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01-12 

1 

 

 

 

Review 

Climate change, water resources, and 

wastewater reuse in Cyprus 
Hüseyin Gökçekuş 1,3,4, Youssef Kassem 1,2,3,4, Marcus P. Quoigoah 5*, Prisca Nashon Aruni5* 

1Department of Civil Engineering, Civil and Environmental Engineering Faculty, Near East University, 99138 Nicosia 

(via Mersin 10, Turkey), Cyprus 
2Department of Mechanical Engineering, Engineering Faculty, Near East University, 99138 Nicosia (via Mersin 10, 

Turkey), Cyprus 
3Energy, Environment, and Water Research Center, Near East University, 99138 Nicosia (via Mersin 10, Turkey), 

Cyprus 
4Engineering Faculty, Kyrenia University, 99138 Kyrenia (via Mersin 10, Turkey), Cyprus 
5Department of Environmental Engineering, Civil and Environmental Engineering Faculty, Near East University, 

99138 Nicosia (via Mersin 10, Turkey), Cyprus 

A R T I C L E   I N F O 
 

Article history: 
Received 05 August 2022  
Received in revised form 
04 September 2022 
Accepted 08 September 2022 
 
 
Keywords:  
Water, water resources,  
climate change, wastewater reuse,  
Cyprus 
 
 
*Corresponding author 
Email address: mquoigoah@gmail.com 
  
 

 

 

DOI: 10.55670/fpll.futech.2.1.1 

A B S T R A C T 
 

This study aims to gain a deeper understanding of climate change and 
wastewater usage in Cyprus. Focusing on water resources, the study was done 
in Cyprus. The significance of selecting Cyprus as our case study arises from the 
fact that it is not only one of the Mediterranean Sea countries worldwide with 
water resource concerns but also faces a serious danger of drought in the next 
years. Documentary analysis and summation of what numerous sources 
mentioned regarding the freshwater situation in Cyprus were used to collect 
data. The objective of this research was to understand the water resources 
available in Cyprus and the quality of fresh water, then to examine the practices 
and mechanisms of freshwater resource management in Cyprus, and finally to 
investigate the challenges faced by various water resources in Cyprus and the 
various means to overcome them. The initial objective was to determine the 
different water resources in Cyprus. Second, we analyzed the many strategies 
employed to manage these resources and the diverse management structures 
in Cyprus. In light of the foregoing, this study's main objective was to 
understand climate change and wastewater utilization better. Thus, linking 
formal and informal institutions in the management of these water resources, 
as well as the issues and solutions they face in dealing with salt water. Water 
conservation is not an individual concern. All parties are involved, including the 
government, non-governmental groups, local inhabitants, and all stakeholders, 
with differing opinions. 

 
 

 

 
1. Introduction 

The ever-increasing worldwide population is the 

fundamental cause of the world's most urgent water issue, 

which is aggravated by the insufficiency of accessible water to 

fulfill present demand levels. Several studies indicate that, as 

a result of climate change, the globe is likely to face greater 

water stress than was initially projected. Climate change and 

unpredictable weather patterns have recently significantly 

strained the global community. Due to population expansion, 

these causes have caused water scarcity in nearly all regions 

of the world, particularly in Sub-Saharan Africa, Africa, and 

Asia. The planet has been under a great deal of strain in recent 

years. As the global population continues to increase, the 

strain on the agricultural business, which serves as the 

foundation for all other industries, will only intensify. Water 

is crucial for practically all significant human activities, 

including industry. It is difficult to sustain life without water, 

as it satisfies every necessity for human survival. Because 

agriculture, which is the source of people's food, requires 

water, irrigation also requires water, and virtually all 

 

 

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H. Gökçekuş et al. /Future Technology                                                                                February 2023| Volume 02 | Issue 01 | Pages 01-12 

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industrial and domestic tasks require water, it is evident that 

without water, it is impossible to survive. Recent droughts 

and floods in several countries have increased interest in 

global warming and its possible effects on water supply. 

According to the Second Assessment of the 

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [1], a human 

influence on the global climate is evident, and recent 

fluctuations are unlikely to be solely due to natural causes. A 

rise in greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere is 

anticipated to result in an increase of 0.15 to 0.3 °C each 

decade in the global average temperature [2], with different 

regional effects on precipitation and evaporation rates. 

Climate change has a physical impact on water supply and 

quality. This effect may affect water resources and their 

management; it is a favorable effect. How an effect becomes, 

an impact is influenced by the features of the water resource 

infrastructure. A supply system consisting of a large number 

of tiny, independent reservoirs will be more susceptible to 

change than one consisting of a big reservoir with the same 

overall capacity. Additionally, critical thresholds within the 

water management system may exist beyond which the 

system's flexibility cannot accept change. Changes in the 

amount or quality of water may be manageable with the 

current methods, but if the changes are big, it may be 

necessary to make changes to the infrastructure or try 

something else. Almost all of the research on the effects of 

climate change on water resources has focused on how future 

climate will affect the current water management system [3]. 

This is a worst-case scenario method to analyze climate 

effects since the water management system will have 

developed and adapted by the time the future climate comes. 

