powered by electricity. To continue to 

reduce the emissions of CO2, the team believes in electric taxis 

because electric cars have a smaller carbon footprint than ICE 

cars. In Singapore, currently, transport contributes to 14% of 

CO2 emissions, which amounts to about 7 million tons of CO2 

[1]. The dependency of road transport on oil can deplete these 

non-renewable resources, and the pollution from these 

conventional vehicles causes different kinds of health 

problems. This is the reason why there should be an alternate 

way of lowering carbon emissions and dependency on oil. The 

usage of biofuel, electric powertrains, and improved versions 

of current vehicles are the three solutions that can be 

considered to tackle this issue. As the number of people is 

increasing, zero carbon emissions and dependency on oil 

seem like a long-term effort. For this situation, EV is the 

solution that satisfies the conditions. Only an electric motor 

powered by a battery and charged when not in use is the 

simple principle of operation for EVs. They are quite efficient, 

have a high acceleration, and can be charged at low-cost 

overnight [2]. These vehicles are operated with the help of 

batteries that can store high energy and, at the same time, 

need a large amount for the charging requirements with the 

use of a grid or renewable resources. During peak hours, it’s 

not recommended to charge the batteries, which in the end, 

impacts the life of the transformers [1]. As the industry and 

the Government greatly boosted the development of EVs, 

these vehicles are thought to be prevalent soon. The notion of 

replacing general petroleum cars with EVs includes the 

following reasons: 1) EVs make zero emissions of carbon 

dioxide, which fits the green trend in saving the environment, 

2) The energy efficiency of EVs is high, 3) Lower running and 

maintenance costs. Different sectors have shared the effort, 

and 95% of the emission is expected to reduce by the road 

transport sector. With these rising numbers, it is imperative 

that sustainable alternatives to transport need to be explored. 

The first company to launch electric taxis in Singapore is HDT 

Singapore Holdings. In 2016, Land Transport Authority (LTA) 

 

 

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August 2023| Volume 02 | Issue 03 | Pages 38-48 

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mailto:HAfrouzi@swinburne.edu.my
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R. Khalid et al. /Future Energy                                                                                                     August 2023| Volume 02 | Issue 03| Pages 38-48 

39 

 

awarded the Taxi Service Operator License for ten years. In 

early 2017, they launched their first hundred taxi cars on the 

road. Their fleet is composed of BYD e6 cars only, which is a 

fully electric cars. HDT taxi was on a trial basis for eight years. 

This pilot project is part of Singapore’s EV Phase 2 Testbed, 

which is in collaboration with the LTA and the Economic 

Development Board (EDB). This trial is performed to study 

the viability of the electric taxi in the Singaporean land 

transport network. They needed to increase their fleet up to 

eight hundred cars, as required by the authorities. The 

company fulfilled this requirement by adding two hundred 

vehicles every year for the next four years after their 

establishment. By July 2022, it is expected to have this 

requirement fulfilled. HDT partnered with Grab company and 

provided thirty cars that were to be used for e-hailing 

services. Further research is still in-process in Singapore, by 

the Research & Development center and in collaboration with 

local research institutes [3]. The second taxi company to 

launch electric taxis is ComfortDelGro. In July 2018, two 

Hyundai Ioniq Electric was released for trial by the company. 

Then, in January 2019, they introduced two units of the newer 

Hyundai Kona Electric for trial. The Hyundai Kona Electric has 

a 64-kWh lithium polymer battery and offers a longer range 

than that of the Ioniq Electric. The trial will evaluate the 

roadworthiness of the vehicle, like the electricity cost, 

maintenance, mileage, and battery durability. The purpose of 

this article is to review the feasibility of EV taxis in Singapore 

and evaluate whether the transition from taxis to EV taxis is 

economically, environmentally, socially, and ethically 

feasible.  The current situation, types of public transport, 

energy prices, and measures that should be taken to supplant 

conventional taxis (IC and hybrid) with EV taxis will be 

reviewed. Previously, many researches have been done on the 

technical aspects of EVs, but the feasibility and 

commercialization are hardly addressed. Therefore, the 

review of the feasibility of EV taxis is substantial.  

2. Feasibility of Electric Taxi Vehicles in Different 

Countries 

2.1 Feasibility of EV Taxis in Malaysia 

The current conditions in Malaysia are not favorable for 

an electric taxi fleet. Electric taxis require many charging 

points to be viable in a city. In Malaysian cities, there are not 

many places where electric vehicles can be charged. There are 

only 257 charging points in the whole country. Most of these 

charging points are found in the states of Kuala Lumpur and 

Selangor. Each charging point would serve an average of 74 

km2 in Selangor and 5 km2 in Kuala Lumpur. This is a decent 

number. The situation is far worse in other states like Sabah, 

with zero charging points, and Sarawak, with only 4 charging 

points for an area of 120 000 km2. Finally, there is not much 

support from the Malaysian Government like tax breaks. So, 

to drive an electric vehicle it would cost as much (or more) as 

any internal combustion engine. Moreover, the buying cost of 

a conventional car is very affordable to the crowd; for 

example, the cheapest petrol car in Malaysia, a Perodua Axia, 

manufactured in Malaysia itself, costs only RM 24,000, 

whereas a Nissan Leaf, currently imported from Japan and 

sold in Malaysia at RM 188,888, will not appeal and be feasible 

to the taxi owners or companies, due to their income or salary, 

and the high initial buying cost [3]. Economy-wise, Malaysia 

does not have a huge hand in generating electricity from 

renewable sources of energy, and electricity is mostly 

generated by burning coal, and coal is imported from foreign 

countries, so shifting to electric taxis will have a huge impact 

on the economy when it comes down to the decision of buying 

more coal. Another point to note is that conventional cars are 

locally manufactured, so the cost of import, shipping, excise 

duty, and others are rather inexistent or very less, as 

compared to the electric cars, which are all imported to be 

used as electric taxis. To make the shift happens, electric cars 

should be locally manufactured to make them more accessible 

to the taxi population. 

