







































AF. Almarshoud /Future Sustainability                                                                                 February 2024| Volume 02 | Issue 01 | Pages 
35-46 

35 

 

 

 

Article 

A techno-economic investigation for utilizing solar 

energy in irrigation of palm trees in Saudi Arabia 
A.F. Almarshoud  

Department of EE, College of Engineering, Qassim University, Saudi Arabia 

               A R T I C L E   I N F O 
 

Article history: 
Received 06 October 2023  
Received in revised form 
08 November 2023 
Accepted 14 November 2023 
 
Keywords:  

Sustainable irrigation, PV water pumping,  
Solar energy water pumping,  
palm date trees irrigation, solar energy economics 
 
*Corresponding author 
Email address: 
dr_almarshoud@qec.edu.sa 
dr_almarshoud@qu.edu.sa 
 
 
DOI: 10.55670/fpll.fusus.2.1.4 
 

A B S T R A C T 
 

This paper presents a techno-economic investigation for utilizing photovoltaic 

solar energy in water pumping applications for the irrigation of Palm trees in 

the Qassim region in Saudi Arabia. The Analysis has been done by applying four 

technical indicators and three economic indicators on a real farm of palm trees. 

The investigation took into account the varied water demand for palm trees 

over the years, meteorological data of the region, the characteristics of the 

borehole, and the local market prices of PV system components. The 

investigation has been done using two options of PV systems: grid-connected 

system and standalone system. The results showed the superiority of the grid-

connected system in spite of the unfair price of energy exchange with the utility 

grid. The results achieved are the Levelled cost of energy, which is in the range 

from 0.013 to 0.019 $/kWh. The standardized cost of produced water is in the 

range from 0.011 to 0.013 $/m3, and the simple payback time is in the range 

from 9.65 to 12.22 years. The results are considered to encourage farmers in 

the region to convert to solar energy utilization.  

 

1. Introduction 
Recently, the government of Saudi Arabia adopted a new 

tariff for consuming electricity and fuel. The percentage of 
rise in the new tariff ranges from 50% to 95%, depending on 
the type of fuel. However, the anticipated future energy prices 

are expected to increase even far beyond this level since the 
2030 vision intends smooth liberalization of the fuels market. 

This rise in energy prices will affect mainly the agriculture 
sector, especially in water pumping costs, which mainly 

depend on electricity or diesel fuel. Finally, this extra energy 
tariff will reflect on the prices of produced crops.  The 
agricultural sector in Saudi Arabia mainly depends on 

underground water, which requires a lot of electrical energy 

or diesel fuel for water pumping from deep wells. Due to the 

high tariff of electricity adopted recently in Saudi Arabia, and 
due to the rapid degradation in the cost of solar panels in the 
last few years, utilizing solar energy as an alternative source 

for providing the energy required for applications of water 

pumping and irrigation will be a promising option. Qassim 

region has more than 7.5 million palm trees [1], making it one 
of the largest producers of dates in the world. This huge 
number of palm trees consumes a significant quantity of  

energy to provide the required amount of water for the 
irrigation process. The region is rich in solar energy because 

it is located in the solar belt, as shown in Figure 1, so one of 
the appropriate solutions to minimize the consumption of 

fossil fuel is exploiting the relative property of the Qassim 
region, which is the abundance of solar energy.  The water 
pumping system based on solar energy has some advantages 

such as easy installation, low maintenance, environmentally 
friendly, high reliability, and the operating process is simple 

with no cost. The disadvantages are high initial cost, and the 
water production depends on the availability of enough solar 

radiation. This study aims to investigate the technical 
performance and economic feasibility of using solar energy in 
water pumping for irrigating palm trees in the Qassim region. 

The economic feasibility of using solar energy for water 

pumping is affected by many factors, such as solar radiation, 

the type of pump used, borehole depth, daily water demand, 
the capital cost of equipment, and the cost of periodical 
maintenance. In this research, a comparison study will be 

performed for using solar energy instead of using a utility grid 

for water pumping. In addition, the Levelized cost of 

produced water per cubic meter is the cost of generated 
electrical energy per kWh.  Finally, the payback period of the 
proposed system will be calculated. Moreover, the technical 

specification of the proposed system will be determined 
according to the case study requirements.  The climatic 

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February 2024| Volume 02 | Issue 01 | Pages 35- 46 

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ISSN 2995-0473 

mailto:dr_almarshoud@qec.edu.sa
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AF. Almarshoud /Future Sustainability                                                                                 February 2024| Volume 02 | Issue 01 | Pages 35-46 

36 

 

condition of the Qassim region is a typical desert climate, 
known for its cold, rainy winters and for its hot, low humidity, 

and sometimes balmy summers with a long daily duration of 

sunshine [2]. Figure 1 shows the annual sum of global 

horizontal irradiance in the Qassim region, which reaches up 
to 2200 kWh/m2 annually, while the average daily solar 
irradiance is about 6.08 kWh/m2. The recorded 

meteorological data shows the viability of utilizing the solar 
PV systems in the Qassim region. Regarding the underground 

water resources, the Qassim region has a multi-aquifer 
system that consists of five main aquifers separated by semi-
confining beds; they are Minjur, Jilh, khuff, Tabuk, and Saq. 

The deepest one is Saq which is the main productive aquifer, 
then Tabuk aquifer. The others are of limited productivity [3]. 

The static head of water in wells ranged from 130-165 m in 
2015, according to the authority of water resources in the 
Qassim region.  

 

Figure 1. The annual sum of global horizontal irradiance in Saudi 
Arabia [4] 

 

The published studies in the literature didn’t achieve a 
consensus on a clear and effective methodology to investigate 

the performance and economic feasibility of Photovoltaic 
pumping systems. This study introduces a unified approach 

to investigating the techno-economic performance of PV 

water pumping systems. This study collected the diaspora 
scattered in many scientific papers and then extracted a 

unified approach to evaluate the technical and economic 
performance of water-pumping PV systems. 

