







































H. Gökçekuş et al. /Future Technology                                                                                February 2023| Volume 02 | Issue 01 | Pages 
46-57 

46 

 

 

 

Review 

Hundred percent renewable wastewater treatment 

plant: techno-economic assessment using a ret 

screen, case study Syria 
Hüseyin Gökçekuş 1,3,4, Youssef Kassem 1,2,3,4, Momoh Ndorbor Mason5*, James M. Selay5 

1Department of Civil Engineering, Civil and Environmental Engineering Faculty, Near East University, 99138 Nicosia 

(via Mersin 10, Turkey), Cyprus 
2Department of Mechanical Engineering, Engineering Faculty, Near East University, 99138 Nicosia (via Mersin 10, 

Turkey), Cyprus 
3Energy, Environment, and Water Research Center, Near East University, 99138 Nicosia (via Mersin 10, Turkey), 

Cyprus 
4Engineering Faculty, Kyrenia University, 99138 Kyrenia (via Mersin 10, Turkey), Cyprus 
5Department of Environmental Engineering, Civil and Environmental Engineering Faculty, Near East University, 

99138 Nicosia (via Mersin 10, Turkey), Cyprus 

A R T I C L E   I N F O 
 

Article history: 
Received 07 August 2022 
Received in revised form 
12 September 2022 
Accepted 20 September 2022 
 
 
Keywords:  
Water resources, Renewable energy,  
Wind, Solar, Syria 
 
*Corresponding author 
Email address: momohm28@gmail.com 
  
 

DOI: 10.55670/fpll.futech.2.1.3 

A B S T R A C T 
 

In regions prone to droughts, such as Syria, water shortages and urbanization 
increase the need for water to meet domestic, industrial, commercial, and 
agricultural demands. According to research, the leaching of toxic substances 
from the treatment of sewage water stations is likely to influence the quality of 
groundwater. In some locations, the overexploitation of surface water and 
groundwater resources has outpaced natural recharge rates, resulting in water 
scarcity and high demand for safe drinking water. Alternately, climate change 
has a significant impact on Syria's water situation, resulting in protracted 
drought in several sections of the nation. Water scarcity has been exacerbated 
by civil unrest and armed conflict in several areas of Syria, particularly in areas 
controlled by anti-Assad Syrian rebel groups. Previous studies established that 
groundwater and surface water pollution is a widespread problem across the 
entirety of Syria. The high levels of pollution resulting from concentrated 
agricultural and industrial activities pose a threat to drinking water sources. In 
addition, industrial waste, which might contain nitrate, phosphate, and heavy 
metals, contributes to a substantial amount of pollution. This project seeks to 
increase the use of wind and solar energy as a means of powering water 
treatment plants in Syria, where water is contaminated with heavy metals and 
other toxins. 

 
 

 

 
1. Introduction 

The UN defines climate change as long-term temperature 

and weather shifts. Solar cycle variations may cause these 

movements. Since the 1800s, human actions like non-

renewable energy sources like coal, oil, and gas have caused 

climate change. Climate change is influencing water access 

worldwide, creating droughts and floods. In many locations, 

increased evaporation will reduce the water supply. Summer 

deficiencies will result in reduced soil moisture and severe 

agricultural dryness. Climate change will cause increasingly 

severe droughts, affecting water management. In most Middle 

Eastern nations, social and climatic factors contribute to 

serious water problems [1]. Similar to the rest of the region, 

Syria has considerable natural hydrologic fluctuations. 

Climate change has exacerbated Syria's drought. In the last 

century, multiple droughts have caused serious water 

scarcity and economic challenges. Syria experienced six 

catastrophic droughts between 1900 and 2005, with winter 

precipitation falling to one-third of average levels. The sixth 

drought extended over two seasons as opposed to one season 

 

 

Future Technology 

Open Access Journal 

https://doi.org/10.55670/fpll.futech.2.1.3 

 

 

 

 

February 2023| Volume 02 | Issue 01 | Pages 46-57 

Journal homepage: https://fupubco.com/futech 

 

ISSN 2832-0379 

mailto:momohm28@gmail.com
https://fupubco.com/fuen
https://doi.org/10.55670/fpll.futech.2.1.3
https://fupubco.com/futech
https://fupubco.com/


H. Gökçekuş et al. /Future Technology                                                                                February 2023| Volume 02 | Issue 01 | Pages 46-57 

47 

 

for the previous five [2]. Syria endured a multi-season, 

multiyear drought from 2006 to 2011 that caused agricultural 

losses, economic instabilities, and mass migration (Worth 

2010). During the civil war, some observers suggested that 

drought causes, including agricultural loss, water shortages, 

and water mismanagement, contributed to social breakdown 

and bloodshed [3]. Climate change has affected the water 

supply in Syria. The Tabqua Dam on Syria's largest river, the 

Euphrates, dropped six meters in 2020. According to data 

from the United Nations, the Euphrates was so low that 

pumping stations could no longer support the river's water. 

Five million people in the region lacked access to adequate 

water in 2021, and a third of the 200 pumps along the 

Euphrates were impacted by low water levels. Less rain has 

made it take longer for groundwater to fill up, which 

boreholes and wells rely on (REACH Report 2021). Alok’s 

restricted capacity prohibits piped drinking water to around 

500,000 people elsewhere in the country. As a result, homes 

must rely on unstable water sources, such as private 

boreholes or hoarded water. Conflict and upheaval threaten 

Syria's water resources. During fighting near Aleppo in 2012, 

a major water pipeline was broken, and the city of 3 million 

people had water shortages in September [4]. Anti-Assad 

Syrian arm groups took the Tishrin hydropower dam on the 

Euphrates River in late November 2012. The dam is essential 

to the regime and provides electricity to several areas in Syria. 

