












































 

ISSN #2331-6845 

 

The connection between drama, language and 
cognition in preschool dual language learners 

(DLLs) 
 

By Dr. Lama K. Farran 
Communication Sciences and Disorders  

University of West Georgia 
lfarran@westga.edu    

Dr. Diana Mindrila 
Educational Research 

University of West Georgia 
dmindril@westga.edu  

 

This study examined the connection between drama, language, and cognition in 61 
preschool Latino children. Parents and teachers completed surveys and observations of 
children’s behaviors. Results showed that parent home language use and observations of 
their children’s behaviors following drama exposure were related to children’s cognition. 
Recommendations for practice and future research are presented. 

Keywords:  Home Language Use; Language; Dual Language Learners; Latino; Drama; 
Cognition; Teacher Report 

 

The demographic and linguistic landscapes are changing at an incredibly rapid rate 

in the United States schools with many students whose first home language (L1) is not 

English. Current estimates indicate a dramatic increase in the number of public school 

students who are dual language learners (DLLs) from 8.7 percent or approximately 4.1 

 
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mailto:lfarran@westga.edu
mailto:dmindril@westga.edu


million students in 2002-2003 to 9.2 percent, or approximately 4.4 million students in the 

2012-2013 academic year (National Center for Education Statistics, 2015). Similarly, the 

state of Georgia has also witnessed an increase in DLLs ages 0-8 years, with numbers 

tripling between 1990 and 2012. This increase has posed new challenges for 

educational programs to build their capacity so that they are better equipped to properly 

meet the needs of linguistically and culturally diverse populations.  

Related to this demographic shift is the parallel increase in young children’s 

enrollment in preschools and early childcare centers, which has been associated with 

academic and cognitive gains, especially in language, literacy, and math (Magnuson, 

Lahaie, & Waldfogel, 2006). Despite this trend, Latino children and children of 

immigrants enroll at a lower rate compared to children of nonimmigrants (Turney & Kao; 

2009), which is unfortunate when considering that Latino children are more likely to 

perform poorly upon school entry compared to their same age peers by an estimated 

three years in academic and social-emotional domains (Center for Early Care and 

Education Research, Dual Language Learners 2011).  

 While the specific mechanisms for the low performance of Latino children remain 

unclear, the available evidence suggests a confluence of multiple risk factors may be at 

play for Latino children compared to other groups, especially for those who are DLLs. 

These include parents’ low income and low literacy levels, and the low status of the 

Spanish language in the US.  

Against this background, research also suggests that bilingualism may confer a 

cognitive and linguistic advantage brought about by learning two languages 

simultaneously (Bialystok, 2001). Young Latino children who enroll in bilingual programs 

 
2                                                                  GATESOL in Action, Fall 2016/Spring 2017 
 



may thus be especially at an advantage for cognitive and linguistic gains, potentially 

offsetting the impact of parents’ low SES and low literacy levels. Specifically, bilingual 

children who are exposed to their home language (L1) in early childhood tend to 

demonstrate higher language performance in their second language (L2) and better 

cognitive skills upon their preschool or elementary school entry compared to bilingual 

children who do not experience early exposure to their L1 (August & Shanahan, 2008; 

Hammer, Davison, Lawrence, & Miccio, 2009; Páez, Tabors, & Lopez, 2007). Similarly, 

bilingual programs that expose young children to drama have been proven to be 

beneficial to children’s future academic and cognitive outcomes (Diamond, Barnett, 

Thomas, & Munro, 2007).  

The facilitative effect of home language use on cognitive skills of bilinguals has 

been attributed to the increased cognitive demands brought about by learning and 

managing two or more languages simultaneously—a well-established finding in 

research on bilingualism (Bialystok, 2001; Gold, Kim, Johnson, Kryscio, & Smith, 2013; 

Marian & Shook, 2012). In a recent study, Leon Guerrero, Smith, and Luk (2016) 

examined the relation between home language use and cognition in preschool children 

and found interactions between proportions of Spanish language use, chronological 

age, and performance on a cognitive control task. Results indicate that the consistent 

use of home language moderates the development of cognitive control in preschool 

children. These findings bolster the importance of maintaining home language as a 

foundation for L1 and L2 language learning and cognition.  

