ORIGINAL ARTICLE Genetic Resources (2023), 4 (8), 71–90 DOI: 10.46265/genresj.DVKV8430 https://www.genresj.org ISSN: 2708-3764 Status and prospects of plant genetic resource conservation in Yemen Maeen Ali Aljarmouzi *,a, Khalil M Alsharjabi a and Luigi Guarino b a Agricultural Research and Extension Authority (AREA), Dhamar, Republic of Yemen b Global Crop Diversity Trust, Platz der Vereinten Nationen 7, 53113, Bonn, Germany Abstract: This study provides a comprehensive examination of the conservation status of plant genetic resources in Yemen, with a particular focus on the national genebank, natural sites and field genebanks. Employing a historical and descriptive approach, the study sheds light on the inception of field inventories and collection surveys, the roles and contributions of various projects and institutions since the late 1980s, and the quantities of seed samples collected from different crop varieties and species. Additionally, the study highlights the challenges faced, especially during the last decade following the eruption of war in early 2015. Specifically, it emphasizes the detrimental impact of the war and sanctions, resulting in the loss of conserved seed samples, and the damage and sabotage of field genebanks. In contrast, there is a need to ensure the enhancement of functioning seed systems and agriculture production even during times of conflict to reduce the impact of food insecurity. To conclude, the study puts forth several proposals, with a strong emphasis on expanding conservation efforts beyond natural sites, enhancing the capabilities for seed conservation in genebanks, and building genetic resources capacity. Keywords: Agricultural research, Conservation, Genebank, Field genebanks, Natural sites, Yemen Citation: Aljarmouzi, M. A., Alsharjabi, K. M., Guarino, L. (2023). Status and prospects of plant genetic resource conservation in Yemen. Genetic Resources 4 (8), 71–90. doi: 10.46265/genresj.DVKV8430. © Copyright 2023 the Authors. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY 4.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. Introduction For thousands of years, farmers in Yemen have inherited and managed their local seeds. In particular, the sorghum crop shows a remarkable level of diversity, serving as a clear testament to their commitment. They have cultivated, conserved, exchanged and managed the seeds of agricultural crops since the early stages of history when dams, irrigation canals and highland terraces were developed across different regions during the eras of ancient Yemeni kingdoms and states dating back to between the tenth and fifth centuries BCE (Alafif Cultural Foundation, 2003). However, the systematic conservation, characterization and use of plant genetic resources in a modern scientific manner can be traced to the establishment of agricultural research work in Yemen during the mid- to late-1940s. The first agricultural research station was established in the El-Kod district of Abyan governorate, which ∗Corresponding author: Maeen Ali Aljarmouzi (maeen669@gmail.com) later evolved into the fully-fledged El-Kod Agricultural Research Center (EARC) in 1955. The first systematic activities related to the conservation and use of plant genetic resources in Yemen took place in this centre in the early 1970s. Since then, various Yemeni govern- ment bodies, including the Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation (MAI), the Ministry of Water and Environ- ment (MWE), as well as institutions like the Agricultural Research and Extension Authority (AREA) and the Envi- ronment Protection Authority (EPA), have made diverse contributions to the conservation and sustainable use of genetic resources. These bodies have been actively involved in supporting the implementation of numerous national programmes, projects and activities in collab- oration with local, regional and international organiza- tions. In recent decades, there has been an increasing interest in plant genetic resources due to their recognition as a national asset and a sovereign resource for any country worldwide. These resources play a vital role in achieving food security, sustainable development, resilience, better livelihoods and higher income. Yemen, Received: 09.07.2023 Accepted: 03.11.2023 Published online: 20.12.2023 https://www.genresj.org https://www.dx.doi.org/10.46265/genresj.DVKV8430 https://www.genresj.org https://www.dx.doi.org/10.46265/genresj.DVKV8430 mailto:maeen669@gmail.com Genetic Resources (2023), 4 (8), 71–90 Plant genetic resource conservation in Yemen 72 characterized by diverse climates and a rich and distinct plant diversity, unfortunately, has not made optimal use of its traditional plant genetic resources. On the contrary, these resources have been diminishing and lost due to various factors, including human interventions such as urban expansion, road construction at the expense of agricultural lands, and the expansion of qat (Catha edulis) cultivation, an important