2.2 Feasibility of EV Taxis in South Korea 

Unprecedented efforts have been made by South Korea 

in the transition of commercialization of conventional 

vehicles to EV taxi services.  On 6th September 2013, a pilot 

test of Electric vehicle taxis was inaugurated in Daejeon city. 

This was the first test of its kind that was performed for the 

analysis of the feasibility of EV taxis before introducing it to 

the commercial level. The vehicles adopted to perform the 

test were three SM3 ZE’s (Renault- Samsung Motors). In 2014, 

as a result of this test, about 500 IC taxis were replaced by 

Electric taxis [4]. According to the results of a study 

performed by Baek, Kim & Chang 2016 on the feasibility of EV 

taxis, there is a possibility of real mileage higher than the 

calculated for EV taxis. This is because in the pilot test, the 

vehicles that were considered were not sharing charging 

infrastructure and were operated independently by the 

companies. The feasibility of EV taxis would be even higher if 

the selected cars were provided access to localized charging 

stations. Moreover, the average value of the benefit to cost 

analysis (B/C) enhanced to 0.7 and consequently making the 

EV taxis feasible. Following is the formula that was used to 

calculate the B/C ratio for EV taxis: 

𝐵

𝐶
=
𝛴𝑡=0
𝑛 𝐵𝑡

(1 + 𝑟)𝑡

𝛴𝑡=0
𝑛 𝐶𝑡

(1 + 𝑟)𝑡

 (1) 

 
Where  𝐵𝑡 is the benefit in the year t, 𝐶𝑡 is the cost in the year 
t,    𝑟 is the discount ratio, and 𝑛 is the project duration. 

 
2.3 Feasibility of EV Taxis in Canada 

Another study was performed by Darcovich [5]  using 

real-time driving data and running battery life simulations on 

the appraisal of the feasibility of EV taxis. Performance targets 

for the EV simulations were obtained from the driving 

patterns of single and double-shift gasoline taxis. The data 

obtained from this study depicted that driving distance is set 

to 151 km/day for single shift and 298km/day for a double 

shift to get the results. As per the simulation results, 89% of 

the reference driving was met by a single-shift taxi in a 6-year 

period. Whereas there was a need of mid-shift charging in 

double shift. The only drawback is the loss of revenue by a 

small percentage of distance, but it can easily be compensated 

by decreasing the operational costs. Moreover, it was 

observed that degradation of battery is excited by the annual 

driving distances as compared to charging speed. In 



R. Khalid et al. /Future Energy                                                                                                     August 2023| Volume 02 | Issue 03| Pages 38-48 

40 

 

conclusion of this study, EV taxis for both single and double 

shifts were economically and operationally feasible [5]. 

2.4 Feasibility of EV taxis in China 

Beijing, the capital of China, has the largest fleet of EVs 

with registration of around 46000 taxis. In 2011, the 

authorities in Beijing decided to reduce carbon and other 

harmful emissions by introducing electric taxis. A program 

was introduced by the authorities to increase the purchase 

and usage of electric cars around the city by co-financing 

approximately 370 euros per month on the purchase. With 

this, nearly 10% of the city’s parking is being selected only for 

electric vehicles by the Beijing anti-pollution drive. The same 

process is followed in another city Shenzhen, where in 2010 

only 40 taxis were used, then increased to 800 in 2013 [6]. In 

2010, Tokyo did an experiment with switchable batteries in 

EV out for three months before implementing it. For this test, 

three Nissan Rogue were converted to electric vehicles to 

examine how long it travels on a full battery and how long it 

takes to swap the battery with a fully charged one. After 

successfully completing the experiment, it was applied in 

Tokyo’s electric taxi company, which saves time for charging, 

as the typical mileage of one taxi is around 300 km daily. 