Non-climatic trends will contribute to a part of this change. 

Changes in population and water demand, the legal 

environment (including national and international norms and 

regulations such as those of the European Union), and public 

and professional attitudes about water resources and their 

management are examples. These modifications may reduce 

or aggravate the consequences of climate change. As a 

consequence of producing more adaptive solutions, this shift 

is anticipated to mitigate the future effects of climate change. 

In reaction to a changing climate, water management may 

undergo some purposeful changes in the next decades. The 

choices may not have been optimum in retrospect. Future 

consequences of climate change are thus dependent on the 

development of water management through time and the 

adaptive activities taken by water managers, and the cost of 

climate change over the next several decades will equal the 

extra cost of adaptation plus the cost of inevitable impacts [4]. 

Almost every aspect of human, animal, plant, environmental, 

and ecosystem existence requires freshwater. It may imply 

the difference between life and death and between abundance 

and destitution. Therefore, proper water planning and 

management are essential, regardless of whether there is too 

little or too much water. Despite our advancements, water 

planning and management remain challenging. Our ignorance 

of the land, ocean, and atmospheric systems, as well as their 

interconnections and effects on water resources, has 

contributed to the problem. But population growth and its 

numerous impacts, including increasing water use, 

industrialization, urbanization, water pollution, and forest 

loss, have had a significant effect. According to WHO/UNICEF 

(2008) and the United Nations (2010), around 900 million 

people do not have access to clean drinking water, and 

approximately 2.6 billion people lack adequate sanitation 

facilities. Each year, millions of people, the majority of whom 

are children under the age of five, die from water-related 

diseases such as malaria, typhoid, and cholera, mostly as a 

result of these and other linked conditions. Water-borne 

infections are the third biggest cause of death from infectious 

diseases overall. As briefly described below, three important 

factors, among others, are anticipated to exacerbate the 

future water situation's complexity (or at least raise its 

unpredictability). Population growth, global climate change, 

and transboundary river basins are important factors to 

consider. Population growth is a major driver of water-

related activities and issues, as an increase in a population 

typically results in a rise in water demand in virtually all 

sectors (domestic, industrial, agricultural, energy, and 

recreation), barring the development of more effective water 

management techniques. UN predictions say the world's 

population might grow from 6.7 billion in 2007 to 7.7 billion 

by 2020 and 9.0 billion by 2050 (2007 UN). This expansion 

will mostly affect emerging regions, where the population is 

expected to rise from 5.4 billion in 2007 to 7.9 billion in 2050. 

These regions already face water and sanitation challenges 

and extreme weather, so the situation is expected to worsen. 

At the global, regional, and local levels, the amplified 

greenhouse effect is expected to affect future water resources 

(positively or negatively). Most scientists believe that climate 

change will intensify the global hydrological cycle and cause 

more frequent and severe droughts and floods [5]. However, 

there are still concerns about the methods used to make 

future projections and the accuracy of results [6]. Droughts 

and floods make water planning and management more 

difficult, so climate change could cause additional problems. 

Two or more nations share 260 river basins and 270 

aquifers. Transboundary waters encompass more than half 

the Earth's surface and provide water for half the world's 

population. They have been the subject of hostilities between 

countries that share them and collaboration [7]. Water 

planning, development, and management are affected. Future 

population increases and climate change could complicate the 

planning and management of transboundary streams. 

Agriculture, the economic foundation of Cyprus and many 

other nations, as well as other significant economic activities 

such as industry, can produce anything without water. 

However, a shortage of water can affect agriculture, which in 

turn can have an effect on economic sectors, such as industry. 

However, the same water can be accessible, but if it is 

polluted, it can be hazardous to human health as well as the 

health of other living organisms, and it can therefore pose a 

threat; the same water is also salinized, so different methods, 

such as desalination, must be used to reduce the salinity of the 

water. Cyprus is an island located in the Mediterranean Sea, 

and it is one of the countries under great pressure when it 

comes to water-related issues. This is due to a rise in 

population, which increases the demand for water at a rate 

that exceeds the amount given or available. Water that is 

currently available is used to serve a wide range of businesses 

and activities, including agriculture, industry, and a variety of 

residential and daily jobs. Additionally, the available water is 

not fresh but rather water with high salt, necessitating a 



H. Gökçekuş et al. /Future Technology                                                                                February 2023| Volume 02 | Issue 01 | Pages 01-12 

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different procedure such as desalination. Desalination helps 

us obtain fresh water, which is a positive step toward 

alleviating and reducing water stress in a variety of 

industries, most notably agriculture and residential activities. 

Currently, water shortage affects the entire planet; 

industrialized nations are having difficulty desalinating 

seawater, which constitutes a substantial portion of the total 

amount of available water on the planet, to create potable 

water for their inhabitants. As a result of climate change 

induced by a multitude of variables, including human and 

industrial activities, the entire planet is predicted to 

experience severe water stress by the year 2030. The only 

available water is highly salty seawater, which must be 

desalinated before it can be utilized. As a result of everyday 

population growth, which causes demand to exceed supply, 

developing nations, including those in Africa and Asia, suffer 

tremendous water stress. However, the entire world is going 

to experience severe water stress. 

