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01-12 

1 

 

 

 

Review 

Review analysis of the technology on recycling 

processes for EV batteries 
Abdulswamad Rama Salim, Amanda Empian Wong, Adrian Sabat Wong, Saira Tini, Paul Santa 

Maria, Hadi Nabipour Afrouzi*, Ateeb Hassan 

Swinburne University of Technology, Sarawak Campus, Jalan Simpang Tiga, 93350, Kuching, Sarawak, Malaysia 

               A R T I C L E   I N F O 
 

Article history: 
Received 01 August 2023  
Received in revised form 
02 September 2023 
Accepted 09 September 2023 
 
Keywords:  
Electric vehicles (EVs), Battery recycling,  
Circular economy, Sustainability 
 
*Corresponding author 
Email address: 
hafrouzi@swinburne.edu.my  
 
 
DOI: 10.55670/fpll.fusus.1.1.1 
 

A B S T R A C T 
 

The increase in use and demand for electric vehicles (EVs) has surged the need 
for battery recycling methods for these batteries. This report highlights a 
review analysis of a few recycling methods for EV batteries, such as direct 
recycling, mechanical recycling, hydrometallurgical recycling, and 
pyrometallurgical recycling. The purpose of this review is to understand the 
current state of the technology, the challenges of each method, and the future 
developments while considering factors such as efficiency, cost, waste 
production, and more.  Direct recycling is reusing EV batteries without 
disassembling them, whereas mechanical recycling entails discharging, 
dismantling, crushing, and sorting them. Hydrometallurgical and 
pyrometallurgical recycling processes both give considerable improvements in 
metal recovery, with hydrometallurgical recycling including acid leaching and 
pyrometallurgical recycling using metal extraction. Analyzing the various 
recycling methods for EV batteries, the effort to improve or innovate the 
methods will help achieve a more sustainable and effective method to address 
the EV battery waste, which promotes a circular economy. 

 

1. Introduction 

1.1 Background information on EV batteries and their 

composition 

The demand for energy efficiency and environmental 
awareness is driving up interest in Electric Vehicles (EVs). 
Carbon dioxide emissions from petrol and diesel-powered 
vehicles are significant contributors to global warming [1]. 
Additionally, since EVs are eco-friendly and require clean, 
renewable energy sources to run, they are a feasible 
substitute for current fuel-powered vehicles due to the 
problem of rising global air pollution and diminishing fuel 
sources [2]. Consequently, research and development of 
batteries for use in electric and hybrid vehicles are gaining 
attention [3]. The battery is an essential component because 
EVs significantly rely on it to store the energy that powers the 
vehicle [4]. The most popular forms of rechargeable batteries 
are those made of Nickel-Cadmium (Ni-Cd), Nickel Metal 
Hydride (Ni-MH), Lead-Acid batteries, and Lithium Ion (Li-
Ion) [1].  The most common EV battery components are 
electrodes (anode and cathode) and electrolytes [5]. EV 
batteries use lithium transition metal oxide cathode materials 
such as graphite-LiMO2, LiMPO4, LiCoO2 (LCO), and LiNiO2, 
with lithium nickel-cobalt-aluminum oxide and lithium 
nickel-manganese-cobalt oxide batteries being improved 
versions of LiMO2. Lithium nickel-cobalt-aluminium oxide 

batteries and lithium nickel-manganese-cobalt oxide 
batteries are second-generation cathode materials known for 
their high-temperature thermal performance and minimal 
capacity loss. There are numerous materials that can be used 
to create anodes for lithium-ion batteries, including graphite-
based (C-based) metal complexes like graphite-LiMO2, Li-
TiS2, Li-MoS2, and Li-LixMnO2, as well as silicon-based (Si-
based) elements found in the Earth's crust [5]. Other anode 
materials include tin (Sn), cobalt (Co), and molybdenum 
disulfide. Galvanostatically charging or draining Li-Ion 
batteries at high currents and low temperatures is made 
possible by carbon-coated anodes, which increase the 
capacity of the Li-Ion insertion and extraction. It has been 
shown that a number of binary solvents, including ethylene 
carbonate (EC), diethyl carbonate (DEC), ethyl methyl 
carbonate (EMC), and dimethyl carbonate (DMC), increase 
conductivity between electrodes and electrolytes in Li-Ion 
batteries. For Li-ion batteries, lithium salt, also referred to as 
lithium hexafluorophosphate (LiPF6), is an excellent 
electrolyte. In order to control the surface chemistry of 
graphite anodes, advanced active additives such as lithium-
bis-oxalato-borate (LiBOB), vinylene carbonate (VC), 
propargyl-methylsulfone (PMS), hydrofluoric acid and water 
(HF/H2O) scavengers, and biphenyl or other aromatic 
compounds have been added to electrolyte solutions. To 
enhance the electrochemical and safety performance of solid 

Future Sustainability 

Open Access Journal 

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November 2023| Volume 01 | Issue 01 | Pages 01-12 

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AR. Salim et al. /Future Sustainability                                                                                 November 2023| Volume 01 | Issue 01 | Pages 01-12 

2 

 

Li-ion batteries, novel materials such as gel, polymeric, and 
glassy matrices have been developed as their electrolytes. 
Researchers have also suggested high salt-to-solvent ratio 
electrolytes, solvation-structure ester electrolytes, and 
composite electrolytes to improve the cycle stability, safety 
performance, and Coulombic efficiency of Li-ion batteries. 
Components of a Lithium-Ion battery are shown in Figure 1. 