In February 2013, anti-Assad forces overran the Tabqa/ al-

Thawrah dam, which provides the majority of Aleppo's 

energy [4]. In countries with limited water resources, 

focusing on water systems underscores the strategic 

importance of water supply, hydroelectric power, and flood 

management. 

In any country, the electric power sector contributes 

considerably to social, economic development, improving 

lives and enhancing welfare. This sector relied on traditional 

energy sources like burning fossil fuels to produce electricity. 

This technique emits gas; hence it's considered 

environmentally damaging. These gases' releases into the 

atmosphere have caused climate change or global warming. 

Despite efforts at all levels by environmentalists and world 

leaders to minimize dependence on oil by elevating 

discussions on renewable energy as an alternative, fossil fuels 

contributed 73.5 percent of global power generation in 2017, 

with renewables providing 26.5%. To address these issues, 

the global community must implement renewable energy. 

Biomass, solar, wind, and other renewable energy sources are 

among the most prevalent and successful methods for 

promoting sustainable development in the electric power 

industry [5]. During this research, we discovered that one of 

the major impediments to renewable energy technology 

(RET) adaptation is the lack of public awareness. World 

leaders are now discussing renewable energy at nearly all 

international forums as a means of creating awareness of the 

need for a cleaner energy source. China, The United States of 

America, and Brazil are currently leading the drive for 

renewable energy technology. If this is the case for politically 

and economically stable countries, then it is applicable for 

war-torn countries like Syria to embrace renewable energy as 

a power source in the post-crisis redevelopment process of 

the country's electric power sectors. Post-conflict 

reconstruction of this sector requires inventive solutions 

using renewable energy technology (RET) that meet the 

country's technical and economic norms. Wind, solar, and 

hydropower could be used to power water distillation plants 

in Syria. The goal of this research is to increase the use of 

renewable energy, specifically wind and solar, to power water 

treatment plants in Syria, where water is polluted by heavy 

metals and other contaminants. 

2. Background Of the Study Area 

Syria, officially known as the Syrian Arab Republic, is a 

Western Asian country in the Eastern Mediterranean, and it is 

divided into 14 subdivisions. The Mediterranean Sea 

surrounds it on the west; Turkey on the north, Iraq on the east 

and southeast; Jordan on the south; and Lebanon and Israel 

on the southwest. To the west of the Mediterranean Sea is 

where Cyprus is situated. Syria is a hilly country that also 

contains plains and deserts with abundant vegetation. 

Damascus is Syria's capital and largest city. Syria is located 

between 32° and 38° north latitude and 35° and 43° east 

longitude. Syria's climate is dry and hot in the summer and 

chilly in the winter. On the coast and in the western 

mountains, the Mediterranean climate features two distinct 

seasons: the warm and dry summer (May to October) and the 

generally cool and rainy winter (November to April). Syria 

receives adequate rainfall in the west during the winter and 

to a lesser extent in the spring and autumn. Summer in the 

west is almost entirely dry, with very little probability of rain 

along the Mediterranean coast. The amount of precipitation 

in the inland areas of Syria is much lower throughout the year 

than in the rest of the country. In the summer, the central and 

eastern areas of Syria receive nearly little rain and only a little 

rain in the winter. In Syria, one of the most significant sources 

of water is precipitation in the form of rain. The annual 

rainfall resource is projected to be 46 billion cubic meters on 

average. This figure is substantially lower during drought 

years. Furthermore, both in terms of location and time, 

rainfall is unevenly distributed. In Syria, there are sixteen 

tributaries and rivers, five of which are shared 

internationally. Their flow accounts for nearly 75% of the 

total organized surface water resources in the country and 

more than 45% of the accessible water resources. The 

majority of the country's geological formations have 

groundwater. Some of the most important aquifers are 

nonrenewable (fossil water); therefore, their extraction is 

called mining. In almost all places, historical and 

contemporary data show that groundwater withdrawals 

considerably outnumber natural recharge rates [6]. 

Groundwater harvesting is becoming a major source of 

fulfilling the drinking needs of many families in Syria due to 

the paucity of surface water in many locations and cities. 

However, using untreated groundwater for drinking is not a 

safe practice, as research has demonstrated that heavy metal 

contamination has damaged groundwater quality. In Syria, a 

high proportion of nitrate is also discovered in groundwater 

resources [7]. Numerous kinds of research on the quality of 

groundwater have found that nitrate originates from a 

number of nonpoint and point sources of contamination, 

including industrial, urban, and agricultural activities. The 

use of nitrogen-based fertilizers is the most common human 

source of NO3 in shallow groundwater systems [8]. Syria is a 

semi-arid country with dwindling water supplies. Agriculture 



H. Gökçekuş et al. /Future Technology                                                                                February 2023| Volume 02 | Issue 01 | Pages 46-57 

48 

 

is Syria's most water-intensive industry, accounting for over 

85% of the country's available water. Domestic water uses 

account for just around 9% of total water consumption. 

Syria's fast population growth, which reached 2.7 percent in 

2006 [9], was a significant challenge before the civil war, 

resulting in a quickly rising demand for urban and industrial 

water. During our research, we discovered that many areas of 

Syria's surface and groundwater resources are polluted. The 

presence of heavy metals, high nitrate concentrations, and 

other dangerous compounds are the main sources of 

pollution.  

3. Discussions 

According to the findings of previous studies, as 

indicated in (Appendix I) of this paper, it has been established 

that groundwater and surface water pollution is a widespread 

problem across the entirety of Syria. Their investigation also 

revealed that the discharge of irrigation wastewater in Syria 

is responsible for the elevated saline levels seen in the 

country's groundwater. In addition, there is a high level of 

contamination caused by untreated sewage water, nutrients, 

and pesticides that come from the agricultural fields that are 

located nearby. According to the results of tests that were 

carried out on Syria's surface water, the country's water 

supply is polluted with a significant amount of biochemical 

oxygen demand (BOD) and ammonia [10]. The high levels of 

pollution resulting from concentrated agricultural and 

industrial activities pose a threat to drinking water sources. 