1.1 Study Area 

Cyprus is an island located in the Mediterranean Sea 

(Figure 1), and it is one of the countries under great pressure 

when it comes to water-related issues. This is due to a rise in 

population, which increases the demand for water at a rate 

that exceeds the amount given or available. Water that is 

currently available is used to serve a wide range of businesses 

and activities, including agriculture, industry, and a variety of 

residential and daily jobs. Additionally, the available water is 

not fresh but rather water with high salt, necessitating a 

different procedure such as desalination. Desalination helps 

us obtain fresh water, which is a positive step toward 

alleviating and reducing water stress in a variety of 

industries, most notably agriculture and residential activities. 

2. Discussions and Findings 

2.1 Findings 

The water supply in Northern Cyprus is extremely 

constrained because it is a small island with a total land area 

of about 3,355 km2. The main source of water is groundwater, 

which is advantageous to both the industrial and agricultural 

sectors of the economy and has a sustainable production of 

74.1 MCM. The Magusa, Guzelyurt, and Girne aquifers are the 

three most notable aquifers in North Carolina, and each has a 

different water-holding capacity [8]. The Margosa aquifer, 

which is in the east of the country and has a surface area of 45 

km2 overall with 20 km2 in the north, was one of the most 

significant water sources in the nation in the 1960s. Its 

northernmost region is 20 km2 in size. Since it was over-

pumped beyond what was deemed a safe yield, it has been 

completely salinized by seawater. The aquifer is currently 

unsuitable for any applications due to its total depletion [9]. 

The resource's capacity to replenish itself has dropped to 15 

MCM as a result of less severe precipitation during dry 

seasons. The aquifer can hold about 920 million cubic meters 

of water in total [10]. The Girne Coastal Aquifer and the Girne 

Mountains Aquifer are two different aquifers that together 

make up the Girne Aquifer. Girne Mountain's aquifers are 

restricted beneath a single, steep ridge that is 750 meters high 

and 62 kilometers broad. The center region has a storage 

capacity of around 10 MCM but a recharge capacity of about 5 

MCM during the dry seasons because the limestone and 

dolomite stones are widely fractured and allow water to flow 

directly to the sea. The water table can range from 250 to 100 

meters above mean sea level in different places [11]. Based on 

previous data, it was found that the aquifers could hold 

approximately 74.1 MCM of water per year without suffering 

harm. However, North Cyprus aquifers must be drained of 

28.9 MCM of water per year to supply the annual water 

demand. The high temperatures in Cyprus cause a lot of 

evaporation, which reduces the amount of precipitation that 

falls on the land. 

2.2 Water Resources 

i. Groundwater: Groundwater is necessary for the 

survival and livelihood of both urban and rural residents. The 

term "groundwater" refers to the water found deep below the 

earth's surface in regions that are saturated with water. The 

water table is located at the uppermost surface of the 

saturated zone. Contrary to popular belief, groundwater does 

not produce underground rivers. Similar to how water fills 

the pores and cracks in a sponge, it also fills the pores and 

cracks in sand, gravel, and rock. Aquifers are rock materials 

that retain groundwater and either allow groundwater to 

flow naturally out of them or can be pumped out (in useful 

amounts). Typically, the circulation of groundwater in an 

aquifer is measured in centimeters per day and can vary 

between three and twenty-five inches. Aquifer water has the 

potential to remain there for hundreds or even thousands of 

years. In the United States, groundwater is the source of 

approximately 39% of the water used for agricultural 

purposes and 40% of the water used for public supply. From 

1977 to 2018, the amount of water coming from the ground 

in Cyprus stayed the same, at 0 billion cubic meters per year. 

ii. Surface Water: Before 1997, precipitation provided 

the majority of Cyprus's water supply. The expected annual 

precipitation average was 503 millimeters. Since 2000, it has 

decreased to less than 465 millimeters. The investigation was 

conducted on a national scale. The Water Development 

Department of Cyprus (WDD) estimates that evaporation 

accounts for roughly 90% of annual precipitation loss. It is 

estimated that 2.750 million cubic meters (mcm) of water 

falls on the entire surface of the Republic of Cyprus, but only 

275 mcm, or 10 percent, is exploitable. According to the 

Cyprus Water Development Department, evaporation 

accounts for nearly 90% of annual precipitation loss. 

2.3 Wastewater Re-Usage  

The technique of recycling water waste in order to utilize 

it is known as water waste recycling. And water can be 

advantageous in a range of human activities, including 

agriculture, where recycled water can be used for irrigation 

and in industries. As an alternative to existing water sources, 

water reuse can be utilized to improve sustainability and 

resilience. As the entire planet, including Cyprus, is impacted 

by climate change, it substantially impacts the distribution 

and supply of water in many locations for human activities 

and other daily social and economic activities. Using a high-

resolution regional climate model (PRECIS) and comparing 

precipitation projections from 2040-2069 and 2070-2099 to 

1961-1990, the anticipated implications of climate change on 

the water resources of the eastern Mediterranean and Middle 

East region were explored [12].  



