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24-30 

24 

 

 

 

Review 

Interaction between infrastructure and climate 

change on buildings, roads, and bridges in 

developed and developing countries: a case of 

Japan and Mozambique 
Hüseyin Gökçekuş1,3*, Youssef Kassem1,2,3, Heronilda Halima Salé Andaque1 

1Department of Civil Engineering, Civil and Environmental Engineering Faculty, Near East University, 99138 Nicosia 
(via Mersin 10, Turkey), Cyprus 
2Department of Mechanical Engineering, Engineering Faculty, Near East University, 99138 Nicosia (via Mersin 10, 
Turkey), Cyprus 
3Energy, Environment, and Water Research Center, Near East University, 99138 Nicosia (via Mersin 10, Turkey), 
Cyprus 

               A R T I C L E   I N F O 
 

Article history: 
Received 02 January 2023  
Received in revised form 
04 February 2023 
Accepted 10 February 2023 
 
Keywords:  
Climate Change, Mozambique, Japan,  
Buildings, Roads, Bridges 
 
*Corresponding author 
Email address: 
huseyin.gokcekus@neu.edu.tr  
 
 
DOI: 10.55670/fpll.futech.2.3.5 
 

A B S T R A C T 
 

This research aims to investigate the effects of climate change on roads, 
buildings, and bridges infrastructures and provide solutions adopted in 
developed and developing countries to reduce or mitigate the impact of climate 
change on infrastructures. The methodology applied in this research consists of 
three parts, first in-depth research was carried out on Japan and Mozambique 
to assess the reasons these countries have a high-level impact of events 
generated by climate change, followed by an analysis of possible causes behind 
the high exposure to events generated by climate change, comparison in terms 
of temperature, precipitation, storms, earthquakes, floods, droughts and 
cyclones during the last 40 years, followed by measures adopted in both 
counties to reduce the impacts on infrastructure. In accordance with the result 
of the research, geographic location, climate, development, and economic 
expansion are major elements that may render developed and developing 
regions more vulnerable to catastrophic disasters. Furthermore, the methods 
used to combat climate change are mostly determined by the availability of 
materials, technologies, and cost aspects. 
 

 

1. Introduction 

Climate changes provide infrastructure policymakers 
with both immediate and long-range issues. Addressing this 
difficulty in a thoughtful and balanced manner is crucial to the 
effectiveness of adaptation measures [1]. Environmental 
impacts, such as environmental pollution and acidification of 
lakes and reservoirs, erode air and water quality and deplete 
economically and environmentally significant resources. 
Climate change is exacerbating these issues by threatening 
the economy and the environment, as well as forcing 
irreversible changes in both developed and developing 
countries [2]. Climate scientists know that social activity is 
warming the world in ways that will have far-reaching and 
uncomfortable consequences for natural resources, energy 

consumption, ecologies, business output, and human well-
being. Gas in the atmosphere (GHG) emissions have caused 
global warming. Decisions made nowadays, especially those 
relating to the redesign and restoration of existing transport 
networks or the placement and development of product 
transport systems, will have a long-term influence on the 
system's ability to adapt to climate change. Immediately 
focusing on the problem should help reduce potential future 
investments and operational disruptions [3]. Roads, 
buildings, and bridges are vital worldwide assets for 
countries and businesses. Managing this asset needs effective 
decision-making that emphasizes economic cost-benefit 
analysis, often at the expense of external variables like public 
welfare, environmental costs, and the effects of climate 

 

 

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H. Gökçekuş et al. /Future Technology                                                                                      August 2023| Volume 02 | Issue 03 | Pages 24-30 

25 

 

change. In the case of developing countries, this may be a dual 
challenge and an opportunity [1]. This research concentrates 
on the interaction between infrastructure and climate change 
in developing and developed nations, with a particular 
emphasis on roads, bridges, and buildings in Japan and 
Mozambique. Furthermore, this research aims to compare 
natural hazards such as temperatures, precipitation, 
droughts, cyclones, and floods, together with the adaptation 
mechanisms used in both countries to respond to severe 
events. Throughout the analyses, special attention is paid to 
variations in climate outcomes, with a focus on extreme 
events such as cyclones, floods, and droughts. 

