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35-46 

35 

 

 

 

Review 

A comprehensive review of alkaline fuel cells 
Saad Bin Abul Kashem* 

Business Management & Information Systems Programme, University Aberdeen, Qatar 

               A R T I C L E   I N F O 
 

Article history: 
Received 05 February 2025  
Received in revised form 
11 March 2025 
Accepted 24 March 2025 
 
Keywords:  
Alkaline fuel cell, Cathode material, Catalyst 
 
*Corresponding author 
Email address: 
saad.kashem@afg-aberdeen.edu.qa 
 
 
 
DOI: 10.55670/fpll.fusus.3.2.5 
 

A B S T R A C T 
 

The alkaline fuel cell is known as the “bacon” fuel cell. It generates electricity 

through the chemical reaction without the emission of greenhouse gases. This 

will allow it to replace fossil fuels in the future. It produced only the water for 

the final product. It operates at a temperature of 25˚C to 250˚C, which is 

relatively low compared to the internal combustion engines. It has wide 

application in the modern industry. This is due to the system's high efficiency, 

reaching up to 60%. However, the alkaline fuel cell has several disadvantages, 

which affect to popularize. This paper contains a review of alkaline fuel cells, an 

extensive study of the components that make up the fuel cells, as well as the 

future applications and challenges of fuel cells. A comparison of alkaline fuel 

cells and other types of fuel cells has also been discussed in the paper. In 

addition to the research paper, future trends and forecasts will also be able to 

accurately predict the viability of implementing this technology in the near 

future. 

 

1. Introduction 

The alkaline fuel cell is called the ‘bacon’ fuel cell. Named 

after its British inventor, it is one of the most developed fuel 

cell technologies with a wide range of heat, electricity, and 

water production applications. With its numerous 

advantages, which include (but are not limited to) an 

abundance of hydrogen, non-hazardous by-products, and a 

quiet and clean source of energy that is more efficient at all 

levels of use, this technology shows great prospects in the 

gradual but inevitable replacement of fossil fuel. The ability of 

fuel cells to directly convert chemicals to electrical energy is 

what scientists believe will be a key component of future 

energy sources. Alkaline fuel cells are made up of an alkaline 

electrolyte. It is usually a Potassium hydroxide liquid in which 

hydroxide ions (OH-) travel from the cathode to the anode in 

water and are generally fueled with pure hydrogen. Catalysts 

also speed up reaction rates at the anode and cathode. 

Operating temperatures of these cells can range from 25˚C to 

250˚C. Alkaline fuel cells are currently capable of producing 

14% more electricity with 23% less emissions. Due to the high 

rate of reactions, efficiencies of up to 60% can be reached in 

some applications. Current drawbacks of this fuel cell 

technology are the cost of production, the small amounts of 

energy that can be stored at a time, and the diseconomies of 

large-scale application. Much research still must be done to 

determine the plausibility of wide-scale application, which 

researchers still call a “fairy tale”. In this research, the team 

will perform an in-depth analysis of the current alkaline fuel 

cell technologies as well as their advantages and drawbacks.  

The team will also examine the current efforts by scientists to 

put this technology to wide-scale use. In addition, future 

trends and forecasts will be looked into to accurately forecast 

the viability of implementing this technology in our fast-

changing and technologically driven world. The goal of the 

research on alkaline fuel cells is to investigate the application 

and mechanism of energy production of the fuel cell. 

Secondly, the possibility of alkaline fuel cells as a future 

source of energy supply will also be studied and analyzed. 

This research will discuss different aspects of the alkaline fuel 

cell, including its components, advantages and disadvantages, 

and importance. The research is more about experimental 

procedures, and a handful of simulations are involved as well. 

However, experiments are carried out in the laboratory. In 

addition, every member is exposed to hands-on experience 

when experiments are carried out in the laboratory. 

Moreover, results obtained in the laboratory can be compared 

with similar experiments that have been done for accuracy 

and improvement. For a better understanding of the benefits 

of alkaline fuel cells, there will be a comparative analysis done 

with the following types of fuel cells: 

• Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells 

• Direct Methanol Fuel Cells 

• Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cells 

• Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells 

• Solid Acid Fuel Cells 

 

Future Sustainability 

Open Access Journal 

https://doi.org/10.55670/fpll.fusus.3.2.5 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

May 2025| Volume 03 | Issue 02 | Pages 35-46 

Journal homepage: https://fupubco.com/fusus 

 
ISSN 2995-0473 

mailto:saad.kashem@afg-aberdeen.edu.qa
https://doi.org/10.55670/fpll.fusus.3.2.5
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SBA. Kashem /Future Sustainability                                                                                                May 2025| Volume 03 | Issue 02 | Pages 35-46 

36 

 

2. Background 

2.1 Alkaline fuel cells 

2.1.1 Definition of alkaline fuel cells 

Fossil fuel combustion, such as coal, jet fuel, and 

gasoline, falls under the non-renewable energy category. This 

releases harmful emissions into the environment and 

increases the greenhouse effect. On the other hand, many 

other environmentally friendly alternative energy sources, 

such as solar, wind, geothermal, and hydroelectric power, can 

be used only in particular environments. According to 

Viswanathan [1], fuel cells as a potential electrical energy 

conversion scheme are now being used worldwide. The 

reason for developing fuel cells is that they can have near-zero 

emissions while being quiet and efficient. Similarly, fuel cells 

use hydrogen and oxygen as reaction sources, which are 

abundant and environmentally friendly. A chemical reaction 

between the hydrogen ions with oxygen as an oxidizing agent. 