 
Figure 1. Parts of a lithium-ion battery [6] 

 

1.2 Overview of the importance of recycling EV batteries 

and their technologies 

Due to the global movement to minimize carbon 
emissions resulting in the rise of the demand for electric 
vehicles (EVs), the usage of EVs on the road also increases. 
Hence, the challenge of managing exhausted batteries arises. 
Batteries for EVs will soon become a major problem if they 
are not treated properly. This is because extremely dangerous 
compounds are present, endangering both ecosystems and 
the people who manage them [7]. Recycling these 
components is crucial for both environmental and strategic 
reasons because battery cells’ active components also contain 
important metals, including copper, nickel, lithium, and 
cobalt. Disposal is doubly expensive because the battery is a 
substantial cost component for EVs, especially if the waste 
contains valuable components [8]. By recovering high-value 
materials and lowering the expense of disposing of hazardous 
trash, recycling enables the reduction of life cycle costs. 
Figure 2 illustrates the recycling process of an EV battery. EV 
batteries must go through multiple processes before they can 
be recycled because of their complex structure and variety of 
materials. They must first be categorized and, in most cases, 
pre-treated via discharge or inactivation, disassembly, and 
separation before undergoing direct recycling, 
hydrometallurgy, pyrometallurgy, or a combination of 
processes, which are some of the available EV battery 
recycling technologies today [9]. These recycling technologies 
often include leaching, separation, extraction, and 
precipitation of electrochemical components [10]. However, 
EV battery recycling is still in its early phases of development. 
Hence, much more research and development are required to 
increase the efficiency, sustainability, and cost-effectiveness 
of EV battery recycling technologies. 

1.3 Purpose and scope of the review 

The purpose of reviewing and analyzing technology in EV 
battery recycling processes is to understand the current state 
of the technology, identify the challenges of each recycling 
technology, and estimate the potential for future 
developments. This type of analysis is critical for informing 
policymakers, industry stakeholders, and academics on the 

most effective techniques for EV battery end-of-life 
management. The scope of this review includes three main 
recycling technologies for EV batteries, which are 
pyrometallurgical recycling, hydrometallurgical recycling, 
and direct recycling. 

 
Figure 2. Recycling process of EV battery [11] 

 

2. Mechanical and Pre-treatment process of EV 

batteries 

The mechanical process, also called the physical process, 
is one of the traditional processes to recycle lithium-ion 
batteries. This process is a pre-treatment process that is 
common to all the recycling routes. The mechanical process 
includes discharging, battery disassembling, and separating 
the lithium-ion batteries. It concentrates on the valuable bits 
while separating the battery shell from the other elements. 
From this process, it is possible to recover materials such as 
plastics, aluminum, copper, and black matter, which have 
critical metals, and to be collected for another separate 
recycling process [12]. Furthermore, the discharge step must 
be conducted first because the collected battery usually has a 
specific residual voltage. This can certainly cause 
spontaneous combustion and explosion if not treated 
properly, jeopardizing the operators' safety [13]. 

2.1 Mechanical and Pre-treatment Process 

The used Lithium-ion batteries can be physically 
discharged in the initial step of the process, including forceful 
discharge and short-circuit discharge. To release the 
remaining battery power instead, chemical discharge can be 
performed by submerging the battery in a conductive salt 
solution. The oxidation-reduction interaction between the 
positive and negative electrodes is used in this way of 
discharging to just slightly utilize the remaining battery 
power. This deactivation step assists in lowering the electrical 
and flammable risk of recycling the spent batteries; however, 
it can be neglected if the pyrometallurgy process is continued 
after the mechanical process. In contrast to the physical 
discharge method, the chemical discharge method has an 
advantage due to its high discharge efficiency and quick cycle. 
This advantage will be useful for a large-scale application. The 
batteries must then be disassembled and sorted according to 
the discharge method. The different battery parts can be 
separated manually or mechanically. The waste battery shell 
is removed to gather the battery core coil before manually 
disassembling it. After that, the positive electrode, negative 
electrode, and organic diaphragm are separated from the 
battery core coil. For large-scale operation and cheaper cost, 
mechanical treatment is preferable to hand dismantling, 
indicating increased economic applicability. After the 



AR. Salim et al. /Future Sustainability                                                                                 November 2023| Volume 01 | Issue 01 | Pages 01-12 

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batteries have been taken apart, they are crushed into 
positive materials, negative materials, aluminum foil, copper 
foil, plastic separator, and other pieces [13]. The mechanical 
procedure for using Lithium-ion batteries is depicted in 
Figure 3. 

