







































Deven Barton/Future Sustainability                                                                                          August 2025| Volume 03 | Issue 03 | Pages 
35-46 

35 

 

 

 

Review 

An overview of the sustainability of emerging 

energy technologies in mitigating climate change 
Deven Barton* 

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Arkansas Tech University, 1811 N Boulder Ave, Russellville, AR, 72801, USA 

               A R T I C L E   I N F O 
 

Article history: 
Received 10 April 2025  
Received in revised form 
16 May 2025 
Accepted 30 May 2025 
 
Keywords:  
Renewable energy, Fossil fuel, Carbon capture, 
Climate change 
 
*Corresponding author 
Email address: 
dbarton5@atu.edu 
 
 
DOI: 10.55670/fpll.fusus.3.3.5 
 

A B S T R A C T 
 

The increasing reliance on fossil fuels has led to unprecedented levels of 

greenhouse gas emissions, environmental degradation, and public health risks. 

This paper explores renewable energy technologies and carbon capture 

methods as essential strategies for mitigating climate change and transitioning 

toward a low-carbon future. This paper evaluates the carbon emissions 

associated with various renewable sources, including solar, wind, hydropower, 

geothermal, and biomass, considering their full life cycles and regional 

variations. The paper also examines the role of carbon capture technologies, 

battery storage, smart grids, decentralized systems, and blockchain innovations 

in enhancing energy resilience and reducing emissions. While renewable 

energies significantly reduce carbon output compared to traditional fuels, the 

analysis highlights that no energy system is without environmental 

consequences. Policy support, technological advancements, and coordinated 

infrastructure improvements are identified as critical factors for successful 

large-scale adoption. Through integrated approaches that combine clean 

energy production, carbon management, and modernized energy systems, a 

sustainable and equitable energy transition is achievable. 

 

1. Introduction 
Carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions are directly linked to the 

use and combustion of fossil fuels. The applications of 
petroleum, coal, and natural gas are convenient, reliable, and 
widely accepted worldwide. It is undeniable that the world is 
reliant upon these types of energies and fuels. The most 
attractive feature of these energies is the ability to be 
generated and used irrespective of the current state of the 
weather and its current availability. Petroleum can be 
accessed by drilling rigs twenty-four hours a day, seven days 
a week, throughout the year, and will last for approximately 
thirty years or more. Despite their popularity, nonrenewable 
energies are directly correlated to the increase of greenhouse 
gas emissions, destruction of the environment, and pollution 
of the air and land. Burning natural gas releases methane, 
which is 28% more harmful to the atmosphere than CO₂ [1]. 
The annual National Oceanic and Atmospheric 
Administration (NOAA) has a Global Monitoring Lab, and it 
collects data in over 80 different locations offshore to test the 
amount of greenhouse gases present in ambient air. The 
report indicates that the global average atmospheric CO₂ was 
426.15 parts per million (ppm) in March 2025. This is the 
highest ppm recorded, with a two ppm increase for 12 
consecutive years. Mauna Loa Observatory in Hawaii 

recorded 421 ppm, which closely supported the data 
collected by the NOAA (Figure 1) [2]. Continuing to 
overconsume nonrenewable energy sources without 
integrating sustainable energy will continue to exhaust 
supply sources, and greenhouse gas emissions will increase to 
unsustainable amounts, further affecting climate change and 
pollution. Pollution alone should be evidence that the globe's 
overconsumption of fossil fuels should be limited. According 
to the World Health Organization, nearly 99 percent of the 
world's population breathes unhealthy air. More than 13 
million people die annually from preventable environmental 
causes, including air pollution [3]. The combustion of fossil 
fuels generates fine particulate matter and nitrogen dioxide. 
In 2018, it was reported that air pollution from fossil fuels 
caused upwards of $8 billion in health and economic losses 
[4].  The increase in energy demand from these types of fuels 
has also led to energy shortages from overconsumption and 
increased production, accounting for the release of nearly 
75% of all greenhouse gas emissions and 90% of CO₂ and 
causing the most significant proponent of climate change and 
increase of the world temperature, and extreme weather 
conditions [5]. Figure 2 illustrates the correlation between 
CO₂ emissions and temperature increases, highlighting 

Future Sustainability 

Open Access Journal 

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August 2025| Volume 03 | Issue 03 | Pages 35-46 

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ISSN 2995-0473 

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Deven Barton/Future Sustainability                                                                                          August 2025| Volume 03 | Issue 03 | Pages 35-46 

36 

 

carbon emissions as one of the most significant contributors 
to climate change.  

 
Figure 1. Results of the NOAA atmospheric CO₂ in ppm from 1960 to 
March 2025 [2] 

 
Figure 2. The correlation between CO₂ emissions and temperature 
increases  

2. Renewable energy sources  
Renewable energy sources are a cornerstone of climate 

change mitigation and decarbonization efforts. By 2030, 
renewables could provide 65% of the world's electricity 
supply. By 2050, they could decarbonize 90% of the 
electricity industry [6], significantly reducing carbon 
emissions and mitigating climate change. Future demands for 
sustainable energy are becoming increasingly popular. Their 
ability to generate renewable energy worldwide from 2000 to 
2021 increased from 754 gigawatts to 3064 gigawatts [7], 
which shows substantial improvement in development.  

2.1 Solar energy 
Solar power is consistently among the most popular 

renewable energy sources and is one of the cheapest and most 
environmentally friendly. Solar heating methods include 
converting sunlight directly into usable energy using solar 
heating, building, and photovoltaic systems without emitting 
CO₂ during production. Global expansion and usage of solar 
power have increased significantly, with solar photovoltaic 
capacity reaching 843 gigawatts by 2021. This has nearly 
increased 21 times since 2010 [8]. Growth has been 
encouraged mostly due to supportive policies, technology 
improvements, and broad urban and industrial applications. 
From a climate change mitigation perspective, solar power 
offers significant results and advantages. Paris Agreement's 
1.5°C and other organizations use solar energy as a key role 
in decarbonizing their global electricity sector and remaining 
under the target emission goals. The International Energy 
Agency (IEA) has projected that approximately 630 GW of 
solar PV capacity must be added annually by 2030 to achieve 

global net-zero goals by 2050. In countries like China, coal is 
a primary energy source, so carbon emissions are reduced 
through the integration of solar panel energy production. 
Despite how attractive zero emissions are during solar 
production, considering solar panel lifecycles reveals that 
carbon emissions are still present when considering this 
alternative energy. Although solar energy does not release 
carbon during operation, solar panels still possess carbon 
footprints during production, transportation, and disposal. 
Assessing the life cycle of photovoltaic (PV) panels shows that 
manufacturing includes intensive mining and energy use in 
fossil fuel-reliant energy production areas. For example, the 
lifecycle carbon footprint of large-scale PV systems in China is 
estimated at 60.13 g CO₂ per kilowatt-hour. The recycling 
stage adds another 5.81 g of CO₂ per kilowatt-hour. In 
comparison, European-manufactured panels emit 
significantly less, but still 42.3 g of CO₂ per kilowatt-hour 
during operation and only 1.0 g per kilowatt-hour during 
retirement because of cleaner energy usage. The emissions 
associated with Chinese panels are nearly double due to the 
fossil-intensive electricity used in their production (Figure 3) 
[9].  