2. Literature review 
Many attempts have been made in various countries 

around the globe to determine the optimum performance, 

economic feasibility, and environmental benefits of 
harnessing solar energy for the purpose of water pumping 

applications. The literature review below demonstrates the 
major recent research activities: 

Elham and Hoseen et al. [5] presented a comparative study 

between solar PV systems and diesel unit sets for the use of 

underground water pumping where various parameters 
influencing the present value and the cost-effectiveness of 

both systems have been considered. Despite the use of PV 

batteries in their solar system, the authors concluded that the 

cost of water using solar energy is much less than using diesel 
systems. Pallav Purohit has developed a simple model to 
evaluate the economic feasibility of different renewable 

energy technologies such as solar water pumping, windmills, 
gasification, and biogas technology for water pumping for 

irrigation purposes in India. The developed financial 
framework is used to select suitable renewable energy 
technology. He estimated the unit cost of water produced 

compared to the cost of energy supplied by the various 
renewable energy systems and calculated the benefits 

obtained from saving electricity or diesel [6].  In line with the 
development of solar pumping applications, Ould-Amrouche 
et al. have developed a model based on experimental results 

to characterize the solar PV pump. In the developed model, a 
relationship between the water flow rate output and the 

electrical power at various heads is presented. The obtained 

experimental results by using different technologies and 
various motor pumps are used to verify the model. The 

measurement data and the result of the simulation are used 
to validate the proposed model.  The model is simple and can 

be used for planning solar pumping systems and calculating 

the emission rate of CO2 resulting from the use of diesel water 
pumping and the amount of carbon dioxide that can be saved 

by using solar PV water pumping systems [7]. Tamer Khatip 
[8] developed a mathematical relationship that uses the load 

matching technique to relate the solar radiation, solar module 
array, and the needed hydraulic power to satisfy the demand 

of the water pumping system.  The study also reviewed the 

various existing commercial solar water pumps to ensure 
proper pump selection. Mokeddem et al. [9] conducted an 

outdoor experimental investigation to determine the actual 
performance of a solar water pumping system using a DC 

motor with a centrifugal pump having a PV array of 1.5 kW. 
Two static heads are considered to evaluate the system 
performance under various solar irradiance and operating 

conditions. The study applied an approximation for the 
frictional losses using an empirical factor depending on the 

Reynolds number. Sahin and Rehman performed the 

economic feasibility of solar water pumping systems to 
supply water from 50 m deep wells in five selected cities in 

Saudi Arabia. The conducted study revealed that the cost of 
solar water pumping is in the range of 2 -3 USD/m3, which is 

assumed to be a relatively high cost [10]. A comparative study 

for cost-effectiveness between diesel engines and solar 
systems for pumping water in remote areas in Nothern Badia 

of Jordan is presented by Mohammad Al-Smairan; the study 
has considered different variables such as initial investment 

and prices of fuels. The obtained results are used to select the 
optimum alternative power source to operate the water 

pumping system [11]. The performance of a solar PV system 

for water pumping in four different locations in Tunisia was 
presented by Belgacem; the evaluation is based asynchronous 

motor coupled to a centrifugal pump. The obtained results of 
the different sites were evaluated [12]. A dynamic modeling 

tool correlating the pumping system, the demand for water, 

and the solar PV power for the water pumping system was 
developed by Elia et al. [13]. The proposed model is used to 



AF. Almarshoud /Future Sustainability                                                                                 February 2024| Volume 02 | Issue 01 | Pages 35-46 

37 

 

validate the design procedure between the water supply and 
demand. Shiv Lal et al. [14] conducted a performance analysis 

for the PV pumping system based on available solar radiation 

in Kota City in India, using a submersible pump for irrigation 

purposes. A feasibility study of solar PV systems for supplying 
drinking water in remote areas in Ethiopia is presented by 
Kabade et al. [15]; the study revealed that only a payback 

period of four years is needed to cover the overall cost of the 
system, which is considered a great economic advantage. 

Bouzidi has presented a method to design a solar pumping 
system based on the determination of Loss of Power Supply 
Probability (LPSP) and water cost [16].  The Analysis of the 

life cycle cost is applied by Sodiki to compare the cost-
effectiveness of solar water pumping in various sites in 

Nigeria [17]. Farms irrigation study using solar water 
pumping systems in rural areas of Oman was conducted by 
Kazem et al. the optimum design of a PV pumping system 

based on meteorological data is determined using HOMER 
software and REPS.OM software [18]. Campana et al. [19] 

presented a procedure for the optimization process and 

economic investigation of the photovoltaic water pumping 
system, taking into consideration the PV system cost and the 

revenue from crop sales besides underground water level, 
amount of water produced, and water demand. Almarshoud 

[20] has investigated the reliability of the pumping system 

based on solar irradiance data, where the study revealed the 
importance of accurate sizing of PV array to satisfy the actual 

water demand and to avoid the additional cost resulting from 
oversizing.  

3. Estimation of water requirements of palm date trees 
Water requirements of palm date trees vary from one 

region to another due to many factors, such as the climate 
condition, Soil type, rainfall pattern, ambient temperature, 

the moisture of soil, wind speed, solar radiation, depth of tree 
roots, age of palm date tree, mature state of the crop. All these 
factors may affect the quantity of daily demand for water, 

which means the water demand varies from one month to 
another in the same area. There are some rough estimates 

made by different researchers in different countries such as, 
Iraq was found 115-306 m3/ tree annually depending on the 
cultivar and climatic conditions [21], and Abu Khaled et al. 