In addition to this, there is a significant amount of pollution 

that is brought on by industrial waste, which can include 

nitrate, phosphate, and heavy metals [9]. The discharge of 

sewage into the Awaj basin has led to the contamination of the 

spring water there, making it unsafe to drink [11]. Some of the 

wells in Ghouta have nitrate levels that are unsafe for human 

consumption because they are above the limits that have been 

established [12]. Because of the discharge of sewage and the 

use of fertilizer, wells in the coastal region that are used for 

drinking water have high concentrations of nitrates and 

ammonia [13]. These contaminations make the water unsafe 

to drink. Another factor that contributes to the excessive 

salinity of water in some wells is the intrusion of salt water 

into fresh groundwater aquifers. As a consequence of this, the 

water industry in Syria is facing significant challenges as a 

result of contamination and over-exploitation. The demand 

for water in Syria, particularly for irrigation and agricultural 

activities, poses a significant problem for the country's 

already limited and scarce water resources. 

3.1 Water Resources in Syria (Ground and Surface 

Water) 

The total water resources in Syria have only been the 

subject of a relatively small amount of investigation.  

Nonetheless, Kaisi et al. [14] discovered that Syria's total 

yearly available managed water resources are approximately 

14218 million cubic meters (MCM), while the country's 

average annual consumption is approximately 17566 MCM, 

resulting in a 3348 MCM water shortage. Throughout this 

research, we realized that the majority of previous research 

had focused on particular water basins in Syria's various 

sectors or areas. Abo, et al. [15] conducted research on 

groundwater recharge in the Al Zerba basin. The hydro-

chemical parameters of an alluvial aquifer in Damascus Oasis 

were investigated by Abou Zakhem, et al. [9]. This research 

was carried out by Hamade, S., and Tabet, C. [34]. 

Hydrochemistry and environmental isotope techniques were 

used by Asmael, et al. [16] to investigate the groundwater 

source and recharge mechanisms in the upper Awaj River 

basin (Syria). In 2008, E. Luijendijk and A. Bruggeman [35] 

investigated groundwater resources in the Jabal Al Hass 

region of northwest Syria. Their research consisted of an 

analysis of how the water resources in their study area had 

been utilized in the past, as well as their potential for future 

application. A review of the literature on the state of water 

resources in the Syrian coastal region between 2000 and 

2010 was conducted by the authors Faour, G., and Fayad, A. 

[17]. When it comes to the socio-economic development of 

arid and semi-arid nations, groundwater is one of the most 

important factors. According to the Geological Survey (USGS) 

of the United States, groundwater is defined as water that is 

found underground in saturated zones below the surface of 

the land. In dry and semiarid regions, groundwater is a 

significant source of drinking water and irrigation. These 

environments are characterized by a lack of renewable water 

supplies, low annual precipitation averages, and high 

evaporation rates. Groundwater constitutes one of the most 

crucial resources for these kinds of environments [15]. The 

majority of these areas in Syria rely on groundwater for 

irrigation, drinking water, and agricultural activity. The 

groundwater aquifer is contaminated by chemical leachate 

and has a high percentage of toxic substances, so this is a bad 

practice. Following an in-depth examination of nearly thirty 

scholarly papers during our research, it is vital to recognize 

that Syria has six primary water basins:  

i.  Barada & Awaj basin, 

ii. Orontes basin, 

iii.Dajleh & Khabour basin,  

iv. Coast basin, 

v. Al-Yarmouk basin, and 

vi. Euphrates basin. 

According to a hydrological survey, these six basins are 

Syria's most important and widely used water basins. On a 

large scale, these six basins are divided into two regions: the 

southern, central, and eastern portions make up region one. 

The nitrate concentration within that zone is a result of 

human activity in these regions. The second area consists of 

the southwest, western, and northwestern parts of the 

country. This area has a high level of pollution susceptibility, 

as evidenced by the high levels of nitrates in sewer water. 

3.2 Renewable Energy in Syria 

Syria, a Mediterranean country, has an almost limitless 

supply of solar and wind energy, both of which can be used 

for a wide range of purposes. Despite this, the general 

population and private sectors are still quite modest in their 

use of renewable energy resources. This is due to several 

factors, the most important of which are the readily available 

and low-cost conventional energy resources, the high initial 

installation and production costs of renewable energy 

sources, and the restricted amount of space available for such 

setups. Despite numerous challenges, renewable energy is 

having its strives in Syria. In 2015, it was estimated that 23.1 

percent of the energy produced in the country came from 

renewable energy sources, totaling 5,534 TWh (16 percent 



H. Gökçekuş et al. /Future Technology                                                                                February 2023| Volume 02 | Issue 01 | Pages 46-57 

49 

 

hydro and 7.1 percent non-hydro renewables) [18]. Syria has 

significant solar and wind energy potential. It is estimated 

that Syria receives 5 kWh/m2 of sun radiation each day, or 

1800 kWh/m2 annually. Mountainous West areas average 4.4 

kWh/m2, whereas deserts average 5.2 kWh/m2. Sunlight is 

available 2,820 to 3,270 hours a year [19]. Renewable energy 

can ensure the nation's energy independence. Wind and solar 

power are potential renewable sources [19]. Figure 1 

indicates the world’s leading countries in renewable energy 

technology as of 2018. China tops the list with approximately 

1,398,207 Gigawatt per hour (GWh). Next is the United States 

of America, with about 572,409 GWh and followed closely by 

Brazil with 426,638 GWh. 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Figure 1. Leading countries in renewable energy 2018 

 