H. Gökçekuş et al. /Future Technology                                                                                February 2023| Volume 02 | Issue 01 | Pages 01-12 

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The projected change in internal water resources is 

expected to mirror that of precipitation. Due to the large 

number of tourists who use only fresh water for all of their 

tourist activities, such as swimming pools, the water pressure 

on the island is extremely high; one of the adaptation 

strategies provided is to ensure that water management 

implements measures to ensure water security both now and 

in the future. The government of Cyprus has endeavored to 

construct numerous dams to secure water storage, and 

between 1960 and 2009, the amount of water stored 

increased from six million cubic meters to 327 million cubic 

meters, making Cyprus one of the countries with the most 

developed dam infrastructures [13]. However, dam 

construction does not address the issue of climate change and 

water, which is why Cyprus has endeavored to reuse tertiary 

processed wastewater, of which more than half is used in the 

agricultural sector directly or via aquifer discharge. The 

government of Cyprus predicts that 28.5% of yearly 

agricultural demand will be met through the reuse of 

wastewater [14]. Generally speaking, wastewater must be 

treated prior to being released into the atmosphere or 

groundwater. Additionally, domestic water should be clean 

and safe to drink. Depending on its source, domestic water 

requires some type of treatment. Directly or indirectly, 

renewable energy sources have been and will continue to be 

utilized in water and wastewater treatment.  

 

 

 

Sun energy, often in the form of stabilization ponds and 

solar detoxification, has been and continues to be utilized in 

many nations for wastewater treatment. Solar radiation 

remains the most fundamental method for desalinating and 

cleaning saline water. It can be turned into energy, which can 

be used for power pumps, ultraviolet (UV) systems, 

photocatalysis, reverse osmosis (RO), and conventional 

surface-water treatment systems. Similarly, the Persians have 

utilized wind energy since 1200 BC. In the early 1900s, the 

American Farm windmills produced water for both railroads 

and home usage. Still commonly utilized to pump water are 

windmills. Today, the United States, Argentina, and Australia 

have more than a million wind turbines each [15]. Similar to 

solar photovoltaic (PV) systems, wind turbines directly 

convert wind energy into electricity, which can be utilized to 

power water treatment facilities. In contrast, wind turbines 

are infrequently employed in wastewater treatment since the 

majority of wastewater treatment systems have high energy 

demands or require direct sunlight (like stabilization ponds). 

Renewable energy sources, as opposed to traditional power 

sources (petroleum-based generators and grid electricity), 

are primarily employed for small to medium-sized 

applications due to their high initial investment costs. Due to 

the low amount of energy necessary to purify a rural water 

supply, renewable energy sources are commonly utilized in 

many developing nations. In Cyprus, the treatment of 

Figure 1. Map of Cyprus 



H. Gökçekuş et al. /Future Technology                                                                                February 2023| Volume 02 | Issue 01 | Pages 01-12 

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wastewater also uses renewable energy. For instance, the 

Nicosia Bi-communal Wastewater Treatment Plant (WWTP) 

in the Mia Mill or Haspolat district of Cyprus has the ability to 

treat 30,000 cubic meters of wastewater per day. It benefits 

around 270 000 Nicosia residents. Nicosia has the capacity to 

produce 10 cubic meters of treated water for agricultural 

irrigation each year [16]. 

2.4 Renewable energy in Cyprus 

The prevailing economic conditions of the location in 

question are the predominant factors that determine how the 

vast majority of renewable energy resources are utilized. The 

availability of sufficient resources is crucial to the project's 

success and longevity. However, technological and 

environmental concerns are also of utmost importance in this 

regard. To compare distinct renewable resources, it is 

necessary to establish a common denominator or baseline. On 

this basis, comparisons are made using the total cost of 

capital, the price of land, and the accessibility of natural 

resources. In addition to wind and solar energy (Figure 2), it 

is also possible to utilize tidal energy. According to Barker's 

research, areas with an average range of greater than three 

meters are ideal for exploitation. Importantly, Barker has 

demonstrated that this potential does not exist in the Eastern 

Mediterranean. The hydropower potential of Cyprus is 

further hampered by the absence of rivers with a significant 

annual flow. Cyprus contains no geothermal reserves. The 

production of geothermal energy involves the transfer of heat 

from rocks to the planet's surface via fluids and steam. Wind 

energy and solar energy, two of the most significant forms of 

renewable energy, are free to use in Cyprus. 

 

Figure 2. Solar Resource Map of Cyprus 

When all of the essential benefits of RES for the economy 

and environment of Cyprus are considered, it is evident how 

crucial it is to incorporate RES into the energy system of 

Cyprus. In its White Paper, the EU recommends a RES take-off 

campaign to facilitate a true take-off of RES for widespread 

penetration. The proposed campaign will encourage the 

implementation of large-scale projects in various renewable 

energy sectors, thereby sending strong signals for the 

increased use of renewable energy sources. Cyprus should 

launch its take-off campaign as soon as possible, by EU rules, 

to increase the share of renewable energy sources to 10% of 

total energy consumption by 2010. The development and 

expansion of distinct renewable technologies are essential to 

achieving this objective. Adoption of RES may result in annual 

cost savings due to reduced fuel costs. This advantage could 

be given back to consumers by giving them money to use 

renewable energy sources. 