 
Figure 3. Mechanical process of spent lithium-ion batteries 

 
2.1.1 Case studies of mechanical process 

Research on mechanical separation and vacuum 
metallurgy for recycling the metals from Lithium-ion 
batteries was done by Zheng et al. [14] in 2018. This study 
proposed that combining the mechanical recycling process 
with the vacuum metallurgy as a single integrated process 
could deal with the bulk amount of spent lithium manganese 
batteries (18650 LiMn2O4) without using any additives. Due 
to residual power in the used batteries, the batteries were 
thoroughly drained for 24 hours with a five-weight percent 
NaCl solution before being allowed to naturally air dry. To 
avoid harming the crusher that would subsequently be 
utilized in the mechanical recycling process, the hard ion shell 
was also disassembled, and the integrated process can then 
start from this point. The pre-treated batteries are then 
crushed by the crusher before being distributed according to 
their various particle sizes and being inspected. The spent 
batteries will next go through mechanical separation for the 
mixed electrode materials. These materials are thermally 
treated and are oxygen-free, where they are heated to produce 
materials that are easy to recycle. The organic binder was 
eliminated throughout this heating process in the form of a 
collectible gaseous sample. After 20 to 30 minutes of water 
leaching, the lithium resource was recovered as lithium 
carbonate, and the combined electrode materials’ valuable 
metals were recycled after that. The graphite in the filter 
residue was burned away to recover the manganous-
manganic oxide (Mn3O4). From the mechanical separation 
process, crushed pre-treatment batteries were separated by 
three different diameters. The medium diameter of 0.12 – 0.8 
mm was made up of tiny fragments of membrane, cells, 
aluminum, and copper foil. While cells, membrane strips, 
copper foil fragments, and aluminum foil strips made up the 
biggest diameter, which was greater than 0.8 mm. 

The largest diameter (>0.8 mm) was composed of copper 
foil fragments, aluminum foil strips, membrane strips, and 
cells, whereas the medium diameter (0.12– 0.8mm) was tiny 
fragments of copper foil, aluminum foil, and membrane. The 
fine powder (<0.12mm) was mixed electrode materials where 
this research resulted in obtaining 11.69g of mixed electrode 
materials from 1 spent 18650 LiMn2O4 battery, which weighs 
36.27 +/- 0.50g with a weight ratio of 32.23%. From the 
separation obtained, the different diameter particles were 
analyzed, showing that fine powders were composed of anode 
powders "graphite" and cathode powders "LiMn2O4". By 
recycling 100 spent batteries, the hammer crusher was able 
to obtain 1185g of mixed electrode materials, showing that 
the mechanical separation process is an effective process. 
Table 1 shows the main chemical composition of the mixed 

electrode materials obtained. The results indicate that the 
majority of the mixed powers were graphite and LiMn2O4, 
while the other trace elements, such as Cu, Al, Fe, Co, and Ni, 
were included.  

Table 1. Chemical composition of mixed electrode materials 

 

3. Recycling methods for EV batteries 

3.1 Pyrometallurgical recycling  

Metallurgy is the science of extracting metals in their 
pure form for use. Pyro means fire, heat, or high 
temperatures. Pyrometallurgy is based on heating, extracting, 
and purification processes used to extract metals from ore 
[15]. The benefits of pyrometallurgical recycling include its 
enormous treatment capacity, high chemical reaction rate 
[16], reasonably flexible feed material, uncomplicated 
operation, and minimal environmental impact on the slag 
[14]. 

3.1.1 Process of Pyrometallurgical Recycling 
Pyrometallurgy generally involves these four main 

processes: discharging, dismantling, pre-treatment, and 
extractive metallurgy, as illustrated in Figure 4 below. The EV 
battery assumed here is the standard Lithium-ion battery 
[15]. Extractive metallurgy can be used to recover enriched 
metal fractions that are produced as a result of thermal pre-
treatment techniques used to break down EV battery modules 
[17]. It would involve a safe decomposition of combustible 
and controlled deactivation of organic components of the 
battery [13]. As the battery’s energy content may result in 
harmful chemical reactions, thermal pre-treatment is also 
vital for discharging through the disassembly of the battery 
[18]. Due to the ease with which the cathode materials can be 
separated via sifting at high temperatures, this approach also 
eliminates the organic binder materials. Thermal pre-
treatment methods consist of incineration and pyrolysis pre-
treatment. After pre-treatment, extractive pyrometallurgical 
methods are deployed to recycle the spent Lithium-ion 
battery [19]. These methods are roasting/calcination and 
smelting. Roasting/Calcination is heating compounds in air 
and transforming sulfide ores into oxides, creating gas [20]. 
Smelting is used in furnaces for metal reduction and typically 
involves the formation of carbon dioxide, reducing iron ore in 
a blast furnace [21]. The last stage is the Refining and 
purification, whereby leaching, Spray pyrolysis, and 
Carbothermic reduction (CTR) are used. 

3.1.2 Case studies of pyrometallurgical recycling 
Glencore Xstrata (Switzerland) recycles spent LIBs as 

a secondary feedstock by utilizing the pyrometallurgical 
process [22]. It sees batteries as a specialist market, even 
though they only make up a small fraction of its overall output 
[23].  

 

Elements Content (wt.%) 

Li 2.371 

Mn 37.22 

Cu 0.2307 

Al 0.2276 

Fe 0.0627 

Co 0.0095 

Ni 0.0062 

C 30.83 



AR. Salim et al. /Future Sustainability                                                                                 November 2023| Volume 01 | Issue 01 | Pages 01-12 

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All LIBs are recycled using hydrometallurgy, pyrometallurgy, 
and mechanical pretreatment in the recycling process at 
Accurec Recycling process at Accurec Recycling GmBh in 
Germany. The battery cells are dispersed, and pyrolysis is 
used to completely remove all organic components, such as 
plastics, electrolytes, and binders [24]. The metal 
components’ states are not altered, and the pyrolysis 
temperature is kept below 250 degrees Celsius [25, 26]. 
During mechanical pre-treatment, there is no possibility of 
electrolytes reacting with the atmosphere or fluorine 
compounds being emitted into the air, which enables Accurec 
to securely deactivate and destroy combustible organic 
material [24]. Table 2 shows companies implementing the 
pyrometallurgical process in LIB recycling. One thing to note 
is that these are the leading players in the market, but not all 
worldwide companies are listed here. 