3.2.1 Wind Energy 

The wind is a potential renewable source of energy for 

the nation of Syria. To harness the strength of the wind and 

generate electricity, a wind turbine must be used. To harness 

wind, more than twenty different places throughout Syria had 

their winds measured. These facilities were used to evaluate 

wind energy's vast potential and, consequently, the economic 

viability of using it in the future. Solar and wind energy are 

abundant and free for residential usage, but they're not 

always easily accessible due to technical issues. In the last 

three decades, solar and wind energy have received increased 

attention due to economic and environmental factors. Solar 

and wind energy technologies, as well as storage and analysis, 

are all featured. In their study on the potential for wind 

energy in Syria, Al-Mohamad, A., & Karmeh, H. [20]. came to 

the conclusion that the country's wind resources might 

produce at least twice as much electricity as it currently 

consumes. After a careful investigation of previous studies’ 

data, they found that the country may be categorized into four 

zones. In region 1, the average wind speed is 5 to 12 m/s for 

seven months of the year. For four months of the year, the 

average humidity in Region 2 is 34.9%, and the wind speed 

ranges from 4.5 to 10 m/s. Areas 3 and 4 have moderate 

winds, 4.5-7 m/s [21]. However, several parameters, 

including wind turbine design, hub height, wind efficiency, 

and energy losses, may also affect the quantity of power that 

may be generated by wind [20]. Despite its enormous 

potential to harness the wind as a source of energy in Syria 

the utilization of this technology remains a serious challenge 

due to several factors, including political instability, and the 

lack of social-economic stability. 

3.2.2 Solar 

One of Syria's many advantages is that the sun shines 

brightly. Annually, Syria receives an average of 1825 kWh/m2 

of solar energy, which equates to about 5 kWh/m2 of solar 

radiation per day for the entire country (insolation). More 

than 2800 hours a year can be spent harvesting solar energy, 

although there are varying amounts of sunny time accessible 

each year. Every year, there are an average of 38 to 45 days 

that are clouded over. Scientists and engineers rely on 

accurate climate data, which is why a huge number of 

meteorological stations have been established across the 

Syrian environment. For solar energy projects, this is 

especially true before any feasibility studies have been 

conducted on the designs. A study by Al Maleh, H. et al. [22] 

found that if the Syrian government focused more on 

improving the efficiency of solar energy while rationalizing its 

use, it would alleviate the country's energy difficulties the 

fastest. Figure 2 is a photovoltaic map of Syria indicating the 

solar energy potential of the country from 1999 to 2018. 

 

Figure 2. Solar resource map of Syria [23] 

3.3 Desalination of Water Using Solar Energy 

Two essential resources that continue to have an impact 

on the development of human civilization are water and 

energy. Both energy and water are necessary for the 

production of energy in its usable form [24]. Using 

groundwater or aquifer water in Syria has become a major 

issue due to the country's rising drought, which has been 

linked to climate change. Furthermore, the demand for 

agricultural operations in Syria is putting pressure on the 

already scarce limited water resources. To address this 

problem, there is a need to use solar energy as a renewable 

power source for water desalination. For instance, Damascus, 

the capital of Syria, has average solar radiation of 7.5 kWh/m2 

per day, which is about 2117 kWh/m2 per year of solar energy 

[21]. If this energy is adequately harnessed, it is sufficient to 

operate a small-scale water desalination facility near 

Damascus. If this applies to the city of Damascus, then it 

applies to the city in Syria. It evidences a vast and endless 

amount of solar energy, which can be highly useful for a 

variety of purposes, given Syria's immense solar resources 

capability. It is one of the most innovative and viable 

technologies that can be successfully implemented to use 

solar energy as a power source for water desalination. 

 



H. Gökçekuş et al. /Future Technology                                                                                February 2023| Volume 02 | Issue 01 | Pages 46-57 

50 

 

3.4 Wastewater and wastewater treatment in Syria 

Syria's scarce water resources are stressed from 

overexploitation owing to agriculture. Climate change-related 

drought has impacted Syria's water resources in recent 

decades. According to past studies, groundwater and surface 

water contamination are ubiquitous in Syria. Their 

investigation also demonstrated that Syria's excessive salinity 

levels are due to irrigation wastewater discharge. Untreated 

sewage water, fertilizers, and pesticides from surrounding 

farms also cause contamination. Most human water activities 

produce wastewater, statistics show. Over 80% of the world's 

wastewater and 95% of most of the world’s developing 

countries remain untreated [25]. There have been recent, 

concerted initiatives in Syria to purify wastewater for later 

usage. Given Syria's dire water situation, this is an important 

step toward stabilizing the country’s water crisis and 

preventing health problems. Installing and maintaining 

wastewater treatment systems ensures that effluent quality is 

within acceptable standards and hence safe for the 

environment [12]. Over the past two decades, wastewater 

treatment facilities (WWTPs) have gained popularity in 

several Syrian cities. Significant initiatives are ongoing to 

improve water management, with an emphasis on the 

delivery network, retention, and hygiene. According to the 

country’s Ministry of Health 2000 report, indicate that the 

bulk of Syria's more than a dozen WWTPs are not functioning 

properly, they serve a vital function in the country's many 

smaller villages. Syria's few operational wastewater 

treatment plants (WWTPs) rely heavily on power and suffer 

from a lack of sludge removal as their primary challenge [10]. 

Environmental challenges to water delivery are 

something the Syrian government is working to fix. Sewer 

lines and treatment plants have always been planned to help 

reduce water pollution, increase water efficiency, and 

decrease sewer fees. In Syria, sewage treatment plants have a 

variety of operational, design, and treatment-related issues, 

particularly in smaller areas. Syrian wastewater treatment 

practices lack a clear strategy and the option to select a 

treatment technology and level of treatment [25]. We would 

like to direct your attention to Syria's Water Resources 

authority, which has also published a guide for researching 

and selecting wastewater treatment inventions in Syria, 

highlighting the most effective technologies for the Syrian 

environment. The Rotating Biological Contactor (RBC) is an 

efficient method of treating wastewater in Syria's smaller 

communities. 