 
Figure 3. The national accumulated and reduced carbon emissions of 
the whole lifecycle and the recycling stage based on the present 
technology in China and advanced technology in Europe (EU), 
according to the accumulated PV panels installed in China during 
2011–2020; Unit: million tons (Mt) [9] 

Overall, the environmental impacts of solar energy vary 
by geography. Factors such as sunlight availability, panel 
efficiency, and the local energy mix during production 
influence the total emissions. For example, China's solar panel 
carbon footprint was significantly higher in the northwest 
during the early adoption years. Still, as installations 
expanded to the east, those regions became the leading 
carbon contributors due to increased distributed systems. 
Poor coordination of recycling facilities, long transportation 
distances, and light rejection (wasted solar power due to 
overgeneration) also reduce carbon efficiency [9]. The 
economics of solar energy have significantly improved, 
making it competitive with conventional power sources. 
Between 2010 and 2021, the global levelized cost of 
electricity for solar PV dropped 88%, from $0.417 to $0.048 
per kilowatt hour. Increases originate from technological 
advancements, mass production, and decreasing hardware 
costs. Solar energy is often cheaper than fossil fuel-based 
energy, particularly when lifecycle environmental costs are 
considered. However, regional variations still exist. For 
instance, costs range from $0.041/kWh in China to 
$0.071/kWh in North America [8] due to differences in solar 
irradiance, land and labor costs, and policy support. China 
dominates global panel production and installation with 64% 



Deven Barton/Future Sustainability                                                                                          August 2025| Volume 03 | Issue 03 | Pages 35-46 

37 

 

of the crystalline silicon PV market, but it has also increased 
lifecycle emissions due to coal-based grids. Despite the 
negative impacts solar panels and their production have on 
the environment, they are still gaining popularity and 
reducing carbon emissions during energy production to assist 
in climate change mitigation, especially in urban areas where 
energy loss and cost during transmission are minimal. When 
heating and cooling solar panels are installed in a 
metropolitan area, there are even fewer environmentally 
associated issues since they are installed on roofs and in 
smaller, more maintainable quantities with minimal 
transmission losses [9]. 

2.2 Wind energy  
Wind energy is one of the fastest-growing sources of 

renewable power worldwide, offering a sustainable 
alternative to fossil fuel-based electricity generation. By 
converting the kinetic energy of moving air into mechanical 
power through turbines, wind systems produce electricity 
without direct carbon emissions. Over recent decades, 
improvements in turbine technology and grid integration 
have significantly increased the efficiency and reliability of 
wind power. While wind energy contributes substantially to 
reducing greenhouse gas emissions, it is important to 
recognize that its full life cycle, from manufacturing and 
transportation to installation, maintenance, and disposal, 
does involve some carbon footprint. Understanding these 
environmental impacts is crucial for evaluating wind energy’s 
true role in the transition to a low-carbon future. In Denmark, 
one of the global leaders in wind power adoption, wind 
energy accounted for 47% of gross electricity consumption as 
of 2019. This makes Denmark particularly insightful when 
considering the effects of wind energy on climate change 
mitigation. Analysis estimated that for every one megawatt-
hour of wind energy produced, about 0.16 tons of CO₂ 
emissions are avoided [10]. Since this was a dynamic 
econometric study versus an engineering-based study, the 
marginal emission avoided (MEA) is lower. However, it 
reflects a more realistic relationship between wind energy 
and emissions in fundamental energy markets. It includes 
additional variables like electricity prices and emissions from 
biomass, reduces MEA to account for the equilibrium effect, 
and highlights that substitutions of wind for fossil fuel energy 
are not one-to-one due to changes in demand and pricing. 
This study also found that, beyond emission reduction, wind 
energy is measured by demand variables.  

Another study located in Texas evaluates the emissions 
during lifetime cycles and takes into consideration different 
variables [11]. Carbon emissions associated with wind 
turbines primarily arise from processes such as raw material 
extraction, manufacturing, transportation, installation, 
maintenance, and decommissioning. The total amount of 
carbon emitted over a turbine's lifetime depends on factors 
like turbine size, manufacturing location, operational 
location, and lifespan. The detailed life cycle assessment study 
of a 1.3 MW Nordex N-60 wind turbine operating in the 
Panhandle of Texas found that over a 20-year operational 
lifespan, the turbine generated 467 TJ of electricity while 
producing approximately 1,870.52 metric tons (Mg) of CO₂. 
These result in a carbon emission intensity of about 14.45 
gCO₂ per kilowatt-hour (kWh) of electricity generated. 
Manufacturing processes alone accounted for around 41% of 
the total emissions, while raw material extraction contributed 
approximately 38%, transportation 16%, construction 4%, 
and overhead operations about 1% [11]. The largest key 
factors were turbine size, manufacturing location, and 

operational lifetime. Wind energy is also notably resilient to 
the effects of climate change, allowing it to be a viable 
investment as the climate changes in the future. Climate 
models project only modest changes in wind power output 
even under severe global warming scenarios. For example, 
while temperature increases may slightly affect air density 
and turbine efficiency, the overall production remains largely 
stable, particularly in regions like Europe and North America. 
Costs associated with wind energy have been significantly 
reduced throughout the advancement of technology. Between 
2010 and 2021, the global levelized cost of electricity for 
onshore wind fell by 68% from $0.089 to $0.028 per kilowatt 
hour [8]. This shows that wind energy is one of the cheapest 
sources available in recent years, especially in areas with high 
wind energy resources, with additional costs related to 
variability, storage, and backup generation. Flexible grid 
infrastructure is critical as demand for wind energy rises. 
Studies suggest that as wind energy availability increases, the 
demand for more energy overall could increase due to the low 
cost and further offset emission reductions [11]. Ultimately, 
although wind turbines have associated carbon emissions 
throughout their lifecycle, their emission intensity remains 
substantially lower, around 98% lower [10] than coal-based 
electricity generation. Understanding and minimizing the 
embedded carbon footprint becomes crucial for achieving 
low-carbon power generation as wind energy expands. Wind 
energy also offers a cheap and effective way to reduce global 
carbon emissions.  