The reaction directly converts chemical energy into electrical 

energy [2]. Fuel cells are classified according to their 

electrolyte type. Thus, Alkaline Fuel Cells (AFC) use an 

alkaline electrolyte. In common practice, Alkaline Fuel Cells 

use liquid potassium hydroxide (KOH) as the electrolyte. In 

addition, Alkaline Fuel Cells are categorized as “low-

temperature fuel cells” as their operating temperature ranges 

from 50 – 100 Degrees Celsius [3]. Similarly, the electrical 

efficiency of an alkaline fuel cell ranges between 60 – 70 

percent. On the other hand, AFC systems have been said to 

have the advantage of good electrochemical stability [4].  

2.1.2 Energy production in alkaline fuel cells 

An alkaline fuel cell comprises two electrodes: a 

cathode and an anode. They are separated by an electrolyte. 

As for the electrolyte solution, potassium hydroxide (KOH) 

solution is used as it can penetrate the porous electrode 

similar to the reaction gases. Since potassium hydroxide has 

a higher ionic conductivity and higher solubility than sodium 

hydroxide, it is feasible to use KOH as the electrolyte [5]. In 

addition, adjacent to the electrolytes, a porous coating of a 

catalyst is used. Since oxygen reduction reaction in alkaline 

media is easily achieved when compared with acidic media, 

the catalyst increases the electrical efficiency of the fuel cell 

[2]. The catalysts used in most common applications of fuel 

cells are Silver, Nickel, Metal oxides, or noble metals [6]. As 

shown in Figure 1, in an alkaline fuel cell, hydrogen gas is 

pumped into the anode, and oxygen is pumped into the 

cathode. The anode and cathode are electrically connected. 

When hydrogen gas hits the catalyst, the hydrogen atoms are 

oxidized. This triggers a reaction with oxygen whereby 

hydroxyl ions are produced at the cathode of the alkaline fuel 

cell [7]. These ions travel to the anode side of the fuel cell, 

where they react with hydrogen to form water continuously. 

Hydrogen gas combines with the hydroxyl ions at the anode 

to form water and electrons during the process. In the 

meantime, the water formed at the anode diffuses back to the 

cathode, where it interacts with oxygen while returning 

electrons to revive the hydroxyl ions [8]. The overall reaction 

of the fuel cell produces heat and water as by-products and 

generates four electrons per mol of oxygen. Since the four 

electrons are not capable of passing through the electrolyte, 

they are forced out at the anode, producing a current that 

flows through an electric circuit [2]. In contrast, an electrical 

current is produced when the flow of electronic charge within 

the circuit is balanced by the movement of ionic charge 

through the electrolyte [9]. On the other hand, the behavior of 

the cathode is directly related to the lifetime and power 

output of alkaline fuel cells. Since the oxygen reduction 

reaction at the cathode is a slower reaction when compared 

with the hydrogen oxidation reaction at the anode, losses are 

incurred [5]. Moreover, carbon dioxide affects the fuel cell, 

where the formation of carbonate species affects the 

performance of the alkaline electrolyte [10]. This carbonate is 

formed when carbon dioxide reacts with the electrolyte. The 

formation of carbonate decreases the ionic conductivity of the 

electrolyte and blocks the pores in the electrode. Ultimately, 

oxygen flow to the reacting sites is reduced as the pores are 

blocked, which causes the electrode to flood [9]. Hence, the 

oxygen solubility and electrode activity are vastly reduced. 

However, if an anion exchange membrane (AEM) is used as a 

solid electrolyte, the carbon dioxide issue is minimized 

greatly as there is a scarcity of mobile cations in the 

membrane [11].  

 
Figure 1. Schematic diagrams of an alkaline fuel cell 

2.1.3 Alternate material for hydrogen in fuel cells 

Methanol and Ethanol are some of the alternative 

materials used instead of hydrogen in alkaline fuel cells [12]. 

A direct alkaline methanol fuel cell is a type of alkaline fuel 

cell that uses methanol. Similarly, a direct alkaline ethanol 

fuel cell is another type of alkaline fuel cell whereby ethanol 

is used. Water management at the anode is caused by 

carbonation, where carbon dioxide is permanently produced 

during operation [13]. Regarding this, an anion exchange 

membrane is introduced as an electrolyte in the direct 

alkaline methanol fuel cell [14]. As for the catalysts used, a 

direct alkaline methanol fuel cell uses nickel as the anode 

catalyst for methanol oxidation in the alkaline media as a 

common practice [15]. In contrast, palladium, a pure metal, 

catalyzes the ethanol oxidation reaction in a direct alkaline 

ethanol fuel cell [16]. According to [15], because of the high 

overpotential for the electrochemical oxidation of the ethanol 

at low temperatures, direct alkaline ethanol fuel cells have a 

lower performance when compared to direct alkaline 

methanol fuel cells. However, when the energy densities of 



SBA. Kashem /Future Sustainability                                                                                                May 2025| Volume 03 | Issue 02 | Pages 35-46 

37 

 

methanol and ethanol are compared, the energy density of 

ethanol is greater than that of methanol, provided a complete 

oxidation to carbon dioxide is attained. Moreover, ethanol and 

its oxidation products are less toxic than methanol and its 

oxidation products. 

2.1.4 Review of cathode material 

The efficiency and general overall performance of any 

fuel cell are largely due to the methods applied in fabricating 

the layer structures from carbon and PTFE of the gas diffusion 

electrode. All developed fuel cells utilize identical porous 

electrode structures, similar to the electrodes used in metal-

air batteries. The overall power of the cell and the lifetime of 

the alkaline fuel cells are directly linked to cathode behavior, 

and an in-depth look into cathode development is necessary. 

