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08-14 

8 

 

 

 

Article 

Numerical simulation study on fire combustion of 

advertising board materials in airport terminals 
Xiaohong Gui*, Jiaojiao Wu, Zheng Min, Wei Xue 

China University of Mining and Technology (Beijing), Beijing 100083, China 

               A R T I C L E   I N F O 
 

Article history: 
Received 15 September 2024  
Received in revised form 
18 October 2024 
Accepted 25 October 2024 
 
Keywords:  
Advertising board, Fire, Smoke,  
Numerical simulation 
 
*Corresponding author 
Email address: 
gxhbox@sina.com 
 
DOI: 10.55670/fpll.fusus.2.4.2 
 

A B S T R A C T 
 

In order to meet the guidance, publicity, and commercial functions, various 

types of billboards have become important permanent facilities in the airport 

terminal, which are distributed all over the terminal. The advertising materials 

inside billboards have certain fire hazards, and there is a lack of research on the 

fire risk of advertising materials at present. Therefore, it is necessary to study 

the fire risk of advertising materials in airport terminals. Taking PVC board, a 

commonly used advertising material, as the research object, Pyrosim was used 

to model and analyze its fire, and the characteristics of fire spread, smoke flow, 

and distribution of combustion products such as CO and CO2 in the terminal 

building were obtained. This study explores the fire combustion characteristics 

of advertising materials in civil airport terminals, providing a basis for fire 

prevention management in civil airport terminals. 

 

1. Introduction 

The airport terminal is an important large-scale 

infrastructure for civil aviation transportation and urban 

construction. As the most crowded area of the airport, once a 

fire accident occurs, it will directly affect the airport 

terminal's normal operation and personnel travel [1-3]. The 

occurrence of an airport fire has strong suddenness, 

uncertainty, and consequences [4, 5]. Because the types of 

combustibles in each public area of the airport terminal are 

different. These combustibles have different geometric 

thicknesses, ignition temperatures, thermal conductivity, unit 

heat release, and smoke release characteristics. There are 

different fire potential and combustion characteristics in the 

combustion process. Therefore, it is necessary to evaluate the 

fire risk of different functional areas of the terminal building 

and study the combustion characteristics of different types of 

combustibles to improve the performance of the fire safety 

system of the terminal building [4-7]. Based on the fire 

occurrence process of different functional areas, many 

scholars have carried out different material ignition points to 

study the smoke occurrence and fire spread during the fire 

occurrence of the airport terminal. Yuan et al. [4] used FDS to 

conduct full-scale modeling and numerical simulation of store 

shelves, bookstore shelves, check-in common seats, and 

business desks and chairs in civil airport terminals. They 

analyzed the correlation between fire load and temperature. 

Song et al. [8] used FDS to simulate the fire at the airport 

terminal and obtained the parameters of smoke spread, 

temperature, CO2, and CO under two conditions with or 

without a spray system. The simulation results accurately 

reflect the dynamic process of fire and provide support for the 

formulation of an airport fire emergency plan. HU et al. [9] 

used CFAST and FDS to simulate the smoke-filling process in 

the domestic boarding-arrival channel with an aspect ratio of 

about 52.3 at the international airport terminal. The flame 

impact time, smoke temperature distribution, and 

temperature distribution of the airport fire were predicted. 

Men et al. [10] simulated the smoke dispersion pattern and 

control effect of each terminal floor under the existing smoke 

control strategy through FDS. The results show that the 

current smoke strategy of the airport terminal is reasonable, 

which can achieve effective smoke exhaust in the fire scene 

and ensure the safety of personnel. Dong Yao [11] analyzed 

the terminal building from the structure, use, and internal 

combustibles of the airport building, evaluated the risk of fire 

and whether the prevention and control technology was 

effective, analyzed the evacuation characteristics and 

evacuation safety, reduced losses and environmental 

protection, and proposed corresponding improvement 

measures. Song Yang et al. [8] analyzed the layout of the 

building in the terminal building. When the mechanical smoke 

exhaust system was not started in time, a fire occurred during 

the peak period of the flow of people, and the evacuation was 

not affected by thermal radiation. However, the smoke height 

Future Sustainability 

Open Access Journal 

https://doi.org/10.55670/fpll.fusus.2.4.2 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

November 2024| Volume 02 | Issue 04 | Pages 08- 14 

Journal homepage: https://fupubco.com/fusus 

 
ISSN 2995-0473 

mailto:gxhbox@sina.com
https://doi.org/10.55670/fpll.fusus.2.4.2
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X. Gui et al. /Future Sustainability                                                                                        November 2024| Volume 02 | Issue 04 | Pages 08-14 

9 

 

decreased faster, which would pose a significant threat to 

safety. The above scholars have simulated fire accidents in 

airport terminals for different functional areas of the airport. 