[22] found the total annual water demand in Iraq nearly 
18000 m3/ hectare. In Tunisia, it was found that the total 

annual water demand was between 63-95 m3/ tree [23]. In 

Saudi Arabia, there are some estimates for several regions, 
such as, in Qatif was found to be 13250 m3/hectare/year [24], 

while in Hofuf region, the minimum daily water demand is 
between 2.3 m3, 8.3 m3/tree in January and August 

respectively. In another study done in the central region, it 

was found that the annual amount of sufficient water demand 
was 108 m3/ tree [25].  

 

 

 

 

 

In another study done in Najran, it was 136 m3/ tree [26]. 
Alazba estimated the annual water demand per tree in both 

Eastern and Central regions; he found 137 m3, and 195 m3, 

respectively, for flood irrigation and 55 m3, and 78 m3, 

respectively, for drip irrigation [27]. Regarding the Qassim 
region, there are two studies that investigated the water 
requirements for palm date trees in case of applying drip 

irrigation; the first one was done by Kassim [28]; he reported 
the average water demand for each month as shown in Table 

1, where the average daily demand was 44.795 m3 / hectare. 
The second one was done by Al-Amoud et al. [29], who 
investigated the water requirements in the case of using drip 

irrigation for palm date trees in seven regions of Saudi Arabia. 
Qassim region is one of them. Also, in this study, the water 

demand was reported as average per month, as shown in 
Table 1, and the average daily demand was 65.71 m3 / hectare 
[29].   

4. Research objectives and methodology 
This research aims to achieve the best design for a water 

pumping system that utilizes the potential solar energy and 

available water resources in the Qassim region to satisfy the 

water demand at the lowest possible cost. Also, a comparative 
study will be performed for utilizing solar energy instead of 
the utility grid for palm date irrigation. In addition to 

calculating some important economic indicators such as the 

Levelized cost of produced water per cubic meter, the cost of 

generated electrical energy per kWh, and the payback time of 
the proposed water pumping system. The investigation in this 
work will be done using two options of PV systems: a 

standalone PV system (the generated energy is consumed 
only by the pumping system) and a grid-connected PV system 

(Energy exchange with the utility grid is allowed). The 
investigation will follow the following methodology:  

1- Collecting the required information about solar radiation 
data of the location, the characteristics of deep-water wells in 
the location, and the water demand of palm trees in the region 

based on previous studies.  
2- Collect information about the specifications and prices of 

water pumping systems and solar PV arrays available in the 
local market.  
3- Sizing the pumping system based on the water demand and 

well characteristics.  

4- Sizing the PV system based on the size of the pumping 

system and the daily energy demand.  
5- Determining the technical performance of the PV pumping 
system using the standard technical indicators.  

6- Estimating the economic feasibility of the PV-pumping 

system using the economic indicators.  

7- Analyzing the results and concluding the recommendations 
based on the energy market situation in Saudi Arabia.  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Table 1. The average daily water demand using drip irrigation for palm date trees in the Qassim region (m3/hectare) 

Study Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 

Kassim(2007) 18.6 23.41 39.5 49.89 59.85 72.5 72.9 67.4 53.54 34.91 26.4 18.62 

Al-Amoud(2012) 27.5 37.5 55 74 91.5 101.5 103 94 76.5 58 40.5 29.5 

Average 23.1 30.46 47.3 61.95 75.68 87 87.95 80.7 65.02 46.46 33.45 24.06 

 



AF. Almarshoud /Future Sustainability                                                                                 February 2024| Volume 02 | Issue 01 | Pages 35-46 

38 

 

5. Case Study 
Consider a palm date farm located west of Buraydah city 

in the middle of Saudi Arabia (26.34o N, 43.76o E); the area is 

4 hectares, about 168 trees/hectare, the palm dates trees are 

uniformly distributed, the spacing between trees is 8 meter in 
both directions, the daily water requirement is according to 
the average quantity extracted from previous studies [28] and 

[29] and recorded in Table 1, using the drip irrigation method. 
The meteorological data of Buraydah City were collected from 

the Renewable Resource Atlas, which is part of the Renewable 
Resource Monitoring and Mapping (RRMM) program of King 
Abdullah City for Atomic and Renewable Energy [30]. The 

collected data represent the average of five years, from 2013 
to 2018, and include the air temperature, wind speed, 

atmospheric pressure, Global horizontal irradiance (GHI), 
Global tilted irradiance (GTI), and the Clearness Index (Kt). 
Table 2 illustrates the detailed collected meteorological data. 

The depth of the well is represented by the Total Dynamic 
Head (TDH) of pumping which is 176 m.  It is required to 

investigate the technical and economic performance of a PV 

water pumping system that can pump the daily demand over 
25 years of its life using the chosen monocrystalline PV 

module; the specifications of the selected PV module are 
illustrated in Table 3. 

5.1 Financial and economic data 

The capital cost of the water pumping PV system includes 

the cost of the pumping system (pump, motor, pipes, cables, 
electrical panel, and installation cost), in addition to the PV 
System (PV modules, inverter, Balance of System cost), the 

Balance of System cost (BOS) includes mounting structures, 
infrastructure development, planning, DC cabling, switchgear, 

and installation cost. All the prices are taken from the local 
market.  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The interest and inflation rates are 2.0 % and 2.5 %, 
respectively, as published by the Saudi Arabian Monetary 

Authority on its website. The discount rate was estimated at 

9.0 %. Assume no debt as a part of the capital cost, and the life 

period of the project is 25 years, which is equal to the life cycle 
of the PV modules. The salvage value for the whole project at 
the end of its life is 20 % of the capital cost. Also, the same 

percentage was considered for the salvage value of the 
inverter and pumping system at the end of their life cycles. 

Table 4 shows the detailed cost according to the local market 
prices. 