1.1 Impacts of climate change on roads, bridges, and 
buildings infrastructures  
Temperature change difficulties and implications for 

infrastructure and urban areas center on temperature and 
weather factors as well as occurrences that are expected to 
vary in size or frequency as a consequence of changing 
climate. Variations in average global temperature and 
extreme heat, together with heat and/or cold waves, changes 
in precipitation amounts and patterns, along with extreme 
storms and inundating; changes in weather systems, 
intensities, and densities; and sea-level rise are all associated 
with vulnerabilities and risks [4]. The several impacts of 
climate change on bridges, roads, and buildings will be 
discussed in this subsection. 

1.1.1 Buildings 
A changing environment is predicted to have a critical 

impact on the deterioration of building materials and 
expedite the process [5]. Damages to buildings in lower 
portions of rivers induced by direct water influence are often 
associated with damage and degradation of building material 
properties as a consequence of lengthy water pressure [6]. In 
general, structures can be destroyed by high winds if the 
construction technology and materials are inadequate. The 
wind has recently damaged roofs with corrugated asbestos-
cement roofing sheets and box-rib or corrugated metal roof 
panels. In both circumstances, lighter materials with an 
enormous surface area are used [7].  

1.1.2 Roads and bridges  
Climate change will almost undoubtedly exacerbate 

current traffic difficulties and worsen the state of bridges in 
both industrialized and developing countries [8]. Higher 
temperatures, greater precipitation and humidity levels in 
some places, and increasing carbon levels in the environment 
may all contribute to a higher risk of bridge damage. The 
principal impact of climate change on roads and bridges are 
Increased long-term displacements, higher erosion 
frequency, tumble collapse and avalanche, structure 
resettlement, rockfalls, snow avalanches, extra pressures on 
structures, silt contraction and expansion, longer 
wavelengths impact, increased demand drainage capacity [5]. 
Premature degradation of road pavement, causing more 
cracked areas, disruption of access, and infrastructure 
damage. Porous asphalt deterioration results in spalling, 
pothole damage, and lost revenue at longitudinal seams. 
Pavement life is reduced owing to early material and 
structural deterioration [9]. 

1.2 Contextualization of the research 
To develop the research on the interaction between 

changes and infrastructure in roads, bridges, and buildings, 
Mozambique and japan were selected as illustrative cases of 
developing and developed countries because of their high risk 

to natural disasters as well as Japan is the most threatened 
country in the world by climate change mainly due to heavy 
rains, earthquakes, typhoons, and heat waves. On the other 
hand, Mozambique, with its location around the Indian Ocean, 
has been one of the most affected by cyclones in Africa, mainly 
in the past 20 years. This section attempts to provide an 
overview of both nations, focusing on their geographical 
location, climate, and precipitation. 

1.2.1 The geographical location of the research area 
Mozambique is located on the eastern coast of 

southern Africa, 11-26 degrees south of the equator, and has 
a tropical to a subtropical climate that is moderated by its 
mountainous topography and influenced by the movement of 
the intertropical convergence zone, El Niño, and surface 
temperatures in the Indian Ocean, all of which can vary from 
year to year due to changes in atmospheric and oceanic 
circulation patterns. This country's rainfall distribution 
follows a north-south gradient, with greater rainfall around 
the coast, where the annual average is between 800 and 1200 
millimeters (mm). Summer average temperatures near the 
shore range from 25 to 27º Celsius, while winter 
temperatures range from 20 to 23º Celsius. Approximately 23 
million (estimated - July 2012); rising population growth rate 
of 2.5%; Moreover 70% of the population lives in rural 
regions, with agriculture being the most significant major 
activity [12]. 

Japan is an archipelago nation located off the East 
coast of Asia, consisting of four main islands, from north to 
south: Hokkaido, Honshu, Kyushu, Shikoku, and over 3500 
smaller islands. Because Japan covers over 2,360 kilometers, 
the inhabitants experience a wide range of weather 
conditions. The winter months in Japan's east are dry. The 
mountains limit the moisture boundaries; the Pacific side 
receives less, and the Sea of Japan shore receives tropical 
showers. Summer in Japan is quite humid. The Japan Current 
(Kuroshio) ensures a pleasant autumn. Typhoons 
(hurricanes) with high winds over water make landfall in the 
southeastern section of the nation around November [13]. 