However, in recent years, many fire accidents have occurred 

at home and abroad due to the burning of billboards in airport 

terminals. This kind of fire has greater fire hazards and more 

serious consequences. This article establishes a partial model 

of the terminal building based on the actual situation of the 

airport, which is widely used in commercial advertising. 

Taking PVC board, a commonly used advertising material, as 

the research object, Pyrosim is used to model and analyze its 

fire, and the characteristics of fire spread and smoke flow in 

the terminal building were obtained. This study can fill the 

gap in research on the combustion characteristics of 

advertising materials, provide ideas and references for the 

fire hazard assessment of similar materials, and provide 

theoretical support and reference for the fire safety 

management and legal regulations of airport terminals. 

2. Combustion model 

2.1 Combustion material model 

Solid materials can be divided into thin and thick 

materials according to their thickness. Thin materials refer to 

materials that are thin enough to ignore temperature 

gradients in the thickness direction, assuming that the 

temperature of the material is equal in the thickness 

direction. Materials with a thickness of less than 3mm under 

normal conditions can be considered thin materials. The 

thickness of advertising materials is generally below 2mm, 

which meets the definition of thin materials. Therefore, the 

combustion model of advertising materials is consistent with 

that of thin materials. If the heating condition is that one side 

of the thin material is heated while the other side is insulated, 

the ignition time is: 

𝑡𝑖𝑔 =
𝑑𝜌𝑐

ℎ
. 𝑙𝑛 (

𝑇𝑓−𝑇0

𝑇𝑓−𝑇𝑖𝑔
)                                                                        (1) 

If the heating condition is that one side of the thin material is 

heated while the other side is not heated, the ignition time is: 

𝑡𝑖𝑔 =
𝑑𝜌𝑐

ℎ
⋅ 𝑙𝑛 (

𝑇𝑓−𝑇0

𝑇𝑓+𝑇0−2𝑇𝑖𝑔
)                                                         (2) 

In the formula， is the ignition time, s; d is the material 

thickness, m; h is the convection heat transfer coefficient, kW 

/ (m2.K); c is the heat capacity, J / (kg.K);  𝜌  is the material 

density, kg/m3; is the initial temperature of the material 

surface, ℃; is the material ignition temperature, ℃; is 

the heating temperature of the material surface, ℃. 

2.2 Pyrosim model establishment 

The terminal building modeled in this article mainly uses 

high-performance reinforced concrete, steel pipes, and 

aluminum components, while the ground advertising 

materials are mainly PVC boards. Establish a local Pyrosim 

model for its basement level, as shown in Figure 1. Based on 

the actual structural characteristics of the area, the grid 

setting conditions are determined as follows: 

The minimum value of the X-axis is 322 m, and the maximum 

value is 430 m. The minimum value on the Y-axis is 136m, and 

the maximum value is 197 m. The minimum value of the Z-

axis is -6 m, and the maximum value is 0 m. A cube grid has 

been established, with individual grid sizes of 0.5m × 0.5m × 

0.5m, totaling 316224. The actual size of the model is around 

6000 m2.  

2.3 Analysis model 

The main component of PVC board is polyvinyl chloride. 