6. Results and discussion 
The investigation will be done according to six steps: 

specifying the primary data, sizing the pumping system, 

calculating insolation on the tilted surface chosen, sizing the 
PV array, calculating the technical performance indicators, 

and calculating the economic feasibility indicators.  

6.1 Step 1: Specifying the primary data  

The primary data of the case under study, such as the 
metrological data, are given in Table 2. The water demand is 

shown in Table 1 as the monthly average per day for one 

hectare. Because the area of the case under study is 4 
hectares, the water demand recalculated for the whole area, 

as shown in Table 5. 

6.2 Step 2: Sizing the motor-pump system 

The energy required by the pumping system is variable 
according to the variation of water demand, so, by using 
formula (1) below, the energy demand can be calculated [20]: 

Epump(Wh) =
ρgQH

3.6 ηm ηp 
                                     (1) 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Table 2. Monthly average of daily weather data 

Month Ambient Temp. GHI GTI (26.34o) Atm. Pressure Wind speed Clearness Index 
(Kt) 

 °C kWh/m²/d kWh/m²/d kPa m/s  

January 14.25 4.24 5.72 94.21 3.08 0.66 
February 16.3 5.34 6.63 94.06 3.25 0.65 

March 22.44 5.70 6.25 93.76 2.46 0.58 
April 26.48 6.25 6.20 93.65 3.25 0.61 
May 32.22 7.10 6.53 93.44 3.15 0.64 
June 35.04 8.15 7.16 93.15 3.70 0.72 
July 36.6 8.13 7.26 92.92 3.20 0.75 

August 36.78 7.54 7.25 93.04 2.05 0.71 
September 34.16 6.68 7.09 93.39 2.58 0.69 

October 28.5 5.61 6.70 93.78 2.63 0.66 
November 20.44 4.37 5.73 94.06 2.83 0.62 
December 15.2 3.83 5.27 94.31 3.07 0.60 

Annual  26.53 6.08 6.48 93.65 2.94 0.66 
 

Table 3. Specifications of the selected PV module 

PV module Sungold Co. (SGM-50W) mono-Crystalline 

Peak power 350 W Pout degradation/year 0.8 % 

Rated Voltage 38.5 V Open Circuit Voltage 46.9 V 
Rated Current 9.09 A Short Circuit Current 9.60 A 

Efficiency 20.25 % Dimensions 195 x 99.2 cm 

Misc.  losses 1.0 % conditioning losses 2.0 % 
NOCT 45 oC Temp.  Coefficient -0.39 % 

* Electrical data of PV module measured at STC    (GHI: 1000 w/m2, air mass: 1.5 g, Cell Temp.: 25 oC) 

 



AF. Almarshoud /Future Sustainability                                                                                 February 2024| Volume 02 | Issue 01 | Pages 35-46 

39 

 

Where: H is the Total Dynamic Head (TDH) which is the sum 
of the static head of water in the well, discharge head, 

drawdown head, discharge pressure, and friction losses in the 

pipeline, ρ is the density of water (1.0 kg/L), g is the gravity 

acceleration (m/sec2), Q is the daily demand of water (m3), ηm 
is the motor efficiency, and ηp is the pump efficiency.   

Table 4. Detailed cost according to local market 

Item Cost 

PV modules 260 $/ kW 

Inverter $ 1200 

BOS* 400 $/ kW 

O&M / year 22  $/ kW 

Pump $ 3230 

Motor $ 2560 

Pipes $ 2400 

Cables $ 1860 

Pump installation $ 400 

Exported energy** 0.01867 $/kWh 

Imported energy** 0.04267 $/kWh 

*BOS includes mounting structures, infrastructure development, 
planning, DC cabling, switchgear, and installation cost. 

** The tariff of energy exchange is according to Saudi Arabia 
regulations issued on 26/12/2019. 

 

The daily and monthly energy demand has been calculated 
and illustrated in Table 6.  
The maximum energy required for pumping the daily water 
demand was 280.87 kWh/day in July, and assuming about 10 
hours of sunshine daily in July, this requires a pump with a 
size not less than 28 kW. So, a highly efficient 30 kW AC 
submersible pump from Grandfous Co. driven by a three-
phase induction motor has been selected; its full specification 
is illustrated in Table 7.  
Also, an inverter of the same size has been chosen from Sako 
Co.; it is customized for solar pumping applications with a soft 
starting property; this property eliminates the need for 
batteries to support the starting current, also it is 
characterized by MPPT technology for regulating the 
operation of the pump automatically at maximum generated 
energy point of PV array to satisfy the requirements of the 
case under study, its full specification is illustrated in Table 8. 

6.3 Step 3: Calculating the insolation on a tilted plane 
Usually, the tilt angle of PV modules is chosen to equal 

the latitude of the location for achieving moderate generation 

over the year, but in this case, it is noted that the energy 
demand in summer may reach up to four folds of the energy 

demand in winter, so, the tilt angle should be chosen carefully 
to satisfy the maximum generation in summer.  

 
 

 
 
 

Four tilt angles have been tested; 26.34o, which is equal to the 
latitude, latidude+15o, Latitude-15o, in addition to the 

horizontal case. The solar radiation has been calculated at 

these tilt angles and compared with the profile of energy 

demand, as shown in Figure 2.  
It is clear from Figure 2 that the best matching between 
energy demand and solar insolation occurs when the tilt angle 

= zero. So, the following Analysis will be done considering the 
PV array fixed on the horizontal level.  