2.5 Feasibility of EV Taxis in Europe 

The great number of charging stations in Oslo is the main 

reason for having a high number of electric vehicles. These 

visible stations reduced the anxiety of people getting worried 

about the lack of charging facilities. In 2014, 1000 more 

charging stations were built of which 700 for public and 300 

for private usage. Then in 2015, the expansion of this project 

was carried out by adding 400 more stations for public use of 

the climate and environment funds. Moreover, the people 

were given the exemption of VAT of (25%) on any new 

vehicles, no fee for first-time registration, allowed to drive in 

any lanes, including the one reserved for taxis and buses, free 

from toll roads, can park their vehicles for free at any spot in 

public parking. Development of a strategy for sustainable 

transport, the environmentally friendly solution provided, 

was implemented by the Poznan city authorities, which 

increased the number of vehicles still 6000 around the Polish 

roads [7]. In 2008, a company known as a Better place in 

Europe proposed the development of electric vehicles, by 

providing the services and network necessary for it and to 

eliminate the barriers which stop the development of EVs on 

a national scale. However, in 2013, because of this action 

taken by Better place, the range of services and 

infrastructures offered was wide. Installation of a network of 

charging stations was carried along with embedded energy 

monitoring, route planning system, and support, which 

calculates the vehicle range and guides the driver to the 

available spot for charging. Then finally, the network software 

was designed that monitor the battery and its need in order 

to anticipate energy demand, have real-time communication 

with the grid operators, and implementation of intelligent 

charging to avoid peak time and offset the intermittency of 

renewable energy sources. Car clubs were introduced to 

mainly urban drivers, where they can borrow the EVs on 

display if needed and pay for that time. This facilitated the 

urban driver without paying insurance and maintenance of 

the car, but to use irregularly. This technique was adopted 

from a car show known as Yélomobile in La Rochelle, France, 

which was carried in 1999 for a monthly subscription or €7/h 

for BEVs. Along with this, the second option was also 

introduced of renting a car for appropriate range, and during 

the trip their vehicle can be swapped with BEV.  

Local policies came into action, which have a crucial 

weight in the expansion of BEV, after the car show developed 

at a city scale. The buyers were granted 25% of the vehicle’s 

cost or a max of 5000 pounds from the Government. Other 

positive steps taken by the local policies provided the EVs a 

great advantage, like the road tax reduction which is based on 

the amount of carbon emissions produced. Increase in diesel 

and petrol tax, which brought the people towards EVs. 

Parking fee reduction according to the driver’s habits is 

beneficial for some users. Some preferential parking spots 

having charging points is implemented. Around 30,000 

charge points have been installed in 11000 different locations 

around UK. Alone in London, 5000 rapid charging stations are 

there, which allow fleet operators, taxi drivers, and freight to 

quickly charge. Nevertheless, planning is done for an 

additional 2700 charging stations near the residential area in 

London to facilitate drivers who cannot charge at their homes. 

Now, after providing people with benefits, the growth of EVs 

went from 3586 in 2013 all the way to 37092 in 2016.  

The strategy for Norway was different, as approximately 

73% of the population lives in row houses, detached or semi-

detached houses, and family house, charging opportunity is 

available for them, and thus from the data, it was not 

considered important to build infrastructure for charging 

station, but planning is done to provide a high-speed charging 

facility which is more relevant, but not important from selling 

point of view. A one-year membership is awarded in the EV 

association, mostly to those who are among the EV 

purchasers. Norway has placed some tools and policies in 

hand to speed up the growth and make space in taxi 

companies for electric vehicles. These were the seven 

different roles, excluding the infrastructure of charging 

stations, which motivated the people to buy EVs; exemption 

from VAT, exemption from purchase tax, exemption from 

road tolling, free ferry tickets, bus lane access, reduction in 

the fee of vehicle’s license and free parking. Around 11,500 

electric vehicles were registered in Norway during the first 

three months of 2019, which is added to the previous count of 

200,000. Although charging points were not needed, more 

than 10000 charging points were built to provide people with 

an additional benefit. From these charging points, 400 are 

rapid and semi-fast charging points [8]. 

A study was performed by Bischoff & Maciejewski on a 

transition of Berlin taxis to BEV’s fleet. According this study, 

it will take substantial effort to make this transition using the 

infrastructure that is currently available and requires 

executive and fiscal support. As per this study, there is a need 

for the installation of one 50-kW level 3 or 4 chargers for ten 

taxis. It was also concluded that peak energy consumption 

and usage of the charger would occur in Winter term 

operations. As per the driver’s viewpoint, this state of the art 

technology can only be efficient if concessions are given for 

the battery life by reducing the energy costs expressively, and 

finally by subsidizing the service [9]. 

 

 



R. Khalid et al. /Future Energy                                                                                                     August 2023| Volume 02 | Issue 03| Pages 38-48 

41 

 

3. Feasibility Analysis in Singapore 

3.1 Public transport in Singapore 

Singapore is a city-country, which is situated below 

Malaysia, and houses 5.3 million inhabitants [10]. It has 

among the best public transport in the World. They offer a 

wide array of public transportation, from buses, taxis, LRT to 

MRT. Buses are the most convenient option for public 

transport, as they can cover every part of the island, 

compared to the transit services, which operate on rails that 

run in high traffic and certain neighborhoods only. MRT is 

also widely used as a mode of public transportation since it 

can transport a large crowd at one time and avoid road traffic 

congestion. It is also faster than buses and taxis because they 

do not run on roads; they have their own rail tracks built 

underground or overhead, and they only stop at their stations, 

and they have a higher traveling speed than buses. The 

downside of MRT is that its network is not extensively spread 

across the island and is only available in popular and 

frequented areas. Figure 1 shows the average passenger trips 

per day by the different modes of public transportation for 

2016. In 2013, the Singaporean Land Transport Authority 

(LTA) focused in the public transportation sector, and 

according to their study, 63 % of all peak-hour trips were 

made by public transport [10]. 