Most of the AFC's polarization losses occur at the cathode, 

much more so than at the anode. This phenomenon can be 

explained by the speed of the oxygen reduction reaction, 

which takes place at the anode and is much slower and more 

limiting than the hydrogen oxidation reaction that takes place 

at the anode.  Two types of designs exist for the AFC. They are 

the monopolar and bipolar stack designs. The monopolar 

stack design has several advantages, such as lower cost; it 

achieves this by avoiding the expensive materials needed for 

bipolar stack plates [17,18]. Furthermore, stack thickness 

decreases due to the presence of only one type of gas chamber 

between the two electrodes. Apart from these, the need for 

additional mechanical pressure is eliminated since the parts 

are mostly glued or welded together. Finally, the 

disconnection or interruption of a bad cell in this situation 

will facilitate the maintenance of the entire stack. However, 

some drawbacks are associated with this design. Currently, 

the monopolar design has a limited density of up to 100 mA 

cm-2. This is due to current collection losses at each side of the 

electrode. The bipolar design shows a steadier current 

density throughout the entire surface of the electrode and 

even has a terminal voltage of higher value and less power 

limitation. This geometry will be preferred for high-power 

applications, but its cost is a major drawback [17]. 

 

2.1.5 Design of electrodes 

Alkaline fuel cell electrodes are made up of many 

bonded polytetraflouraethylene (PTFE) carbon-black layers 

(Figure 2). These three-layer structures have many functions. 

They consist of an active layer, a gas diffusion layer, and a 

backing (support) material [19]. 
 

 

Figure 2. Design of a double-layer electrode in a bipolar stack design 

This design is used more often than a single-layer electrode, 

although more complex designs are currently in use 

depending on the scope of the application. A good double-

layer electrode should have a backing material that easily 

allows gases to permeate it, as well as good electrical 

conductivity and high strength. Due to the nature of the 

monopolar design, backing materials also play the role of the 

current collector, and as such, metal screens and meshes that 

are comprised mainly of nickel are used. In the case of bipolar 

designs, the backing material comes in direct contact with the 

bipolar plate. This implies that carbon cloth or porous carbon 

paper can be used for it [20]. The gas diffusion layer plays a 

very important role. It supplies gases that undergo the 

reactions to the active layer. In addition to this, it prevents 

electrolytes from passing through the electrode. A 

phenomenon termed ‘flooding’. Most monopolar designs use 

a PTFE gas diffusion layer. Bipolar designs require a gas 

diffusion layer that is capable of electronic conduction.  

Ideally, a gas diffusion layer should be completely 

hydrophobic and have satisfactory metal conductivity [21].  

2.1.6 Materials used in the fabrication of electrodes 

A wide variety of materials is used to make alkaline 

fuel cell electrodes. Recently, most alkaline fuel cell electrodes 

used carbon-supported catalysts with a large surface area for 

PTFE to obtain the necessary three-phase boundary 

elaborated on earlier in the report. The key parameter here in 

electrode performance and catalytic activity is the surface 

area of the catalysts used on the electrode rather than its 

weight [22]. PTFE has been a very popular binding agent since 

its introduction. Some other alternatives include wax and 

polyethylene. It is present as globular particles or porous 

substrates with thin films and fibrils. When combined with 

carbon black, it permeates the carbon subsurface. Sintering, 

which involves melting PTFE to provide a thin covering over 

the carbon black, is usually necessary [17]. Carbon black has 

some particular chemical and electrical properties that make 

it ideal for AFC electrode use. Carbon black consists of carbon 

in the form of globular particles obtained through 

decomposing carbon by heat application. Its high surface area 

characteristic is achieved by treating it with steam at high 

temperatures as the steam passes through the carbon black’s 

inner core, which has more entropy than the outside; a large 

number of pores form while the particle does not completely 

disintegrate [23]. 

2.1.7 Operational mechanism 

By altering or adjusting the various input layers and 

structures, scientists can control the electrochemical 

behavior of the AFC. Control can be achieved if the ratio of 

hydrophobic and hydrophilic pores inside the carbon 

structure is altered. Two structures in the electrode play vital 

roles in its operation. The first is the macrostructure created 

due to the incomplete covering of the carbon particles by 

PTFE. This is responsible for the skeletal structure and 

ensures electrical conductivity and mechanical support [24]. 

The secondary microstructure is a result of the pore system 

inside the carbon black particle, and this is also dependent on 

the nature of the pore, its structure, and the surface area of 

the carbon used. Micro pores are hydrophilic, while macro 

pores are hydrophobic. Hydrophobic micropores are 

essential in gas mass transport because they mimic the 



SBA. Kashem /Future Sustainability                                                                                                May 2025| Volume 03 | Issue 02 | Pages 35-46 

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behavior of gas supply channels. On the other hand, oxygen 

reduction reaction mechanisms occur in hydrophilic pores 

and are filled with electrolytes. 

2.1.8 Cathode catalyst materials 

A variety and range of materials exist and can be 

considered for use as the cathode catalyst. These include, but 

are not limited to, non-noble metals, noble metals, 

perovskites, spinels, etc.  In evaluating the catalyst chosen, it 

is necessary to factor in the effect that the type of carbon used 

has on the catalyst. The supporting carbon particle, which has 

a range of physical and chemical characteristics, directly 

impacts the catalyst support system [19]. If we plan on 

building and sustaining a pollution-free world in the future, 

the world will have to bank on Low-temperature fuel cells like 

Polymer electrolyte fuel cells and alkaline fuel cells. In 

addition to its relatively cheaper cost, the system has 

advantages in its working principle; no gas humidification is 

required, in the case of PEFC. In addition to this, the 

temperature of the AFC can be managed with only its 

electrolyte. It will be established in the course of this report 

that AFCs are a promising alternative to polymer electrolyte 

fuel cells (PEFC) and other forms of energy generation and 

storage [22]. The key aspect of this attractiveness goes down 

to the cathode part of the electrode, which is used in the 

oxidation-reduction reaction, as has been established 

previously. To use AFCs in the long term will require a long-

term behavioral analysis of these components. The lifetime of 

the entire cell is based on the degradation of the electrodes. 

Since the cathode in a fuel cell can be easily replaced, most of 

the focus will be on it. For this research, a few variations will 

be considered, described in detail below. 