2.3 Hydroelectric power 
Hydroelectric energy is among the largest and most 

advanced renewable energy sources globally. Hydropower 
has long been regarded as a clean and renewable source of 
electricity, contributing substantially to global efforts to 
mitigate climate change. However, recent research suggests 
that hydropower's carbon footprint may be far larger than 
previously assumed. Unlike fossil fuel plants, most emissions 
from hydroelectric reservoirs arise not from combustion, but 
from the biological decomposition of organic material 
submerged during the flooding of reservoirs [8, 12]. Global 
assessments of nearly 1,500 hydroelectric facilities found that 
the average carbon footprint of hydropower is about 273 kg 
of CO₂ eq per megawatt hour (MWh) of electricity produced. 
This footprint comprises 173 kg of CO₂ emissions and 2.95 kg 
of methane per MWh, based on the 100-year global warming 
potential [12]. Although these values are still lower than those 
associated with fossil fuel generation without carbon capture 
and storage, they are significantly higher than those for most 
other renewable energy sources. Several factors are key in 
determining how much carbon a hydropower project emits. 
Facilities that flood large land areas to produce relatively 
modest amounts of electricity tend to have the highest 
emissions, mainly because more submerged organic material 
decays over time. Geography also determines several 
variables, including locations that are tropical reservoirs, 
typically emitting more methane, as warm temperatures 
speed up decomposition. The age of a reservoir influences 
emissions as well; methane release often decreases over time, 
although CO₂ trends can vary. Additionally, new organic 
material carried into the reservoir by rivers continues to fuel 
greenhouse gas emissions over its lifetime. There is a wide 
variation between different projects. Some hydropower 
plants approach emission levels comparable to fossil fuel 
plants, primarily if they are located in vulnerable tropical 
environments or have large, flooded areas. On the positive 
side, certain reservoirs in the United States, India, and West 



Deven Barton/Future Sustainability                                                                                          August 2025| Volume 03 | Issue 03 | Pages 35-46 

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Africa show strong potential for capturing methane emissions 
and using the gas as a supplementary energy source. 
Hydropower remains one of the most cost-effective energy 
sources during operational lifecycles because of low 
operating and maintenance costs after initial investments in 
construction. However, these upfront capital costs during 
construction are significant, and the levelized costs of 
electricity increased from $0.039 in 2010 to $0.048 per 
kilowatt hour in 2021. This reflects a 24% increase in price 
within 11 years [8]. Future uncertainty and long-term 
investments influence the planning and operation of current 
and future hydroelectric facilities. A study of the Xiangjiaba 
hydropower plant in China reveals that climate change 
conditions could reduce average annual energy output by 
30.7 TWh [13]. Additional variables compound the challenges 
of water reliance during droughts, extreme heat, and even 
floods, which are conditions fueled by climate change.  

2.4 Geothermal energy 
Geothermal energy is often seen as a clean and reliable 

source of renewable power because it does not rely on 
burning fuels. However, the amount of carbon emissions 
associated with geothermal energy can vary quite a bit 
depending on where and how it is used. Umar et al. [14] 
looked at the top seven geothermal energy-consuming 
countries and found that geothermal energy’s impact on 
carbon emissions varies significantly. In countries like Italy, 
Mexico, and New Zealand, geothermal energy has reduced 
carbon emissions across various conditions. This shows that 
geothermal energy can be important for reducing a country’s 
overall carbon footprint if monitored and maintained 
correctly. On the other hand, geothermal energy was linked to 
increased carbon emissions in places like India, the United 
States, Turkey, and the Philippines. In these cases, geothermal 
systems may have unintentionally added to climate change 
rather than mitigating it. One crucial factor to consider is the 
gases found within individual geothermal reservoirs. Some 
underground reservoirs naturally contain gases like CO₂, 
which are released when the geothermal heat is brought to 
the surface. Technology used at geothermal plants is another 
key factor. Older plants, or those without systems to capture 
and manage gases, can release more emissions than newer, 
advanced facilities. It also depends on the type of energy the 
geothermal power is being utilized for. The environmental 
benefits are considerable if geothermal energy replaces coal 
or oil-fired electricity, but not as beneficial as another type of 
energy if it is an alternative source. The study also found that 
geothermal energy consistently affects carbon emissions 
trends across all the countries studied. This shows that 
geothermal energy plays an ongoing and essential role in 
shaping a country's overall emissions profile. Even though 
geothermal energy generally emits far less carbon than fossil 
fuels, it is not completely emissions-free. To maximize its 
potential, countries must carefully manage where geothermal 
projects are built, invest in cleaner technologies, and update 
older infrastructure. With good planning, geothermal energy 
can continue to be an essential part of the shift to a low-
carbon future. Implementation costs of geothermal locations 
are high due to expensive drilling to 4 to 6 kilometers below 
the Earth's crust and exploration for geothermal reservoirs. 
Lack of exploration and reservoir assessment tools also 
increases costs and operational risk, often leaving projects 
unsuccessful. For example, projects such as Australia's 
Cooper Basin enhanced geothermal systems plant were 
discontinued because of poor reservoir permeability and fluid 
circulation issues [15]. Technical difficulties and limitations 

combined with a lack of policy support often make 
geothermal projects less attractive and deter investors from 
more developed and widely accepted renewable energy 
sources like solar and wind. Today, as many as 32 countries 
use this to generate electricity, heating, and cooling in 
residential and commercial applications reliably and 
affordably. In 2023, the capacity to generate electricity using 
geothermal applications reached 16,318 MW. However, this 
was only about .34% of all electricity produced worldwide. 
The initial setup and equipment can be costly despite the low 
operational cost. It becomes even less attractive to purchase 
and utilize this type of energy since it lacks government 
support policies and subsidies compared to wind and solar 
power. Geothermal energy has favorable levelized energy 
costs, even though growth has been slower than other 
renewable energy sources [8]. Long-term cost attractiveness 
is seen once geothermal plants are installed and operating at 
capacity factors of 70% to 90%, which exceeds intermittent 
sources and improves the long-term cost-benefit balance. 