3.1.3 Challenges of pyrometallurgical recycling 
Due to the high energy consumption and intricate off-

gas treatment process, pyrometallurgy requires abundant 
financing. As research is still being done to develop a recycling 
system that uses resources efficiently and produces low off-
gas, mild hydro-metallurgical (acid-free or alkali) and 
processing conditions are used in pyrometallurgical recycling 
as an alternative, which uses intermediate temperatures 
(<10000C). Lithium cannot be recovered using the majority of 
conventional industrial pyrometallurgical techniques [36].  

 

 

Lithium is a precious mineral because of its dearth and erratic 
distribution in the Earth’s crust [37]. Since other metals like 
cobalt (Co) and Nickel (Ni) are recovered, recovering Lithium 
from the electrolyte and lithium metal oxide would be useful 
[38]. Low recycling efficiency is caused by some minerals that 
are not recovered. Due to the massive number of used 
batteries that must be recycled, pre-treatment recycling 
facilities are eventually incompatible from a technical 
standpoint [19]. Furthermore, complex changing designs 
used in EV battery production provide automation challenges 
and make recycling more difficult. 

3.2 Hydrometallurgical recycling 

This section discusses the general process of 
hydrometallurgical recycling, its recycling challenges, and 
case studies of hydrometallurgical recycling. 

3.2.1 Process of hydrometallurgical recycling 
In general, hydrometallurgy is a branch of metallurgy 

that involves the use of aqueous solutions to extract metals 
from ores or recycled materials. Hydrometallurgical 
processes have gained significant attention in recent years 
due to their potential for sustainable metal recovery and 
environmental benefits. This literature review aims to 
provide an overview of the existing research on 
hydrometallurgy recycling processes, focusing on the 
extraction and recovery of metals from various waste 
streams. Several studies have explored different leaching 

Figure 4. Schematized LIB battery of pyrometallurgical recycling [12] 



AR. Salim et al. /Future Sustainability                                                                                 November 2023| Volume 01 | Issue 01 | Pages 01-12 

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agents and conditions to dissolve metals from electronic 
components. For example, acids such as sulfuric acid, nitric 
acid, and hydrochloric acid have been widely used [39].  
Figure 5 illustrates the simple flowsheet of the 
hydrometallurgical recycling process of spent LIBs. 
Researchers have investigated the effects of variables such as 
temperature, concentration, and leaching time on metal 
dissolution efficiency [41]. Furthermore, the recovery of 
specific metals like gold, silver, copper, and palladium has 
been a subject of interest, and various strategies have been 
proposed to optimize their extraction [42]. The choice of 
leaching agent plays a crucial role in the efficiency and 
selectivity of metal recovery. In addition to traditional acids, 
alternative lixiviants like organic acids, complexing agents, 
and deep eutectic solvents (DES) have been explored. 
Researchers have examined the leaching mechanisms and 
kinetics of these agents to understand the underlying 
chemical reactions [43]. The identification of suitable 
lixiviants and their optimal conditions is essential for 
maximizing metal recovery while minimizing environmental 
impact. After metal dissolution, separation and purification 
steps are necessary to isolate and recover individual metals, 
as shown in Figure 5. Various techniques have been 
investigated for this purpose, including solvent extraction, ion 
exchange, precipitation, and membrane processes. Solvent 
extraction, in particular, has been extensively studied for its 
ability to selectively separate metals from complex leach 
solutions [44].  

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

The optimization of extractants, organic diluents, pH control, 
and stripping agents has been investigated to enhance the 
efficiency of solvent extraction processes. Hydrometallurgical 
recycling processes are often considered more 
environmentally friendly compared to traditional 
pyrometallurgical methods. Researchers have focused on 
minimizing the environmental impact of hydrometallurgy by 
studying the recycling of lixiviants, reducing reagent 
consumption, and developing alternative reagents. 
Additionally, the treatment and disposal of leach residues and 
effluents generated during the process have been 
investigated to ensure proper waste management and 
prevent pollution [45]. Apart from environmental 
considerations, the economic feasibility of 
hydrometallurgical recycling processes is a crucial aspect. 
Researchers have conducted techno-economic analyses to 
evaluate the overall cost of metal recovery and compare it 
with traditional methods [46].  

3.2.2 Case Studies of Hydrometallurgical Recycling 
It is worth mentioning that the most economical, 

simple, and environmentally friendly hydrometallurgical 
technique for metal recovery is acid leaching [47]. As a result, 
case studies on the effectiveness, expense, and energy usage 
of the hydrometallurgy recycling process for EV batteries are 
presented in this section. A case study by Chen et al. [22] 
focused on the hydrometallurgical recovery of metals from 
lithium-ion batteries used in electric vehicles (EVs).  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Figure 5. Flowsheet of hydrometallurgical process for spent libs [40] 

Table 2. Overview of companies using pyrometallurgical battery-recycling processes [27] 

Company Operational scale 
Operating 

Capacity (t/a LIBs) 
Recovered materials 

(Products) 
Recycling 
processes 

Umicore NV (Belgium) Large scale [28] 7000 [28] 
Ni, Co, Cu, Fe, CoCl2 
[29] 

Pyro, Hydro 

Glencore Xstrata 
(Switzerland) 