3.5 Recommendations 

According to the findings of previous research, it is 

necessary to construct small-scale wastewater treatment 

plants in a number of Syria's cities in order to improve the 

quality of the country's water supply. Utilizing Techno-

economic Assessment is strongly suggested throughout this 

process. During the planning stages of this modest-sized 

wastewater treatment facility, the RET Screen program 

should be utilized. The authorities responsible for the 

construction of a wastewater treatment plant on a smaller 

scale should take into consideration the chemical, biological, 

and physical processes involved in water purification. The 

water's electrical conductivity and pH level should be given a 

high level of importance. Prioritizing the removal of heavy 

metals, the Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD), and the 

neutralization of nitrates are crucial during the water 

treatment process. It is also strongly suggested that, all across 

the nation, a desalination water treatment facility on a smaller 

scale be built to improve the overall quality of the water 

available for use in agriculture as well as in residential 

settings. Additionally, if farmers switched to drip irrigation, it 

might assist reduce water use as well as demand for water 

and losses caused by agricultural activities. 

4. Conclusion 

It is feasible to deduce that changes in climate will have a 

substantial impact on Syria's water supplies due to the 

country's variable climate. Additionally, potential regional 

conflict may be having a significant impact on water balance. 

These findings were reached after a careful review of 

previous studies on water resources and wastewater 

management in Syria. In addition, according to the findings of 

studies on water quality, domestic and industrial waste has 

contaminated groundwater and surface water all over the 

country, particularly in areas with dense human populations. 

The use of fertilizers, which raises nitrate levels, and the 

contamination of sewage water and animal waste, both of 

which are caused by human activities, have a significant 

impact on the environment. Large increases in nitrate and 

feces concentrations have revealed this influence in a number 

of agricultural zones in the mountainous region as well as the 

plain area. Additionally, the water quality in Syria's major 

river basins is getting worse due to the discharge of 

commercial and industrial wastewater as well as household 

wastewater that hasn't been properly treated or hasn't been 

treated at all. RBCs, or rotating biological contactors, are the 

most efficient way of treating wastewater in Syria's smallest 

settlements because they satisfy the bulk of their needs. 

Ethical issue 
The authors are aware of and comply with best practices 

in publication ethics, specifically with regard to authorship 
(avoidance of guest authorship), dual submission, 
manipulation of figures, competing interests, and compliance 
with policies on research ethics. The authors adhere to 
publication requirements that the submitted work is original 
and has not been published elsewhere. 

Data availability statement 
Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no datasets 

were generated or analyzed during the current study. 

Conflict of interest 

The author declares no potential conflict of interest. 

References 

[1]  Mourad, K. A., Berndtsson, J. C., & Berndtsson, R. 

(2011). Potential fresh water saving using greywater 

in toilet flushing in Syria. Journal of environmental 

management, 92(10), 2447-2453 

[2]  Salman, M., & Mualla, W. (2003). Water demand 

management in Syria: technical, legal and institutional 

issues. Advances in Water Supply Management, 704-

713. 

[3]  Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). (2021). 

Syria: Agriculture and Food Security Monitoring 

System (AFSMS) 



H. Gökçekuş et al. /Future Technology                                                                                February 2023| Volume 02 | Issue 01 | Pages 46-57 

51 

 

[4]  http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-

19533112. 

[5]  Qazi, A., Hussain, F., Rahim, N. A., Hardaker, G., 

Alghazzawi, D., Shaban, K., & Haruna, K. (2019). 

Towards sustainable energy: a systematic review of 

renewable energy sources, technologies, and public 

opinions. IEEE Access, 7, 63837-63851. 

 

[6]  Baba, A., Karem, R. A., & Yazdani, H. (2021). 

Groundwater resources and quality in Syria. 

Groundwater for Sustainable Development, 14, 

100617. 

[7]  Abou Zakhem, B., & Hafez, R. (2015). Heavy metal 

pollution index for groundwater quality assessment in 

Damascus Oasis, Syria. Environmental earth sciences, 

73(10), 6591-6600. 

[8]  Abou Zakhem, B., & Hafez, R. (2015). Hydrochemical, 

isotopic and statistical characteristics of groundwater 

nitrate pollution in Damascus Oasis (Syria). 

Environmental Earth Sciences, 74(4), 2781-2797. 

[9]  Salman, M., & Mualla, W. (2003, August). The 

utilization of water resources for agriculture in Syria: 

Analysis of the current situation and future challenges. 

In Erice International Seminars on Planetary 

Emergencies (pp. 18-26). 

[10]  Mohammad, H. Evaluation of Wastewater Treatment 

Plant Operating Extended Aeration and Nutrients 

Removal. Technology, 7(1), 19-26. 

[11]  Melhem, R., & Higano, Y. (2002). Policy measures for 

river water management in Barada Basin, Syria. 

Studies in Regional Science, 32(3), 1-23. 

[12]  Alshabab, M. S., Andrianova, M., & Alsalloum, D. (2016). 

Modification of wastewater treatment technology at 

cottonseed oil plant. In MATEC Web of Conferences 

(Vol. 53, p. 01040). EDP Sciences. 

[13]  Aydin-Kandemir, F., & Yildiz, D. Water Conflicts and 

The Spatiotemporal Changes In Land Use, Irrigation, 

And Drought In Northeast Syria With Future 

Estimations. International Journal of Water 

Management and Diplomacy, 1(4), 5-36. 

[14]  Kaisi, A., Yasser, M., & Mahrouseh, Y. (2005). Irrigation 

system performance: Syrian country report. Irrigation 

systems performance. Bari: CIHEAM, Options 

Méditerranéennes: Série B. Etudes et Recherches, 52(2), 

179-192. 