 

Figure 1. Average daily transport ridership [11] 

 

However, same as every country got its own taxi network 

to serve as public transportation, Singapore has also its taxi 

service. Taxis are very popular across the globe because it 

provides transport service to the population with greater 

speed, comfort, privacy, ease, and convenience. Its advantage 

over bus is that it does not run on a fixed route, so it can pick 

and drop the customers at any requested location or at their 

doorstep. They operate 24 hours and overnight. Taxi drivers 

are very professional and experienced drivers, as they have a 

different driving test compared to a normal driver, and they 

are familiar in the region. They know the roads and the traffic 

conditions on the tip of their fingers. Some taxi companies 

offer different types of vehicles, from standard passenger cars 

to luxurious cars and limousines, and disability, wheelchair-

accessible and pet-friendly vehicles [12]. According to Statista 

(2020), there are 18,542 taxi vehicles registered and 

circulating around Singapore for 2019 [13]. Taxis represent 3 

% of the vehicle population in Singapore and are responsible 

for about 15 % of the overall mileage driven. The need for 

electric taxis is to reduce carbon dioxide emissions and go 

towards an environment-friendly form of public 

transportation [10]. Nowadays, there is an increased in 

popularity in ride-hailing services, like Grab and GoJek. This 

type of transport makes use of an online platform, like a 

website or a smartphone application to connect the passenger 

and the driver in the vicinity. Unlike taxi services, where they 

use taxi registered, licensed, and regulated vehicles and 

drivers, this service operates by local drivers using their own 

personal vehicles. This cuts the costs of registration, license 

and insurance occurred with a registered taxi vehicle, and it 

is convenient to both drivers and passengers. It provides a 

cheaper fare compared to traditional taxi service. Even with 

the introduction of ridesharing/hailing or e-hailing services, 

taxis still play an important role in modern society. Taxis are 

the go-to transport for elderly and disabled persons, 

especially for those who are not exposed to smartphones and 

the internet. Some tourists still prefer taxis as they can 

negotiate with the taxi drivers for tours and visits around the 

island and ask for recommended hotels and eating places. In 

that sense, it is more convenient for tourists who want this 

kind of traveling experience. Some data for the densities of 

taxis per person and the flag-down and mileage fees for the 

first kilometer in the different cities are shown in Figure2. 

 

 

Figure 2. Taxi density and flag-down fares for different cities 

[10] 

 

From the above chart, Singapore has the highest taxi 

density and the lowest flag-down and first 1 km fares among 

the other cities listed. This is because the Land Transport 

Authority required 65 – 70 % of the taxi fleet to be on the road 

back in 2013. In 2014, they changed the law. They required 

70 % of the taxi fleet to drive 250 km per day, which required 

around 8 to 9 hours per day, six days per week.    

3.2 Taxi networks and companies in Singapore 

Eight taxi companies operate taxis in Singapore: Comfort 

Transportation, CityCab, Yellow Top Taxi, SMRT Taxis, Trans-

Cab Services, SMART Automobile, Premier Taxis, and Prime 

Taxi [14]. Figure 3 shows the taxi stops (stands) spread across 

the whole island. There were 270 taxi stands/stops in the 

whole island for the year 2013, according to data.gov.sg [15]. 

Taxi operates by the shift systems. The one-shift taxi has one 

driver and drives around 347 km in a day. The two-shift taxi 

has two drivers who cover 260 km each per shift, which totals 

to 520 km in a day. The two-shift taxis are always on the road 

and only stopped when needed, that is for refueling, washing, 



R. Khalid et al. /Future Energy                                                                                                     August 2023| Volume 02 | Issue 03| Pages 38-48 

42 

 

or changing driver. Table 1 shows the taxi population of 

different companies up to December 2017 [16]. 

 

Figure 3. Land Transport Authority (LTA) Taxi Stops island-

wide [17] 

 

Table 1. Monthly Taxi Population by Company [16] 

 

3.3 Energy prices in Singapore 

In Singapore, oil and gas prices have been high for many 

years ago. This is because Singapore needs to import crude oil 

from overseas. The amount imported is more than it produces 

in its own country. Also, if the petrol is coming from outside, 

transportation is required to bring oil to Singapore, which 

costs money. Singapore has imposed a fuel excise tax on top 

of the high price of fuel. Singapore’s Government strategy is 

to discourage people from owning a car because of their 

highly dense population packed in a small area, to avoid traffic 

congestion and parking problems, and high air pollution in 

the long run. The oil prices provided by the different 

companies are listed in Table 2 [18].  

Table 2. Singapore Fuel Price Comparison per liter, dated 

21st May 2020 [18] 

Types of 
fuel 

Caltex Esso Shell SPC Sinopec 

92-Octane S$1.98 S$1.98 - S$1.95 - 
95-Octane S$2.02 S$2.02 S$2.02 S$1.99 S$2.02 
98-Octane  S$2.52 S$2.39 S$2.41 S$2.33 S$2.39 
Others 
(e.g. V-
Power) 

- - S$2.65 - S$2.55 

Diesel S$1.70 S$1.70 S$1.72 S$1.64 S$1.70 

 

As it can be seen from the table below, diesel prices are 

lower than petrol prices, which explains the popularity of 

diesel cars used as taxis on the island, as the running or 

mileage costs of a diesel car will be lesser than that of an ICE 

car. The price for the different EV charging points provided by 

the different companies in Singapore are listed in Table 3. 

Every company has a different pricing strategy for its 

customers [19]. It can also be seen from the table below that 

the different companies are expanding their charging 

facilities by increasing the number of charging stations 

throughout the island. This is a positive approach to push 

both taxi and private car owners to switch to electric cars. The 

charging stations will be located in popular and frequented 

residential and commercial areas, with special thought to the 

“taxi uncles” who can charge their electric cars while having a 

drink at the nearest coffee shop and getting some rest.   