cash crop in Yemeni social life but with negative effects on human nutrition and health, as well as the introduction of new crops. The deterioration and loss of plant genetic resources can in addition be attributed to factors such as the absence of legislation, weak institutional frameworks, limited national programmes and inadequate material and human capacities to leverage modern technologies for conservation and sustainable use. Since 2015, the ongoing war and conflict have also significantly impacted Yemen’s plant genetic resources, resulting in severe economic and social consequences. The collapse of state institutions, the paralysis of public service agencies and facilities, the internal and external displacement of millions of citizens, currency devaluation, limited availability of goods and services, rising prices, declining investment and the loss of income sources for many Yemeni families all exert immense pressure on natural resources, including the country’s biodiversity in all its forms. In recent years, amid worsening conditions and the effects of the war and recurring food crises, official authorities and decision-makers, prompted by cases of tampering with plant genetic resources, have called for more attention to be given to the country’s biodiversity. The need for implementing relevant research and raising awareness about these issues has become increasingly urgent. The present study was undertaken in response to these calls. The request made by international bodies and organizations such as the Commission on Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (CGRFA) and the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (ITPGRFA), among others, for member states to contribute to monitoring and assessing the state of plant genetic resources, served as further justification for conducting this study. Materials and methods To assess the status of plant genetic resource conserva- tion in Yemen, the authors employed a historical descrip- tive approach. This involved gathering and reviewing national and international documents, reports, stud- ies and surveys related to plant genetic resources. The authors also utilized the available electronic and paper information systems, including databases and records, of the Genebank of the National Genetic Resources Cen- ter (NGRC) within the Agricultural Research and Exten- sion Authority (AREA) in Dhamar, Yemen. Furthermore, various institutions contacted during the study provided additional information that was incorporated into the research. Additionally, the authors relied on their personal knowledge as co-witnesses, drawing from their exten- sive experience in research and agricultural technolo- gies, as well as their involvement in various activities related to plant genetic resources. They also considered events and developments they have witnessed or been exposed to up until the time of preparing this study. It is worth noting that the authors followed the methodology established by the Commission on Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the UN (FAO), as well as the approved indicators, to guide the monitoring of the implementation of the Second Global Plan of Action for Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (Second GPA). A total of 55 indicators from this guide were used in the study to assess the state of conservation of plant genetic resources in Yemen from 2012 to 2022 (FAO, 2019). The assessment was conducted based on the themes and activities outlined in the Second GPA, as well as the medium-term plan of AREA and the NGRC’s plan. The execution of this study encountered numerous difficulties and obstacles, with the most significant ones being: • Limited availability of data: The study faced challenges due to the scarcity of available data. The existing information was dispersed across multiple sources and exhibited a diversity of forms and formats, making it challenging to gather comprehensive and standardized data. • Low response rate from contacted agencies: Despite efforts to collect relevant and available data, the study encountered a low response rate from most of the local agencies contacted. This lack of cooperation hindered the acquisition of crucial information necessary for the research. • Impact of war: The study was conducted amidst the ongoing war, which created adverse conditions and posed additional challenges. Coordinating and communicating with relevant entities and individuals became difficult due to the disrupted infrastructure and limited resources. Obtaining the requested information became a daunting task in such a context. These difficulties and obstacles significantly influenced the implementation of the study, impacting the compre- hensiveness and accuracy of the collected data. Nonethe- less, the authors made their best efforts to overcome these challenges and ensure the reliability of the find- ings within the existing constraints. 