2.5 Biomass and biofuels 
Biomass is an organic material harvested from recently 

living or living organisms. This includes agricultural residues, 
forestry byproducts, and urban waste. Feedstock can be 
various forms of bioenergy, such as bioethanol, biodiesel, 
biogas, and electricity, that are converted from various 
processes (Figure 4). Combustion, gasification, pyrolysis, and 
anaerobic digestion are all types of conversion methods from 
materials that would be considered waste. Because the waste 
is used, it contributes to the circular lifecycle of CO₂, making 
it a renewable alternative to fossil fuels [8]. 

 
Figure 4. Common biomass sources [16] 

Biomass is a significant contributing factor to mitigating 
climate change because the CO₂ produced during the 
combustion processes is absorbed and consumed by biomass 
during its growth cycle. This is considered a carbon-neutral 
process because of the consumption of the produced carbon. 
This carbon lifecycle is extremely short compared to the 
lifecycle of fossil fuel carbon, which is stored for millions of 
years and does not get consumed when released into the 
atmosphere. Because of its carbon lifecycle span, bioenergy 
could significantly decarbonize the globe, which is essential 
for reducing the global temperature by 1.5 degrees Celsius by 



Deven Barton/Future Sustainability                                                                                          August 2025| Volume 03 | Issue 03 | Pages 35-46 

39 

 

2050 [8]. Biomass could also solve other sustainability goals, 
such as promoting rural energy independence and reducing 
landfill waste. The environmental sustainability of biomass 
depends on the feedstock sourcing and production practices. 
If not correctly maintained, biomass cultivation and 
conversion would generate air pollution and additional 
greenhouse gas emissions. Particulate matter and nitrogen 
oxides will increase during combustion processes if they are 
not monitored or practiced correctly. Additionally, as demand 
for biofuel grows, so does the demand for land use. Increased 
land use demands may lead to deforestation, loss of 
biodiversity, and increased greenhouse gas emissions from 
harvesting methods. Other concerns are soil integrity due to 
over-harvesting crops, water depletion from irrigation, and 
runoff from fertilizers, which could contribute to 
eutrophication in nearby water sources and collections [15]. 
Climate change itself also threatens biomass's long-term 
effectiveness. Reference [8] highlights that rainfall pattern 
irregularities, increases in temperatures, and increased risk 
of droughts can adversely affect biomass and the processes 
associated with growth, harvesting, and conversion. Changes 
like these could alter the biochemical properties of feedstocks 
and disrupt lignocellulosic biorefineries by reducing biomass 
yields. A 1-degree Celsius increase in global temperatures 
indicates that maize yields decrease by 7.4% and wheat yields 
by 6%.  

From an economic perspective, the cost of bioenergy has 
decreased, allowing it to be a competitive alternative to fossil 
fuels. Global levelized cost of electricity for bioenergy 
dropped from $0.078 per kilowatt hour in 2010 to $0.067 in 
2021. Regional costs show that bioenergy is not consistent, 
though. Costs range from $0.057 in India to $0.097 in North 
America. Factors contributing to these cost variations include 
feedstock type and availability, conversion technology, 
transportation methods, and cost. For example, 
transportation in Switzerland for biomass can cost from 24 to 
340 francs per ton for different biomass types and 
transportation methods. Unloading costs during this analysis 
accounted for approximately 65% of the total transportation 
costs. Harvesting equipment costs also have significant 
variances based on type, affecting the overall cost of 
considering biomass as a viable energy source. Studies from 
Kenya and Tanzania demonstrate that biomass used for 
cooking in improved biomass cookstoves lowers the life cycle 
costs per meal. Through this study, biomass proves to be an 
excellent choice for areas that are not as developed and 
reduces the cost of meals that need to be cooked or heated. 
However, government policies in such areas tend to put 
royalties or fees on resources like charcoal, which drives up 
costs and makes biofuel less attractive as a cheap alternative 
energy source. The lack of policies favoring biomass and 
biofuels hinders the rapid growth and desire to incorporate 
infrastructure supporting this fuel type. Biomass energy has 
promising potential to help support global climate change 
mitigation through carbon-balanced energy production. 
Considering environmental risks, ensuring sustainable land 
use, and addressing cost challenges in certain regions are key 
to the long-term success of implementing biomass and 
biofuels into everyday life. Through policy support and 
technology advancements, infrastructure upgrades could 
become more attainable and allow biomass to become a key 
component in lessening the effects of traditional fossil fuel 
emissions [16]. Table 1 presents the carbon dioxide emissions 
or emission trends for solar, wind, hydropower, and 
geothermal energy sources based on case studies in various 
regions. Values are reported either as specific emission 

intensities (gCO₂/kWh or kgCO₂e/MWh) or described 
qualitatively where numerical data was unavailable.  

Table 1. Summary of Carbon Emissions Associated with Different 
Renewable Energy Sources Across Selected Countries 

 
 

Moreover, Table 2 summarizes the 2021 installed costs 
per kilowatt and the levelized costs of electricity per kilowatt-
hour for various renewable energy technologies, along with 
their percentage change in LCOE from 2010 to 2021. Data 
highlight significant cost reductions for solar and wind 
technologies, while geothermal and hydropower exhibited 
modest increases over the same period [8]. Analysis of each 

Type of 
Energy 

Date 
and 
source 

Country Emissions Notes 

Fossil Fuel March 
2025 
[2] 

Worldwide 426.15 ppm 
of ambient 
air 

 

Solar 2024 
[9] 

China 5.81 g CO2 
eq/kWh 
(production) 
+ 
 5.81 g 
CO2eq/kWh 
(recycling) 

3064 
gigawatts 
2021 
worldwide [8] 
Higher due to 
coal-reliant 
grid 
manufacturing 

Solar 2024 
[9] 

Europe 42.3 g CO2 
eq/kWh 
(production) 
+ 
 1.0 g 
CO2eq/kWh 
(recycling) 

lower 
emissions 
than China 
 due to cleaner 
energy 
 
manufacturing 
and  
transportation 

Wind 2019 
[10] 

Denmark Avoids 0.16 
tons 
CO₂/MWh 

Marginal 
emission 
avoided 
 (MEA) 
accounting for 
the market 
 effects 

Wind 2020 
[11] 