 
6.4 Step 4: Sizing of the PV array 

The daily output energy of the PV array may be given 

from the following formula [31]: 

𝐸𝑝𝑣(𝑊ℎ) = 𝐴𝑝𝑣 �̅�𝑡 𝜂𝑝𝑣 (1 − 𝜆𝑚)(1 − 𝜆𝑐)          (2) 

 

Where �̅�𝑡  is the global solar insolation on the tilted surface 
(W/m2/day), Apv is the area of the PV array (m2), ηpv is the 
efficiency of PV array under operating condition, λm, and λc are 
miscellaneous losses of PV array and power conditioning 
losses respectively. Usually, the values of λm and λc are 
assumed from 1- 2 % for each. The sizing of the PV array could 
be done by matching the total energy needed daily by the 
pumping system (given by Eqn. 1) with the daily expected 
output energy of the PV array (given by Eqn. 2) as in the 
following: 

𝐸𝑝𝑣(𝑊ℎ ) = Epump(Wh)                                        (3) 

Because the pumping system is connected to the PV array 
through the inverter, then Eqn. 3 could be modified as follows: 

𝐸𝑝𝑣 =
𝐸𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝

𝜂𝑖𝑛𝑣
                                                   (4)  

Or;  

𝐴𝑝𝑣 �̅�𝑡 𝜂𝑝𝑣 (1 − 𝜆𝑚)(1 − 𝜆𝑐) =
𝜌𝑔𝑄𝐻

3.6 𝜂𝑚 𝜂𝑝 𝜂𝑖𝑛𝑣
                         (5) 

Where ηinv is the efficiency of inverter. 
Then the size of the PV array required for the water pumping 
system may be obtained as follows: 

  𝐴𝑝𝑣 =
𝜌𝑔𝑄𝐻

3.6 �̅�𝑡 𝜂𝑝𝑣 𝜂𝑚 𝜂𝑝 𝜂𝑖𝑛𝑣(1−𝜆𝑚)(1−𝜆𝑐)
                                  (6) 

The value of ηpv could be obtained as follows [31]: 

 𝜂𝑃𝑣   =   𝜂𝑟   [ 1 – 𝛼𝑝 ( 𝑇𝑐  − 𝑇𝑟  ) ]                               (7) 

Where ηr is the PV module efficiency at the reference 
temperature (Tr = 25°C), and αp is the temperature 
coefficient for module efficiency. Tc is cell temperature and 
related to the average ambient temperature Ta as follows 
[31]: 

Tc − Ta =
219+832Kt

800
(NOCT − 20)                                               (8) 

where NOCT is the Nominal Operating Cell Temperature, 
and Kt is the clearness index. 
The efficiency of the selected PV module given in Table 3 is 

based on STC condition, while in the case under study, the 
solar radiation and ambient temperature vary from one 

month to another. 

 

 

Table 5. The monthly average of daily water demand (m3) 

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 

92.2 121.82 189.06 247.78 302.7 348 351.8 322.78 260.08 185.82 133.8 96.24 

 



AF. Almarshoud /Future Sustainability                                                                                 February 2024| Volume 02 | Issue 01 | Pages 35-46 

40 

 

Table 6. Energy demanded by pumping system based on the water 
demand (kWh) 

 

So, the efficiency of the PV module should be recalculated 
using formula (7) for two cases at least; one in winter where 
both insolation and temperature are low, and another in 
summer where both insolation and temperature are high, 
then getting an average value of efficiency to be used for sizing 
the PV array.  

6.5 Sizing of the PV array according to the 1st option 

(Stand-alone system)  

The sizing of the PV array has been done by applying Eqs. 

(2) to (8) and using the selected PV module after calculating 
the new efficiency (18.24 %),  The resulted area of the PV 

array is 197.1 m2 ( 102 modules), but, due to the degradation 
in the output power of PV modules, this size will not be able 

to supply the required energy in the last few years of the life 

cycle, so, the size could be increased to 105 modules. The total 
expected generated energy during the life cycle of the PV 

system (25 years) is 1815 MWh, taking into account the 
degradation factor stated by the manufacturer of the PV 
module (0.8% annually).  

 
 

 
 
 

 
 

 
 
 

 

 

 
 
 

 

 

 
 

Figure 3 shows the degradation in output energy during 
the life cycle. It should be noted in the figure that the annual 

consumed energy at the end of life cycle does not exceed the 

expected generated energy, otherwise, the PV array wouldn’t 

be able to generate the required energy at the end of the life 
cycle, so, in the case under study, the size of the PV array 
increased to 105 modules to satisfy this condition, which is 

apparent in Figure 3.  This size (105 modules) can supply the 
maximum required load (July water demand); this means that 

the PV array will be oversized in other months. Hence, a part 
of the expected solar energy will not be exploited. Figure 4 
shows the expected generated energy and energy demand 

over the year. 
 

 
Figure 2. Variation of solar radiation at different tilt angles 

 

The exact number of PV modules needed is restricted by the 
rated inputs of voltage and current of the inverter and the 
chosen connection layout of PV modules. So, the best 
connection layout of PV modules for the case under study is 
determined to be (15x7); 7 branches connected in parallel 
with 15 modules connected in series for each. In this case, the 
maximum input voltage will be 577.5 V, while the maximum 

input current will be 63.63 A.  Figure 5 Shows the PV pumping 
system under study, and Figure 6 shows the connection 
diagram of the PV array. 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 kWh/day kWh/month 

Jan 73.61 2281.95 

Feb 97.26 2723.26 

Mar 150.94 4679.23 

Apr 197.82 5934.72 

May 241.67 7491.81 

Jun 277.84 8335.14 

Jul 280.87 8707.03 

Aug 257.70 7988.79 

Sep 207.64 6229.32 

Oct 148.36 4599.04 

Nov 106.82 3204.72 

Dec 76.84 2381.94 

Annual  64556.94 

Table 7. Specifications of the selected pumping system 

Pump type Multi-stage, submersible Motor efficiency 85 % 

Pump model Grandfous (150S400-18) Motor output power 30 kW 

Pump efficiency 70.6 % Rated Voltage 3x380 V 
Pump rated head 195 m Rated current 66.5 A 