Table 3. Comparison of different EV charging points in 

Singapore, dated 29th April 2020 [19] 

EV Charging 
Points 

Number of 
Stations 

Price 

BlueSG 

Over 200 available 
island-wide; 
expected to hit 2000 
in 2020 

A yearly membership 
fee of S$20 to be paid to 
become a BlueSG 
member. 
For EV charging, S$1 
per hour for the first 3 
hours, and S$2 an hour 
after that. 

Shell 
Recharge 

10 (including fast 
charging stations) 

S$0.55 per kWh 

SP Group 

24; expected to hit 
1000 with 250 
being fast chargers 
in 2020 

Prices are calculated by 
kWh and are adjusted 
periodically on 
prevailing electricity 
costs. 

Greenslots 50 From S$1.50 an hour 

 

3.4 Transition from conventional to EV taxis in 

Singapore 

To differentiate from each other, companies used 

different cars adapted for different uses and for different 

choices of customers. Taxis in Singapore used to be petrol and 

diesel cars before, but diesel cars were in larger numbers. 

Taxi drivers used to prefer diesel cars because of their 

efficiency and durability over petrol cars, due to the high 

amount of driving daily. Also, diesel engines produce more 

torque, which makes it more drivable in the city. Diesel cars 

must do lower maintenance, as compared to petrol cars, as 

diesel engines are tougher. Diesel prices are usually lesser 

than petrol. Diesel engines produce less carbon dioxide but in 

the cost of more carcinogenic gases. The trade-off for diesel 

cars is that they are more expensive to buy than petrol cars. 

Also, there is a special tax on diesel vehicles in Singapore. 

Although the maintenance frequency is lesser in diesel cars, 

its costs are much higher than a gasoline car. The most 

common diesel cars used as taxis in Singapore were the 

Hyundai Sonata and the Toyota Crown. With the advent of 

petrol-electric hybrid cars in the market, taxis, together with 

the public, got one more type of car to choose from, apart from 

conventional petrol and diesel, that was dated from years ago. 

In 2008, there was not a single unit of a hybrid taxi. In 

November 2017, it was reported to have 4000 hybrid taxis on 

Singaporean roads, which accounts for approximately 17 % 

of the taxi car population [20]. The increase in hybrids in 

Singapore was due to the new rules and regulations set by the 

Land Transport Authority of Singapore. The new emissions-

based taxation scheme provides a rebate of up to S$45,000 for 

hybrid taxis. Hybrid cars contribute to a cleaner air. With the 

Month Company No. of Taxis 

2017-12 Comfort 9,825 

2017-12 CityCab 3,419 

2017-12 TransCab 3,686 

2017-12 SMRT 3,380 

2017-12 Premier 2,055 

2017-12 Prime 691 

2017-12 Individual Yellow – Top 84 



R. Khalid et al. /Future Energy                                                                                                     August 2023| Volume 02 | Issue 03| Pages 38-48 

43 

 

advent of technology, the petrol-electric hybrid has improved 

significantly, since its introduction in 1997, with the launch of 

the Toyota Prius in Japan. In 2009, Prime Taxi was the first 

company to launch hybrid taxis in Singapore. They have 

experimented with hybrids and concluded that the diesel 

Hyundai Sonata and the new Toyota Prius Hybrid average the 

same fuel cost per kilometer, which is 8 cents per kilometer. 

Also, for replacing the batteries, Prime Taxi imports its 

batteries from its joint company, which costs S$2,200 each, 

instead of buying them from the authorized dealer Toyota 

dealer, Borneo Motors, which costs S$5,200 each. Hybrid taxis 

do not need to pay the annual diesel tax [20]. Singapore 

reviewed its system of vehicle emissions in January 2018. The 

new Vehicular Emissions Scheme (VES) is stricter and will be 

applied to all vehicles registered from 1st January 2018 to 

31st December 2020 [21]. With the introduction of this new 

system, diesel cars have become lesser and lesser in 

Singapore day by day because of higher running taxes. 

Considering all these factors, hybrids are the better and the 

most cost-effective choice for taxis, as compared to the most 

used diesel and conventional petrol cars. To promote the use 

of environmentally friendly cars, taxi owners are given 40 % 

discount on their Additional Registration Fee (ARF). Prime 

Taxis, being the first one to launch hybrid taxis in Singapore, 

has most of its fleet converted to hybrid cars today. Then, 

other companies have followed the pace. Almost, all taxi 

companies have already switched to hybrid vehicles for their 

standard or basic service. The most common car for the taxi 

is the Toyota Prius Hybrid (both 3rd and 4th generation 

variants) on Singaporean roads. The new hybrid car from 

Hyundai, the Ioniq Hybrid is also present in a few numbers on 

Singaporean roads and is being tested by the taxi company 

ComfortDelGro. With all the positives received from the 

hybrid taxis in Singapore, most of the taxi companies have 

already switched to hybrid vehicles due to the high oil prices 

and lower running costs paid to Singapore Authorities. The 

Government has done its part to promote a greener and more 

sustainable approach by pushing taxis to convert to hybrid 

taxis, and it has been a successful operation. Diesel cars have 

been decreasing day by day since the rise of hybrid taxis. In 

early 2020, the last Hyundai Sonata (diesel) retired. But 

contradictory, for the “taxi limo”, a short form for limousine 

service, they still use Mercedes-Benz E220 CDI and Bluetec 

(diesel and petrol respectively), Mercedes-Benz Viano and 

V220d (diesel) and Toyota Alphard (hybrid) [14]. But it is 

noted that for the “limo” service, customers are charged at a 

higher fare than that of the standard or regular taxi service. 