Texas, USA 14.45 
gCO₂/kWh  

1.3 MW 
Nordex N-60 
turbine, 20-
year lifespan 

Hydropower 2016 
[12] 

Global 
Average 

273 
kgCO₂e/MWh  

Based on 
1,473 
hydroelectric 
plants, 
includes CO₂ 
and methane 

Geothermal 2024 
[14] 

India, USA, 
Turkey, 
Philippines 

Reduces 
emissions  

No specific 
grams/kWh 
given, but 
trend: 
decreases CO₂ 

Geothermal 2024 
[14] 

Italy, 
Mexico, 
New 
Zealand 

Increases 
emissions  

Due to 
geological and 
operational 
factors  



Deven Barton/Future Sustainability                                                                                          August 2025| Volume 03 | Issue 03 | Pages 35-46 

40 

 

type of alternative energy shows that no one kind of energy 
production is without environmental consequences or carbon 
footprint. However, they all have some competitive 
advantages over fossil fuels and tend to limit greenhouse gas 
emissions. Individually comparing each energy source to its 
previous years shows a decrease in cost as technology and 
understanding of their use advance. Popularity, as well as the 
capacity to support alternative energies, is increasing. 
Greenhouse gas emissions must be reduced with these 
technologies to aid climate change mitigation, but it is crucial 
to consider the processes in which these are harvested and 
harnessed.  

Table 2. Installed costs and levelized costs of electricity (LCOE) for 
major renewable energy sources in 2021 

 

3. Energy storage and grid integration 
Grid integration is key to successfully utilizing all forms 

of energy produced. In addition to these challenges, most 
alternative energies are susceptible to environmental factors 
such as extreme weather and climate change. For energies 
produced by solar and wind, the challenge of inconsistent 
production occurs due to the limitations of the supply input. 
The grid system is designed to accommodate traditional fossil 
fuel-based power plants instead of renewable ones. 
Renewable systems are also typically located further away 
from the areas that need larger electricity inputs, requiring 
energy storage technologies like lithium-ion batteries for 
storage, upgraded smart grids to create a more flexible and 
efficient grid, and economic policy or regulation to prevent 
backlash from high-profit fossil fuel plants.  

3.1 Battery storage and technologies 
Batteries are essential for collecting and storing excess 

alternative energy for future use. For solar energy, battery 
storage can be utilized at night or on rainy days when the sun 
is not producing enough sunlight to keep a steady supply for 
consumers. For wind, it can store power for days when there 
is not enough wind. During floods and storms, hydroelectric 
power capacity increases, but capacity suffers during 
droughts and heat waves. Using batteries and other storage 
methods is a solution to extreme weather conditions and 
possible outages to help build grid resilience. As grid demand 
increases, the use and need for batteries also increase. 
Attractive qualities include backup power usage, black start 
services, and transition to decentralized systems, which are 

essential when considering sustainable energy integration 
[17].  

Batteries, especially lithium-ion batteries (LIBs), are 
increasingly important in addressing climate change. As the 
world shifts toward renewable energy systems and electric 
transportation, the demand for LIBs has skyrocketed. 
Projections estimate that the global battery industry could 
see an annual growth rate of over 30% between 2022 and 
2030, with the total market reaching more than $400 billion 
and a storage capacity of 4.7 terawatt-hours by the end of the 
decade [18]. While China will remain the dominant supplier, 
the fastest growth is projected in the U.S. and EU due to 
aggressive climate policies and supply chain localization. 
Meeting this demand will require the construction of up to 
150 new battery plants and a shift toward more sustainable, 
circular production models (Figure 5) [19].  

 

Figure 5. Projected global lithium-ion battery cell demand by region 
from 2022 to 2030 [19] 

Batteries help mitigate climate change in a couple of 
significant ways. The first one is that they enable the 
electrification of transportation by powering electric vehicles 
(EVs), reducing the carbon emissions of gasoline and diesel 
engines, and the second one is that they serve a vital role in 
grid energy storage. As solar, wind, and other renewable 
energy sources become more common, the grid increasingly 
needs storage solutions to balance supply and demand. Used 
EV batteries are often repurposed for stationary storage 
applications and provide a cost-effective and sustainable way 
to support this transition [18]. However, the environmental 
impact of battery production and disposal remains a concern. 
Many traditional manufacturing processes rely on a linear 
model: extracting raw materials, building batteries, and 
discarding them at the end of life. This approach leads to 
heavy resource depletion and environmental damage. In 
response, the industry is moving toward a circular economy 
model, where the focus is on recycling critical materials such 
as lithium, cobalt, and nickel, reusing batteries when possible, 
and minimizing waste. Economically, circular strategies offer 
promising benefits. Recycling batteries uses far less energy 
compared to mining and manufacturing from raw materials, 
resulting in lower emissions and cost savings. Additionally, 
the emerging market for second-life batteries provides new 

Renewable 
Energy Source 

Installed 
Cost (2021) 

($/kW) 

Levelized 
Cost of 

Electricity 
(LCOE) 

($/kWh) 

% Change 
in LCOE 
(2010–
2021) 

Solar Photovoltaics 857 0.048 −88% 

Concentrated Solar 
Power 

9091 0.114 −68% 

Onshore Wind 1325 0.033 −68% 

Offshore Wind 2858 0.075 −60% 

Bioenergy 2353 0.067 −14% 

Geothermal 3991 0.068 34% 

Hydropower 2135 0.048 24% 



Deven Barton/Future Sustainability                                                                                          August 2025| Volume 03 | Issue 03 | Pages 35-46 