 

2.1.9 Silver cathodes in alkaline fuel cells 

This cathode consists of catalysts made of silver and 

Polytetraflouraethylene as a binder roll-formed into a metal 

web-like structure. Silver can be used in this situation because 

of the less corrosive nature of the alkaline fuel cells compared 

to the acid fuel cell environments. This presents a big cost 

advantage over other types of cells and also a much higher 

commercial use potential [25]. The solubility of silver in a 

completely alkaline fuel cell can affect the overall 

performance if it gets dissolved and transferred to the anode 

part. This resulting plating of the anode component may 

destroy the catalysts present at the anode. A study 

investigated this degradation during the oxygen reduction 

reaction (ORR) at a constant load. According to a study 

performed on silver electrodes in alkaline cells, the electrodes 

were investigated by observing the structure and the changes 

that electrochemical stressing induces. This was achieved 

using a scanning electron microscope. Measurements were 

performed with a TOPCON DS130 and a Zeiss Gemini LEO 

microscope. This device was equipped with a NORAN 

VOYAGER 3000 EDX system. In addition, a variation of the 

microscopic beam energy in the range of 1-40 keV was 

performed. The results showed that the performance of the 

silver cathode used decreased during operation time at a 

constant rate. Also, because of the declining roughness of the 

surface, the surface area of the catalysts decreases, and the 

pore system is altered. During the ORR, a reduction in 

electrochemical performance is observed. A direct 

implication is that in an operating period of about 5000 hours, 

the total voltage loss will be about 100mV [22]. This result 

will be more suitable for mobile than stationary applications. 

 

2.1.10 Bipolar gas diffusion layer: 

Polytetraflouraethylene bonded carbon black 

layer  

As per a study on this bipolar electrode, nickel was 

selected as the conductor because it is a cheap alternative and 

has good characteristics of mechanical strength, high 

porosity, specific surface area, corrosion resistance, low 

density, and electrical conductivity.  New electrode designs 

are also possible due to its three-dimensional structure. The 

diagnostic technique used to test the efficiency and source of 

losses of the cathode is called electrochemical impedance 

spectroscopy (EIS). The nickel used in this experiment had 

99.9% pure, 110 pores per inch, a thickness of 1.7 mm, and an 

average pore size of 590nm [24]. In the preparation of each 

electrode, the gas diffusion layer mixture was rolled and 

formed into a thickness of 0.5mm with a calendaring machine, 

and it was done on top of the glass-proof paper. Excess liquid 

is finally removed by pressing at constant pressure, and then 

the resultant cathode coalesced in the air at 255 C for 30 

minutes. The liquid electrolyte utilized in this study was 

strong potassium hydroxide synthesized from deionized 

water and potassium hydroxide pallets. Trapped air was 

avoided in the cell throughout the experiment by properly 

circulating the electrolyte from top to bottom. This new 

cathode design that had been developed over time for the 

oxygen reduction cathode reaction in an alkaline fuel cell 

showed promising results from the experiment conducted. 

Based on the study, cathode performance was significantly 

improved, especially at high potentials of 130 mA cm2 at 25 C 

and 0.8 v. This is compared to about 35 mA cm2 of previous 

designs in the same testing conditions. This insight will allow 

us to relate the micro and macrostructure of the electrode to 

its kinetics, which offers exciting opportunities for further 

cathode evolution and development [26]. 

2.2 Future innovations for alkaline fuel cells 

Technological change does not just happen from nothing. 

It evolves, and therefore, the history of its evolution matters. 

Early scientists discovered that just as electricity could be 

used to split water into its component elements, the reversal 

process can be done to generate electricity. Originally, 

platinum was used as the electrode, while sulphuric acid was 

used as the electrolyte. This was very expensive and 

impractical; hence the idea was shelved temporarily [27]. 

Further attempts by other scientists to revive this idea will 

involve them changing the acidic sulphuric acid electrolyte to 

an alkaline fluid to reduce the cost. For this new fuel cell, 

nickel could be used as an electrode much cheaper than 

platinum. Energy systems around the world are trying to 

switch to cleaner energy sources to reduce the rate of CO2 

emissions. This unilateral action is necessitated by the fact 

that climate change, scarcity of fossil fuels, and uneven 

distribution of traditional energy sources are becoming a 

growing concern [1]. Although it is expected that this change 

will be costly and technically difficult, the burden of 

innovation will lie in the hands of government institutions 

and industry entrepreneurs. Analyzing the trends in 



SBA. Kashem /Future Sustainability                                                                                                May 2025| Volume 03 | Issue 02 | Pages 35-46 

39 

 

innovation will serve as a means of evaluating the success so 

far and predicting the pace at which future innovations will 

take place [2]. A study focused on technological innovations 

in practice explained that the United States is currently one of 

the world’s largest energy consumers. Though its government 

is sluggish in implementing radical climate and energy 

policies, it has introduced two changes in the energy sector to 

enhance the country’s competitiveness in the energy sector 

and encourage innovation. The Energy Policy Act of 2005 and 

the Energy Security and Independence Act of 2007 are the 

two policies and significant reasons behind the country's 

massive investment in fuel cell technology research [4]. 

Despite these investments, commercialization of this 

relatively new technology has been slow. At this stage, it is 

uncertain how much public acceptance this technology will 

gain in the future. Currently, fuel cell technology firms are 

developing many prototypes and pre-commercialization 

products at fast speeds to try and ease the technology into the 

very aggressive energy market. A few innovations, however, 

show good prospects [27]. 

2.2.1 Nano gold hybrid materials for oxygen reduction 

reaction 

A review by Umsa et al. [29] investigated the use of 

novel Nano gold hybrid materials for use in the oxygen 

reduction reaction of an alkaline fuel cell.  The study 

highlighted that the successful application of these materials 

would rely on parameters such as the size and 

crystallographic orientations of Nanogold materials in the 

electrodes. This parameter is very critical and determines, to 

a large extent, the overall performance of the fuel cell [28]. 