73 Aljarmouzi et al Genetic Resources (2023), 4 (8), 71–90 Table 1. Studies surveying natural vegetation in the different Yemeni regions and numbers of species identified. Study Title No. of species Source Survey and classification of medicinal and aromatic plants in Sana’a and Dhamar governorates 858 NGRC (2022) Survey and classification of the forest-pastoral vegetation cover in the Al-Jawf governorates 93 RNRRC (2022) Inventory of the natural plant species in important areas in the Arabian Peninsula: Bani Omar, Taiz governorate, Yemen 135 Al-Khulaidi et al (2000) Survey of the natural flora of some districts in Ibb, Taiz, Al-Mahweet and Sana’a governorates 1,603 AREA (2015) Studying the existing natural resources and the climate change dimension in Taiz governorate using remote sensing and geographic information systems techniques (second phase) 389 AREA (2014) Surveying, collecting and classifying the vegetation cover in Bura’a 240 AREA (2014) Survey of the natural plants in Al-Makha district 167 NGRC (2013) Survey of the natural plants in Ibb governorate 316 Al-Khulaidi (2013) Surveying and collecting plant germplasm of pasture and forest, medicinal and aromatic plants, and the unexploited plants in the highlands region of Ba’adan and Al-Sher’ar districts, Ibb governorate 219 NGRC (2011) Survey and evaluation of the deterioration of the vegetative cover in the upper stream area of Wadi Rasyan 332 Mufarreh et al (2011) Surveying and collecting unexploited plant germplasm of pastures, forests, and medicinal and aromatic plants in the highland region of Sana’a, Al-Mahweet Amran Hajjah governorates 1,329 AREA (2013) Surveying and collecting unexploited plant germplasm of pastures, forests, and medicinal and aromatic plants in Mareb governorate 294 NGRC (2009) Surveying and collecting unexploited plant germplasm of pastures, forests, and medicinal and aromatic plants in 14 districts of the coastal plain of Hadramout and Al-Mahrah governorates 172 NGRC (2008) Inventory and evaluation of the pastural genetic resources in Al-Kusumah district of Raymah governorate 289 Mufarreh (2004) Inventory and evaluation of the pastural genetic resources in Belad Al-Ta’am district of Raymah governorate 311 Mufarreh (2003) Survey of the natural vegetative cover of Madinat Al-Sharq – Wadi Rama’a 78 Al-Khulaidi (1994) Genetic Resources (2023), 4 (8), 71–90 Plant genetic resource conservation in Yemen 74 Results and discussion State of in situ conservation and on-farm management Surveys and inventories of plant genetic resources Understanding crop diversity, including its distribution and changes over time, is a crucial prerequisite for the development and implementation of effective and efficient conservation strategies. Various studies have been conducted to survey and inventory plant diversity across different regions in Yemen by agencies such as the Agricultural Research and Extension Authority (AREA), colleges of agriculture and sciences in Yemeni universities, and institutions like the Social Fund for Development (SFD). Al-Khulaidi (2013) reported the identification of 2,838 plant species, as part of the Yemeni flora, of which 2,602 are native, 129 are cultivated and 107 are introduced. Among these species, 608 were found to be endemic or semi-endemic (457 are endemic, among which 307 on Socotra Island alone), confined to Yemen or the Arabian Peninsula. The diverse topography of Yemen’s plains, mountains, plateaus, valleys and deserts, with varying altitudes, has contributed to the emergence of this unique plant diversity in the country. The uniqueness of such diversity extends to the varied crops grown in the country, which includes both tropical and temperate crops. Additionally, there is a diversity within species, with multiple crop varieties adapted to different environments or agroecological zones in the country. For instance, sorghum is characterized by a great diversity of types that mature over a range of durations (after three, four, five or even six months). Table 1 presents the results of some recent studies and surveys, which involved counting and classifying plant species, compiling lists with their scientific and local names, providing photographs, and mapping their distribution in specific areas. These studies also identified the uses of the plant species, such as food, fodder, medicine and other purposes. Additionally, they focused on identifying threatened, rare, endemic and semi-endemic plants, some of which are introduced plants. On-farm management and improvement of plant genetic resources for food and agriculture Plant diversity plays a vital role in food security and adaptation to climate change. Therefore, it is crucial to focus on on-farm management and improvement of local crop varieties, including neglected and underutilized crops. By doing so, the resilience and adaptability of the cropping systems can be enhanced, enabling better withstanding of biotic and abiotic stresses and eventually better production and food security for the farmers’ households. NGRC has