2. Methodology 

This study was divided up into three stages: the first 
involved the selection of the developed and developing 
nations, accompanied by the gathering of data on roads, 
bridges, and buildings, and finally, the analysis of the data 
acquired for Mozambique and Japan. To collect data for this 
study, a platform called Climate Change Knowledge Portal for 
Development Practitioners and Policymakers (CCKP) was 
applied, along with Excel, to generate graphics and analyze 
the data. 

2.1 Climate knowledge portal 
The Climate Change Knowledge Portal (CCKP) serves as 

the World Bank Group's central repository for climate-related 
information, data, and tools (WBG). The Portal provides an 
online platform for accessing and analyzing extensive data on 
climate change and development. Climate data aggregates are 
now available at the national, subnational, and watershed 
levels. The use of versatile methodologies, relevant 
information, and instructive techniques that can deliver 
detailed data to a broad range of users, enabling them to apply 
research evidence to the design of a project or policy, is often 
required for the successful integration of scientific 
information in decision-making. Figure 1 illustrates the 
geographical location of Mozambique and japan as the case of 
developed and developing countries. 



H. Gökçekuş et al. /Future Technology                                                                                      August 2023| Volume 02 | Issue 03 | Pages 24-30 

26 

 

(a) 

 
(b) 

Figure 1. (a) The geographical location of Mozambique [10], 
(b) The geographical location of Japan [11] 
 

3. Discussion 

3.1 Comparisons between Mozambique and Japan   
The purpose of this research is to examine severe 

occurrences in Mozambique and Japan, as well as the 
strategies used to deal with the consequences of climate 
change. As a result, this research emphasizes the contrast in 
terms of precipitation, temperatures, cyclones, droughts, 

floods, and storms in this section. In addition, a comparison of 
solutions will be addressed. 

3.1.1 Temperature 
Temperatures have risen in recent decades due to 

climate change, and many cities have seen high temperatures 
on both sides, maximum and lowest. The figures below depict 
temperature changes in Mozambique and Japan during the 
last 40 years. Figure 2 clearly shows the minimum 
temperatures measured in both nations showing that the 
minimum temperature in Japan before the development or 
growth in factors was over 7o. Ten years later, the lowest 
temperature increased dramatically, with temperatures over 
8º. A relatively similar situation endures to this day, with 
exponential growth tendencies. Since the 1980s, Mozambique 
has seen high-low temperatures of 18º. The country had a 
minor increase in temperature during the decades of 1990 
and 2000, with a 1º increase in temperature in 2010 and a 
temperature that has remained steady till today, with some 
tendencies to climb slightly in the next years. The same 
approach can be seen in Figure 3 for maximum temperatures 
in Mozambique and Japan.  

 
Figure 2. Minimum Temperature in Japan and Mozambique 
from 1980 to 2020 
 

 
Figure 3. Maximum Temperature in Japan and Mozambique 
from 1980 to 2020 

 
In Japan, the maximum temperature has increased by 

2o during the last 40 years. In the first decade (1980), the 
temperature was 14o, with some changes during the decade; 
in the second decade, the temperature increased to 16o, with 
some oscillations throughout the third decade; this scenario 
continues to the present day, with a strong propensity to rise 
in the following years. Mozambique, on the other hand, had 



H. Gökçekuş et al. /Future Technology                                                                                      August 2023| Volume 02 | Issue 03 | Pages 24-30 

27 

 

slight variations in maximum temperatures during the 
previous 40 years, with 29o in the early decades and slight 
swings. This country witnessed a 1o increase in maximum 
temperature in 2010, followed by several declines until 29o, 
which remained constant until the actual days, with some 
tendency to climb slightly in the following years. With regards 
to Mean Temperature (Figure 4), Japan kept with the same 
tendency over the last 40 years, with an increase of 2o in its 
mean temperatures from 10o to 12o, while Mozambique 
trends an insignificant change over time, with 23o to 24o over 
the last 40 years. 