Small scale (intent to 
increase Capacity) 

7000 [30] Co, Ni, Cu [24] Pyro, Hydro [11, 12] 

The International Metals 
Reclamation Company 
(INMETCO, America) 

Commercial scale 6000 [30] 
Co, Ni and Fe in iron-
based alloy [12, 19] 

Pyro, Mechanical 
[31] 

JX Nippon Mining and 
Metals (Japan) 

Commercial scale 5000 [32, 33] 
Ni, Co, Li2Co3, MnCO3 

[34] 
Pyro, Hydro [34] 

Sony Sumitomo (Japan) Small scale 150 [35] CoO Pyro, Hydro [35] 
Accurec Recycling GmBh 
(Germany) 

Medium scale 3000 Li2Co3, Co-Alloy 
Pyro, Thermal, 
Mechanical, Hydro 

Nickelhütte Aue GmbH 
(NHA) (Germany) 

Large scale 7000 NiCoCu-Matte 
Pyro, Thermal, 
Hydro 

Kyoei Seiko (Japan) Commercial scale - Ni, Co, Cu Pyro 
Dowa Holdings Co., Ltd. 
(Japan) 

Large scale 1000 Ni, Co, Cu 
Thermal, Pyro, 
Hydro 

SNAM (Societe Nouvelle 
d’Affinage des Metaux) 
(France) 

- - Co, Ni, Cu 
Thermal, Pyro, 
Hydro 

Ganzhou Highpower 
Internation Inc (China) 

Large scale 10000 NiMH 
Mechanical, Pyro, 
Hydro 

 



AR. Salim et al. /Future Sustainability                                                                                 November 2023| Volume 01 | Issue 01 | Pages 01-12 

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The study aimed to optimize the leaching process for 
efficient metal recovery while considering cost and energy 
consumption. The researchers investigated the use of 
different leaching agents and conditions to selectively 
dissolve metals, such as lithium, cobalt, nickel, and 
manganese, from the battery materials. Their study 
highlighted the importance of process optimization to achieve 
high metal recovery rates while minimizing the consumption 
of reagents and energy. A case study conducted by Choi et al. 
focused on the recycling of electric vehicle batteries through 
hydrometallurgical processes [48]. The study aimed to 
optimize the recycling process to achieve efficient metal 
recovery while also considering the cost and energy 
consumption aspects. In order to recover metals like lithium, 
cobalt, and nickel from depleted EV batteries, the researchers 
investigated various leaching agents, including sulfuric acid 
and organic acids. The study emphasized the need for process 
optimization to enhance efficiency, reduce costs, and 
minimize energy consumption in the recycling of EV batteries. 
In a case study by Xu et al. [49], the optimization of the 
leaching process for cobalt recovery from electric vehicle 
batteries was investigated. The study focused on enhancing 
the efficiency of cobalt leaching while considering the cost 
and energy consumption aspects. The researchers explored 
different leaching agents, acid concentrations, and process 
parameters to achieve high cobalt recovery rates. The 
findings emphasized the importance of process optimization 
to maximize metal recovery efficiency and minimize reagent 
consumption and energy requirements. A case study 
conducted by Sun et al. [50] focused on the energy and 
environmental assessment of lithium recovery from spent 
lithium-ion batteries using hydrometallurgical processes. The 
study aimed to evaluate the efficiency, cost, and energy 
consumption of the recovery process. The researchers 
examined different leaching agents and recovery techniques 
to optimize lithium recovery while considering the energy 
requirements and environmental impacts associated with 
each method. The study emphasized the importance of 
balancing efficiency and sustainability in the recycling of EV 
batteries. In summary, the case studies contribute to the 
understanding of efficiency, cost, and energy consumption 
considerations in hydrometallurgical recycling processes for 
EV batteries. They highlight the importance of optimizing 
leaching agents, process conditions, and separation 
techniques to achieve sustainable and cost-effective recovery 
of valuable metals while minimizing energy consumption and 
reducing overall costs. 

3.2.3 Challenges of hydrometallurgical recycling 
Based on the case studies, several challenges can be 

identified in hydrometallurgy recycling processes for EV 
batteries. These challenges include selective metal recovery, 
process optimization, environmental impact, energy 
consumption, and cost considerations. One of the key 
challenges is achieving selective metal recovery from complex 
battery materials. EV batteries contain a variety of metals, and 
optimizing the leaching process to selectively dissolve 
specific metals while avoiding the dissolution of others can be 
challenging. Hence, developing efficient leaching agents and 
optimizing process conditions are crucial for achieving high 
metal recovery rates. Hydrometallurgical processes also 
require careful optimization to maximize efficiency while 
minimizing costs and energy consumption. Finding the 
optimal combination of leaching agents, process parameters 
(such as temperature and time), and separation techniques 
can be complex. Therefore, process optimization involves 