undertaken various activities to support the management and improvement of genetic resources on farm through multiple projects (Table 2). These ini- tiatives primarily involved the characterization, evalu- ation and dissemination of local varieties suitable for different agroclimatic zones. The germplasm collected by various projects has been safety duplicated at the national genebank. The aim was to increase genetic diversity and broaden the range of options available to farmers for selecting varieties that are well-adapted and tolerant to biotic and abiotic stresses prevalent in their specific local conditions. Providing seeds to farmers and researchers in case of disasters to restore cropping systems NGRC is ideally positioned to play an important role in preserving plant genetic resources, especially in the face of natural disasters (such as droughts and floods) and man-made disasters (like conflicts and wars). NGRC’s mandate includes providing high-quality seeds adapted to farmers’ environmental conditions in disaster-affected areas, in coordination with relevant National authorities and organizations like regional agricultural research stations, the General Improved Seed Multiplication Corporation (GISMC), the Public Corporation for Grain Development and Production (PCGDP), and provincial MAI offices. However, due to limited material and human resources, NGRC’s efforts are constrained, particularly in the current challenging conditions within the country. In 2016, the regional station for agricultural research in the western coastal plain (Al-Kadan, Sardoud, Tihama region) was severely damaged by airstrikes. The seed stores in the station were significantly affected, leading to spoilage and loss of different varieties that had been collected and preserved by the station’s researchers over many years (Figure 1). Nonetheless, NGRC has managed to provide services to farmers and researchers in conflict and war-prone zones in some instances. This has been achieved through quality testing of locally distributed seeds and by providing seeds of important local strains to research stations in the respective agricultural regions. For example, NGRC collaborated with other organi- zations and international agencies operating in Yemen to provide seeds of cereal, legumes and vegetable crops to affected farmers as part of humanitarian relief activ- ities. Organizations such as FAO, the Red Cross, Acted and others have contributed to seed distribution efforts. However, the distribution mechanism faced drawbacks, including poor coordination with official agencies, poor seed quality and sometimes unsuitable seeds for the targeted agricultural climatic zones. These issues cre- ated a negative impression among farmers and decision- makers regarding the effectiveness and safety of the dis- tribution mechanism. In response, measures were established to mitigate these negative effects. These measures included con- ducting seed quality tests in laboratories, seed screening and purification by GISMC, and ensuring direct coordi- nation with government authorities and institutions in the targeted areas. 75 Aljarm ouziet al G enetic Resources (2023),4 (8),71–90 Table 2. Projects implemented by the National Genetic Resources Center (NGRC) that have contributed to enhancing the on-farm conservation of genetic resources in Yemen. AREA, Agricultural Research and Extension Authority; BSF, the Benefit-Sharing Fund; FAO, Food and Agriculture Organization of the UN; GEF, Global Environment Facility; ICARDA, International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas; IFAD, International Fund for Agricultural Development; MAI, Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation; WB, World Bank. Project name Funding agency Implementing agencies Implementation period Implementation site Activity Participation of the rural community in raising crops (barley and lentils) in the mountain terraces (Ceccarelli, 2002) ICARDA AREA/Farmers’ groups in the selected sites, Agriculture office 1998–2010 Kuhlan Affar, Hajjah governorate Evaluation of strains of barley and lentil on farmers’ fields. An economic and social study for the farmers of the selected villages; study and analysis of gender (the role of the farm household, male and females). The rainfed agriculture and livestock Project (YRALP, 2005) WB AREA/GRC-Sana’a University, GCISM 2006–2013 Sana’a, Al-Mahweet, Hajjah, Al-Hodeidah and Lahj governorates Farmer-based seeds improvement and management system. Evaluation of several local genotypes of sorghum, millet and cowpea The participatory rural development of the Raimah governorate (IFAD, 2010) IFAD AREA and Dhamar MAI office 2001–2007 Raimah governorate Evaluation and dissemination of adapted cereal and legume cultivars Irrigation improvement project (IIP, 2009) WB AREA, Agricultural Services Corporation, Tehama Development Authority and Nasser’s Faculty of Agriculture Sciences (Lahj) 2005–2007 Al-Hodeidah, Lahj, and Abyan governorates