Similar findings were also reported by the Center for Early Care and Education 

Research- Dual Language Learners (2014) attesting to the bilingual advantage being 

 
3                                                                  GATESOL in Action, Fall 2016/Spring 2017 
 



evident as early as the first year of life. Specifically, bilingual infants showed an 

advantage over monolingual infants in executive function, namely inhibitory control 

tasks (e.g., tasks that require selectively attending to competing options and the ability 

to suppress interfering information). These findings seem to suggest that mere 

exposure to two languages and not necessarily spoken language competence, impacts 

cognitive skills positively. Moreover, research on early development shows that bilingual 

infants demonstrate superior prerequisite skills to theory of mind and executive control 

tasks (e.g., emotional control and attention shift) irrespective of the home language (s) 

to which infants are exposed (Carlson & Meltzoff, 2008). When compared to 

monolinguals, bilingual children also experience their languages concurrently, and this 

experience tends to enhance functional plasticity and induce changes in brain 

organization that differs significantly from that of monolinguals’ (Conboy & Kuhl, 2011). 

Finally, bilingual children have been shown to outperform their monolingual counterparts 

on metalinguistic awareness tasks, namely syntactic and morphological awareness 

tasks (Davidson, Raschke, & Pervez, 2010).  

Clearly, the evidence that supports the bilingual advantage in young children is 

well established. There is now mounting evidence that links children’s positive academic 

and developmental outcomes to drama. Studies that rely on caregiver (parent, teacher) 

report and direct assessment of participants (teachers, children) show that drama 

integration positively affects multiple domains, including language (e.g., vocabulary), 

cognition (e.g., self-regulation, executive function), social, and academic skills. We 

briefly present these findings next.  

 
4                                                                  GATESOL in Action, Fall 2016/Spring 2017 
 



Greenfader and Brouillette (2013) examined the effect of the Teaching Artist 

Project (TAP), a professional development program that promotes K-1 classroom 

teachers’ utilization of drama and creative movement, on children’s language outcomes. 

Results indicate statistically significant benefits for Kindergarten children who 

participated in TAP as evidenced by their higher scores on standardized assessment 

(Listening and speaking subtests of the California English Language Development Test; 

CELDT).   

In a study cast in Vygotskian theory, Elias and Berk (2002) tested the effect of 

drama on self-regulation skills, which are foundational to the development of 

relationships and language, including vocabulary in preschool children. The results 

reveal that the use of drama contributes significantly to the development of self-

regulation and language, particularly vocabulary. 

In another study that uses Vygotskian’s theory, Diamond, Barnett, Thomas, and 

Munro (2007) examined the cognitive skills of preschool children, namely executive 

functions skills. Participants were 24 teachers and 147 preschoolers who were 

randomly assigned to either “Tools of the Mind” (an educational curriculum that fosters 

the development of executive skills especially self-regulation through dramatic play and 

movement) or a control curriculum. Teachers in the Tools curriculum spent 80% of their 

time training in executive functions using drama. Results reveal that children in the 

Tools group performed better than controls on all executive function measures after 

controlling for child age and gender, and their performance was predictive of children’s 

future academic outcomes one year later.  

 
5                                                                  GATESOL in Action, Fall 2016/Spring 2017 
 



Further support for the beneficial role of drama was reported by Kruger, Orton, 

and Bays (2003), who examined the effect of a drama professional development 

program on language and literacy outcomes of 452 DLL kindergarteners in six Title 1 

schools, assigned to either treatment or control conditions. Teachers in the treatment 

group received professional learning workshops focusing on drama, while the control 

teachers received the state’s standard arts curriculum. Post intervention results 

revealed that the drama group performed significantly better on measures of English 

oral language (vocabulary) and academic outcomes in language and cognition. The 

drama intervention was thus instrumental in promoting the educational outcomes of 

DLLs, as these do not always excel academically due to their limited command of 

English as a second language.  

Given the reviewed studies pointing to the benefits of home language use and 

drama exposure, in this paper, we were interested in extending previous research to 

younger children in the preschool years, by examining the relationship between drama 

exposure, language, and cognition in a sample of preschool Latino DLLs.  

Purpose 

The purpose of this study is twofold. First the study seeks to examine the 

associations between parent home language use and teacher report of children’s 

cognition in the context of the classroom. Second, this study explores the relationship 

between parent observation of their children’s behaviors following drama exposure and 

teacher report of children’s cognition in the preschool context. As such, this study aimed 

at answering the following research questions: 

 
6                                                                  GATESOL in Action, Fall 2016/Spring 2017 
 



1. Is there a significant association between parent language use and children’s 

cognitive skills (executive language skills) as measured by teacher Behavior Rating 

Inventory of Executive Function-Preschool (BRIEF-P) ratings? 