 
Figure 4. Mean Temperature in Japan and Mozambique from 
1980 to 2020 

 
3.1.2 Precipitation  

In recent years, Japan has received the highest 
proportion of precipitation compared to Mozambique. This 
country had the most precipitation in the first decade, with 
1919 mm, compared to 953 mm in Mozambique. Over the 
second decade, precipitation in Japan fell to 200 mm, 
compared to 100 mm in Mozambique. While Japan suffered 
another decline in precipitation of more than 400mm in the 
third decade, Mozambique witnessed a rise of 200 mm, 
representing the greatest value of precipitation reached by 
this nation, with around 1200 mm to the current day. 
However, Mozambique's precipitation has decreased over the 
previous two decades, with 100mm in the third decade and 
200mm in the fourth. Meanwhile, Japan has seen a 200 mm 
rise in the previous two decades. Figure 5 reveals the 
quantities of precipitation in Mozambique and Japan over 40 
years. 

3.1.3 Cyclones  
Compared to Mozambique, Japan has a record of one or 

more cyclones yearly, signifying the highest number of 
cyclones over 40 years. However, Mozambique had followed 
Japan's pattern of having more than one cyclone each year, 
with high concentrations in coastal regions, such as in 2022, 
when Mozambique was hit by three cyclones in less than six 
months. The storm was followed by high winds, floods, and 
heavy rain, destroying Mozambique's central and northern 
coastal cities. Figure 6 demonstrates the occurrence of 
cyclones in both countries over 40 years. 

3.1.4 Floods, landslides, and storms 
The graph (Figure 7) compares the incidence of 

Floods, droughts, earthquakes, and storms in both nations; it 
is feasible to understand that Japan is heavily affected by 
storms with the largest quantity compared to Mozambique. 
Earthquakes and landslides are very common in the nation. 
As a result, Mozambique has the greatest record of flood 
incidence when compared to Japan. Furthermore, this 

country has undergone droughts during the previous few 
decades. 

 
Figure 5. Precipitation in Japan and Mozambique from 1980 
to 2020 

 
Figure 6. Occurrence of Cyclones in Mozambique and Japan 
from 1980 to 2022 

 
Figure 7. Floods, droughts, and storms occurred from 1980 
to 2021 

 
3.1.5 Solutions adopted in Mozambique  

Mozambique, in particular, is a country rich in natural 
resources, from its soil to its large forests, passing through its 
big rivers and even its vast mineral deposits. It also gives 
simple access to natural construction resources. Ref [14] 
argued that traditional housing materials are the most 
sensitive to weather impact since they are used in their 
original condition. Using materials in their natural condition 
becomes a more ecological, less polluting alternative, as well 
as under numerous sustainable characteristics that may be 



H. Gökçekuş et al. /Future Technology                                                                                      August 2023| Volume 02 | Issue 03 | Pages 24-30 