41 

 

economic opportunities while extending the useful life of 
valuable resources. Governments and regulatory bodies are 
also starting to support these changes. For example, the 
European Union's Circular Economy Action Plan (CEAP) sets 
clear guidelines for battery reuse, recycling targets, and 
lifecycle management. A recent microgrid framework [20] 
integrates photovoltaic panels, wind turbines, battery 
storage, and hydrogen-based technologies, including 
electrolyzers, hydrogen storage tanks, and fuel cells, into a 
grid-connected platform. At the core of the system is a rule-
based energy management strategy enhanced by the Chimp 
Optimization Algorithm, which coordinates energy flow 
based on real-time grid pricing, seasonal resource availability, 
and changing demand conditions. Simulation results show 
that the model achieves a cost of energy as low as $0.272 per 
kilowatt-hour. This particular system is more efficient than 
other tested optimization methods, such as the Genetic 
Algorithm and Grey Wolf Optimizer. The system strategically 
balances short-term energy needs through battery storage 
while using hydrogen as a longer-term solution. This allows it 
to absorb excess solar and wind energy when production 
exceeds demand and dispatch it during periods of low 
generation, ensuring a continuous power supply and 
economic efficiency. This approach supports the principles of 
a circular economy, particularly in how it extends the 
usefulness of materials and reduces environmental impact. 
Recycling batteries requires far less energy than mining and 
manufacturing from raw resources, resulting in lower 
emissions and cost savings. Additionally, the growing market 
for second-life battery applications presents new economic 
opportunities and helps reduce waste. Regulatory efforts 
such as the European Union’s Circular Economy Action Plan 
are reinforcing this shift by establishing clearer guidelines for 
battery reuse, recycling, and lifecycle management. The 
future of batteries in climate change mitigation is projected to 
be even more successful when implemented. Advances in 
recycling technologies like hydrometallurgy and direct 
cathode recycling are making materials easier to recover after 
their lifecycle use is completed.  

At the same time, efforts are being made to power 
battery production with renewable energy, further lowering 
the industry's carbon footprint. As these innovations take 
hold, batteries are set to become a central pillar of global 
efforts to achieve net-zero emissions by 2050 [17]. 

3.2 Grid modernization and decentralized systems 
Smart Grid utilizes two-way communication between 

consumers and suppliers to more accurately and closely 
monitor electricity usage. The new and advanced electrical 
grid versions will improve energy efficiency and reliability 
[17]. It acts as a helper during outages to help customers keep 
the power supply stable quickly and efficiently. Smart grids 
will be apt for accommodating multiple sources of electricity 
to connect. However, implementation, operational, and 
maintenance costs will likely be high. Entire infrastructures 
must be redesigned to accommodate the high increases in use 
of technology for sustainable energy integration (Figure 6) 
[21]. The cost and effectiveness of smart grids in the long term 
should be evaluated so they can be implemented 
appropriately. 

 Microgrids are an alternative approach to help minimize 
blackouts and utilize more energy production types. They are 
generally more flexible, allowing diverse energy resources to 
connect and create smooth transmission to every place 
delivered. Some renewable energy sources cannot power 
large systems, which can enhance the use of solar, wind, or 
other smaller electrical production. Microgrids also isolate 
faulty areas and assist each section in connecting to 
immediate power supplies. Integrating microgrids will 
improve the grid resilience of distribution centers and critical 
power loads during severe incidents. Greater amounts of 
energy can be supplied to larger regions by allowing closely 
located loads, allowing power sources to be utilized in closer 
locations, reducing transmission losses, and minimizing 
power flows in transmission and distribution circuits.  

 

 
Figure 6. Functional layout of a smart grid system showing integrated communication between generation, distribution, and end-use sectors [22] 



Deven Barton/Future Sustainability                                                                                          August 2025| Volume 03 | Issue 03 | Pages 35-46 

42 

 

Ideally, microgrids operate autonomously without 
exchanging power with other microgrids or primary grids. 
Microgrids that fail will be able to connect to different types 
of grids to prevent further failures and ensure a continuous 
power supply to consumers during repairs, especially during 
emergencies such as extreme weather.    

3.3 Blockchain technology 
Blockchain technology is another resource for 

implementing sustainable energy into the grid. Blockchain 
technology operates through a decentralized ledger that 
records transactions permanently so they cannot be altered 
[23]. This enables transparency when monitoring 
transactions of energy production and consumption to all 
connections in a network. Leveraging blockchain technology 
during projects helps to allow peer-to-peer energy trading 
from producers and consumers. This allows for tracking each 
type of energy source connected to the network for how much 
energy was produced, where it was produced and consumed, 
and who consumed it, all while facilitating innovative 
financing models for renewable energy projects. This 
technology helps bridge the gap between having multiple 
alternative energy sources and decentralized networks. An 
example of how this type of technology works could be 
analyzed through solar panels owned by a single consumer. 
When the panels generate excess electricity, they can be 
distributed to neighboring consumers utilizing blockchain 
smart contracts. Neighbors can purchase additional 
electricity or energy produced, and the transaction will be 
recorded and stored in the transparent 'marketplace.' 
Blockchain technology will also be a helpful tool for 
eliminating energy waste and improving the overall efficiency 
and reliability of renewable energies. 

Several countries, heavily populated states, cities 
including New York, California, and a few European countries, 
have facilitated startups for these energy trading networks. 
Other applications of blockchain that seem promising for 
sustainable energy applications are the use of renewable 
energy certification and tracking of the origin of the energy. 
Renewable energy certificates fund projects with this 
technology by enabling companies and individuals to 
purchase renewable energy credits. Despite enhanced 
sustainability in energy through blockchain technology, 
inefficient paperwork and high fees are levied. Using 
renewable energy consumption on open blockchain 
platforms can remove costs associated with its use and 
simplify the process as a whole [23]. 

4. Carbon capture  
Carbon capture and storage are critical in storing and 

reducing anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions and 
mitigating climate change. Carbon capture, utilization, and 
storage is abbreviated as CCUS. By capturing CO₂ emissions 
from sources such as coal-fired power plants, cement 
factories, steelworks, and refineries, carbon is intercepted 
before entering the atmosphere and transported in deep 
geological formations. Organizations such as the 
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and the 
International Energy Agency predict that carbon emissions 
are projected to achieve net-zero emissions by 2050 through 
essential carbon capture technologies. For carbon capture to 
be obtainable and cost-effective in climate change mitigation, 
widespread adoption is necessary. Carbon capture can be a 
more attractive solution to greenhouse gas emissions than 
renewable energy sources due to land use efficiency. It 
reduces greenhouse gas emissions and completely removes 
their presence in the atmosphere. Table 3 summarizes major 

carbon capture technologies, briefly describing each method 
and outlining its primary use or application in reducing 
industrial, energy-sector, or atmospheric carbon dioxide 
emissions [24]. 