Pump rated flow 36 m3/hour Starting current 300 A 

Pump speed 3450 rpm Frequency  50 Hz 
Motor model MS6000QFT40 Power factor 0.87 

  *The expected life cycle of the Pumping system is seven years  

 

Table 8. Specifications of the selected inverter 

Inverter model SAKO Co. (SKI650 30kW)  

Min Input Voltage 350 VDC Rated output power 30 kW 

Max Input Voltage 750 VDC Rated input current 74 A 

Output Voltage 380 V  3 Φ Rated output current 60 A 

Efficiency 98 % Frequency 0 – 60 Hz 

*The expected life cycle of Inverter is 15 years 

 

 

 

 



AF. Almarshoud /Future Sustainability                                                                                 February 2024| Volume 02 | Issue 01 | Pages 35-46 

41 

 

 

Figure 3. Degradation in the output energy during the life cycle 

 

 
Figure 4. Variation of expected generated energy and consumed 

energy 

 

Figure 5. PV pumping system under study 

 
Figure 6. Connection diagram of PV modules 

 
6.6 Sizing of the PV array according to the 2nd option 

(grid-connected system)  
In the grid-connected system, the energy exchange 

between the PV system and utility grid is possible in both 
directions, so, in this case, it is not necessary to maximize the 

PV array to satisfy the maximum load; a smaller PV array may 

be used, and in case of peak demand, the extra required 
energy may be imported from the grid and vice versa in 

periods of an excess energy generation. So, the selection of the 
best size will depend on economic considerations, the price of 

exchanged energy, and the cost of the PV system. So, in this 

study, three sizes (80, 90, 100 modules) have been chosen to 

be investigated. Figure 7 shows the comparison between the 
energy demand and the generated energy of the selected 
sizes, and Figure 8 shows the periods of energy exchange in 

the case of using a PV array consisting of 80 modules. 

6.7 Step 5: Calculating the technical performance 

indicators 
The technical performance investigation of a PV water 

pumping system would be determined using the indicators 
proposed by the International Energy Agency (IEA) for 
evaluating the performance of photovoltaic energy systems 

[32]. These indicators concentrate on the energy absorbed by 
the grid (i.e., the useful energy) as defined by IEA, but in PV 

water pumping systems, the useful energy is the energy 
absorbed by the pumping system, so the concentration will be 
on the consumed energy by pumping system rather than the 

potential energy that may be generated by PV array.  These 

indicators include the total output of energy (Energy yield), 

Yield factor, Capacity factor, and Performance ratio.  The 
energy yield is the total amount of expected energy to be 
generated by the PV system. The annual energy yield for all 

cases is illustrated in Table 9, while the monthly energy yield 

for all cases is shown in Figure 9. The yield factor (YF) 

measures the productivity of a PV array under specific 
weather conditions, and it is defined as the annual, monthly, 
or daily consumed energy by the pumping system divided by 

the peak power of the installed PV array at standard test 
condition (STC), and it is given as following [33]: 

YF =
EConsumed  (kWh/year)

PVarray  (kWpeak)
                                     (9) 



AF. Almarshoud /Future Sustainability                                                                                 February 2024| Volume 02 | Issue 01 | Pages 35-46 

42 

 

 

Figure 7. The generated energy of different sizes of PV array 
compared with the energy demand 

 

Figure 8. Periods of energy exchange in case of using 80 modules PV 

array 

 

The grid-connected cases will have the same value of YF 

because, firstly, the YF is not related to the size of the PV 
array; secondly, the generated energy will be completely 
consumed by the pumping system, and in case there is excess 

energy, it will be absorbed by the grid, while in case of a 

standalone system, the PV array will generate the energy 

required by pumping system and still has some potential 
energy not generated. The annual YF is 2172 for grid-
connected systems and 1757 for the standalone system.  This 

value means that the PV array in this location under these 
weather conditions is capable of producing electrical energy 

equal to the YF times its rated power during one year. The 
monthly YF for both systems is shown in Figure 10. These 
values of YF are reasonable when compared with grid-

connected PV systems worldwide. Capacity factor (CF) 
determines the percentage of usability of the PV system, and 

it is defined as the ratio of actual consumed energy to the 
amount of energy the PV system would generate if it is 
operated at its full rated power for 24 hours per day during 

the year, but, because the sun is available only about half the 
day, so, the ideal CF will not be more than 50%. The typical 

value of capacity factor is usually not more than 40% for most 

locations in the world; this is due to energy conversion losses 

and climate change. The CF is calculated as follows [33]: 

𝐶𝐹 =
EConsumed(kWh/year)

(8760∗ PVarray(kWpeak))
                                       (10) 

𝐶𝐹 =
𝑌𝐹

8760
                                                         (11)                                                

The resulting CF is 24.8 % for grid-connected cases and 20.1 
% for the standalone case. This value of CF in the case of a 

grid-connected system is considered high, while it is not bad 

in the case of the standalone system when compared with 

other PV systems worldwide. Performance ratio (PR) is 
defined as the real amount of PV energy delivered to the 
pumping system in a certain period divided by the output 

rated energy calculated at the STC data of PV modules [34]. 
PR is independent of location or system size; it indicates the 

overall effect of losses on the array's nominal power as a 
result of; wiring mismatch, inverter inefficiency, PV module 
temperature, incomplete use of insolation due to soiling or 

snow, component failures, and system down-time [35, 36]. 

𝑃𝑅 = 𝑌𝐹 ∙ 𝐺𝑆𝑇𝐶/∑�̅�𝑡                                         (12) 

where GSTC is the irradiance at STC, and  ∑�̅�𝑡  is the 
accumulative irradiance on the plane of PV array within a 

certain period (annual, monthly, or daily).  