2.5 Wind Energy in Cyprus 

Cyprus is an island country that is encircled by the 

Mediterranean Sea on all sides. There are two distinct seasons 

in the climate. From November to March, depressions that 

travel across the Mediterranean Sea from west to east have 

an impact on Cyprus. Second, from early April until late 

October, the island experiences a protracted dry season. A 

shallow trough of low pressure that develops from a 

continental depression in Asia is currently having an impact 

on the island. But because of the large temperature 

differential between the land and the water, the local sea 

breeze circulation is frequently rather vigorous in coastal 

areas. It is necessary to look over and evaluate the local wind 

statistics before attempting to estimate a location's wind 

energy potential. Long-term wind data from meteorological 

stations close to the intended site can be utilized to generate 

rough estimations. The wind profile at the potential site 

should then be derived from this data with extreme caution. 

Data from several places on the island, including those 

published by Jacovides et al. and Pashardes, is collated to 

assess the wind energy potential of Cyprus. 

Cyprus' wind regime is impacted by three key factors: (a) 

the eastward-moving storms that pass over the island; (b) the 

enormous temperature differences between the sea and the 

land; and (c) the effect of mountains, where discrete wind 

systems arise. Certain places in Cyprus have yearly mean 

wind speeds of more than 5 m/s at the height of 10 m, even 

though high wind potential is uncommon. These locations are 

located on the southern coast of the island and in certain 

exposed mountain regions. These locations are very 

promising for the installation of wind turbines (Figure 3). It 

provides a decent estimate of wind speed at numerous sites 

throughout Cyprus. 

 

Figure 3. Wind Distribution Map of Cyprus 

2.6 Solar Energy 

Cyprus has a generally agreeable climate with plenty of 

sunny days. On average, during the entire year, the central 

plains and eastern lowlands receive dazzling sunlight 75% of 

the time the sun is above the horizon. Average daylight hours 

in the summer are 11.5 hours, but in the two months with the 

most clouds, December and January, that number drops to 5.5 

hours. In the highest mountains, even in the cloudiest winter 

months, there are often 4 hours a day of excellent sunlight, 



H. Gökçekuş et al. /Future Technology                                                                                February 2023| Volume 02 | Issue 01 | Pages 01-12 

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rising to 11 hours in June and July. The cloudiest months of 

the year, December and January, have an average daily global 

solar radiation of about 2.3 kWh/m2, whereas the sunniest 

month of the year, July, has an average daily global solar 

radiation of about 7.2 kWh/m2 [17]. In Cyprus, the average 

hourly direct solar radiation varies between 250 and 700 

Wh/m2. Compared to other nations in the European Union, 

Cyprus is in a particularly advantageous location for solar 

energy usage [18]. It is projected that there will be 560,000 

m2 of active flat plate solar collectors or roughly 0.86 m2 per 

person. (Cyprus Union of Solar Energy Industrialists, Nicosia, 

Cyprus) It is said that Cyprus has built 190,000 solar water 

heaters. While industrial process heat currently has no 

commercial value, solar energy is mostly used in solar water 

heaters to supply hot water to homes [19]. The island is only 

just able to meet its energy needs despite a 25% drop in solar 

energy costs over the previous five years. 

2.7 List of Previous Studies 

The data for this study originated from secondary 

sources which were evaluated based on the findings of 

previous research that examined the water resources of both 

northern and southern Cyprus (Appendix I). 

3. Conclusion 

Extreme vigilance is required to maintain the correct 

amounts of groundwater to saltwater. Recharging the 

groundwater table or employing alternative ways could assist 

in reducing this intrusion. Seals on pipes leading to the 

sewage treatment plant should be frequently inspected and 

checked for leakage. In the case that saltwater has made its 

way into these pipes, relining or other corrective measures 

are required. To guarantee that treated effluent quality 

remains within acceptable criteria, it must be routinely 

monitored. It is essential to investigate each of the offered 

options. When it comes to the reuse of treated effluent, which 

is considered an input to water resources, the management 

techniques described below should be implemented. To keep 

the salinity of irrigated land under control, monitoring with 

the most advanced technology, such as GIS monitoring, is 

required (geographic information system). It is also 

suggested that plants with characteristics that allow them to 

live in salty water should be encouraged or created. Recycling 

water is now a necessity since it helps compensate for water 

shortages and can conserve considerable volumes of fresh 

water that would have otherwise been utilized for crop 

irrigation in agricultural settings. Nonetheless, utmost 

caution must be exercised at all times to avoid the negative 

repercussions associated with it. As the capacity of the 

environment to accept water of poor quality looks to be 

diminishing, it is proposed that more effort is required to 

improve the effluent quality that is delivered to agriculture. It 

appears that the ecology can only tolerate so much 

contaminated water for so long. Cyprus, an island country 

located in the Mediterranean, has a chronic water deficit 

issue. It is typical for there to be insufficient precipitation. The 

already inadequate water supply on the island is exacerbated 

by the rising demand for sweet water and the deterioration of 

the island's non-polluted water sources. Based on the 

previous studies, results showed that climate change has 

greatly affected the water resources, most especially 

groundwater sources in Northern and Southern Cyprus, 

seawater intrusion is the major source of groundwater 

contamination in Northern Cyprus. Recommendations: 

i. Even if some desalination systems are already in use 

in both the south and the north, desalination must be carried 

out on a large scale so that we have access to fresh water for 

a variety of activities. This will save us from having to utilize 

salty water. 