Evaluation and dissemination of adapted cultivars of cereals, cotton and sesame The participatory rural development of Al-Mahrah governorate (IFAD, 2011) IFAD AREA, MAI office 2002–2006 Al-Mahrah governorate Evaluation and dissemination of adapted maize and sesame cultivars The participatory rural development of Dhamar governorate (IFAD, 2012) IFAD AREA, MAI office 2006–2010 Dhamar governorate Evaluation and dissemination of adapted cereal and legume cultivars Improvement of the medicinal, and aromatic plants and underutilized crops (Gotor and Cherfas, 2012) FAO NGRC, MAI offices 2009 Sana’a, Dhamar and Lahj governorates Cultivation of neglected and underutilized crops on farmers’ fields Continued on next page G enetic Resources (2023),4 (8),71–90 Plant genetic resource conservation in Yem en 76 Table 2 continued Project name Funding agency Implementing agencies Implementation period Implementation site Activity Enhancing food security in the Arab countries (Yemen) (Communication Team ICARDA, 2018) ICARDA AREA and Dhamar MAI office 2012–2019 Dhamar Dissemination of wheat, lentils and peas varieties on farmers’ fields Agricultural biodiversity and adaptation to climatic changes (YACCAP, 2010) GEF AREA, Sana’a College of Agriculture, and the GCISM 2014 Sana’a, Taiz, Ibb and Al-Mahweet governorates Evaluation of local sorghum strains on farmers’ fields Participatory conservation and sustainable use of landraces to improve farmer’s livelihood and their resilience in adapting to climate changes in Yemen (FAO, 2023) BSF AREA and MAI offices 2019–2023 Dhamar and Hadramout governorates Evaluation and characterization of local strains of sorghum, wheat, barley, lentils and peas on farmers’ fields 77 Aljarmouzi et al Genetic Resources (2023), 4 (8), 71–90 Unfortunately, there have been instances where poor- quality seeds have been distributed. In April 2021, MAI destroyed a large quantity of rotten seeds that were provided by FAO for distribution to farmers in Al-Hodeidah governorate. The spoiled quantity was estimated to be more than 240 tonnes. These seeds, intended as donated assistance to Yemeni farmers, were infected with fungi and deemed unsuitable for cultivation. This incident highlights the importance of strict quality control measures and coordination among relevant authorities and organizations to ensure the effective and safe distribution of seeds in Yemen in line with the recommendation of the International Plant Protection Convention (IPPC) on “ensuring safe provision of seed during humanitarian assistance disbursement” (IPPC, 2021). Changes and trends in on-farm genetic resources conservation Yemen is known as one of the main countries that are growing qat. Qat or khat or khata (Catha edulis) is a mild stimulant plant consumed by most Yemenis in a daily afternoon session by chewing its fresh leaves (Zahran et al, 2019). The expansion of qat cultivation at the expense of the main cereals and legumes (sorghum, millet, wheat, barley, lentil and pea) poses a significant threat to crop diversity in Yemen. The yearly agricultural statistics book indicates a decline in the cultivated area of cereal crops over the years, while qat cultivation has increased (GDSID/MAI, 2022). However, the actual increase in qat cultivation may be even greater than what is reflected in the official figures (Figure 2). Due to the war and resulting consequences, including the institutional divide and ineffectiveness, no agricultural census has been conducted for the past two decades. The urban population expansion on agricultural lands is another factor threatening crop diversity. Figure 3 shows the trend in population growth over the past 70 years. A study conducted by the Renewable Natural Resources Research Center (RNRRC) in 2021 on the urban expansion in Dhamar governorate revealed a dramatic increase over the past 50 years. Reports from field surveys conducted by NGRC and RNRRC highlight the expansion of urban centres and population at the expense of agricultural lands (Fig- ure 4). This phenomenon is considered one of the most critical factors endangering agricultural biodiversity. The disappearance of certain plant species and fruit varieties (quince, walnuts, pear, peach, apricot, fig and grapes) from areas like Sana’a governorate, which used to be known for cultivating them, further emphasizes the negative impact of urban expansion on agricultural biodiversity. Parks and orchards (for example of walnuts, peach and grapes) have been replaced by commercial and residential areas, resulting in a significant decrease in green coverage. On the other hand, there has been an expansion in the cultivation of some vegetable crops (tomato, onion, potato, pepper, carrot, cucumber, zucchini, cabbage), including varieties introduced from abroad. Although the cultivated area of vegetable crops fluctuates, the number of greenhouses in different regions of Yemen has increased. Strawberry cultivation has also grown in response to high demand from fresh juice