Table 3. Overview of carbon capture methods and their applications 

 

4.1 Carbon capture methods 
Several carbon capture methods are being developed 

and used in several countries through several projects. 
Variations of methods are discussed. Additional variables 
compound the challenges of water reliance during droughts, 
extreme heat, and even floods, which are conditions fueled by 
climate change [24]. Post-combustion capture is a commonly 
used method that captures CO₂ from flue gases after burning 
fossil fuels. Amine-based solvent technologies like Shell's 
Cansolv and BASF's aqueous anime process are used to pull 
CO₂ from the exhaust of these fossil fuel-based plants. 
Successful implementation of large-scale post-combustion 
carbon capture has been in Canada at the SaskPower 
Boundary Dam facility since 2014. Another method used in 
the Kemper Country Project, the precombustion capture 
method, is used to convert fuel into gas before combustion, 
which produces hydrogen and CO₂ mixtures. CO₂ is then 
separated from hydrogen, and the hydrogen is used to 
produce further energy. This method uses the integrated 
gasification combined cycle within power plants. Oxyfuel 
combustion utilizes fuel that is burned by using only oxygen 
instead of air, resulting in a flue gas composed primarily of 
CO₂ and water vapor, allowing CO₂ to separate from the 

Carbon 
Capture 
Method 

Description Use/Application 

Post-
Combustion 
Capture 

Captures CO₂ from flue 
gases after fossil fuel 
combustion, often using 
amine-based solvents 
(e.g., Shell’s Cansolv, 
BASF’s aqueous amine 
process)  

Used in existing 
power plants, 
especially coal-fired 
plants (e.g., Boundary 
Dam in Canada) 

Pre-
Combustion 
Capture 

Converts fuel into a gas 
mixture of hydrogen 
and CO₂ before 
combustion; CO₂ is 
separated before 
burning  

Used in Integrated 
Gasification 
Combined Cycle 
(IGCC) plants (e.g., 
Kemper County 
Project) 

Oxyfuel 
Combustion 

Burns fuel in pure 
oxygen instead of air, 
creating a flue gas of 
mostly CO₂ and water 
vapor, making CO₂ 
easier to capture  

Used in specialized 
power plants 
designed for high-
purity CO₂ capture 

Industrial 
Carbon 
Capture 

Captures CO₂ directly 
from industrial 
processes like hydrogen 
production, natural gas 
processing, and ethanol 
fermentation  

Used in various 
industries to limit 
process emissions 

Direct Air 
Capture 
(DAC) 

Removes CO₂ directly 
from ambient air using 
chemical solutions or 
solid sorbents  

Emerging technology 
aimed at atmospheric 
carbon removal; used 
for large-scale climate 
mitigation 

Bioenergy 
with 
Carbon 
Capture 
and Storage 
(BECCS) 

Captures CO₂ during the 
combustion of biomass 
for energy production  

Provides "negative 
emissions" by 
removing carbon 
dioxide while 
generating energy 



Deven Barton/Future Sustainability                                                                                          August 2025| Volume 03 | Issue 03 | Pages 35-46 

43 

 

mixture easily. Another type of carbon capture is used during 
industrial processes to extract carbon from natural gas, 
hydrogen production, and ethanol fermentation. Emerging 
technologies like Direct Air Capture and Bioenergy Carbon 
Capture are removing CO₂ directly from the atmosphere, and 
when burning biomass for energy.  

4.2 Carbon capture storage 
After carbon is extracted using an existing method, it can 

be permanently stored in geological formations or depleted 
oil fields under the Earth's surface. Deep saline aquifers are 
seen as promising long-term storage solutions because of 
their large storage capacity and convenient locations near 
emission sources, minimizing the cost of transportation of 
these gases. Several projects worldwide have utilized long-
term storage techniques and used monitoring, measurement, 
and verification systems like 4D seismic imaging and pressure 
sensors to verify the safety associated with their storage 
technologies. Although measures are taken to analyze the 
safety associated with carbon capture, it is still essential to 
identify risks related to carbon storage. The most significant 
risks are associated with geological storage and containment. 
Leakage of carbon gases could cause improper seals, 
corrosion of seals, or collapses of underground formations, 
allowing CO₂ to leak through small cracks. Carbon could 
migrate upwards from excessive injection pressure or 
activate faults. Earthquakes occurring independently of the 
effects of carbon storage could also impose the risk of altering 
formations in which the carbon is stored and allow leakage. 
Even though sites that have nearby earthquakes, just as 
Japanese carbon storage sites, have not experienced CO₂ 
leaks, it does not mean that the possibility is not a dangerous 
consideration. It is essential that proper maintenance and 
monitoring of CO₂-injected sites remain crucial. Governments 
like the United States Environmental Protection Agency have 
tried to regulate safety by enacting Class VI Rules for CO₂ 
storage and pressure control. Carbon Capture is an innovative 
solution to reduce large-scale industrial carbon emissions. 
Still, it must be enacted carefully by utilizing technology such 
as 4D seismic imaging, proper maintenance of equipment and 
sites, and monitoring of geological conditions through 
pressure management and well integrity. Global projects have 
shown that CO₂ can be effectively stored and contribute 
significantly to the climate with appropriate risk 
management, planning, and long-term monitoring (Figure 7). 

5. Policy support 
Renewable energy implementation relies heavily on 

policy support from local and national governments. A 
multinational longitudinal study covering 27 years and 138 
countries confirmed that proactive and sustained 
government policies directly correlate with renewable energy 
growth and a corresponding decline in carbon emissions [24]. 
This relationship is especially evident in countries that tailor 
their policies to local infrastructure, economic structures, and 
energy needs. For example, in Pakistan, targeted stakeholder 
engagement and public-private transparency have fostered 
successful renewable energy integration projects. Other 
studies reinforce the importance of overcoming financial and 
policy barriers. In Saudi Arabia, nearly 70 percent of national 
energy consumption is tied to the residential sector. However, 
policy-related obstacles and cultural factors continue to 
hinder the deployment of renewables, despite clear potential 
for solar integration [8]. This highlights how regulatory 
frameworks, building codes, and financial incentives must 
evolve to enable energy-efficient technologies in emerging 
markets. 

 

Figure 7. Basic concept visualization of carbon capture [25] 

Other examples of policy in Europe are the European 
Union's Renewable Energy Directive (RED III), which 
mandates member states to increase the share of renewables 
in heating and cooling by 1.1 percentage points per year 
through 2030 [26]. When looking into the consequences of 
implementing such policies, it could be argued that the 
Directive’s current energy accounting method inadvertently 
rewards inefficient heating systems. For instance, a wood 
fireplace with 50 percent efficiency receives more renewable 
“credit” under the RED than a high-efficiency heat pump. This 
misalignment weakens incentives for cleaner technologies. 
To address this, the authors propose a shift to an efficiency-
based metric that credits useful energy output rather than 
input, better aligning policies with decarbonization goals. 
Meanwhile, other studies emphasize the importance of 
carbon pricing and green investment as essential policy levers 
across the EU. Countries like Germany, Sweden, and Spain 
have each committed tens of billions of euros toward 
renewable infrastructure, with Germany alone planning over 
EUR 1 trillion in green investments by 2050 [27]. These 
efforts are backed by frameworks such as the European Green 
Deal and national programs like Germany’s “Energiewende,” 
which prioritize the decarbonization of transport and 
building sectors through heat pump deployment, smart grids, 
and thermal retrofitting. Considering different nations and 
regions, a one-size-fits-all approach will not succeed and 
inadvertently cause more harm by creating inefficient 
development in the energy and heating sectors. 