With the new stricter rules on the island, hybrid taxis do not 

make any sense since the year 2018, since their running costs 

have increased significantly, and they have become quite 

saturated on Singaporean roads. During that period, electric 

cars also picked up and gained some popularity on the island. 

Since June 2020, Singapore has been occupied by 11 different 

electric vehicles of various brands, from which Renault and 

BMW cars cannot be used as they fall in the coupe or 

supermini category, which are not suitable for taxi use. The 

price of the Porsche, Tesla, Jaguar, and Audi cars vary 

between a range of S$300k to S$550k, which makes it 

inappropriate for a taxi fleet due to their high price. In Table 

4, the electric vehicles that are being used as taxis in 

Singapore are listed. 

The comparison can be made using the table, by which it 

is clear that using a Hyundai Kona Electric for the taxi fleet is 

more suitable than any other electric vehicle, due to its 

maximum range; so it can cover 482 km just by consuming 13 

kWh/100km, whereas the BYD e6 can cover only km on a 

single charge by consuming 19.5 kWh/100km, which means 

it consumes more electrical power while delivering a lesser 

range than the Hyundai Kona Electric. Although the charging 

time is a bit higher than BYD, the range and power 

consumption of the Kona electric still have a decent value. 

Two taxi companies are currently testing these electric cars 

to be used as taxis in Singapore [23]. 

3.5 Charging infrastructure to cater for EV taxis in 

Singapore 

These electric cars need to be charged to obtain their 

power source. HDT placed 75 charging points in 10 areas 

across Singapore in 2016, for their launch on the island. The 

charging type is the Type 2 charging standard, and it supports 

semi-fast charging, together with the normal charging of EVs. 

The number of charging points is expected to rise in the 

coming years [24]. Apart from charging from HDT charging 

stations, drivers of Grab and HDT can access SP agreements 

between the companies. SP Group offers two types of 

charging: DC charging, which is rated at 50 kW, and AC 

charging, which is rated at 43 kW. The DC charger charges the 

EV faster than the AC charger. In total, they have 38 charging 

points island-wide, half AC and the other half DC chargers 

(Figure 4) [25]. Their target is to build 1000 charging points 

by 2020, of which one-quarter of them will be fast DC 

charging [26]. Their charging power ranges from 22 kW from 

the older chargers to 350 kW from the new extra high-

powered chargers to charge bigger electric vehicles with 

higher battery capacity and greater driving range. Other 

companies have set up EV charging stations for the public to 

use: BYD charging station, Shell Recharge charging points 

powered by Greenlots available at 10 Shell filling stations 

throughout the island, Greenlots charging stations, Blue SG 

charging stations, and Grab charging stations [27]. One 

shopping mall, City Square Mall, is equipped with its own 

charging stations in its two parking lots. Few condominiums 

have installed EV charging points in their parking lots for 

their residence. In March 2020, it was noted that Singapore 

counted 1600 chargers, which are accessed by the public. 

ComfortDelGro has its own charging facility to cater to its 

research vehicles, which is the Terra 54 CG charging station. 

Their own subsidiary company, ComfortDelGro Engineering, 

partnered with Greenlots to provide the DC fast charging that 

will be able to charge the EVs in around 30 minutes. They have 

only two slots for the fast charger so far at this station, and it 

is open to the public at the cost of S$40 cents per kWh. Taxi 

drivers can also opt to charge at the headquarters of the 

company at Braddell and at Komoco Motors in Alexandra, 

where fast-charging facilities are also available for the taxis of 

ComfortDelGro. 

4. Comparisons 

4.1 Economical aspect 

Electric vehicle battery is the most expensive component 

of EV taxis that increases Open Market Value (OMV) and 

consequently leads to increased taxes, for instance, additional 

registration fees (ARF) [28].  



R. Khalid et al. /Future Energy                                                                                                     August 2023| Volume 02 | Issue 03| Pages 38-48 

44 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Figure 4. SP Group high-speed charging network [25] 

Due to the increase in these taxes, acquisition costs are 

also subjected to increase, thereby reducing the economic 

competitiveness of EV taxis. On the other hand, conventional 

taxi vehicles do not have such expensive components and 

acquire a relatively cheaper petrol or diesel tank. Therefore, 

to accelerate the adoption of EV taxis, encouraging policies 

should be devised by the Government, such as the cost of 

traction battery should be excluded from the ARF and only 

applies to the OMV of the vehicle. So far, this exemption was 

only presented for the BYD e6 in 2016, and the OMV reduced 

significantly from 47,000 SGD to 17,237 SGD [28]. The overall 

basis for the feasibility of EV taxis supplanting conventional 

taxis is the total cost of ownership (TCO). The TCO of 

conventional and EV taxi for the span of 4 years from 2016 to 

2020 was analyzed by Robert [29], and the results depicted 

that battery electric vehicles incur a rise in maintenance cost 

as compared to hybrid electric vehicles. It was also found that 

conventional and EV taxis fell in the same range in 2016, 

whereas due to incessant decreases in the battery price, EV 

taxis were primarily cheaper by 2020. Daily rental fee is 

another impediment to the feasibility of EV taxis. The survey 

of taxi drivers in Singapore conducted by Kochhan [30] 