According to its combustion reaction equation: 

Fuel + Air = Products 

In the formula, Fuel is C2H3Cl, Air is 1.53O2 + 5.76N2 and 
Products is HCl + H2O + 0.14CO + 0.96CO2 + 0.9C + 5.76N2. 
Setting C2H3Cl as the combustion reactant, according to its 

combustion characteristics, its combustion phenomenon is 

more intense, and the heat release is greater. The model 

environment temperature is set to room temperature of 20 ℃, 

atmospheric pressure of 1atm, reaction combustion heat of 

16400 kJ/kg, and HRRPUA of 750 kW/m2. The fire source is 

set on the surface of the PVC advertising decorative floor on 

the basement level of the terminal building, on a two-

dimensional plane with a size of 2m × 3m. There are a total of 

2 fire sources, with a color of dark brown and red. The 

location of the fire source is shown in the model in Figure 1. 

In addition, PVC advertising decorative flooring is shown as 

pink flooring in Figure 1. 

 

Figure 1.  Model scaling sample 

2.4 Model parameters 

This article mainly measures the distribution of carbon 

monoxide concentration, fire temperature distribution, 

carbon dioxide concentration distribution, corresponding 

conditions of the automatic sprinkler system, and smoke 

distribution on the underground floor of the terminal 

building. Install a smoke concentration slice at the aisle with 

Y=158 to detect the distribution of smoke concentration in 

the hall; Install a temperature slice at the aisle with Y=190 to 

detect temperature changes in the aisle; Install carbon 

monoxide concentration detectors at X=330m, Y=158m, Z=-

2m and X=396m, Y=178m, Z=-2m respectively to detect 

changes in carbon monoxide concentration at the ignition 

point and entrance of the hall. Install a carbon dioxide 

concentration detector at X=423m, Y=182m, Z=-2m and 

X=327m, Y=193m, Z=-2m, respectively, to detect the 

concentration changes of carbon dioxide at the entrance and 

exit of the aisle. The placement of each slice and detection 

device is shown in Figure 2. 

3. Results and discussions 

3.1 Automatic sprinkler fire extinguishing system 

According to the fire safety technical specifications, if the 

terminal building with less than 15000m2 is equipped with 

combustible advertising materials, it should also be equipped 

with an automatic sprinkler fire extinguishing system. 

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X. Gui et al. /Future Sustainability                                                                                        November 2024| Volume 02 | Issue 04 | Pages 08-14 

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According to relevant regulations, the building hazard level is 

medium hazard level, and the water spray intensity is set to 

at least 6L/(min · m2). This article designs two sets of 

automatic sprinkler fire extinguishing systems based on 

different water spray intensities, referred to as System A and 

System B. The water spray intensity of system A is set to 

6L/(min · m2), and the water spray intensity of system B is set 

to 8L/(min · m2). 

 
Figure 2.  Layout of detection device 

3.1.1 System parameters and modeling 
According to the actual situation of the building, 

automatic sprinkler system A adopts a hanging and expanded 

coverage type nozzle arranged in a square shape. A nozzle 

flow coefficient K=100, working pressure 0.1 MPa, spray flow 

rate 100 L/min. Then the nozzle spacing a,  

a=(100/6)0.5=4.08m 
Minimum spray radius of nozzle c,  
c=4.080.5=2.02m 
According to the specifications, the distance between the 

nozzle and the wall is set between 0.1m and 2.4 m, and the 

nozzle is set at 0.1 m from the top plate. Therefore, the 

distance between the nozzle and the underground floor is 5.9 

m. Due to the maximum protection area of the nozzle being 23 

m2, the maximum protection radius of the nozzle is r, 

r=(23/π)0.5=2.70m 
The actual spray radius R of the nozzle should meet the 

following requirements, 

2.02≤R≤2.70 
The spray angle Θ should meet the following requirements, 
Θmin≥acrtan（2.02/5.9）≈19° 

Θmax≤acrtan（2.70/5.9）≈24° 

So, the injection angle Θ∈ [19 °, 24 °] is taken as Θ=20 °. 
Set the starting temperature of the nozzle to room 
temperature of 20 ℃ and the starting temperature to 74 ℃. 
The main parameters of the automatic sprinkler fire 
extinguishing system have been set, and the remaining 
parameters are set to the default values of the system. The 
Pyrosim model is established as shown in Figure 3. 

3.1.2 Parameters and modeling of system B  
Analogous to System A, System B also uses a drooping, 

expanded coverage nozzle with a square layout. A nozzle flow 

coefficient K=100, working pressure 0.1MPa, spray flow rate 

100L/min. Then, the nozzle spacing a is a=(100/8)0.5=3.54m. 