shops in major cities. The cultivation of fruit crops, particularly almonds, has expanded due to relatively low water requirements and the profitability of production. The almond cultiva- tion area has increased between 2011 and 2020, with significant expansion in Sana’a governorate, particularly in the districts of Al-Haima and Bani Matar. Coffee cultivation has also expanded due to increas- ing demand for Yemeni coffee locally and internation- ally. The cultivation area has increased over the past few years much more than the estimated figures made in the agricultural census book for 2020, which indi- cated an increase of 2,000 hectares in the coffee area between 2016 (33,900ha) and 2020 (35,900ha). Also, there has been a focus on improving agricultural pro- cesses and post-harvest operations to meet desired qual- ity standards. High government authorities and MAI have shown increased interest in the coffee sector, estab- lishing the National Center for Coffee Research and sup- porting farmers’ associations. A decree was issued in 2022 banning the import of both processed and unpro- cessed coffee from abroad to encourage domestic culti- vation and increase the income of coffee farmers. Overall, while there is an expansion in certain crops, the threats to crop diversity posed by the expansion of qat cultivation, urbanization and population activities remain significant challenges in Yemen. Status of ex situ conservation of plant genetic resources (genebanks) The NGRC in Yemen operates under the umbrella of AREA and has its headquarters outside Dhamar city, about 100km from the Yemeni capital Sana’a. In addition, there are two other genetic resource centres working under the faculties of agriculture sciences of Sana’a and Aden universities and some field genebanks as detailed in Table 5. Supporting the targeted collection of plant genetic resources The primary drivers for implementing targeted collect- ing of genetic resources were the risk of loss of on-farm diversity, opportunities for use, and the need to address deficiencies in ex situ conservation. Bawazir (2004) con- ducted a study on cereal diversity in southern Yemen and emphasized the importance of surveying and collecting genetic resources of cereal crops and their wild relatives across different agroclimatic zones in Yemen. The study aimed to document these resources and utilize them in breeding and genetic improvement programmes. The study’s findings revealed that sorghum varieties in these areas exhibited genetic variation within each environmental zone, as evidenced by differences in Genetic Resources (2023), 4 (8), 71–90 Plant genetic resource conservation in Yemen 78 Figure 1. Examples of the effects of the air raids of the war coalition against Yemen on the buildings, equipment and seed stores of the Tehama regional agricultural research station in the western coastal plain, Al-Kadan, Sardoud, Tihama zone, Al-Hodeidah governorate (A and C), including damage to the preserved seed samples of various crops (B). Figure 2. Expansion of qat cultivated area from 1990 to 2020. Source: CSO (2020) phenotypic characteristics, anatomical features and resistance to environmental stress conditions. The researcher pointed out that the varieties of sorghum grown in coastal areas showed early maturity (100–120 days), while the varieties grown in the highland areas matured late (160–180 days). According to the study, sorghum varieties in the highland areas were tallest (300cm) while in the coastal areas plant height ranged from 250–300cm. Figure 3. Trend of population growth in Yemen over the past 70 years. Source: Macrotrends (2023) The study also demonstrated that local wheat varieties possessed drought tolerance. This may be accounted for by their morphological and anatomical traits, such as the smaller number of seminal roots and the small size of seminal root vessels. Most of the local varieties of wheat grown in the southern, medium- altitude regions of Yemen belong to Triticum aestivum. In some areas, there may be a mixture of T. aestivum and T. durum. The local varieties of millet grown in the southern Yemeni regions belong to Pennisetum glaucum (pearl 79 Aljarmouzi et al Genetic Resources (2023), 4 (8), 71–90 Figure 4. Urban sprawl on fertile agricultural lands in Dhamar City (km2) (1973–2021) millet), Pennisetum setaceum, Pennisetum rigidum (little millet) and Eleusine coracana (finger millet). Misibli is the local name for pearl millet throughout Yemen, Kanab is the local name for finger millet, and Heba is the local name for small (short) millet (and an early-maturing type) on Socotra Island. The efforts made in collecting and conserving plant genetic resources in Yemen can be divided into three phases: 1) First phase (1970s and 1980s): During this period, international organizations collaborated with researchers from the El-Kod Research Station in Abyan governorate and the Southern Highlands Regional Agricultural Research Station (SHRAR) in Osaiferah, Taiz governorate to collect hundreds of samples. Notable collecting missions during this period in the different Yemeni regions are presented in Table 3. Unfortunately, all the samples collected during this period were lost due to inadequate storage conditions, except for those preserved outside Yemen by supporting organizations, such as FAO, the International Plant Genetic Resources Insitute (IPGRI), the United States Agency for International Development (USAID), the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT) and others (Al-Mua’alem et al, 1993). 