balancing the trade-offs between metal recovery rates, 
reagent consumption, energy requirements, and overall 
process economics. Further, recycling processes consider the 
environmental impact associated with hydrometallurgical 
methods. The choice of leaching agents and separation 
techniques can have varying environmental implications. 
Minimizing the use of hazardous chemicals, reducing waste 
generation, and implementing proper treatment of process 
effluents are important considerations for sustainable and 
environmentally friendly recycling processes. 
Hydrometallurgical processes can be energy-intensive, 
particularly during leaching, separation, and purification 
steps. Reducing energy consumption while maintaining high 
metal recovery rates is a significant challenge. Process 
optimization, the use of efficient equipment, and the 
integration of energy-saving measures are essential to 
minimize the overall energy requirements of the recycling 
process. Moreover, the cost of hydrometallurgical recycling 
processes is a crucial factor for their commercial viability. The 
selection of cost-effective leaching agents, optimization of 
process parameters to minimize reagent consumption, and 
efficient separation techniques are necessary to reduce 
overall costs. To address the challenges in hydrometallurgy 
recycling processes for EV batteries, several strategies can be 
implemented. Continuous research and development efforts 
are essential to tackle selective metal recovery, process 
optimization, environmental impact, energy consumption, 
and cost considerations. This involves exploring new leaching 
agents, optimizing process parameters, and developing 
innovative separation techniques. The adoption of 
sustainable chemistry, such as environmentally friendly 
leaching agents, can minimize the environmental impact. 
Implementing energy-efficient measures, utilizing advanced 
equipment, and recovering and reusing energy can help 
reduce energy consumption [50]. 

3.3 Direct recycling 

Direct recycling is relatively new in recent years, which 
has been produced on a lab scale to recycle the active 
components to reproduce new Lithium-Ion Batteries (LIBs). 
This will promote a circular economy in producing new LIBs. 
Direct recycling of LIBs involves separating the excellent 
purity active components in the cathode and anode from used 
LIBs and regenerating their electrochemical functionality by 
different physical, chemical, and mechanical processes. 
Figure 6 shows a recycling process that involves direct 
recycling. Direct recycling is a promising technique in 
conjunction with other recycling methods, which makes use 
of the lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide-graphite (NMC-
G) battery, the most used type of battery. Typically, when the 
NMC-G battery is spent, about 20% of functional lithium is 
lost due to parasitic effects, element isolation, and solid 
electrolyte interface formation. Without destroying the active 
elements in the electrodes of LIBs, the direct recycling 
method may restore and extend the active elements [51]. 

3.3.1 Process of direct recycling 
The process of direct recycling is as follows [52]: 

1) Spent batteries will be disassembled into cells and 
discharged using electrolytes.  
2) The cells are then treated using supercritical CO2 to extract 
the reusable electrolytes. 
3) The remaining electrolytes from the cells are calcined, 
which produces waste.  



AR. Salim et al. /Future Sustainability                                                                                 November 2023| Volume 01 | Issue 01 | Pages 01-12 

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4) The cells are disassembled and pulverized into powder 
form to separate the materials, such as cathodes, anodes, 
plastic, and metals, using a non-destructive separation 
technique.  
5) Various re-lithiation methods are used to regenerate the 
spent materials of the cathodes. 
6) Regenerated materials are used in creating new cells for 
batteries. 
Direct recycling is a promising process compared to 
traditional recycling methods or any existing methods. Figure 
7 depicts a process of direct recycling. Compared to 
pyrometallurgy and hydrometallurgy, direct recycling is 
comparatively greener and does not have high energy 
consumption or chemical use. Direct recycling does not cause 
air pollution or generate much waste, whereby, as mentioned, 
it focuses on disassembly rather than destruction of the spent 
battery. Life cycle analysis shows that the regenerated 
material for the method has a high value in comparison to 
pyrometallurgy, and hydrometallurgy produces lesser waste 
emissions and consumes less energy [53]. The NMC-G 
lithium-ion battery’s closed-loop manufacturing methods are 
depicted in Figure 8. First, presuming that the EVs are similar 
to regular automobiles at 91%, the used LIB packs are 
removed from the vehicles. 

 

 

 

 

Around 0.083 MJ of energy is consumed to remove each kg of 
lithium-ion battery pack. Secondly, the expended LIBs are 
immersed in a salt solution to remove any remaining charge. 
Complete discharge of a lithium-ion battery pack is thought to 
need 0.0035 MJ of electricity per kg. The electrolyte is then 
extracted from the disassembled battery cell using a CO2 
solvent in the third step, which also involves disassembling 
the discharged battery cell. The battery cell is fed with 
compressed liquid CO2 at a flow rate of 1.5L per minute for 
about 50 minutes, along with a 3:1 ratio of acetonitrile (ACN) 
and propylene carbonate mixture at a flow rate of 0.5 mL per 
minute for about 20 minutes. The carbon dioxide solvent will 
be converted into gaseous carbon dioxide and extracted from 
the battery at 100 ml per cell in the electrolyte. Most of the 
carbon dioxide is reused, whereby the remaining will be 
considered as recycling consumption. The energy 
consumption in compressing the carbon dioxide solvent into 
the cells is roughly 0.04 MJ per kg of the NMC-G lithium-ion 
battery. Lastly, the cells will be physically reduced and 
undergo the final process to separate the anode and cathode, 
which uses 0.26 MJ. The separation process for every battery 
pack will consume about 0.023 MJ/kg of NMC-G battery pack 
[51]. 