2. Is there a significant association between parent observation of children’s behaviors 

following their exposure to drama and children’s cognitive skills (executive language 

skills) as measured by teacher BRIEF-P ratings? 

Method 

Participants were 61 parents and five general education teachers (four bilingual 

and one monolingual) of typically developing children who attended a preschool in the 

Metro Atlanta area (Saturday school 2 x per month August 2014- May 2015). Children 

were Latinos who came from predominantly low socioeconomic status (SES) 

backgrounds and their primary home language was Spanish. Parents and teachers 

participated in a bilingual preschool-wide program “Building Early Language and 

Literacy through Drama” as follows:  

Parents/families component 

Parents attended learning through the arts workshops at the preschool, in which 

teaching artists from a regional Arts Center in Atlanta demonstrated the use of drama 

strategies and how to infuse them in language and literacy learning and teaching. 

Throughout the workshops, parents received support from the teaching artists, who 

scaffolded parents’ learning of drama strategies by modeling and encouraging role play 

on how to use objects to represent story characters, ask guiding questions, and 

visualize a setting by using body, voice, and imagination. Parents, with the assistance of 

bilingual parent coaches at the preschool, were asked to complete a paper survey 

 
7                                                                  GATESOL in Action, Fall 2016/Spring 2017 
 



related to their experience with and endorsement of drama in their children’s home 

language and literacy practices at home and school. 

Teaching residency component 

 Preschool teachers participated in a residency component and attended 12 

sessions (four units, each unit consisting of three sessions, and each session lasting 

approximately 45 minutes: 25-30 minute classroom sessions, each followed by a 10-15 

minute discussion held at the preschool). The sessions were held approximately every 

three weeks and focused on teaching drama strategies. Teaching artists worked closely 

with inservice teachers to provide coaching and instructional models that facilitated (1) 

making connections between drama and curriculum content; and (2) highlighting the 

potential impact of those connections on student learning. This collaborative model 

between teaching artists and inservice teachers allowed the dyad to plan lessons with 

instructional strategies that targeted Common Core State Standards and Georgia Fine 

Art Standards, potentially benefiting students from standards-based instruction that 

incorporated drama-integration strategies and enhanced students’ self-regulation and 

language skills. Inservice teachers were also provided with the opportunity to reflect 

upon and demonstrate new knowledge and understandings. Overall, the residency 

sessions focused on teaching preschool children bilingual drama lessons, which were 

delivered by the classroom teachers with help from teaching artists. The children also 

participated in bilingual drama workshops with their parents twice per year.   

Measures 

Parent Observation of Child Behavior Related to Drama Experience. Parents 

were asked to complete this checklist after they attended the drama workshops with 

 
8                                                                  GATESOL in Action, Fall 2016/Spring 2017 
 



their children. The checklist was developed by the researcher based on published 

research studies on drama, language, and cognition (Diamond et al., 2007; Leon et al., 

2016). Items were designed to include variables thought to play a key role in children’s 

developmental outcomes across language, communication, and executive function (See 

Diamond et al., 2007; Elias and Berk, 2001). The checklist consists of 18 items that 

assess parent observation of child behavior in the areas of language (uses a 

combination of words and gestures to express wants and needs), communication 

(demonstrates or shows concern for others, uses words effectively with others), and 

executive function (e.g., changes routines and activities from one to the next without 

difficulty, and makes inferences and predicts what will happen next). This checklist was 

translated to Spanish, and then back-translated to English, and takes 8-10 minutes to 

complete. See Appendix I.  

Parent Questionnaire. Language Use and Literacy Practices (adapted from 

Duursma et al., 2007), translated to Spanish, and back-translated to English. This 

questionnaire consists of 40 questions that assess parent input regarding home 

language use, parental help with language and literacy, parental education, parental 

home income, parental reading frequency, and literacy practices in the home. It uses a 

Likert scale (Language Use Scale items range from “Only Spanish”, “Mainly in Spanish”, 

“English & Spanish equally”, “Mainly in English”, and “only English”. The Frequency of 

Language Use items ranged from “Prenatal”, “Birth”, “6 Months”, “1 Year”, “2 Years”, 

and “3 Years”.) This questionnaire takes 10 minutes to complete. See Appendix II.  