 

Figure 9. The monthly energy yield compared with the energy 
demand 

 

 

Figure 10. Variation of yield factor during the year for both options 

 
The annual PR for the grid-connected systems is 97.8 %, and 
the monthly PR is expected to be the same value during the 

year because all generated energy will be consumed by the 

pumping system or exported to the grid. In the case of the 
standalone system, the annual PR is 79.2 %; this value of PR 

is considered high when taking into account that the potential 
energy is not included. The monthly PR is in the range of 47.2 



AF. Almarshoud /Future Sustainability                                                                                 February 2024| Volume 02 | Issue 01 | Pages 35-46 

43 

 

% in January, where more potential energy is available but 
not exploited, up to 94 % in July, where most generated 

energy is consumed, as shown in Figure 11. The Exploitation 

factor (EF) is used for measuring the percentage of consumed 

energy to the potential energy that can be generated by a PV 
array, especially in standalone systems. This factor indicates 
the quality of the sizing of the PV array. For best sizing, it 

should reach near a hundred percent. The Exploitation factor 
may be calculated for a certain period (annual, monthly, or 

daily) and may be calculated as follows: 

𝐸𝐹 =
𝑬𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒖𝒎𝒆𝒅

𝑬𝑷𝒐𝒕𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍
                                            (13) 

The calculated annual EF for the standalone system is 80.87 
%; this percentage indicates that about 19 % of the capacity 
of the PV array in the standalone case will not be exploited. 
The monthly EF is in the range of 48.27 % in January, where 
more potential energy is not exploited, and reaches up to 
96.1 % in July, where most of the energy is consumed by the 
pumping system, as shown in Figure 11. The high value of EF 
in July, the month of maximum water demand, indicates the 
accuracy of sizing the PV array for the standalone system.  
Regarding the reduction of GHG emission due to using the 
PV pumping system, GHG was estimated based on the type 
of fuel used in Saudi Arabia for generating electrical energy 
(crude oil & natural gas), considering the share percentage 
is 50% for each. The estimated reduction of GHG emission is 
in the range of 46 – 58 tons of CO2 annually for all cases, as 
detailed in Table 9. 

 
Figure 11. Monthly Performance ratio and Exploitation factor for 

standalone case 

 
6.8 Step 6: Calculating the economic indicators  

The economic feasibility would be investigated using 
three economic indicators: the Levelized Cost of Generated 
Energy (LCOE), the Levelized Cost of Produced Water 

(LCOW), and the Simple Payback Time (SPBT). The Levelized 
cost of energy (LCOE) is the average cost of energy generated 

($/kWh) during the life cycle of the PV system. In other words, 
LCOE is the life cycle cost (LCC) of the PV pumping system 
divided by the amount of expected generated energy during 

the project life cycle.  
The Levelized cost of water (LCOW) is the average cost 

of water produced ($/m3) during the life cycle of the PV 
pumping system, or in other words, is the life cycle cost (LCC) 
of the PV pumping system divided by the amount of expected 

produced water during the project life cycle. LCC is the sum of 
all expenses associated with the PV water pumping system 

over its life cycle in today’s value of money, taking into 
account the effect of time on the value of money [37]. The 

purpose of applying the LCC is to bring back all expenses that 

are expected in the future to current year costs by discounting 

them. The life cycle cost is given as following [38]: 

LCC = Ccapital +Σ CO&M +Σ Creplacement - Csalvage                   (14) 

The capital cost (Ccapital) of a PV system includes the initial cost 
for equipment, design of the system, engineering, and 

installation. The capital cost is always considered as a single 

payment paid in the first year of the project. The operation 
and maintenance cost (CO&M) is the sum of all scheduled 

operation and maintenance costs during the year. The cost of 
replacement (Creplacement) is the sum of equipment 

replacement costs and the cost of all spare parts anticipated 

over the life cycle of the project. The salvage value (Csalvage) is 
the value of the equipment at the end of its life cycle period. 

Also, in the case of a grid-connected system, the cost/benefit 
due to energy exchange with the grid would be considered 

annually. All the anticipated expenses should be discounted 
to the present worth taking into consideration the inflation 

rate (i) and the discount rate (d).  

The present worth (PW) of any future cost is given by [37]: 

𝑃𝑊𝑛 =
𝐶(1+𝑖)𝑛−1

(1+𝑑)𝑛                                          (15)  

where n is the number of years. 

The Levelized cost of energy (LCOE) can be calculated by 
dividing the life cycle cost value of the project by the expected 

generated energy during the project life cycle as follows [39]: 

𝐿𝐶𝑂𝐸 = 𝐿𝐶𝐶/Σ 𝐸𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑                                (16)                            

 
The Levelized cost of water (LCOW) can be calculated by 
dividing the life cycle cost value of the project by the 
expected produced water during the project life cycle as 
follows: 

𝐿𝐶𝑂𝑊 = 𝐿𝐶𝐶/Σ𝑄𝐿𝑖𝑓𝑒_𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒                                (17)                           

The simple payback time (SPBT) is considered one of the 
most requested indicators of the economic feasibility of 
renewable energy systems. Simple payback time calculates 
the number of years for the savings of energy from the 
renewable energy project to offset the initial cost of 

investment and is given as follows [40]: 

𝑆𝑃𝐵𝑇(𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠) =
𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡($)

(𝐸𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑(𝐾𝑤ℎ/𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟)∙𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑒($/𝑘𝑊ℎ) −  𝐶𝑂&𝑀($/𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟) )
                   (18)  

The economic analysis is investigated using formulae from 
13 to 18 and by adopting the current prices of the local 
market. Table 4 illustrates the costs of all components 
according to the local market of Saudi Arabia. The LCOE & 
LCOW are calculated for the three cases of the grid-
connected system in addition to the case of the standalone 
system. The resulting values are illustrated in Table 10. 
The SPBT depends on the cost of energy avoided due to 
using the PV system instead of using the public grid for 
supplying the pumping system. The recent energy tariff for 
agriculture purposes in Saudi Arabia is 0.04267 $/kWh for 
consumption of less than 6000 kWh monthly and 0.08 
$/kWh for more than 6000 kWh monthly [41].  
 