ii. Facilitating the passage of fresh water from Turkey 

necessitates fostering cooperation and resolving numerous 

arguments and conflicts between the south, the north, 

Turkey, and Greece. 

iii. Instead of relying on the few badly salinized water 

sources, it would be preferable to construct other water 

sources. 

iv. To identify what may be done to reduce the quantity 

of salt in Cyprus's water, scientists should design a variety of 

cures based on the findings of extensive investigations on the 

island's water. Controlling the population is a must for every 

nation, regardless of whether this is accomplished through 

reducing the birthrate or the amount of immigration. 

Ethical issue 
The authors are aware of and comply with best practices 

in publication ethics, specifically with regard to authorship 
(avoidance of guest authorship), dual submission, 
manipulation of figures, competing interests, and compliance 
with policies on research ethics. The authors adhere to 
publication requirements that the submitted work is original 
and has not been published elsewhere. 

Data availability statement 
Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no datasets 

were generated or analyzed during the current study. 

Conflict of interest 

The author declares no potential conflict of interest. 

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[27] Makris, K. C., & Snyder, S. A. (2010). Screening of 

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2325-2335. 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 
 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 



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9 

 

Appendix I 

Table 1. List of the previous studies 

References     Location Aim Methods Data Main findings 

[20]  2018  North 
Cyprus 

identify essential 
integrated water 
management strategy plan 

data 
collection 

strategies plan on 
integrated water 

municipal water demand, 
agricultural use around 
water recharge, and 
water contract 

[21]  2010  Cyprus to access the cost of water 
scarcity in Cyprus 

field 
collection of 
data 

annual costs of 
residential water 
shortages in Cyprus 

water prices in all non-
agricultural sectors reach 
to account for water 
scarcity in Cyprus 

[22]  2017  North 
Cyprus 

to access problems and 
potentialities of new water 
resources  

field data 
collection 

map of water 
delivery project 
from DSI 

water scarcity 
accelerates conflict and 
political unrest 
throughout the region  

[23]  2015  Nicosia 
Cyprus  

to examine methods of 
obtaining fresh water 

document 
reviewing 

amount of fresh 
water and salinized 
one 

water scarcity issues are 
relevant  

[24]  2004  Girne, 
North 
Cyprus 

to examine the amount of 
water used and which is 
lost 

data 
collection 
and 
document 
reviewing 

consumptive water 
requirements in 
TRNC 

50% of water is lost due 
to existing poor irrigation 
systems  

[25]  2019  Cyprus to explore the potential of 
creating alternative water 
resources through 
autonomous desalination 
overwatered 

field 
collection of 
data 

desalination and 
water treatment 
techniques  

solar energy is diverted 
to a different significant 
application to convert 
unusable water bodies  

[26]  2011  Cyprus to access the effect of 
climate variability on 
changes in agricultural 
land use, production, and 
irrigation water demand  

model mostly average 
daily minimum and 
maximum 
temperature and 
rainfall  

Rain-fed crops are very 
effective users of water  

[27]  2010  Cyprus or investigate the 
occurrence of the 
pharmaceuticals six 
known or suspected 
endocrine disputing 
compounds, one insect 
repellant, and one 
fragrance for the first time 
in Cyprus water suppliers 

field data 
collection 

routine 
physiochemical 
water quality 
characteristics 

groundwater samples. 
and electrical 
conductivity values 
ranged between 7.2-8.6 
and 770-3900 us cm, 
respectively 

[28]  2009  Famagust
a, North 
Cyprus 

investigating the water 
budget of each sub aquifer  

mass balance 
model  

list of 11 sub 
aquifers and their 
details  

spring flows are not 
worth considering as a 
means of water 
consumption from 
existing aquifer systems  

[29]  1991  Cyprus to examine the feasibility 
use of solar parabolic 
trough collectors for hot 
water production in 
Cyprus  

data 
collection 

solar data parabolic trough 
collectors are the best 
plate collector method 
though sometimes it is 
costly 

[30]  2007  Cyprus to investigate Cypriots 
farmer’s willingness to 
adopt new water 
resources namely recycled 
water and their 
willingness to pay for the 
water 

field data 
collection 

farm, farm 
household, and farm 
characteristics  

93.8% of farmers in 
selected farmers located 
in the Akron area are 
willing to participate in 
paying a using recycled 
water 