confirms that higher daily rental fee is considered a 

detriment. This is because it is a fixed cost payable by the 

driver irrespective of how much he or she is earing in the 

respective day. Nevertheless, an inconsequential positive 

correlation was also observed for the approval of high daily 

rental fee by those drivers that are expected to make two-shift 

taxis or use relief drivers and cover a higher total daily 

mileage.  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

4.2 Environmental aspect  

For fossil fuel vehicles, the upstream Greenhouse gases 

(GHG) emissions per energy content are comparatively lower 

than that for electricity, as shown in Figure 5(a). Higher 

upstream efficiencies of diesel, petrol and natural gas 

production are more responsible for this than the efficiency 

of electricity generation and distribution. The calculation of 

total GHG emissions per final energy well-to-wheels (WTW) 

analysis is based on the specified upstream well-to-tank 

(WTT) emissions and the specific direct emissions in the 

vehicle. While the CNG emissions are low, the total emissions 

from diesel and petrol are on the same level at about 0.3 kg 

CO2-eq./kWh. In Singapore, the GHG emissions per energy are 

maximum for electricity, comprising only upstream 

emissions. The lower CO2 emissions of the PHEV and BEV 

versus the other vehicles are a direct outcome of the higher 

efficiency of these electrified vehicle concepts and the higher 

share of non-fossil electricity sources when compared to 

purely fossil-based gasoline and diesel. Though the high 

upstream emissions factor remains, the lowest GHG 

emissions per/km have been obtained compared to diesel, 

petrol, and CNG cars in BEV taxis. As the final energy demand 

of the vehicle is relatively lower because of the high efficiency 

of the electric motor than the conventional engines, it leads to 

this outcome for BEV taxis. The BEV is clearly the best concept 

from a CO2 WTW perspective in 2010 and will maintain this 

position through 2030. All vehicle concepts reduce their 

WTW CO2 emissions from 2010 to 2020 very significantly, 

which is clearly shown in Figure 5(b) and Figure 5(c). During 

manufacturing, it has been observed that the amount of 

emissions caused are lower for petrol vehicle than for diesel 

vehicle. The similarity between a CNG car and a gasoline car 

is the engine, as the same engine with smaller adjustments 

can be used. The differences include the additional natural gas 

tank and the extra ducting that results in an elevated amount 

of emissions. During the production of an electric vehicle, the 

high emissions caused are strongly dependent on the size of 

the battery or sometimes the use of special lightweight 

materials, like in the case of an electric vehicle approved 

(EVA) [31]. 

4.3 Sustainability  

With the increased in EVs in the roads, extra power needs 

to be generated from the traditional power generation plants, 

which in turn will lead to a similar ecological impact as using 

diesel or petrol in conventional vehicles [32]. 

 

 
Manufacturers 

 
Model 

 
Type 

Fast Charging 
Time (min) 

Selling 
price 
(S$) 

Power 
consumption 

(kWh/100km) 

Maximum 
Range (Km) 

Taxi Company 

BYD e6 SUV 40 109,888 19.5 400 HDT Taxi 

Hyundai 

Kona 
Electric 

SUV 54 140,999 13 482 
ComfortDelGro 

Ioniq 
Electric 

Sedan 57 148,999 11.7 311 

 

Table 4. Electric Taxi cars currently in use by different taxi companies in Singapore [22] 



R. Khalid et al. /Future Energy                                                                                                     August 2023| Volume 02 | Issue 03| Pages 38-48 

45 

 

(a) 

(b) 

(c) 

Figure 5. (a) GHG emissions per kWh final energy (b) WtT 

CO2 comparison for 2010 (c) WtW CO2 comparison for 2020 

and 2030 [31] 

To address this issue, charging EVs with green energy 

needs to be adopted. Singapore has its electricity production 

by using natural gas reported to 95 %. Natural gas is also 

burnt to produce electricity, but it is cleaner than fossil fuels 

but is not totally renewable or sustainable. Singapore is going 

towards grid-connected solar energy to address the issues of 

natural gas electricity production. EVs have battery packs to 

store their electrical energy. The issues related to the 

batteries in the sustainability of EVs are the energy required 

to manufacture these batteries, and together with its 

emissions and consequences. 3430 kWh and 7176 kWh of 

energy is required to make a 25 kWh of lead-acid and NiMH 

battery, respectively. Also, the batteries of EVs cannot be 

readily recycled. A large amount of energy is needed to 

recycle the batteries, or the defective batteries need to be 

disposed.  

4.4 Ethical and social aspects 

In general, ethical aspects ensure the community's 

safety, education, and empowerment for a process. There are 

certain factors that are well thought-out by the buyer or a user 

of EV taxis that are as follows: 

• Perceived Usefulness 

• Service and System Quality  

• Perceived trust 

• Perceived risk  

When it comes to the transition from conventional taxis 

and preferment of the EV taxi system, the above-described 

factors play a vital role in forming users’ psychological 

perceptions. It has been found that perceived cost is a 

negative variable on the other hand, perceived usefulness is a 

positive variable. Therefore, to promote EV taxis, these 

factors should be considered as substantial variables, and 

Singaporean Government should devise strategies and 

policies for subsidizing taxi drivers’ expenses like purchasing, 

maintaining, repairing, and others. Scientists and researchers 

should focus on problems that enhance EV taxis' reliability 

and find solutions for charging infrastructure to increase 

process efficiency [31]. 

Regulatory measures like service and warranty 

procedures are sort of a problem for both EV and ICE taxi 

drivers in Singapore. Moreover, the charging stations for EV 

taxis and petrol stations for hybrids & ICE taxis are not alike. 