AF. Almarshoud /Future Sustainability                                                                                 February 2024| Volume 02 | Issue 01 | Pages 35-46 

44 

 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

Also, the tariff of energy exchange with the grid is not the 
same in both directions (0.01867 $/kWh for exported energy 
and 0.04267 $/kWh for imported energy). The SPBT has been 

calculated based on this pricing system, and the results for all 

cases are shown in Table 10. The economic indicators showed 

that the grid-connected system with 100 modules is the best 
for both LCOE & SPBT, while the standalone system came in 

the third position, as shown in Table 10. Note that the cost of 
the pumping system is excluded from the initial cost because 
the same pumping system will be used in both cases, 

supplying power from the PV system or from the utility grid.  
About 90% of consumed energy was priced based on the 

lowest tariff, but in the case of bigger systems,  most of the 
energy will be priced based on the higher tariff, then the SPBT 
will go down dramatically. The approach followed in this 

research is applicable for its worldwide application if all the 
necessary data are provided. However, the economic viability 

depends on some factors such as; the quality of solar 
radiation, the depth of the well, the rate of energy exchange 
with the public grid. In addition, the irrigation pattern affects 

the economic viability; if the crop does not demand water all 

year, it will affect the economic viability badly unless the tariff 

of exported energy is encouraged. 

Table 10.  The economic indicators of the case understudy 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

7. Conclusions  
In this study, the technical performance and economic 

viability of the use of solar energy in water pumping to 
irrigate palm trees have been investigated by applying a 
group of technical and economic indicators to a real case.  The 
investigation was carried out taking into account the 
variation of water demand over the year, meteorological data 
of the region, and the characteristics of the borehole in 
addition to the local market prices of the PV system. The 
investigation has been done using two options of PV systems; 
grid-connected system, and standalone system. The 
investigation has been done through few steps; firstly 
determining the size of the pumping system based on water 
demand and characteristics of the borehole, then sizing the PV 
array based on the available meteorological data and the 
chosen PV module, then followed by calculating the technical 
performance indicators; the yield factor, capacity factor, 
performance ratio, and the exploitation factor. The last step is 
the estimation of economic feasibility by applying three 
economic indicators; the Levelized cost of energy (LCOE), the 
Levelized cost of produced water(LCOW), and the simple 
payback time (SPBT). The results of applying the technical 
and economic indicators showed the effectiveness and 
economic feasibility of the grid-connected system, especially 

the biggest one in spite of the unfair price of energy exchange 
with the utility grid. The economic indicators for all 
investigated systems seem encouraged, and they vary from 
0.013 to 0.019 $/kWh for LCOE, 0.011 to 0.013 $/m3 for 
LCOW, and from 9.65 to 12.22 years for SPBT. The calculation 
of SPBT is done based on the lower electricity tariff for 
agriculture application in Saudi Arabia. In case of using the 
higher tariff at bigger water demand, the SPBT will go down. 
Despite the difficult characteristics of the case under study in 
terms of the amount of water demand, or the borehole depth, 
as well as the cheap tariff of exporting surplus energy to the 
grid, the results came encouraging. This leads us to expect 
better results in areas with less borehole depth or with better 
solar irradiance, as well as in case of existing any supporting 
scheme from the government or in case of enhancing the tariff 
of exported energy. In general, the results are considered 

Indicator 
Grid-connected system 

Standalone 
system 80 

modules 
90 

modules 
100 

modules 

LCOE  
($/kWh) 

0.01951 0.01579 0.01332 0.01653 

LCOW  
($/m3 ) 

0.01338 0.01218 0.01142 0.01323 

SPBT  
(year) 

12.22 10.42 9.65 11.2 

Table 9.  Summary results of performance indicators 

Indicator 
Grid-connected system 

Standalone system 
80 modules 90 modules 100 modules 

Annual Expected Energy  60.82 MWh   68.42 MWh  76.03 MWh  79.83  MWh 

Annual Consumed Energy  64.56    MWh 64.56   MWh 

Annual Potential Energy   -   - -  15.27  MWh 

Annual exported energy 4.28 MWh   7.29 MWh  11.54 MWh  -  

Annual imported energy 8.02 MWh   3.43 MWh 0.075 MWh -  

Annual YF  2172 1757 

Annual CF  24.8   % 20.1  % 

Annual PR  97.8   % 79.2  % 

Annual EF   - -   - 80.87  % 

Generated energy during the Life cycle 1383.1 MWh 1556 MWh 1728.9 MWh 1613.92 MWh 

Consumed energy during Life cycle 1613.92  MWh 1613.92 MWh 

Annual GHG emission (0.76746 
tCO2/MWh) 

46.68 tCO2 49.88  tCO2 58.29  tCO2 49.55  tCO2 

 



AF. Almarshoud /Future Sustainability                                                                                 February 2024| Volume 02 | Issue 01 | Pages 35-46 

45 

 

encouraging for farmers in the region to convert to solar 
energy utilization.   

Ethical issue 
The author is aware of and comply with best practices in 
publication ethics, specifically with regard to authorship 
(avoidance of guest authorship), dual submission, 
manipulation of figures, competing interests, and compliance 
with policies on research ethics. The author adheres to 
publication requirements that the submitted work is original 
and has not been published elsewhere.  

Data availability statement 
The manuscript contains all the data. However, more data will 

be available upon request from the author. 

Conflict of interest 

The author declares no potential conflict of interest.  

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