While this gold technology might not be up to standards yet 

with the more expensive platinum electrode, it proved from 

the study that it could be a reliable and reasonable alternative. 

It has been discovered that Nano particulate gold has good 

catalytic activity for oxidation-reduction reactions [29]. The 

performance of Nanoparticulate catalysts is directly 

influenced by their size and support. Although catalytic 

activity usually cannot be observed at characteristic sizes 

more than 5 nm. The unique structure and properties of these 

Au Nanoparticle hybrid materials are responsible for their 

current and growing applications in the field of fuel cells. 

Despite all the prospects and successes recorded by the 

Nanoparticle gold electrode, fuel cells based on this 

technology have still not been fully understood by scientists. 

Their surface chemistry is still somewhat elusive; hence, they 

have still not yet been able to replace the traditional fuel cells. 

These nanoparticle fuel cells have many possible 

permutations; this, combined with the dynamic surface 

chemistry, makes them an attractive option for future study 

and application [30]. 

2.2.2 Alkaline direct ethylene glycol fuel cells 

Alkaline direct ethylene glycol cells represent what can be 

said to be the most promising source of power for portable 

stationary and mobile applications. This is because this fuel 

cell stack runs on sustainable fuel, and the key components 

that make up the overall design are relatively inexpensive 

[31]. Ethanol is very suitable for alkaline cell use because it is 

a carbon-neutral transportation fuel. However, an issue exists 

with difficulty in breaking down its bonds at temperatures 

lower than 100o C. 

2.3 Advantages of alkaline fuel cell  

2.3.1 Environmentally friendly characteristics 

Hydrogen is a sustainable green energy. The final 

product of hydrogen combustion is the water, which is the 

cleanest energy and pollution-free [32]. Hydrogen 

combustion will not emit greenhouse gases. Hydrogen can be 

produced through a different process. Hydrogen can be 

obtained from fuel processing, biomass, and water. The fuel 

processing of methane is the primary hydrogen production 

method used in factories today [33]. Only 2%-6% of 

commercial hydrogen production is from electrolysis, and 

over 95% is from fossil fuel conversion [32]. Nowadays, more 

research is being done to obtain hydrogen through a cleaner 

process from biomass and water. Biomass used for the 

production can be obtained from different types of organic 

resources such as agricultural wastes, sawdust, corn, and 

others.  

2.3.2 High energy efficiency 

Besides that, the alkaline fuel cell is used as an 

essential energy storage for the spacecraft. It converts the 

excess electrical energy into storage through electrolysis. 

Hydrogen and oxygen are stored in a tank and supplied to the 

fuel cell when needed. The fuel cell will not be affected by the 

Carnot factor, which will allow it to have high efficiency [34]. 

A fuel cell is more efficient than the combustion of fuel, which 

produces heat and electricity [35]. This is because a fuel cell 

is not a heat engine. Conventional combustion power plants 

usually have an efficiency of 33% to 35%, whereas the fuel 

cell is able to reach an efficiency of 65% [36]. 

2.3.3 Low maintenance cost 

The alkaline fuel cell has proven that the maintenance 

cost is cheaper than the conventional diesel energy generator, 

which allows it to be used in remote areas [37]. The initial cost 

of the alkaline fuel cell is higher, but the alkaline fuel has a low 

maintenance cost. A fuel cell is used in the vehicle as the fuel 

cell's energy source. Fuel cell vehicles can be considered zero-

emission vehicles [38]. Alkaline fuel cells run at lower 

temperatures compared to the normal engine, which deals 

less damage to the engine. The alkaline fuel cell operated at 

60 °C to 140 °C with the highest efficiency [34]. Conventional 

engines will operate at high temperatures, so a cooling system 

is needed. More operating parts means higher maintenance 

costs.  

2.3.4 Non-toxic 

Hydrogen is a non-toxic substance that is uncommon 

for a fuel source. Unlike nuclear energy, the power plant's 

failure is catastrophic and will harm human beings. In the 

various accidents that occurred, radioactive substances 

released caused the death of thousands of people, and the 

area around it was quarantined. This can be seen in the 

various nuclear power plant accidents: the Three Mile Island, 

Chornobyl, and Fukushima [39]. Hydrogen is unique 

compared to other fluids, which have high solubility and are 

easily diffused with other materials at room temperature 

[40]. This reduced the chance of affecting the health of the 

human body.  

 

 

 



SBA. Kashem /Future Sustainability                                                                                                May 2025| Volume 03 | Issue 02 | Pages 35-46 

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2.4 Disadvantages of Alkaline fuel cells 

2.4.1 High difficulty in storage 

Storage of the hydrogen for the alkaline fuel cell is an 

issue. The hydrogen is stored in three types: compressed gas, 

adsorbed gas, and cryogenic liquid gas [41]. Commonly, 

hydrogen is stored using compressed gas and cryogenic liquid 

gas. The high pressure of the hydrogen storage caused the 

design of the cylinder storage tank to be bulky. Besides that, 

metals will become brittle when consistently in contact with 

hydrogen gas. This is known as the hydrogen embrittlement 

[42]. 

2.4.2 Fossil fuel still needed 

Hydrogen production commercially nowadays mainly 

uses fossil fuels, including natural gas, petroleum, and carbon 

[43]. Hydrogen is not considered renewable energy when it is 

produced from fossil fuels. Hydrogen gas production will still 

cause the emission of greenhouse gases and the depletion of 

fossil fuels. This production method is not the long-term 

production method for hydrogen. Although hydrogen can be 

produced through water electrolysis, only 4% of the total 

production of hydrogen gas is produced by water electrolysis 

[44].  