[31]  2007  Cyprus to investigate Cypriots 
farmer’s willingness to 
adopt new water 
resources namely recycled 
water and their 
willingness to pay for the 
water 

field data 
collection 

farm, farm 
household, and farm 
characteristics  

93.8% of farmers in 
selected farmers located 
in the Akron area are 
willing to participate in 
paying a using recycled 
water 



H. Gökçekuş et al. /Future Technology                                                                                February 2023| Volume 02 | Issue 01 | Pages 01-12 

10 

 

[32]  2009  Cyprus to examine approaches to 
reallocating water rights 
among economic sectors  

document 
reviewing  

water demand and 
consumption by 
different sectors  

mechanism to implement 
inter-sectoral water 
reallocation are 
concerned our 
framework can be used 
to support or 
complement existing 
instruments such as 
water markets or formal 
administrative decisions  

[33]  2011  Cyprus to integrate technological 
tools for developing a 
complete system for 
monitoring and 
coordinating irrigation 
demand on a systematic 
basis in Cyprus 

data 
collection  

meteorological data 
such as air 
temperature, 
atmospheric 
pressure, and wind 
speed 

remote sensing and 
modeling modern can 
both be used for 
estimating etc 

[34]  2012  Cyprus to develop networks and 
methods to peak weakly 
demand weather 
forecasting 

model  socio and economic 
variables  

In Thalassa and public 
garden regions of Nicosia, 
the LMANN models were 
more accurate than all 
types of weather 
forecasting 

[35]  1998  Cyprus  to investigate thermal 
performance and cost-
effectiveness of thermos 
siphon water heaters with 
different soar collector 
tracking modes under the 
weather 

data 
collection 

The daily hot water 
consumption profile  

the annual solar fraction 
with this mode is 87.6% 
with seasonal mode 
79.7% with fixed surface 
mode  

[36]  2004  Nicosia  to outline the approach the 
tender document contains 
the tender evaluation 
procedure, the project 
construction the project 
operation and contract 
management, the 
environmental effect, and 
the cost of water 

data governmental water 
supply projects 

maximum output is when 
the sea water 
temperature is between 
24-27 centigrade and 
water temperature 
affects water quality 
 
 
  

[37]  2008  Nicosia  describing the spatial and 
temporal distribution of 
this element over the 
island  

data 
collection  

monthly variability 
of the average 
precipitation in 
Cyprus 

SPI and RDI can be used 
for drought assessment 
and monitoring  

[38]  2021  Cyprus  define the optimal 
limitation on land and 
water availability  

linear 
programming 
model  

crops with the 
amount of water 
they require  

the cultivation of tomato, 
wheat, figs, and wine 
grapes prevails in the 
proposed cultivation 
pattern as well as high-
rate profit compared to 
irrigation requirements  

[39]  2019  Cyprus to quantify stormwater 
retention of two substrate 
mixtures with two plant 
species  

experimental  substrate 
component 
fractions by volume  

the best case for 
reduction of average 
annual stormwater 
runoff plot types is the 
inclusion of 2a 0mm3 
tank and grey water use  

[40]  2019  North 
Cyprus 

to analyze the effluent 
water reuse possibilities 
as a component of 
integrated water 
resources management in 
Northern Cyprus  

document 
review 

total water available 
in resources of 
Northern Cyprus 
and their 
percentages  

Re-use of recycled water 
will be an alternative 
resource that can be 
utilized for some specific 
purpose to reduce water 
extraction from the 
ground  

[41]  2005  Cyprus  to an overview of the 
property methodology 
while at the same time 
provide insight on exit the 
stings situation prevailing 
in various countries about 
wastewater management 
re-use  

data 
collection  

problems tree 
relating to efficient 
treatment and re-
use of wastewater  

water reuse has been 
dubbed as the greatest 
challenge of the next 
century as water supplies 
remain the same and 
water demand increases 
because of the increasing 
population  

[42]  2020  Cyprus  explores the connection 
between ownership of 

document 
reviewing  

water stress levels 
in Europe show 

found great potential in 
the use of alternative 



H. Gökçekuş et al. /Future Technology                                                                                February 2023| Volume 02 | Issue 01 | Pages 01-12 

11 

 

water and water 
management in a divided 
territory to gain an 
understanding of how 
politics are involved in 
conflicts  

Cyprus are most 
stressed country 

water sources, rainwater 
recycling of wastewater, 
and desalination to 
reduce freshwater stress 
in Cyprus 

[43]  2017  Cyprus  to access solar water 
heaters, utility 
development, and policy in 
Cyprus  

data 
collection  

demographic 
characteristics of 
housing unit 

usage of SWH systems is 
popular in Cyprus,7 out 
of every 10 households 
have it installed in their 
homes, and out of 10 will 
be prepared to support 
registration that enforces 
its installation at home  

[44]  2020  Cyprus to show the aim of 
transforming water from 
Anatoliaa to Cyprus. 

reviewing 
documents 

analyze political 
effect aftereffects of 
water supply 
continuity  

The alliance between 
Turkey, Israel, and the 
TRNC will alter political 
preferences in the 
eastern Mediterranean. 