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summarised, such as boosting the energy efficiency of 
buildings. However, one of the most challenging challenges in 
the building industry has been to match the notions of 
sustainability with the disposition of the material desired. The 
materials most used in Mozambique for construction, 
especially in rural areas, are zinc, bamboo, stone, clay, and 
timber. 
• Buildings: To alleviate the impacts of climate change, 
Mozambique developed stilted buildings (Figure 8) to allow 
inhabitants to reach their homes even during extreme 
occurrences such as floods or heavy rains. This method 
comprises towering pillars at a height higher than the ground, 
often 3 m, depending on the purpose of the building and the 
slope of the land. In this nation, the major materials utilized 
in this technology were Bamboo for the structure (columns, 
beams, roof structures, and wall structures) and reinforced 
concrete for the foundations. This solution was implemented 
in the North and center of Mozambique in rural areas, where 
the populations have no access to conventional materials as 
well as they don’t have enough information related to 
construction. Additionally, this solution provides numerous 
vantages for the population, mainly because it is low-cost 
contrition, and 90% of the materials employed for this kind of 
house can be found in nature. Bamboo is a robust, fast-
growing, and extremely sustainable material that has been 
utilized architecturally in many regions of the world for 
thousands of years. As seen by several visually spectacular 
contemporary projects, it has the potential to be an 
aesthetically beautiful and low-cost alternative to more 
traditional materials such as timber [15]. Bamboo has a 
highly strong fiber as a building material. Bamboo has double 
the compressive strength of concrete and a tensile strength 
comparable to steel. Bamboo fiber has a higher shear stress 
than wood. Bamboo has a longer lifespan than wood. Bamboo 
may also be bent without breaking. Bamboo is regarded as 
one of the strongest building materials, with tensile strengths 
greater than and less than 28,000 N per square inch, as 
opposed to steel, which has a tensile strength of 23,000 N per 
square inch [16]. Bamboo can withstand greater strain than 
compression. Bamboo fibers run axially and are made of a 
highly elastic vascular bundle with high tensile strength. 
These fibers have a higher tensile strength than steel, but it is 
impossible to build connections that can convey this tensile 
strength. Slimmer tubes are also superior in this regard. Axial 
parallel elastic fibers having tensile strengths of up to 400 
N/mm2 can be detected inside the silicate outer skin. In 
comparison, particularly strong wood fibers may withstand 
tensions of up to 50 N/mm2. Bamboo as a construction 
material has the following advantages and disadvantages: it is 
the most rapidly increasing renewable natural construction 
material, the material is easily accessible and 
environmentally friendly, as an independent construction 
material, bamboo is a feasible alternative to steel, concrete, 
and masonry, it is inexpensive and simple to use, it may be 
readily bent, shaped, and provided with joints to fit the 
building, its incredible flexibility makes it an excellent 
construction material in earthquake-prone locations. Locally 
accessible materials are used in certain regions to preserve 
the local tradition and vernacular architecture, durability- 
Because bamboo is susceptible to insects, untreated bamboo 
is regarded as transient with a lifespan of fewer than 5 years, 
jointing- despite the fact that numerous joints are used, 
structural efficiency is low, inadequate design advice and 
codes [17]. 
• Roads & Bridges: In Mozambique, the roads and 
bridges were reconstructed using the same technologies, with 

great attention to extreme events, due to emergencies 
applying modular designing (Figure 9) to bridges made of 
steel modular structures to help in the restoration of the 
transportation and rapid adaptation of the country, and 
maintenance. A modular building is a pre-engineered steel 
structure, which implies that its components, or modules, are 
created in a factory setting to the same regulations as 
traditional structures. Commercial trucks deliver the 
completed modules to a building site, where they are 
assembled by a function Object. Each module is placed to 
create a self-supporting structure capable of supporting 
another modular unit on top. While this can be advantageous 
for segmented vertical construction, it has limitations for 
large-scale structures. This is especially true for structures 
broader than a semi-truck bed. This solution has the following 
benefits, which were grouped into five categories: a project 
schedule, project cost, labor safety, project quality and 
productivity, and environmental [19]. The restrictions were 
also explored and grouped into five areas based on existing 
literature: project planning, transportation, public and expert 
acceptability, establishment cost and cost owing to 
complexity, and coordination [20]. 

Figure 8. The solution adopted in Mozambique in the most 
affected areas (rural areas) to withstand climate change [12] 

 
Figure 9. The bridge was reconstructed by using a steel 
structure to withstand climate change impacts in the North of 
Mozambique [18] 

3.1.6 Solutions adopted to Japan 
Rapid development has resulted in the eradication of 

agricultural areas and woods, which naturally help to collect 
and absorb rainwater. As a result, the quantity of surface 
runoff pouring into the river has increased, increasing the 
likelihood of floods [21]. 
• Buildings: To resist the worst floods, japan devised a 
new form of construction called pilotis structures, which 



H. Gökçekuş et al. /Future Technology                                                                                      August 2023| Volume 02 | Issue 03 | Pages 24-30 

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includes reinforcements like pillars, supports, or piers that lift 
a structure above land or water. A grid of slender reinforced 
concrete pylons that sustain the structural weight of a 
structure. Figure 10 shows the application of pilots in Japan 
as a solution to combat the impact of climate change on 
buildings. Figure 10 illustrates a pilotis structure 
implemented in japan residential buildings. This solution was 
implemented in Yokohama city. The climate of Yokohama is 
moderate, with pleasant, sunny winters and hot, humid, and 
wet summers. The city, like the rest of Japan, is influenced by 
the monsoon circulation: in winter, northwest cold currents 
predominate, while in summer, hot and humid tropical 
currents take their place. Yokohama is located in Tokyo Bay, 
close to the Japanese capital. Given the relatively low latitude 
and the shelter of the mountain, the Siberian currents are felt 
little in winter, resulting in a reasonable number of sunny 
days and temperatures that are not too chilly [22]. 
 