[15]  Abo, R., & Merkel, B. J. (2015). Water quality of the 

Helvetian and Eocene aquifers in Al Zerba catchment 

and southern parts of Al Qweek Valley, Aleppo basin, 

Syria. Sustainable Water Resources Management, 1(3), 

189-211. 

[16]  Asmael, N. M., Huneau, F., Garel, E., Celle-Jeanton, H., Le 

Coustumer, P., Dupuy, A., & Hamid, S. (2015). Origin 

and recharge mechanisms of groundwater in the upper 

part of the Awaj River (Syria) based on 

hydrochemistry and environmental isotope 

techniques. Arabian Journal of Geosciences, 8(12), 

10521-10542. 

 

 

[17]  Faour, G., & Fayad, A. (2014). Water environment in 

the coastal basins of Syria-assessing the impacts of the 

war. Environmental Processes, 1(4), 533-552. 

[18]  International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA), 

Renewable capacity statistics 2017, from 

http://www.irena.org/DocumentDownloads/Publicati

ons/ IRENA_Renewable_Energy_Statistics_2017.pdf, 

accessed 1 November 2017. 

[19]  Elistratov, V., & Ramadan, A. (2018). Energy potential 

assessment of solar and wind resources in Syria. 

Journal of Applied Engineering Science, 16(2), 208-

216. 

[20]  Al-Mohamad, A., & Karmeh, H. (2003). Wind energy 

potential in Syria. Renewable Energy, 28(7), 1039-

1046. 

[21]  Al-Mohamad, A. (2001). Renewable energy resources 

in Syria. Renewable energy, 24(3-4), 365-371. 

[22]  Maleh, H. A., Tine, H. A., & Naimeh, W. (2012). 

Environment & feasibility study to make use of solar 

energy in Syria. Energy procedia, 19, 30-37. 

[23] https://solargis.com/maps-and-gis-data/download/syrian-

arab-republic  

[24]  Gude, V. G., Nirmalakhandan, N., & Deng, S. (2010). 

Renewable and sustainable approaches for 

desalination. Renewable and sustainable energy 

reviews, 14(9), 2641-2654. 

[25]  Saied, M. A., & Serpokrilov, N. S. (2020, March). 

Evaluation results of the wastewater treatment system 

of small settlements in Syria. In IOP Conference Series: 

Materials Science and Engineering (Vol. 775, No. 1, p. 

012096). IOP Publishing. 

[26]  Mourad, K. A., & Berndtsson, R. (2011). Syrian water 

resources between the present and the future. Air, Soil 

and Water Research, 4, ASWR-S8076. 

 

[27]  Drgham, M. M. (2020). The Current Water Balance in 

Syria: Evaluating the potential contribution of 

Constructed Wetlands as a treatment plant of 

municipal wastewater in Al-Haffah. 

[28]  Al-Charideh, A., & Kattaa, B. (2016). Isotope hydrology 

of deep groundwater in Syria: renewable and non-

renewable groundwater and paleoclimate impact. 

Hydrogeology Journal, 24(1), 79-98. 

[29]  Grangier, C., Qadir, M., & Singh, M. (2012). Health 

implications for children in wastewater-irrigated peri-

urban Aleppo, Syria. Water Quality, Exposure and 

Health, 4(4), 187-195. 
 

[30]  Ibrahim, S., Choumane, W., & Dayoub, A. (2020). 

Occurrence and seasonal variations of Giardia in 

wastewater and river water from Al-Jinderiyah region 

in Latakia, Syria. International Journal of 

Environmental Studies, 77(3), 370-381. 

[31]  SALEH, H. A., & Allaert, G. (2009). Water Reuse 

Applications & Planning Systems in Arid Areas. In 

International Conference on Water Conservation in 

Arid Regions. 

[32]  Aw-Hassan, A., Rida, F., Telleria, R., & Bruggeman, A. 

(2014). The impact of food and agricultural policies on 

groundwater use in Syria. Journal of Hydrology, 513, 

204-215. 

https://solargis.com/maps-and-gis-data/download/syrian-arab-republic
https://solargis.com/maps-and-gis-data/download/syrian-arab-republic


H. Gökçekuş et al. /Future Technology                                                                                February 2023| Volume 02 | Issue 01 | Pages 46-57 

52 

 

[33]  Varela-Ortega, C., & Sagardoy, J. A. (2002, June). 

Analysis of irrigation water policies in Syria: current 

developments and future options. In International 

Conference on Irrigation Water Policies: Micro and 

Macro Considerations’. Agadir, Morocco (pp. 15-17). 

[34]  Hamade, S., & Tabet, C. (2013). The impacts of climate 

change and human activities on water resources 

availability in the Orontes watershed: case of the Ghab 

region in Syria. Journal of Water Sustainability, 3(1), 

45-59. 

[35] Luijendijk, E., & Bruggeman, A. (2008). 

Groundwater resources in the Jabal Al Hass region, 

northwest Syria: an assessment of past use and future 

potential. Hydrogeology Journal, 16(3), 511-530. 

[36]  Haddad, G., Szeles, I., & Zsarnoczai, J. S. (2008). Water 

management development and agriculture in Syria 

(No. 1401-2016-117273, pp. 183-194). 

[37]  Varela-Ortega, C., & Sagardoy, J. A. (2002, June). 

Analysis of irrigation water policies in Syria: current 

developments and future options. In International 

Conference on Irrigation Water Policies: Micro and 

Macro Considerations’. Agadir, Morocco (pp. 15-17). 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 This article is an open-access article 

distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative 

Commons Attribution (CC BY) license 

(https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). 



H. Gökçekuş et al. /Future Technology                                                                                February 2023| Volume 02 | Issue 01 | Pages 46-57 

53 

 

Appendix I 

 

Table 1. List of the previous studies about Syria's available water resources 

References Aim Method Data Main Findings 

[1]  This paper's primary 
objective is to assess the 
potential for saving potable 
water by flushing toilets 
with greywater in a typical 
Syrian city. 