Figure 6. The recycling process includes direct recycling [51] 

Figure 7. Process of direct recycling [52] 



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3.3.2 Case studies of direct recycling 
Direct recycling shows that in countries such as China, 

South Korea, the US, Belgium, and the UK, it is estimated that 
direct recycling of various types of EV batteries, such as those 
from Tesla, proves to have a net profit in comparison to other 
methods. Figure 9 shows the net recycling profit of various 
recycling methods. Many factors affect recycling, such as 
transportation costs, disassembly costs, recycling process 
costs, the design of the battery, and scale profitability. If direct 
recycling is able to achieve a similar capacity of recycling 
compared to hydrometallurgical and pyrometallurgical 
recycling, then direct recycling will achieve the highest net 
profit. Direct recycling is predicted to have the lowest break-
even point at about 3,000 tonnes per year compared to 
pyrometallurgical recycling at 17,000 tonnes and 
hydrometallurgical recycling at 7,000 tonnes per year [54]. 
On the other hand, Figure 10 shows the potential of direct 
recycling. 

3.3.3 Challenges of direct recycling 
Direct recycling is still considered a new process that 

requires more time and effort before commercialization. The 
way to improve the method is by addressing the recycling 
process [55]. 
1) Preliminary processing in obtaining refined materials: The 
concept of direct recycling is to obtain the spent materials and 
directly reuse and regenerate the cathodes. This is prevented 
as LIBs have many components, such as cathodes, anodes, 
metals, and plastics. By improving the efficiency of separating 
the components, direct recycling may be improved, along 
with ensuring that the retrieved cathodes are of high purity.  
2) Recovery of other materials besides cathodes: The direct 
recycling process currently focuses on the extraction of 
cathodes in powder form, which is roughly 35% of the cost of 
the material itself. Without relying on other methods to 

 

 
recover these metals, direct recycling can be maximized even 
further to reduce the need for other methods.  
3) Show the recovered materials: For the EV batteries to take 
on direct recycling as a better alternative, the method must 
achieve a certain implementation and establish the 
importance of direct recycling.  
4) Regain the mixture of cathodes: The varying types of spent 
LIBs may use different cathode substances. This is a challenge 
for the direct recycling process, as the separation of varying 
materials is important. Finding a way to extract and separate 
the various cathode substances may prove difficult, as 
different LIBs have different ratios of the NMC-G materials. 
One way is to test whether the mixture of the substances can 
be extracted directly. 
5) Combination of various recycling methods: As direct 
recycling is still under development, it may be advantageous 
to implement other recycling methods into direct recycling to 
allow higher efficiency. Extracted cathode materials may be 
retrieved using other methods, such as the 
hydrometallurgical process. 
From the previously mentioned discharging process of 
cathodes using CO2, the method allows for cathodes to be 
recycled if allowed. The cathodes may need to be regenerated 
before being reused in new batteries. This method allows for 
most components of a spent LIB to be recovered and 
reprocessed. Cathode materials, regardless of their property 
or combinations, may be highly valuable through direct 
recycling. The effectiveness of recovery has yet to be 
compared to the performance of raw material, which may 
raise issues later on, such as battery capacity and lifespan. 
This may spark debate among manufacturers regarding 
recycled materials, as they have to ensure the product is of 
quality and performance. Recovered materials may be 

Figure 8. Closed-loop process of recycling spent NMC battery 



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9 

 

implemented into other products with less strict 
requirements [56]. 

 
Figure 9. Net recycling profit of various recycling methods [54] 

 
Figure 10. Potential of direct recycling [54] 

 
4. Comparison and discussion of the recycling process 

4.1 Comparison table of the recycling process 

Table 3 compares the different recycling processes. It 
compares pyrometallurgical, hydrometallurgical, and direct 
recycling processes in terms of efficiency, energy 
consumption, environmental impact, and cost. 

4.2 Discussion of the recycling process 

Based on Table 3, the efficiency in extracting metals from 
the waste material of pyrometallurgical recycling is highest 
compared to hydrometallurgy and direct recycling.  

 

 

 

 

This is because pyrometallurgical recycling involves 
high-temperature processes such as smelting, where the 
waste material is melted to separate and recover valuable 
metals. On the other hand, hydrometallurgical recycling 
methods use chemical processes to dissolve and extract 
valuable metals from the waste material. These processes 
often achieve high efficiency as they can selectively target 
specific metals and effectively recover them from the solution. 
Meanwhile, direct recycling involves sorting, cleaning, and 
reprocessing waste materials to create new products. The 
efficiency of direct recycling can vary depending on the 
quality of the waste material and the effectiveness of the 
sorting and processing techniques. However, with 
advancements in recycling technologies and improved waste 
management systems, direct recycling can achieve moderate 
to high levels of efficiency in recovering valuable materials. 
Moreover, the energy consumption of direct recycling 
typically requires low energy consumption. The processes 
involved, such as sorting, cleaning, and reprocessing, usually 
require less energy compared to more complex chemical or 
high-temperature processes. Pyrometallurgical recycling 
methods have high energy consumption as they involve 
heating the waste material to high temperatures, which 
requires significant amounts of energy, whereas 
hydrometallurgical recycling methods can have moderate to 
high energy consumption due to the need for chemical 
reactions and the use of energy-intensive equipment to 
dissolve and extract metals from the waste material. Besides, 
direct recycling generally has a low environmental impact 
compared to pyrometallurgical and hydrometallurgical 
processes. It avoids the need for extensive chemical processes 
or high-temperature operations, resulting in fewer emissions 
and minimal generation of hazardous by-products. 
Pyrometallurgical and hydrometallurgical recycling methods 
can have moderate to high environmental impacts. The high-
temperature processes involved in smelting generate 
emissions, including greenhouse gases and air pollutants in 
pyrometallurgy, and the use of chemicals in the dissolution 
and extraction processes can generate wastewater and 
chemical waste, requiring proper treatment and disposal for 
hydrometallurgy. In terms of overall costs, direct recycling is 
generally the most cost-effective option. It involves relatively 
simpler processes and requires less specialized equipment, 
resulting in lower capital and operational costs. 
Pyrometallurgical recycling methods have moderate to high 
costs due to high-temperature equipment, energy 
requirements, and handling of slag and by-products, which 
adds to the overall expenses. Hydrometallurgical recycling 
methods also tend to have moderate to high costs due to the 
need for specialized facilities, chemicals, and energy-
intensive processes. In summary, each recycling process has 
its own advantages and considerations. Hence, determining 
which recycling process is better depends on various factors, 
such as the specific waste material being processed, the 
desired outcome, and the context in which the recycling is 
taking place. Direct recycling is generally more cost-effective, 
has lower energy consumption, and has a lower 
environmental impact compared to the other methods.  