 
9                                                                  GATESOL in Action, Fall 2016/Spring 2017 
 



Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function-Preschool Version 

(BRIEF-P), English and Spanish version (Gioia, Epsy, & Isquish, 2002). Teachers 

were asked to rate children’s executive functions within the school’s environment. 

Permission was obtained from the publisher to use this norm-referenced measure, 

which assesses multiple aspects of executive functioning such as Inhibit, Shift, 

Emotional Control, Working memory, and Plan/Organize. It takes 10 minutes to 

complete. 

Parent Drama Experience Survey. This survey assesses the extent to which 

parents endorse their children’s experience with drama. It is researcher-developed and 

uses a four-point likert scale (Strongly Disagree, Disagree, Agree, Strongly Agree).  See 

Appendix III.  

Data Analytic Plan 

Descriptive Analysis. Descriptive statistics were computed to explore the 

distribution of parent and teacher responses on the two instruments. Parent reports of 

language use were summarized by computing the percentage of parents choosing each 

response option. This procedure showed the proportion of parents who started speaking 

to their child in Spanish and in English at each age level.  

Teacher responses on the BRIEF–P were obtained for the following: (1) Inhibit, 

which assesses inhibitory control—the ability to inhibit impulses when needed or at the 

right time; (2) Shift, which assesses the ability to shift or move from one task or aspect 

of a task to another based upon contextual or situational demands; (3) Emotional 

Control (EC), which assesses the ability to control emotional regulation and control 

using executive function skills; (4) Working Memory (WM), which assesses the ability to 

 
10                                                                  GATESOL in Action, Fall 2016/Spring 2017 
 



hold information in mind for the purpose of completing a task, encoding information, 

sustaining problem-solving, and following multistep instructions; (5) Plan/Organize (PO), 

which assesses the ability to plan, organize, and manage various tasks based upon the 

context in which they occur; (6) Inhibitory Self-Control Index (ISCI), which combines the 

Inhibit and Emotional control scales; (7) Flexibility Index (FI), which represents the 

ability to act flexibly in response to contextual demands, and is important requisite for 

behavioral regulation; (8) Emergent Metacognition Index (EMI), composed of the 

Working Memory and Plan/Organize scales, it assesses the ability to hold information 

and events in working memory, permitting better planning, organization, and problem-

solving skills; and (9) Global Executive Composite (GEC), which reflects performance 

on all BRIEF-P scales. GEC is used as a summary score of children’s current executive 

function skills.  

The BRIEF-P teacher responses are measured using Inconsistency and 

Negativity scales, whereby a higher number indicates greater inconsistency or greater 

negativity. Likewise, the closer the number is to zero, the better the performance.  For 

instance, the item “Becomes upset with new situations” is included in the Shift scale; a 

higher score on this item indicates difficulties moving freely from one situation to 

another (Sherman, & Brooks, 2010). 

BRIEF-P scale scores are reported as T scores (M=50, SD=10). These 

standardized scores are norm referenced and should be interpreted in relation to the 

population mean and standard deviation. For instance, a score of T=76 on the Shift 

scale is in the 98th percentile and indicates significant difficulties with behavior and 

cognitive flexibility (Sherman, & Brooks, 2010). For the current sample, the distribution 

 
11                                                                  GATESOL in Action, Fall 2016/Spring 2017 
 



of scale scores was investigated by computing the sample mean (M), standard 

deviation (SD), minimum (Min), and maximum (Max) value for each scale.  

Correlational Analysis. Polyserial correlation coefficients were computed to 

estimate the degree of association between variables measuring parents’ language use 

and BRIEF-P scale scores. These coefficients are used to estimate the degree of 

association between an ordinal variable and a continuous variable (Olsson, 1982) and 

take values between -1 and 1. Negative values indicate that higher values in one 

variable are associated with lower values in the other variable, while positive 

coefficients indicate that higher values in one variable are associated with higher values 

in the other variable (Olsson, 1982). Values closer to zero indicate a weak relationship, 

whereas coefficients that approach the values 1 or -1 indicate stronger associations 

between variables (Cohen, 1989). Coefficients were considered statistically significant 

when the corresponding probability (p) was lower than .05. 