Interview  About 35% of the drinking 
water could be saved if using 
treated grey water for toilet 
flushing. 

This study demonstrates 
the need to increase 
public awareness of the 
benefits and safety of 
reusing treated 
greywater. 

[2]  This study aims to provide a 
brief background on water 
supply and use in Syria, 
describe the pressure on 
water resources for 
agriculture, analyze key 
issues and constraints 
facing this sector, and make 
recommendations for 
efficient utilization. 

review review The Water Balance for 
Syria indicates that the 
majority of basins are in 
deficit, according to the 
paper. The deficit will 
worsen, particularly in 
basins encompassing 
large urban areas, if the 
country's population 
continues to grow at the 
current rate 
(approximately 3%) and 
if water use efficiency is 
not improved. 

[5]  This survey paper aims to 
investigate the global 
demand for renewable 
energy, the types of RES 
used on a domestic scale, 
and to draw useful 
conclusions on the public's 
use and acceptance of RET 
and RES. 

Review  review This study demonstrates 
that global energy crises 
can be mitigated by 
incorporating renewable 
energy sources into 
power generation. 

[6]  The purpose of this paper is 
to examine groundwater 
resources in Syria, focusing 
on the underlying natural 
and anthropogenic 
influences on water 
resources. 

review Academic published data and 
geospatial dataset 

In the Neogene aquifer 
system, low aquifer 
productivity and water 
quality issues restrict 
groundwater extraction. 
Chemical leachate has 
contaminated 
groundwater in the 
aforementioned regions. 

[7]  Damascus Oasis 
groundwater quality in 
relation to heavy metal 
concentrations will be 
investigated. 

experimentation  pH, temperature, electrical 
conductivity (EC) and total 
alkalinity (ALK) 

Heavy metals 
contaminate groundwater 
quality. 

[9]  The purpose of this paper is 
to determine the hydro-
chemical characteristics of 
the alluvial aquifer in the 
Damascus Oasis, where 
nitrate contamination of 
groundwater has been 
increasing over the past 
several decades. 

Quantitative 
sampling 
method 

High Ph value, 
Ca2+ > Na+ > Mg2+ > K+ = HCO3 
− > SO4 2− ≥ Cl−. High Na+, and 
SO4 2− 

The paper concludes that 
the central portion of the 
study area is where 
pollution is most 
prevalent (the 
Transitional zone). Thus, 
irrigated areas are most 
likely to be impacted by 
nitrate pollution. Over 
51.8% of the water 
samples exceed the 
maximum contaminant 
level (MCL) of 50 mg/l set 
by the Syrian drinking 
water standard. 



H. Gökçekuş et al. /Future Technology                                                                                February 2023| Volume 02 | Issue 01 | Pages 46-57 

54 

 

[15]  The purpose of this study 
was to evaluate the natural 
groundwater recharge in 
the Al Zerba catchment and 
the surface-groundwater 
interaction. 

Quantitative 
analysis method 

Derived data The results indicate that 
groundwater pumping 
has a negative effect on 
the long-term decline of 
groundwater levels, 
especially during the dry 
season, whereas no 
significant effects of 
vegetation on 
groundwater were 
observed. 

[11]  This paper focuses on 
enhancing the water quality 
of the Barada and Awaj 
Rivers by analyzing the 
pollution sources and 
proposing a set of policy 
measures. 

review review This study aims to 
provide a general analysis 
of water pollution in the 
Barada Basin, Syria, by 
estimating the number of 
contaminants generated 
by socioeconomic 
activities and proposing a 
set of policy measures to 
address the issue. 

[10]  The purpose of this 
investigation is to assess 
the performance of the 
treatment system in terms 
of biochemical oxygen 
demand (BOD), total 
suspended solids (TSS), 
nitrate (NO3-), and 
phosphate (PO4-3) 
parameters. 

qualitative 
method 

The average influent BOD5 
concentration was (113 mg/l), 
while the average effluent 
BOD5 concentration was (27 
mg/l). The maximum influent 
BOD5 concentration was (205 
mg/l), while the maximum 
effluent BOD5 concentration 
was (94 mg/l). The minimum 
influent BOD5 concentration 
was (21 mg/l), while the 
average effluent BOD5 
concentration was (9 mg/l). 

The study found that the 
concentration of nutrients 
is lower than what is 
required. 

[12] The purpose of the study 
was to recommend 
modifications to 
wastewater treatment 
technology that would 
increase its effectiveness. 
The purpose of the study 
was to recommend 
modifications to 
wastewater treatment 
technology that would 
increase its effectiveness. 

laboratory 
experiments. 

COD high, PH high Compared to the 
recommended values for 
industrial wastewater 
treatment, the dosages of 
chemical additives for 
wastewater treatment 
were high, according to 
the study. 

[25]  The purpose of this study is 
to analyze the current state, 
evaluate the design and 
operation of the wastewater 
treatment system in small 
communities, and propose 
solutions for its future 
development. 

Literature 
review 

Literature review Deterioration of water 
quality in the major river 
basins of Syria due to 
untreated or inadequately 
treated domestic 
wastewater, commercial 
and industrial wastewater 
from specific activities. 
The sewage system, 
particularly in small 
communities, is plagued 
by numerous issues. 98% 
of smalltown treatment 
plants use activated 
sludge with extended 
aeration, which does not 
meet their requirements 
and does not provide 
high-efficiency 
wastewater treatment. 

[26]  This paper aims to provide 
a comprehensive and 
critical review and update 
of Syria's current water 
resources and needs, as 
well as their projections 
through 2050. 

Literature 
review 

Past available data Improving public 
awareness and 
participation in water 
projects at the local, 
regional, and 
international levels may 
be a solution for more 
sustainable and efficient 



H. Gökçekuş et al. /Future Technology                                                                                February 2023| Volume 02 | Issue 01 | Pages 46-57 

55 

 

water conservation 
measures in Syria, 
according to the paper. 