 

 

 
 
 
 

Table 3. Comparison table of pyrometallurgical, hydrometallurgical, and direct recycling processes [57] 

Parameters Efficiency Energy consumption Environmental impact Cost 

Pyrometallurgical 
Recycling 

High  High Moderate to High High 

Hydrometallurgical 
Recycling 

High Moderate to High Moderate to High Moderate 

Direct Recycling Moderate to High Low Low Low 

 



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It involves simpler processes and can be more easily 
integrated into existing waste management systems. 
However, direct recycling may have limitations in terms of the 
types of waste materials that can be efficiently processed. It 
may not be suitable for complex or contaminated materials 
that require specialized techniques for metal recovery. 
Meanwhile, pyrometallurgical recycling methods have high 
efficiency in metal recovery, particularly for metals that can 
withstand high temperatures. They can handle a wide range 
of waste materials and can recover a variety of metals 
simultaneously. Pyrometallurgy is often used for processing 
large volumes of metal-rich waste. Hydrometallurgical 
recycling methods, on the other hand, can achieve high 
efficiency in metal recovery, especially for targeted metals. 
They can selectively extract specific metals from the waste 
material, even in low concentrations. Hydrometallurgy is 
often effective for recovering precious and strategic metals. 
The limitations of hydrometallurgical methods are that they 
tend to have higher energy consumption and may generate 
chemical waste or wastewater that requires proper 
treatment. They also require specialized facilities and 
expertise, which can increase costs. 

5. Future directions and outlook  

The EV battery industry has significant potential for 
circular economy and sustainability by recycling spent 
batteries, which can minimize waste and conserve natural 
resources. To promote EV battery recycling, battery 
manufacturers should be encouraged to take back waste 
batteries so that they can be recycled into new batteries or 
other valuable materials. Policy and regulatory developments 
should be established to support EV battery recycling efforts, 
including targets for major components of battery recovery. 
Recycling initiatives can also include objectives for the 
utilization of recycled material during the manufacturing of 
new EV batteries to further promote a circular economy in 
battery production [58]. EV battery manufacturers globally 
should be encouraged to implement labeling requirements 
that provide information on batteries, such as the date of 
manufacture, chemistry, and hazardous substances, as this 
can impact recycling initiatives by increasing transparency 
and facilitating third-party recycling of EV batteries [58]. 
Moreover, supporting research and development in EV 
battery recycling technologies would broaden the range of 
materials that can be recovered and recycled. Through more 
research and development, recycling technologies have the 
potential to be more cost-effective and efficient and can be 
implemented on a larger scale.  

6. Conclusion 

In conclusion, this paper gives an extensive review of the 
technologies for recycling electric vehicle (EV) batteries. It 
emphasizes the significance of efficient battery management 
due to the presence of hazardous compounds and strategic 
metals. This is due to the growing EV demand and the need to 
reduce carbon emissions. The study analyses four major EV 
battery recycling technologies, namely, mechanical recycling, 
direct recycling, hydrometallurgical recycling, and 
pyrometallurgical recycling. Direct recycling involves reusing 
intact EV batteries or their components without 
disassembling them, whereas mechanical recycling involves 
discharging, dismantling, crushing, and separating batteries. 
Hydrometallurgical and pyrometallurgical recycling 
techniques provide significant benefits in metal recovery, 
with hydrometallurgical recycling incorporating acid 
leaching and pyrometallurgical recycling involving metal 

extraction using high-temperature processes. Overall, there is 
an emphasis on the importance of conducting thorough 
research on the current state of EV battery recycling 
technologies to make informed decisions about EV battery 
end-of-life management. Further efforts to conduct research 
and development of EV battery recycling technologies are 
necessary to address the challenges of each recycling 
technique, improve efficiency, and promote the circular 
economy for EV batteries. The study highlights the 
significance of sustainable and effective recycling efforts in 
addressing the environmental issues related to the increasing 
use of EVs. Valuable materials can be successfully recovered 
while decreasing costs and reducing the adverse 
environmental effects of EV battery disposal by promoting 
the implementation of effective recycling technologies. 

Ethical issue 
The authors are aware of and comply with best practices in 
publication ethics, specifically with regard to authorship 
(avoidance of guest authorship), dual submission, 
manipulation of figures, competing interests, and compliance 
with policies on research ethics. The authors adhere to 
publication requirements that the submitted work is original 
and has not been published elsewhere. 

Data availability statement 
Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no datasets 

were generated or analyzed during the current study. 

Conflict of interest 

The authors declare no potential conflict of interest. 

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