Results 

Descriptive Analysis 

Parent Language Use. Participating parents were asked to indicate the age 

when they began speaking to their child in Spanish and English respectively. The great 

majority of parents reported beginning to speak in Spanish to their children during the 

prenatal period or at birth and only few of the parents reported beginning to speak 

English in the first year of life. The great majority of the respondents began speaking 

English to their children after the age of one. The same pattern of responses was 

observed in both parents. Specifically, 78% of mothers and 76% of fathers began to 

speak to their child in Spanish before or at the child’s birth. In contrast, 66% of the 

 
12                                                                  GATESOL in Action, Fall 2016/Spring 2017 
 



mothers and 56% of the fathers began speaking English to their child only after the age 

of one (Figure 1 and Figure 2).  

 

 

Figure 1. Proportion of mothers who began to speak to their child in Spanish/English by age  

 

 

Figure 2. Proportion of fathers who began to speak to their child in Spanish/English by age 

  

Prenatal Birth 6
Months 1 Year 2 Years 3 Years

Age mom started Spanish,
N=50 36% 42% 10% 8% 0% 4%

Age mom started English,
N=32 16% 13% 6% 9% 13% 44%

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

Pe
rc

en
ta

ge

Prenata
l Birth 6

Months 1 Year 2 Years 3 Years

Age dad started Spanish,
N=46 24% 52% 9% 11% 2% 2%

Age dad started English, N=34 15% 24% 6% 9% 12% 35%

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

Pe
rc

en
ta

ge

 
13                                                                  GATESOL in Action, Fall 2016/Spring 2017 
 



Teacher BRIEF-P Ratings. Average scale scores ranged between 44.81 for the 

Flexibility Index (FI) scale and 61.46 for the Working Memory (WMem) scale. The 

lowest score was recorded on the Plan/Organize (PO) scale (Min=28.0), while the 

largest score was recorded on the WMem scale (Max=103) (Table 1).  

Table 1:  BRIEF-P Average Scale Scores 

 N Min Max M SD 

Inhib 61 39.0 102.0 52.984 15.3183 

Shift 61 18.0 82.0 48.230 11.2448 

EmCont 61 19.0 88.0 46.590 12.0684 

WMem 61 40.0 103.0 61.459 17.5780 

PO 61 28.0 96.0 54.230 15.2899 

ISCI 36 38 81 48.06 11.006 

FI 36 37 73 44.81 7.441 

EMI 36 39 98 57.14 18.037 

GEC 36 37 162 54.61 23.281 

 

Correlational Analysis  

 Correlational analysis revealed several significant associations between parents’ 

language use and teacher BRIEF-P scale scores. For instance, as the age at which the 

mother started communicating with the child in Spanish increased, scores on the Shift, 

WMem, PO, and EMI also increased. Similarly, as the age at which the father started 

communicating with the child in Spanish increased, scores on the WMem scales also 

 
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increased. Nevertheless, the age at which parents started communicating in English 

with their child was not significantly associated with BRIEF-P scale scores (Table 2). 

 

Table 2: Correlations among Parent Language Use and Teacher BRIEF-P 

 

Age mom 

started 

Spanish 

Age mom 

started 

English 

Age dad 

started 

Spanish 

Age dad 

started 

English 

Inhib r .268 .048 .002 -.277 

p .060 .795 .989 .112 

N 50 32 46 34 

      

Shift r .340* .080 .156 -.114 

p .016 .662 .300 .522 

N 50 32 46 34 

      

EmCont r .243 .176 -.035 -.165 

p .089 .335 .817 .350 

N 50 32 46 34 

      

WMem r .474** -.016 .305* -.162 

p .001 .932 .039 .360 

N 50 32 46 34 

      

 
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PO r .438** .072 .315* -.074 

p .001 .694 .033 .675 

N 50 32 46 34 

      

ISCI r .292 -.133 .124 -.282 

p .111 .598 .531 .273 

N 31 18 28 17 

      

FI r .328 .160 .100 -.024 

p .071 .526 .612 .929 

N 31 18 28 17 

      

EMI r .432* -.127 .302 -.365 

p .015 .614 .119 .150 

N 31 18 28 17 

      

GEC r .267 -.299 .120 -.342 

p .147 .228 .544 .179 

N 31 18 28 17 

Note: *Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level  

        * *Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level  

Associations were also evident among parent observations of child behavior 

following drama exposure and teacher ratings of children’s executive function skills. 