[27]  This study's objective is to 
examine Syria's water 
balance and the 
management systems 
currently in place. 

Literature 
review 

Past available data The study concludes that 
the current Water 
resource management 
systems in Syria are 
inadequate and that the 
lack of appropriate 
solutions to the 
hydrological system's 
circularity could have a 
significant future impact 
on the standard of living 
of its citizens. 

[28]  The specific goals of this 
study are to integrate a 
large suite of geochemical 
and isotopic tracers (2 H, 
18O, 13C, 3 H, 14C) in order 
to differentiate between 
different major geographic 
zones of renewable, semi 
renewable, and 
nonrenewable groundwater 
resources in The Regional 
Deep Cretaceous Aquifer 
(RDCA) 

Quantitative 
sampling 
method 

Chemical and isotopic data of 
groundwater 

Integrated data presented 
in this study indicate that 
the majority of Syria's 
deep groundwater was 
formed under more 
humid climatic conditions 
and is located in a region 
that currently experiences 
arid climatic conditions 
and receives little natural 
recharge. 

[17] is to examine the condition 
of water resources in the 
coastal region of Syria from 
2000 to 2010 

review review War has resulted in the 
destruction of water 
treatment and 
distribution facilities. 

[29]  In the peri-urban area of 
Aleppo, Syria, where 
wastewater irrigation is 
common, the health effects 
of wastewater irrigation on 
children aged 8 to 12 will be 
investigated. 

survey sampling 
and data 
collection 

disease in fresh-water 
irrigated is 0.98, and 0.78 for 
children in wastewater 
irrigated areas. 

Children in areas irrigated 
with fresh water were 
affected by influenza, 
whereas nine out of ten 
children in areas irrigated 
with wastewater were 
infected. 

[30] This study aims to detect 
the presence of Giardia 
cysts and determine their 
prevalence and 
concentration in Al-
Jinderiyah region 
wastewater and river water 
samples. 

laboratory 
testing 

Giardia cysts in 87.5% of the 
influent samples (S1) and 75% 
in effluent samples (S2) 

The study revealed that 
the presence of Giardia 
cysts in wastewater 
samples varied based on 
the period of collection. 

[31] This paper describes the 
wastewater reuse situation 
in Syria and discusses the 
ideal policy to be adopted 
along with some application 
types of water reuse that 
can be developed and 
implemented in drought-
stricken regions to meet 
water demands. 

Literature 
review 

Collective data This paper demonstrates 
that many of the current 
problems with 
wastewater quality can be 
addressed and resolved 
using dynamic 
optimization and geo-
information technologies, 
which are already having 
a profound effect on 
research in water quality 
and environmental 
protection. 



H. Gökçekuş et al. /Future Technology                                                                                February 2023| Volume 02 | Issue 01 | Pages 46-57 

56 

 

[32] This study investigates the 
impact of food and 
agricultural policies on the 
use of groundwater in Syria. 

Probability 
sampling 
method 

Elevation (m) Average 
precipitation (mm) Average 
evapotranspiration (mm)  

This study demonstrates, 
from a macro perspective, 
that policymakers face the 
challenge of balancing 
short-term productivity 
growth with the long-
term negative effects of 
groundwater depletion. 

[33]  This study's primary 
objective is to examine 
Syria's water management 
policies within the context 
of recent trends toward 
more market-oriented 
agricultural policies. 

review analysis The paper concludes that 
Syria's water balance is 
inadequate. 

[34]  The primary objective of 
this article is to estimate the 
effects of climate change, 
population growth, and 
human activities on water 
problems in the Ghab 
Region and to examine how 
to better plan for the future 
use of water resources. 

Literature 
review 

Review The paper demonstrates 
that the overexploitation 
of groundwater in the 
Ghab Region is not solely 
attributable to climatic 
fluctuations and 
population growth, but 
also to human activity 
that is out of control 
(drilling of illegal water 
wells). 

[35]  This study aimed to 
determine the viability and 
limitations of a low-cost, 
water-balance-based 
approach for assessing 
groundwater resources in a 
semiarid environment. 

Quantitative 
research method 
(survey) 

Low Ph, High salinity, 
Electrical conductivity 

Comparing current 
groundwater levels to 
observations from the 
past, the study concludes 
that groundwater levels 
in the Jabal Al Hass region 
have decreased 
significantly over the past 
three decades. The annual 
rate of depletion of 
groundwater resources 
ranges between 9.5106 
and 118106 m3. 

[36]  This study's primary 
objective is to examine 
Syria's water management 
policies within the context 
of recent trends toward 
more market-oriented 
agricultural policies. 

Literature 
review 

Review This study finds that 
Syria's water balance 
indicates that the 
majority of basins are in 
deficit. 

[16] This study aims to (I) 
determine the origin of 
groundwater and its 
geochemical evolution 
based on rock-water 
interactions within the 
context of its complex 
geology and morphology, 
(ii) identify the main hydro-
geochemical processes 
controlling the water 
quality in the study area, 
and (iii) comprehend the 
recharge processes and 
identify the main 
hydrogeological units in the 
study area. 

Sampling 
analytical 
method 

Available data The fluctuation of 
groundwater level is 
governed by atmospheric 
precipitation and 
anthropogenic influence 
as groundwater 
abstraction increases. 



H. Gökçekuş et al. /Future Technology                                                                                February 2023| Volume 02 | Issue 01 | Pages 46-57 

57 

 

 

 

  

[37]  the main purpose of this 
study is to analyze water 
management policies in 
Syria in the framework of 
the recent developments 
toward more market-
oriented agricultural 
policies. 

review analysis the paper fines that the 
water balance in Syria is 
low. 