2.4.3 Flammable 

Oxygen gas and hydrogen gas may not be toxic, but 

they are flammable. The pure hydrogen will not explode, but 

it will burn if not handled with care. Hydrogen flame is almost 

invisible under daylight. This is because the wavelength of the 

flame is similar to ultraviolet, which is about 311nm [41]. The 

hydrogen can produce more than 2,000 degree Celsius when 

burning in the air which is considered low in the combustion 

of the fuel.  

 

2.4.4 Costly to use 

The fuel cell contains no moving parts and should have 

a lower production cost. However, the materials, catalysts, 

and sealing of the alkaline fuel cell are the main costs of the 

fuel cell, which will be extremely expensive to achieve high 

efficiency [45]. More research needs to be done to increase 

the performance, reliability, and durability, which means 

more cost for the research. This will increase the cost to 

produce the fuel cell. Various problems are faced during the 

scaling-up of the fuel cell, including degradation, uneven 

chemical reaction, reduction of active area, and others [46]. 

The lifecycle cost of the fuel cell is higher than the internal 

combustion engine and hybrid engine due to the high initial 

cost [47]. Therefore, large production is needed to reduce the 

cost of the fuel cell. 

2.5 Comparison with other fuel cells 

Alkaline fuel cells are fuel cells with an alkaline electrolyte 

that consumes hydrogen and pure oxygen and produces 

water, heat, and electricity (Figure 3). They are among the 

most efficient fuel cells, reaching 70% [48]. In the last decade, 

energy-related problems are on the rise. One of the means of 

renewable energy conversion is via alkaline fuel cells. These 

fuel cells are used to produce electrical energy [49]. Alkaline 

fuel cells can be compared with a number of other fuel cells 

some of those fuel cells are mentioned as follows: 

• Direct methanol fuel cells (DMFC) 

• Molten carbonate fuel cells (MCFC) 

• Phosphoric acid fuel cells (PAF) 

• Proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFC) 

• Reversible fuel cells (RFC) 

• Solid oxide fuel cells (SOFC) 

 

Figure 3. Process of alkaline fuel cells 

2.5.1 Direct methanol fuel cells 

DMFC is a promising alternative for reinforcement 

control frameworks and the power supply of convenient 

gadgets. Although DMFC has complex electrochemistry, it is 

promising as a power hotspot for compact and 

uninterruptable power supply applications. It is attractive in 

terms of high energy density liquid fuel, quick recharging by 

refilling, and low operating temperature [50]. During the 

process, both methanol and water can undergo a phase 

transition from liquid to gas phase, as shown in Figure 4. 

H2O (gas) ↔   H2O (liquid)          (1) 

CH3OH (gas)  ↔  CH3OH (liquid)          (2) 

Figure 4. The schematic process diagram of direct methanol fuel cells 

2.5.2 Molten carbonate fuel cells 

MCFC utilizes liquid salts as fuel for energy devices 

(Figure 5). Electrolyte membrane constituted by a liquid 

carbonate eutectic and a lithium aluminate solid support 

attractive. Liquid carbonates are non-toxic and very 

conductive salts. At a regular working temperature of 650oC, 



SBA. Kashem /Future Sustainability                                                                                                May 2025| Volume 03 | Issue 02 | Pages 35-46 

41 

 

heat and electrical power are generated. The liquid carbonate 

goes about as whatever other dissolvable, for example, water 

[51]. The separation produces acidic-fundamental properties, 

which control the conduction. The condition of equilibrium is 

written below: 

M2CO3 (l)   ↔  M2O (s) + CO2 (g)          (3) 

 

Figure 5. Process of molten carbonate fuel cells 

 

2.5.3 Phosphoric acid fuel cells 

PAFC is the most industrially propelled innovation 

among the hydrogen-oxygen fuel cells (Figure 6). PAFC is 

distinct from the other energy conversion systems because 

the electrolyte operates at 160-220oC. CO poisoning of the 

platinum catalyst is additionally diminished. PAFC is 

discovered to be valuable in stationary power distribution, 

defense, and military applications. Because of the utilization 

of valuable metal electrocatalysts, it is expensive. The 

chemical energy of the reaction is converted into electrical 

energy [52]. The equations of the process at the electrodes are 

shown below: 

Anode:  H2 →   2H+    + 2e-           (4) 

Cathode:  ½ O2 + 2H+  + 2e-   →  H2O         (5) 

Overall:  H2 + ½ O2   →  H2O          (6) 
 

Figure 6. Process of phosphoric acid fuel cells 

 

 

 

2.5.4 Proton exchange membrane fuel cells 

PEMFCs are the cells where electrochemical reactions 

occur to produce electrical power (Figure 7). Proton 

conducting film comprises catalyst layers and gas diffusion 

layers. These segments are manufactured independently and, 

after that, squeezed together at high temperatures and 

pressure. The equations of the electrodes are shown below:  

Anode: ½ O2 + 2H+ + 2e-  →   H2O          (7) 

Cathode: H2  →  2H+ + 2e-           (8) 

 

The flow of ionic charge through the electrolyte must be 

balanced by the flow of electronic charge through an outside 

circuit, and this balance produces electrical energy [53]. 