 
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Specifically, children’s ability to infer or predict an event was positively related to 

teacher BRIEF-P rating of children’s ability to inhibit a response, shift attention, and 

demonstrate higher emotional control (Table 2).  

Of note, 58 out of 61 parents (approximately 95%) provided the highest likert 

scale rating of 4 (strongly agree), while the remaining three out of 61parents 

(approximately 5%) provided a rating of 3 (agree) on the following questionnaire item 

that assessed parents’ endorsement of drama: “Using drama strategies in the home 

enhances my child’s thinking skills.” Although, this item was not included in the 

correlational analysis, the overwhelmingly high rating parents provided seems to reflect 

their positive attitudes and beliefs about using drama.  

Table 3:  Correlation between parent observation of child behavior related to 

drama and teacher BRIEF-P 

  Routine 

Change 

Infer/ 

Predict 

Inhib r 0.16 0.31* 

 p 0.23 0.03 

 N 55 53 

    

Shift r 0.36* 0.35* 

 p 0.01 0.01 

 N 55 53 

    

 
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EmCont r 0.25 0.42* 

 p 0.06 0.00 

 N 55 53 

    

PO r 0.21 0.28* 

 p 0.12 0.04 

 N 55 53 

Note.  * Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level 
Inhib = Inhibit; EmCont = Emotional Control; PO = Plan/Organize 

Discussion 

The findings of this study show positive associations between parent report and 

teacher report related to Latino DLLs’ language and cognitive outcomes. The first 

research question examined whether parent report of home language (Spanish) use 

was associated with teacher report of children’s executive function skills. Results 

indicate a positive relationship between parents’ early use of Spanish in the home and 

teacher report of executive function in the preschool context. Specifically, when mothers 

began speaking in Spanish with their children at a later age, ratings on the WMem, PO, 

and EMI scales were higher, indicating a poor performance. Similarly, when fathers 

began speaking in Spanish with their children at a later age, children received higher 

ratings on the WMem scale, which suggests a low performance. In contrast, the age at 

which parents began speaking in English with their child was not significantly related to 

teachers’ ratings of the child on the BRIEF-P.  

Findings thus highlight the paramount role of home language use in children’s 

cognition (Center for Early Care and Education Research, 2014; Páez et al., 2007). As 

 
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the results suggest, the parents’ early use of Spanish in the home is related to teachers’ 

report of children’s higher cognitive skills, namely attention shift, working memory, 

planning/ organizational skills, and emergent metacognition. These findings are in line 

with previous research on the central role home language use plays in cognitive and 

linguistic outcomes of DLLs (Hammer et al., 2009; Páez et al., 2007). 

The second research question explored whether parent observation of child 

behavior following drama exposure is related to children’s executive function skills per 

teacher report. The results demonstrate positive associations between parent 

observations of children’s ability to infer and predict future events, and children’s 

executive function as measured by teacher BRIEF-P ratings, namely the ability to inhibit 

a response, shift attention, and demonstrate higher emotional control. Related to this 

finding, although not directly examined, 95% of parents reported that drama likely 

enhances their children’s thinking skills, as shown through parent responses on the 

Parent Drama Experience Survey. These findings support previous research on the 

positive association between parent and teacher report measures of language and 

cognition, especially considering parents’ high endorsement of drama experience, a 

well-substantiated finding in previous research (Diamond et al., 2007). 

The use of home language in the early years may thus be associated with a 

cognitive advantage providing bilingual children with the resources needed for optimal 

school readiness particularly in the language domain (Magnuson et al., 2006). 

Moreover, using both parent and teacher report and obtaining data from multiple 

sources likely contributes to a better understanding of the variables that affect DLLs’ 

outcomes in the preschool years. Based on parents’ high rating on the drama survey, 

 
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the results suggest that infusing drama as part of language instruction in the preschool 

years may be associated with better cognitive outcomes in this sample of DLLs, 

although direct testing of the role of drama may be warranted in the future.   

Recommendations for Practice 

These findings suggest the need to provide the ideal context for language 

instruction with DLLs with focus on the following recommendations for practice: 

1. Continuous support to implement strategies that capitalize on children’s use of 

their first language (L1) (Goldenberg, Hicks, & Lit, 2012) and teaching basic 

language skills in children’s L1 by eliciting help from community members and 

parents as needed. Teachers could also send home books in children’s L1 to 

make language and literacy materials available and accessible to parents in their 

primary language, letting them know that teachers consider children’s home 

language to be important.   