For instance, in a normal taxi fuelling station, drivers can 

easily stop and have a lunch or coffee break, unlike charging 

stations for EV taxis that are sometimes located at eccentric 

places having fewer facilities in the stations’ vicinity. On the 

plus side, electric cars take longer to charge, which allows the 

drivers to have longer resting hours, which is beneficial for 

drivers after a few hours of driving. They can comfortably 

have their meals and rest. In Shenzhen, China, the facilities for 

charging electric taxis are well developed, and this city has the 

largest charging facility for electric taxis in the whole world, 

which counts 637 fast chargers [33]. With the coming of this 

facility, there has been a development in terms of socio-

economical aspects as well. Businesses like shopping malls 

have been bult in its vicinity to promote economic 

development as well as social development. A large 

community engagement had happened in this locality. The 

problem that is happening with electric cars is they are 

getting updated so quickly, as compared to a conventional car, 

which gets updated in 4 to 8 years. When the new model of 

the electric car is released, the value of the older model drops 

constantly, which makes consumers perceive that they have 

lost their money. To afford the new electric cars with the 

newer technology and better range efficiency, consumers 

must pay a way higher price for them. Also, the mindset of 

most of the population is not in favour of new technology. 

People usually do not want to take risks and pay such a high 

amount for a new unknown technology introduced which has 

not been proven and tested over the years. 

5. Discussions  

After reviewing different aspects of the electric taxi fleet 

that have been summarized in the above sections, it can be 

observed that EV taxis are viable. The driving pattern and the 

available charging infrastructure are the main constituents of 

the feasibility of EV taxis. The use of these taxis should be 

facilitated by short trips blended with good coverage of 

charging infrastructure.  



R. Khalid et al. /Future Energy                                                                                                     August 2023| Volume 02 | Issue 03| Pages 38-48 

46 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The peak hours must be assisted with supporting 

mechanisms for the prevention of revenue loss due to 

charging required at productive hours, and this can be done 

by fusing charging time with breaks or low-demand hours of 

the day. Singapore offers the most suitable condition for EV 

taxis since often braking, low speed, and less range is 

expected in the city. Singapore’s economy is one of the best in 

the world and it attracts the vast majority of tourists every 

year. Therefore, these people are more convivial with this 

type of transition than any other country. Since it is very 

unlikely for a tourist to own a car, the taxi business is booming 

there, and foreigners like to explore new options and 

innovations and have the luxury to afford it. Hence Singapore 

is ethically an ideal place for this large-scale transition. Table 

5 summarizes the feasibility of EV Taxis in Singapore as 

compared to the current taxi system. The conventional taxi 

system is cost-effective today, but the difference is not very 

substantial and can be retrenched by encouraging 

government policies like withdrawing ARF and other taxes 

etc. The chart clearly shows that EV taxis are a better choice 

environmentally because the dwindling sources of fossil fuels 

and growing environmental consciousness drives 

researchers and developers toward green energy. Moreover, 

conventional taxis are ethically preferred because of the 

already established market, abundant fuel stations, and 

ample perceived trust. However, EV taxis in Singapore still 

entail consideration to increase reliability which can be done 

in numerous ways, as reviewed in section 4.4 and lastly, EV 

taxis are also feasible as compared to conventional taxis on 

the basis of sustainability. However, there are some 

principled adjustments that are required. The imposed 

challenges can be tackled by taking the concerned authorities 

and already existing energy bodies on board and spreading 

energy literacy and the significance of RET’s (Renewable 

energy Targets) among the businessman community and 

industrialists. Overall, this large-scale transition from a 

traditional taxi fleet to an EV taxi fleet is totally feasible in 

Singapore. However, efforts should be made to provide a 

stable and cost-efficient system for the user. Policies should 

be formulated by the taxi companies to enhance the user’s 

attitude towards the EV taxi system by endorsing the positive 

societal factors. 

6. Conclusion 

In this research paper, the feasibility of EV taxis has been 

reviewed. The main goal of this research was to review the 

feasibility of a large-scale transition to electric taxis in 

Singapore that has been achieved by reviewing the current 

situation and development in Singapore and then looking into 

the different aspects conferred to prove why and how electric 

taxis are the way-forward to replace currently used gasoline 

and conventional hybrids?  

 

 

 

 

 

 

The large-scale transition to electric taxis has been 

feasible in different countries like Berlin, China, South Korea, 

etc, as reviewed in earlier sections, and so will be feasible in 

Singapore; however, this transition cannot happen overnight. 

It will take time to gradually make the switch by increasing 

the charging facilities, providing incentives and grants to 

motivate drivers, and slowly phasing out the diesel taxi cars 

and the rest of the gasoline and hybrid taxi cars. The 

noteworthy aspects that are deterring the transition to EV 

taxis in Singapore are Economical and Ethical. However, this 

can be vanquished by taking the coveted means described in 

this paper. The decommissioning process has already been 

started, and it is expected that diesel and gasoline-powered 

taxi cars will phase out by the end of 2024 and 2030, 

respectively, and consequently be supplanted with EV Taxis. 

Ethical issue 

The authors are aware of and comply with best practices in 
publication ethics, specifically concerning authorship 
(avoidance of guest authorship), dual submission, 
manipulation of figures, competing interests, and compliance 
with policies on research ethics. The authors adhere to 
publication requirements that the submitted work is original 
and has not been published elsewhere in any language. 

Data availability statement 
Data sharing does not apply to this article as no datasets were 

generated or analyzed during the current study.  

Conflict of interest 

The authors declare no potential conflict of interest. 

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