 

 
Figure 7. Process of proton exchange membrane fuel cells 

2.5.5 Reversible fuel cells 

RFC offers an answer for creating fuel using surplus 

power and reconverting this into power utilizing a similar 

device (Figure 8). RFC system in electrolysis mode can be 

utilized to make hydrogen and oxygen, which are put away in 

tanks. On the off chance that there is an absence of vitality, 

then the put away hydrogen and oxygen are utilized as 

working fuel to produce power. Hydrogen and oxygen are 

both naturally well-disposed and economical [54]. The 

overall reaction of water electrolysis is expressed as: 

H2O (g/l) + electrical energy + heat →  ½ O2 + H2        (9) 

 

Figure 8. Process of reversible fuel cells 



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42 

 

2.5.6 Solid oxide fuel cells 

SOFC is a device that allows the prompt change of 

substance vitality into electrical vitality at high temperatures, 

using an all-strong state cell equipped with ceramic materials 

(Figure 9). These frameworks can, on a basic level, accomplish 

productivity levels higher than customary advancements 

used to make power. The responses included are fundamental 

and undefined to those incorporated into the interior burning 

engine. SOFC includes three segments gathered together to 

shape like a sandwich. A thick electrolyte is sandwiched 

between two penetrable terminals, the cathode and anode 

[55]. The following equations are involved in the anode and 

cathode, as shown below: 

Anode: O2- (s) + H2 (g) = H2O (g) + 2e-       (10) 

4O2- (s) + CH4 (g) = 2H2O (g) + CO2 (g) + 8e-       (11) 

Cathode: ½ O2 (g) + 2e- = O2- (s)        (12) 

Figure 9. Process of solid oxide fuel cells 

2.6 Fuel cell applications 

2.6.1 Maritime activities 

Shipping is a significant activity that contributes 

massively to the global emissions of greenhouse gases, 

volatile organic compounds, particulate matter, hazardous air 

pollutants, and oxides of Nitrogen and Sulphur. 3.5% of CO2 

emissions and over 5% of SOx emissions worldwide are the 

result of shipping activities. Despite introducing modern 

propulsion technology, the shipping industry has failed to 

reduce emissions. This puts them behind the road transport. 

The absence of strict environmental regulations at sea can 

also be a major factor in why shipping has a poor 

environmental emissions record [56]. Fuel cells have the 

potential to be of use onboard ships. Application of fuel cells 

in different vessels includes emergency power supply, electric 

energy generation, especially in waters and harbors 

prescribing environmental regulations; small-scale power 

output for propulsion at unique operating modes (e.g., very 

quiet run); and generation of electrical power to satisfy the 

needs of the ship. The fuel cell is used in submarines to 

achieve air-independent propulsion, and the Proton 

Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell system was utilized on German 

Navy submarines [57]. 

2.6.2 Stationary power generation 

Molten carbonate fuel cell (MCFC) is the most 

promising high-efficiency and sustainable power generation 

technology, as demonstrated by the current availability of 

several commercial units in the market. Stationary power 

generation utilizing MCFC technology offers an efficient 

alternative to power plants fueled by coal. MCFCs have 

emerged as the preferred technology for commercialized 

stationary power generation. Various companies around the 

globe are conducting tests on big-scale power generation 

systems that consist of kilowatt to megawatt-class systems. 

Some companies are expanding their systems to hospitals, 

hotels, data centers, and other industries with lower power 

demands, including wastewater treatment plants [58]. 

2.6.3 Space programs 

The alkaline fuel cells (AFC) utilized in space shuttle 

programs of the United States are unable to withstand CO2. 

The polymer electrolyte fuel cell (PEFC) was developed 

initially for use in space and was used for quite some time 

until its sensitivity to CO was discovered. In terrestrial 

applications, fuels that contain hydrocarbon compounds had 

to be used in various applications, and the presence of carbon 

monoxide and dioxide was detrimental to the systems. In 

order to overcome this hurdle, the phosphoric acid fuel cell 

(PAFC), the molten carbonate fuel cell (MCFC), and the solid 

oxide fuel cell (SOFC) were developed [59]. 

2.6.4 Transportation and portable energy 

Polymer electrolyte fuel cells (PEMFCs) and direct 

methanol fuel cells (DMFCs) have been seen as compatible 

sources of power generation for electric cars. In theory, 

methanol possesses greater specific energy density (6000 

Wh/kg) when compared to the best rechargeable battery in 

the market, lithium polymer, and lithium-ion polymer 

(theoretical, 600 Wh/kg) systems. This advantageous 

efficiency trait can be utilized to enable longer battery life in 

cell phones, laptop computers, and other consumer 

electronics. These fuel cells can also increase the battery's 

lifetime, thereby giving longer hours before replacement [60]. 

2.6.5 Automotive applications 

In the automobile market, carmakers have made 

significant efforts to switch to more efficient and sustainable 

fuels to power vehicles. Various laws have been enforced on 

automobile manufacturers that force them to adhere to strict 

emission standards as well as fuel consumption margins. 

Hence, there are continuous efforts in this industry to develop 

technology that meets these requirements. Fuel cell 

technology can be the answer as it gives the manufacturers 

what they need: environmental compatibility, consumer 

profit, costs of maintenance, and efficiency [20]. Alkaline fuel 

cells can be used in the automotive industry and have high 

power density requirements. However, when compared to 

the PEFC, the simplicity of AFC technology enables the 

utilization of affordable materials for catalysts, electrolytes, 

and other parts needed for the cell and the system. PEFCs 

could be the future of automotive applications, but only after 

implementing a method of reducing the costs significantly. 

This puts AFCs at a big advantage compared to the PEFC [61]. 



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2.7 The Future of fuel cells 

2.7.1 Direct methanol fuel cells 

To reduce greenhouse gases and avoid the violation of 

current environmental rules and regulations, a system with 

high efficiency combined with economic feasibility must be 

created. This energy conversion system with the 

abovementioned benefits is seen in DMFCs [60]. 

2.7.2 Hybrid systems 

Solar and wind energy are the types of energy sources 

preferred these days due to their natural abundance and 

unlimited supply. However, due to the various geographical 

limitations, such as the need for low cloud cover for solar 

energy and high-speed wind areas for windmills, harnessing 

energy consistently has been a challenge. Results from 

various experiments showed that by combining solar energy, 

wind energy, and fuel cells, a hybrid system can be designed 

that will prove to be a plausible solution for applications 

hindered by geographical limitations. These systems, known 

as hybrid power systems, will considerably increase the 

energy supply [62]. Studies conducted in the past support 

using a fuel cell as another energy source to overcome such 

problems. 