2. Ongoing access to culturally relevant resources that facilitate infusing language 

input in children’s L1 and L2, both of which are needed for academic success. 

This would require connecting classroom instruction to home language practices 

that aim at preserving DLLs’ L1 and promoting their L2 development and 

maintenance;  

3. Frequent communication between parents and teachers regarding the use of 

drama as an optimal channel to promote children’s language learning. For 

example, using drama could prove beneficial in supporting young DLLs’ cognitive 

growth in meaningful contexts (e.g., home, classroom). 

 
20                                                                  GATESOL in Action, Fall 2016/Spring 2017 
 



4. Infusing drama across the curriculum to encourage children to express 

themselves and maximize their communicative success. Perhaps the most 

important (and least investigated) aspect of drama lies in providing a voice for 

DLLs who may not always succeed in communicating their thoughts and 

intentions when relying only on spoken language due to their limited command of 

English. Thus, drama could provide that extra tool or “illocutionary force” (Austin, 

1962; Searle, 1969) for DLLs to communicate their intentions and engage in 

higher order thinking so they can succeed across the language, cognitive, and 

social domains. 

Limitations 

This study has several limitations. First, the study relied primarily on parent and 

teacher report measures of language, communication, and cognition. While such 

measures are important to use and have been found to be valid and reliable in previous 

research, they are highly susceptible to social desirability and must be coupled with 

direct assessment of children’s behaviors. Second, the number of participants was 

small, which limited our options for data analysis. Thus, we used correlational analyses, 

which only indicate the degree to which two or more variables are related to each other; 

they do not imply causation. Lastly, we did not include results from the Parent Drama 

Experience Survey in the analyses due to the limited number of completed surveys. 

Rather, we simply used descriptive statistics to present parent responses to items 

directly related to the current study.  

 
21                                                                  GATESOL in Action, Fall 2016/Spring 2017 
 



Implications 

Teachers may implement drama into their practices to improve DLLs’ language 

skills in first (L1) and second (L2) language. Teachers may also rely on preserving the 

home language and use it as foundation to build future cognitive and linguistic skills—a 

finding that has been well substantiated in previous research with DLLs (Bialystok, 

2001; Farran, Bingham, & Matthews, 2014; Hammer et al., 2009).  

While bilingual education has been particularly challenging to implement in certain 

states across the US (August & Shanahan, 2006; Center for Early Care and Education 

Research-Dual Language Learners, 2011a), the present findings, although preliminary, 

bolster the idea that changes in educational policy may very well begin in the classroom 

and with individual teachers of children who come from diverse linguistic and cultural 

backgrounds. The research evidence indicates that caregivers’ (e.g. parents, teachers) 

reports likely reflect and shape their practices, thereby impacting young DLLs’ 

academic, social, and cognitive outcomes, and ultimately driving systemic changes that 

determine the policies in early childhood education.  

Future Directions 

Given the preliminary results and limitations of the present study, we recommend 

that the connection between language use, drama, and cognition be measured in future 

research using (1) multiple assessments such as caregiver report and direct 

assessment of children’s skills; (2) intervention research with random assignment of 

caregivers and children to treatment (e.g. drama) versus control conditions; and (3) 

longitudinal design that would allow us to track the impact of home language and drama 

on children’s developmental outcomes over time.   

 
22                                                                  GATESOL in Action, Fall 2016/Spring 2017 
 



References 

August, D. & Shanahan, T. (Eds.). (2008). Developing reading and writing in second- 

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27                                                                  GATESOL in Action, Fall 2016/Spring 2017 
 


	The connection between drama, language and cognition in preschool dual language learners (DLLs)
	Gold, B., Kim, C., Johnson, F., Kryscio, J. & Smith, D. (2013). Lifelong bilingualism
	maintains neural efficiency for cognitive control in aging. Journal of Neuroscience, 33 (2), 387-396.
	Marian, V., & Shook, A. (2012). The cognitive benefits of being bilingual. Cerebrum, v.
	2012.
	National Center for Education Statistics (NCES, 2015). The condition of education 2015
	(NCES 2015-144), English Language Learners.