 
 

Figure 10. Pilotis structure employed for Nissan Stadium 
[21] 

 
Pilotis are a type of vernacular architecture created using 

traditional techniques and materials such as bamboo, timber, 
straw, etc. High buildings as being those in which the 
foundation is not immediately lying on the ground but is 
raised with structural pillars or columns of different heights, 
typically more than two meters. In other terms, the pillars or 
columns are the structures that hold the structure together 
[23]. The Sob-Pilotis solution offers the following benefits and 
drawbacks [24]: Ease of construction on unstable and sloping 
terrain; When built on water, they give the impression of 
floating; 
• Acceptability in areas with rough and muddy terrain; 

Acceptability in wetlands; 
• It is possible to construct beneath embankments; it has an 

ecological aspect because no soil waterproofing is 
required; it prevents pathological issues; 

• Protection against a potential flood; 
• Buildings' environmental effects must be reduced. 

• Roads and Bridges: To reduce the impacts of climate 
change, mainly due to flooding, Japan adopted the above 
technique as an opportunity to reduce runoff volume by 
helping the water in filtering into the soil, decreasing urban 
heating, and reducing flash floods. Fig.10 illustrates the 
permeable pavement in Taipei city. Permeable pavements are 
often made of permeable concrete, asphalt pavements, 
permeability interlocking concrete paving modules, or grid-
type systems installed across an accessible base/subbase 
layer. Permeable pavements filter and remove pollutants, 
minimize peak flows, and enhance groundwater recharge. 
Permeable pavement systems, regardless of surface, contain 
three design techniques. First and foremost, they are intended 
to encourage complete or complete penetration of rainwater 
into the soil subgrade. Second, where soil subgrade 
infiltration rates are limited, partial infiltration occurs, and 

the remaining water departs via underdrains. Third, for 
designs that do not need infiltration, permeable pavement 
solutions are encased in a geomembrane that keeps detained 
water from entering the soil subgrade and allows it to depart 
through underdrains [25]. 

4. Conclusion  

Climate change is expected to have an influence on roads, 
bridges, and road infrastructures by altering the pattern of 
extreme climatic events such as temperature, precipitation, 
floods, earthquakes, droughts, and storms. Considering 
everything in the effort it is possible to conclude that despite 
their dissimilar economic realities, Mozambique and Japan 
face the same challenges in battling climate change. As a 
developed country, Japan has stronger technological and 
economic resources to adapt and respond to climate change, 
and the urban areas are the most affected by extreme events. 
In contrast, Mozambique has the most people and is the most 
exposed to catastrophic occurrences in rural regions. 
Moreover, the country has a set of deficient infrastructures, 
which gradually contributes to the increase of the 
consequences of these events on the population, economic 
power, and technologies, which do not facilitate the 
collection, processing, and production of solutions that can 
help to battle these events in the long term and effectively, 
reducing the number of losses in major infrastructure, 
economic resources, and human terms. Additionally, 
geographic location and climate are important factors that 
may render individuals more vulnerable to catastrophic 
disasters as well as development and economic expansion are 
critical elements in both increasing and mitigating different 
losses caused by climate changes. Furthermore, the methods 
used to combat climate change are mostly determined by the 
availability of materials, technologies, and cost aspects. 

Ethical issue 
The authors are aware of and comply with best practices in 
publication ethics, specifically with regard to authorship 
(avoidance of guest authorship), dual submission, 
manipulation of figures, competing interests, and compliance 
with policies on research ethics. The authors adhere to 
publication requirements that the submitted work is original 
and has not been published elsewhere. 

Data availability statement 
Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no datasets 

were generated or analyzed during the current study. 

Conflict of interest 

The authors declare no potential conflict of interest. 

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