Another global policy, Net Zero Initiative [28] is a 
framework aimed at reducing greenhouse gas emissions to 
net zero by mid-century, meaning any remaining emissions 
are balanced by removals through technologies or natural 
processes. Its primary purpose is to limit global warming to 
1.5°C which is a goal of the Paris Agreement. By setting clear 
long-term targets, the initiative drives countries and 
industries to transition away from fossil fuels and invest in 
renewable energy infrastructure. National commitments to 
net zero are often paired with policy tools such as subsidies 
for clean energy, carbon pricing, and emissions regulations. 
These efforts accelerate the deployment of solar, wind, and 
other low-carbon technologies, making net zero not just a 
climate goal but a catalyst for transforming the global energy 
system. 

 



Deven Barton/Future Sustainability                                                                                          August 2025| Volume 03 | Issue 03 | Pages 35-46 

44 

 

6. Projected future use of renewable energies  
As the globe inevitably shifts towards renewable energy, 

fossil fuel reliance and carbon emissions decrease. Around 
74% of the global energy share by 2050 will be produced by 
renewable energy sources, significantly higher than the 14% 
increase in 2018. Climate mitigation, reduction in carbon 
emissions, and the desire to reduce fossil fuel dependence 
drive the surge in the implementation and technology of 
renewable energy. Leading sources of this are projected to be 
wind and solar because of their affordability and ability to 
produce energy across diverse geographic locations. By the 
mid-century, about 90% of the electricity worldwide will be 
generated by renewable energy sources if policies and 
investments to accommodate infrastructure are implemented 
[8]. If this goal is successfully achieved, 90% of the electricity 
generation will be decarbonized. Contributions of this 
significance towards climate change mitigation will help limit 
global carbon emissions and prevent warming to 1.5 degrees 
Celsius above pre-industrial levels. Technological 
advancements, grid integration, and policy support in solar 
photovoltaic installations could increase twentyfold by 2050. 
Projections [29] from the International Energy Agency (IEA), 
the global energy mix is expected to undergo a significant 
transformation by 2050. The U.S. Government reports that 
projected carbon emissions are expected to decline up to 64% 
by 2040 [30]. While oil and natural gas are projected to 
remain dominant, comprising over 50 percent of total global 
energy consumption in ExxonMobil’s forecast, the share of 
renewables such as wind, solar, hydro, and geothermal is 
anticipated to grow substantially, increasing more than 
fourfold to meet rising demand, particularly in developing 
economies [21]. In more climate-ambitious scenarios, such as 
the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change’s (IPCC) 
“Likely Below 2°C” pathway, renewables are projected to 
represent up to 30 percent of the global mix by 2050, 
signaling a dramatic shift toward decarbonization (Figure 8).  
 

 
Figure 8. The projected global energy mix in 2023 versus 2050 by 
ExxonMobil presented in their executive summary. This includes 
Exxon’s Global Outlook as well as the IEA and IPCC outlooks [29] 

Despite economic limitations within specific countries, 
renewable energy is becoming increasingly cost-effective. 
This makes the increase in the integration of renewable 
energies look optimistic in the future. Awareness of the 
environmental harm caused by fossil fuels and carbon 
emissions also makes adopting renewable energy more 
attractive to developed and developing countries. Energy 
demand is projected to grow by 80% by 2050 because of the 
increasing population growth and industrialization. The 
implementation of renewable energy is expected to fill large 
portions of the growing demand for electricity in areas such 
as transportation, construction, and manufacturing. However, 
transitional and least-developed countries will struggle to 
overcome barriers such as high initial capital costs, 
technological disadvantages, and limited policy support, 
making achieving lower emissions even more difficult. 
Despite these barriers, these countries are still beginning to 
scale their investments into solar, wind, and biomass 
technologies and other renewable sources. As countries 
continue to implement supportive policies and invest in 
developing technologies, energy production will become 
dominated by renewables.  

7. Conclusions 

Climate change isn't just a far-off worry but something 
the globe already experiences through the environment 
around us and the health of communities. The heavy reliance 
on fossil fuels has caused severe damage, pushing carbon 
emissions to dangerous levels, fueling stronger storms, and 
making clean air and safe drinking water more challenging, 
and even affecting human health. Moving toward renewable 
energy isn't just about slowing down global warming. It is 
about protecting people's health, futures, and right to a livable 
planet. The technologies are already here: solar panels, wind 
farms, geothermal systems, and other new ways to store and 
share clean energy. The research shows that these solutions 
are becoming more affordable, smarter, and more beneficial 
for the planet than our current reliance on current fossil fuel 
technology and infrastructure. Innovations like smart grids, 
microgrids, and blockchain technology offer a more organized 
and reliable way to produce and control energy. Of course, no 
solution to combat climate change is perfect, and even 
renewable energies face specific challenges that must be 
carefully addressed. Despite the existing challenges and the 
cost of failing to reform current energy policies and 
infrastructure, they will far outweigh the benefits of 
implementing renewable energies and technology far 
outweigh the risks. Without strong leadership, innovative 
policies, and a genuine commitment to making the energy 
transition fair and accessible for all economic types, carbon 
emissions will continue to rise. 

Ethical issue 
The author is aware of and complies with best practices in 
publication ethics, specifically with regard to authorship 
(avoidance of guest authorship), dual submission, 
manipulation of figures, competing interests, and compliance 
with policies on research ethics. The author adheres to 
publication requirements that the submitted work is original 
and has not been published elsewhere. 

Data availability statement 
The manuscript contains all the data. However, more data will 

be available upon request from the author. 

Conflict of interest 

The author declares no potential conflict of interest. 



Deven Barton/Future Sustainability                                                                                          August 2025| Volume 03 | Issue 03 | Pages 35-46 

45 

 

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