The minimum spray radius of nozzle c is  c=3.540.5=1.88m. 

According to the specifications, the distance between the 

nozzle and the wall is set between 0.1m and 2.4 m, and the 

nozzle is set at 0.1 m from the top plate. Therefore, the 

distance between the nozzle and the underground floor is 5.9 

m. Due to the maximum protection area of the nozzle being 23 

m2, the maximum protection radius r of the nozzle is,  

r=(23/π)0.5=2.70 m 

The actual spray radius R of the nozzle should meet the 

following requirements, 1.88≤R≤2.70 

The spray angle Θ should meet the following requirements,  

Θmin≥acrtan（1.88/5.9）≈18° 

Θmax≤acrtan（2.70/5.9）≈24° 

So, the injection angle Θ∈ [18 °, 24 °] is taken as Θ=20 °. 

Set the starting temperature of the nozzle to room 

temperature of 20 ℃ and the starting temperature to 74 ℃. 

The main parameters of the automatic sprinkler fire 

extinguishing system have been set, and the remaining 

parameters are set to the default values of the system. The 

Pyrosim model is established as shown in Figure 4. 

 
Figure 3.  The model of system A  

 
Figure 4.   The model of system B  

3.2 Fire scene parameter simulation and analysis 

3.2.1 Simulation and analysis of system A  
According to the 3D fire simulation animation in 

Smokeview, it is found that when the PVC advertising 

decorative panel on the ground starts to burn, the smoke of 

the fire first spreads vertically. After contacting the top plate, 

the smoke from the top begins to spread horizontally in all 

directions, forming a roof jet phenomenon. At t=10s, the 

smoke generated by the burning point in the hall begins to 

spread to the right side of the open hall due to the obstruction 

of the surrounding walls. The smoke generated by the 

burning point in the aisle not only spreads to both sides of the 

aisle but also to the entrance of the hall, as shown in Figure 5. 

At t=30 s, the smoke has spread to half of the hall, but the 

smoke concentration at the entrance is relatively low, as 

shown in Figure 6. The smoke in the aisle has taken up most 



X. Gui et al. /Future Sustainability                                                                                        November 2024| Volume 02 | Issue 04 | Pages 08-14 

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of the space and is blocked by buildings, such as the wall and 

door on the right side of the aisle. 

 
Figure 5.  Smoke spreads at t=10 s 

 

 
Figure 6.  Smoke spreads at t=30 s 

At t=45 s, the smoke in the hall has occupied about most 

of the space and is about to spread throughout the entire hall. 

In addition, smoke has spread to the left entrance and exit in 

the hallway, as shown in Figure 7. At t=88s, the entire model 

is completely covered by smoke except for the areas enclosed 

by smoke prevention and control facilities, such as walls and 

doors, as shown in Figure 8. 

 
Figure 7.  Smoke spreads at t=45 s 

 

Figure 8. Smoke spreads at t=88 s 

 

3.2.2 Simulation and analysis of system B  
It is not difficult to observe in the 3D fire simulation 

animation in Smokeview that the combustion phenomenon of 

PVC advertising decorative panels in System B is similar to 

that in System A. At t=10 s, the smoke generated by the PVC 

advertising decorative panel spreads vertically to the top 

plate, forming a ceiling jet, and the smoke gradually spreads 

horizontally, as shown in Figure 9. At t=31s, smoke occupies 

about half of the space in the hall, and the smoke generated by 

the entrance walkway covers it. The smoke in the aisle is 

similar to the situation of System A, occupying the majority of 

the aisle space and being blocked at the exit on the right side 

of the aisle, as shown in Figure 10. At t=48 s, although the 

majority of the space in the hall is filled with smoke, the 

concentration of smoke spreading from the aisle is relatively 

low, and a high concentration of smoke occupies the general 

space in the hall. In addition, the aisle has been completely 

covered by smoke, as shown in Figure 11. At t=89 s, the entire 

model is basically covered by smoke except for a small area 

protected by smoke prevention and control facilities, as 

shown in Figure 12. 