[45]  2002  Cyprus  to examine what causes 
increased salinity 

field data 
collection 
and model  

the water quality of 
Cyprus is associated 
with the ophiolitic  

As a result of mixing with 
saline and end-member 
changed seawater, as 
well as the dissolution of 
gypsum and anhydrite, 
salinity increases. 

[46]  2015  Cyprus  to determine the effect of 
water pricing  

data 
collection  

component of the 
total economic 
value of water 
resources and 
appropriate 
economic valuation 

Although water price is a 
potentially successful 
economic instrument, its 
environmental effect is 
not assured, hence it may 
not deistically improve 
Cyprus's water resources 
management. 

[47]  2009  Cyprus  to present and analyze 
Cyprus’s experiences in 
water resources 
management policies  

data 
collection  

precipitation mm 
for long-term 
monthly mean 
values 

very good input data 
quality and quantity set 
the base for high-
resolution simulation of 
groundwater recharge 
and evapotranspiration 
with the water balance 
modeling program me 

[48]  2001  Nicosia to access water demand in 
Cyprus  

data 
collection  

tourism and other 
sectors like 
agricultural water 
demand for the 
various regions in 
the year 2000 

Cyprus is at high risk of 
having high water 
demand 

[49]  2012  Cyprus to present a simple 
methodology that allows 
an estimate of direct and 
indirect local water use 
associated with different  

data 
collection  

the associated 
water footprint per 
person per day of 
each five holiday  

a combination of a flight 
closer to home and a 
largely vegetarian diet 
can make a significant 
difference in lessening 
the overall impact of a 
holiday 

[50]  2017  Cyprus to identify different 
pesticides affecting Cyprus 
water  

data 
collection 

quality water 
characteristics  

Due to their locations, the 
water of high quality is 
exposed to pesticides. 

[51]  2014  Cyprus to examine the 
implications on the 
demand and supply of 
water 

data 
collection 

graphs of annual 
precipitation mm  

Daily activities have an 
impact on Cyprus, but 
water constraint has a 
greater effect on 
agricultural operations. 

[52]  2020  North 
Cyprus 

to show the aim of 
transforming water from 
Anatolia to Cyprus 

reviewing 
documents 

impacts of water 
transferring 

The partnership between 
Turkey, Israel, and the 
TRNC will alter the 
region's existing political 
biases. 

[53]  2012  Cyprus analyzing econometrically 
residential water demand 
in three major urban areas 
in Cyprus 

field data 
collection 
and model  

billed water 
consumption per 
period for 
residential 
consumers  

water demand is inelastic 
but finds not insensitive, 
price elasticity is less 
than unity in absolute 
terms 



H. Gökçekuş et al. /Future Technology                                                                                February 2023| Volume 02 | Issue 01 | Pages 01-12 

12 

 

[54]  2010  Cyprus to summarize, list, and 
provide a full inventory of 
benthic aquatic flora 
recorded in these 
transitional water systems  

data 
collection  

Greek and Cypriot 
transitional water 
system 
characteristics, 
including 
coordinates, surface 
area, and depth 

The assessment of 
biodiversity in protected 
areas of transitional 
water systems is 
essential for the 
protection and 
management of natural 
habitats. 

[55]  2010  Cyprus to investigate possible 
quality changes in Cyprus 
groundwater resources 
over 10 years period 

data 
collection 

crops tolerance and 
yield potential are 
affected by water 
salinity  

In Thalassa and public 
garden regions of Nicosia, 
the LMANN models were 
more accurate than all 
types of weather 
forecasting 

[56]  2016  North 
Cyprus  

to analyze if the 
transferred water was to 
be provided for the 
communities of north 
Cyprus who have been 
grappling with water-
scarce geography daily  

field research  The pipeline 
between Mersin -
name, and geatkoy 

the water in north Cyprus 
as it bought forward 
several neo-liberal policy 
steps hydraulic 
management became a 
location where a specific 
public that technical 
experts and actors were 
constituted  

[57]  2005  Cyprus  reviewing the experiences 
gained at the water board 
of Limassol in striving to 
achieve lower levels of 
leakage by DMA and 
subsequently applying for 
a pressure reduction 
program  

field data 
collection 

water balance (m3) 
for the year 2003 

the more-designing and 
the application of 
pressure reduction have 
produced favorable 
leakage reduced by 
approximately 38% 
 
 
  

[58]  2018  Cyprus to show the construction 
of the motherlands are a 
reaction to environmental 
scarcity  

document 
reviewing  

precipitation 
increases and 
decreases from 
1970 -2001 (mm) 

the effectiveness of 
different water strategies 
depends on the political 
environment  

[59]  2016  Cyprus  to evaluate the 
performance of a single 
effect distillation unit and 
the potential of its 
integration with a 
concentrated solar power 
system as a mitigation 
technique to the water 
scarcity  

data 
collection  

water exploitation 
index based on 
2009 the latest 
available data  

considering the existing 
water crisis that Cyprus 
is facing and the forecast 
annual precipitation on 
the island, the need for 
the development of new 
sustainable technologies 
such as seawater 
desalination is urgent  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 