2.7.3 Direct oxidation of alkaline fuel cells 

Direct oxidation alkaline fuel cells (DOAFCs) have 

recently gained attention due to their potential to solve 

problems encountered in the Proton Exchange Membrane 

fuel cells. A polymer electrolyte made up of an anion exchange 

membrane has been found to reduce carbonate build-up from 

the CO2 released. The electro-oxidation of fuels enables the 

utilization of cheaper metals such as palladium, silver, and 

nickel as well as perovskite-type oxides in alkaline fuel cells, 

which will decrease the catalyst cost considerably compared 

to catalysts made of platinum [63]. 

2.7.4 Electric vehicles 

The benefits of running electric vehicles on fuel cell 

power plants are an established technological fact. PEM and 

PAFC systems are tested, their results are studied, and 

viability is assessed. A significant factor in deciding the use of 

a fuel cell type is the economics associated with that cell. 

Similarly, the fuel needed to power these cells is also 

significant in automotive applications. Ammonia is a key 

ingredient in most fuel cells as it is available all around the 

globe and has the added use of being a gasoline additive to 

clear the presence of nitrogen oxide from exhaust gases, as 

suggested by Renault [64]. 

3. Results analysis 

3.1 Challenges 

The challenges facing fuel cells are quite simply that of 

efficiency and costs associated with the manufacturing and 

running of those fuel cells. Future research will focus on these 

aspects, and once plausible solutions have been found, fuel 

cells can finally answer energy requirements in particular 

industries [65]. Solid oxide fuel cells (SOECs) are operable on 

natural gas and gasoline fuels. They are also compatible with 

alternative or green fuels such as hydrogen and biofuels. The 

only obstacles facing it are reduced operating temperature 

and cost [66]. PEMFCs are believed to have great potential for 

use in the transportation sector. High cost is a significant 

factor slowing down the progress and entry into commercial 

use [67]. A low-power system constructed using AFCs will 

compete with a PEMFC system regarding running costs. AFCs 

are cost-efficient and hence preferable over PEMFC systems 

[68]. 

3.2 Importance of alkaline fuel cells in the future 

A fuel cell system is an advanced power device for the 

future that is sustainable, environmentally friendly, and clean. 

Fossil fuel storage is limited and will be replaced in 70-150 

years. Persistent utilization of non-renewable energy sources 

will produce greenhouse gases, prompting environmental 

change and an Earth-wide temperature increase. Alkaline fuel 

cells produced the power for NASA's Gemini and Apollo space 

containers, giving the group drinking water. The technology 

of the alkaline fuel cells will contribute essentially to a 

reduction in environmental impacts, improved vitality 

security, and the formation of new vitality businesses. Basic 

energy components can be used in transportation, distributed 

heat and power generation, and energy storage systems [69]. 

Technical improvements are dependable on increments in 

overall car advertising. Dramatic restrictions on emissions as 

well as the regiment of fuel consumption by legislation. The 

technology of fuel cells offers the likelihood to exceed 

expectations as far as environmental compatibility, consumer 

benefit, cost of maintenance, and efficiency. The alkaline 

hydrogen energy components framework with flowing KOH 

electrolyte and minimal effort-catalyzed carbon cathodes 

could be a promising alternative [70]. Alkaline direct 

methanol fuel cells are a type of alkaline fuel cell that converts 

the chemical energy stored in ethanol directly into electricity. 

This produced electricity can be utilized in automobiles 

because these alkaline fuel cell components keep running on 

carbon-neutral, sustainable fuel, and the electro-catalyst and 

membrane materials that constitute the cell are relatively 

inexpensive [3]. Daihatsu is a big name when it comes to 

automobiles. They are one of the biggest automobile names in 

Japan. Daihatsu Motor Company developed a fuel cell that 

eliminates the need for platinum. This alkaline fuel cell runs 

on easily handled hydrazine hydrate. It is safe to use as 

polymer technology developed by the company [71]. 

Electricity generation is another significant factor in the 

future of alkaline fuel cell components. Electricity generation 

from macro-algae utilizing alkaline fuel cells. This renewable 

power source innovation can relieve the energy crisis 

emergency and significantly reduce global warming 

emissions [72]. Algae stand out amongst the most 

encouraging supportable wellsprings of sustainable power 

sources since they have higher growth rates, require less 

earth's surface, and don't contend with other food 

productions [73]. Electricity is additionally generated from 

refillable glucose alkaline fuel cells with methyl viologen-

immobilized activated carbon-nickel anode. The electricity 

produced by alkaline fuel cells has a lot of advantages, such as 

less pollution, high efficiency, and adaptability to deal with 

various fuel sorts. Glucose is abundant, cheap, nonpoisonous, 

simple to get and store, and convenient to transport; it is a 

potential positive fuel for energy components. The only issue 

confronted is the high cost [74, 75]. 

 



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4. Conclusion 

Research on Alkaline Fuel Cells is conducted by only a 

few segments of researchers based primarily in Europe. The 

most common problems hindering the use of AFCs have been 

solved, and new and innovative ideas for developing systems 

have been developed. Overcoming the challenges of cost and 

efficiency will make fuel cells the answer to the global 

population's demanding and increasing energy requirements. 

Acknowledgment  

The author is grateful to Dr. Jaka Sunarso for his constant 

support. This work would not have been possible without his 

kind help. 

Ethical issue 
The author is aware of and complies with best practices in 
publication ethics, specifically with regard to authorship 
(avoidance of guest authorship), dual submission, 
manipulation of figures, competing interests, and compliance 
with policies on research ethics. The author adheres to 
publication requirements that the submitted work is original 
and has not been published elsewhere. 

Data availability statement 
The manuscript contains all the data. However, more data will 

be available upon request from the authors. 

Conflict of interest 

The author declares no potential conflict of interest. 

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