 
Figure 9. Smoke Spread at t=10s 

 

 
Figure 10. Smoke spreads at t=31 s 

 

 
Figure 11.  Smoke spreads at t=48s 

 



X. Gui et al. /Future Sustainability                                                                                        November 2024| Volume 02 | Issue 04 | Pages 08-14 

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Figure 12.  Smoke spreads at t=89 s 

3.2.3 Comparison and analysis of system A and system B   
Through 3D smoke view fire simulation animation, it 

is found that although System B has higher water spray 

intensity and better performance, the phenomenon of smoke 

spread between the two is very similar in the simulation, and 

the difference is not significant. From the perspective of 

controlling smoke spread alone, System A has a higher cost-

effectiveness. In addition, it is easy to observe from the 3D fire 

simulation animation that the spread speed of fire smoke is 

very rapid. Although this model has a large space of 6000 m2 

and is equipped with an automatic sprinkler system, the fire 

smoke still covered the entire model in less than 2 minutes. 

Due to the presence of fire smoke, visibility in the fire scene 

decreased. Therefore, when a fire occurs, in order to evacuate 

the people in the fire as much as possible, personnel should 

be quickly organized to evacuate during the fire to prevent the 

spread of high-temperature smoke from causing casualties or 

people being trapped in the fire due to reduced visibility, and 

to ensure the safety of personnel as much as possible. 

3.3 Startup and analysis of automatic sprinkler fire 

extinguishing system 

3.3.1 Simulation and analysis of system A 
At t=12 s, the nozzles near the burning point in the hall 

start spraying water to extinguish the fire, as shown in Figure 

13. At t=17 s, the nozzle located near the burning point in the 

aisle starts to extinguish the fire, as shown in Figure 14. At 

t=40 s, as the combustion progresses, the nozzles near the 

combustion point begin to respond one after another, as 

shown in Figure 15. At t=90s, the nozzles near the combustion 

point were activated extensively. Although the surface of the 

PVC advertising decorative floor at the combustion point was 

covered with water, the advertising material that was already 

burning was still burning violently, as shown in Figure 16. 

 
Figure 13. Starting status of automatic sprinkler fire extinguishing 

system at t=12s 

 

 
Figure 14.  Starting status of automatic sprinkler fire extinguishing 

system at t=17s 

 

 
Figure 15. Startup status of automatic sprinkler fire extinguishing 

system at t=40s 

 

 
Figure 16.  Starting status of automatic sprinkler fire extinguishing 

system at t=90s 

At t=181 s, almost all the nozzles on the left side of the 

combustion point in the hall responded, and about 40% of the 

nozzles in the aisle had already responded. In addition, the 

sprinkler heads at the entrance of the aisle and hall have been 

activated to start spraying water for fire extinguishing, as 

shown in Figure 17. At t=240s, the water sprayed by the hall 

nozzle not only completely covered the surface of the PVC 

advertising decorative floor at the combustion point but also 

partially covered the surface of the PVC advertising 

decorative floor in the middle of the hall. The number of 

response nozzles in the aisle has also increased, as shown in 

Figure 18. 

 

Figure 17. Starting status of automatic sprinkler fire extinguishing 

system at t=181s 



X. Gui et al. /Future Sustainability                                                                                        November 2024| Volume 02 | Issue 04 | Pages 08-14 

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Figure 18.  Startup status of automatic sprinkler fire extinguishing 

system at t=240s 

3.3.2 Simulation and analysis of system B 
At t=10s, the nozzle near the combustion point in the 

hall is activated for the first time, as shown in Figure 19. At 

t=11s, the nozzle near the burning point in the aisle is 

activated for the first time to extinguish the fire, as shown in 

Figure 20. At t=35 s, the nozzle near the combustion points in 

the hall responded, and the overall water spray increased. 

More than half of the PVC advertising decorative floor at the 

burning point of the hall has been covered by water, and the 

PVC advertising decorative floor at the burning point of the 

aisle has been completely covered by water, as shown in 

Figure 21. At t=90 s, although the nozzle response degree near 

each combustion point of System B is further expanded, the 

PVC advertising decorative floor covered with water on the 

surface is still burning vigorously, as shown in Figure 22. 

 
Figure 19. Startup status of automatic sprinkler fire extinguishing 

system at t=10s 

 
Figure 20.  Starting status of an automatic sprinkler system at t = 11s 

 

Figure 21.  Starting status of automatic sprinkler system at t = 35s 

 
Figure 22. Starting status of an automatic sprinkler system at t = 90s 

At t=181s, most of the sprinklers near the combustion 

points of System B respond and have a large water spray area. 

In addition to covering the PVC advertising decoration floor 

at the combustion points, it also covers the surrounding 

building structure, as shown in Figure 23. At t=240 s, 

compared with the previous moment, although the number of 

sprinklers in the hall and aisle started to increase slightly, the 

burning PVC advertisement decorated the floor, and the 

burning is still ongoing, as shown in Figure 24. 

 

Figure 23.  Starting status of automatic sprinkler system at t = 181s 

 

 
Figure 24.  Starting status of an automatic sprinkler system at t = 

240s 

3.3.3 Comparison and analysis of system A and system B 
According to the above discussion and analysis, the 

response speed of System B is faster than that of System A, 

and the time required for the nozzle first to respond is 

shorter. However, as time goes by, the number of starting 

heads of System A gradually exceeds that of System B, and in 

the fourth minute, the water spraying area of System A is 

larger. On the one hand, this may be due to the smaller nozzle 

spacing of System B, the stronger inhibition of the combustion 

heat release, and the slower temperature rise; thus, the 

temperature near the fire source is lower, and the response 

number is less; on the other hand, the System B is denser, and 

the heat temperature flue gas cooling effect is stronger, the 

heat dissipation is larger and the fire temperature is relatively 

lower, resulting in the response of System A is more, and the 

injection area is larger. In general, with continuous 



X. Gui et al. /Future Sustainability                                                                                        November 2024| Volume 02 | Issue 04 | Pages 08-14 

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combustion, the response degree of the automatic sprinkler 

system is constantly improved, the number of starting heads 

is more and more, and the protection area of the system is also 

larger and larger. To some extent, the automatic sprinkler 

system is beneficial in protecting the space around the fire 

site and preventing the spread of the fire. However, in this 

model, due to the high combustion calorific value of the PVC 

advertising decoration floor and the intense response, the 

temperature in the central area of the fire has been high, so it 

cannot be completely extinguished by the automatic sprinkler 

system. However, the PVC advertisement decorated the floor, 

even if it was very close to the burning point, but within 4 

minutes, it was ignited, and the automatic sprinkler system 

played a very important role. 

4. Conclusion 

(1) Smoke in the early stages of the fire site spreads very 

quickly. In just a few minutes, the fire smoke can spread to the 

whole model, resulting in reduced visibility of the fire, which 

is not conducive to escape. Therefore, attention should be 

paid to the design of smoke prevention and exhaust in public 

places with a high density of people, effectively inhibiting the 

diffusion of smoke and giving people more time to escape. 

(2) The environmental temperature of the fire site changes 

rapidly. The ambient temperature near the fire source can 

quickly break through 100℃, causing serious damage to the 

surrounding personnel. Therefore, when choosing the escape 

channel, you should try to choose the route far away from the 

center of the fire source. If each route is filled with high-

temperature smoke, you should crawl forward to avoid being 

burned and scalded by the high-temperature smoke. 

(3) An automatic sprinkler system is conducive to restraining 

the expansion of the fire and facilitating the evacuation of 

personnel. An automatic sprinkler system can effectively 

reduce the temperature of the fire smoke to prevent 

evacuating pedestrians due to high temperatures or igniting 

other combustibles, resulting in the control of fire. In addition, 

equipped with higher specifications of automatic sprinkler 

systems can further buy valuable time for personnel to 

escape. 

Ethical issue 

The authors are aware of and comply with best practices in 
publication ethics, specifically with regard to authorship 
(avoidance of guest authorship), dual submission, 
manipulation of figures, competing interests, and compliance 
with policies on research ethics. The authors adhere to 
publication requirements that the submitted work is original 
and has not been published elsewhere. 

Data availability statement 
The manuscript contains all the data. However, more data will 

be available upon request from the authors. 

Conflict of interest 

The authors declare no potential conflict of interest. 

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