2) Second phase (1990s): During this period, a specialized unit for plant genetic resources was established under RNRRC of AREA in Dhamar. Over 2,000 plant samples were collected during this phase. Notably, a joint team from AREA and the International Center for Crop Research in the Semi-Arid and Arid Tropical Areas (ICRISAT) conducted significant collecting trips. They collected 685 seed samples, mostly of sorghum and millets, from Al-Dhalea, Radfan, Yafe’a, Abyan, Lahj and Tehama. Details on this collection trip and other trips are presented in Table 3. Despite having a refrigeration room for cold storage (-18°C), frequent power shortages and blackouts led to the loss of many collected samples, despite their data being recorded in NGRC’s records. 3) Third phase (2000s to present): This stage wit- nessed the establishment of NGRC in 2002, an increase in specialized staff and the establishment of various departments within the centre. FAO stated that NGRC in Dhamar held 3,281 samples in its genebank (FAO, 2009). The number of samples collected from different regions of the country has increased to over 6,500 acces- sions at present. Notable collecting operations, covering most Yemeni governorates, conducted by NGRC during this phase are displayed in Table 3. The collecting trips conducted by NGRC between 1989 and 2013 to collect seeds from natural and cultivated plants, targeting all geographical regions in Yemen are shown in Figure 5. Most of the collection activities previously reviewed were carried out with support and funding within bilateral or multilateral cooperation or joint work projects between Yemen and several partners over the previous decades, and copies of samples of genetic resources that were collected found their way abroad and have been preserved by institutions outside Yemen. Early reports indicate that over 8,000 samples were deposited in various genebanks abroad (Al-Ghouri et al, 1996). The Second National Report on the State of Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture stated that international organizations held 8,619 samples from Yemen (FAO, 2009). Currently, data on the Genesys platform show 8,958 samples from Yemen conserved in 19 genebanks, covering 44 plant species, with a focus on grain crops (Genesys, 2021). Data from FAO WIEWS and the Svalbard platform also align closely with these figures (Table 4). Expanding diversity in genebanks It is crucial to expand ex situ conservation efforts for neglected crops, crop wild relatives and forages to facilitate research and crop improvement. The genebank of NGRC currently conserves seeds from 45 different crops. These crops encompass cereals such as sorghum, maize, millet, wheat and barley; legumes including lentils, beans, kidney beans, cowpeas, peas and fenugreek; vegetables like onions, tomatoes, chilli peppers, cucumbers, zucchini, mallow, radishes, eggplant and okra; oil-producing crops like sesame and peanuts; less commonly utilized crops, such as black seed (Nigella sativa), henna (Lawsonia inermis), coriander (Coriandrum sativum), caladium, arugula (Eruca sativa) and mustard (Brassica juncea L.). Additionally, field genebanks situated in various regions hold a diverse range of crops, including date palms, mangoes, citrus fruits, almonds, grapes, bananas and papayas, along with forage and forest crops. There are eight field genebanks in various regions – the northern, central and southern highlands, the Tihama coastal plains region, the southern coast region (Al- Kud, Abyan) and the Eastern Plateau region (Marib and Sayun). More details are provided in Table 5. It is important to note that the acquisition of new species and samples to expand the genetic resources reserve at NGRC was temporarily halted between 2014 and 2018 due to the prevailing conditions of the war and the resultant socioeconomic deterioration and institutional ineffectiveness in the country. G enetic Resources (2023),4 (8),71–90 Plant genetic resource conservation in Yem en 80 Table 3. Details of the main phases of plant genetic resource collection and conservation in Yemen Main Genus/Species No. of accessions Location(s) Year Project/programme Reference Phase 1: 1970s–1980s Sorghum, millet and Sudan grass 4,500 Northern Yemeni Governorates 1975–1977 The American Sorghum Improvement Assistance Project Hakimi and Ya’ni (2008); Jaradat (1997) Wheat, barley and some legumes 490 1978–1979 The German Technical Cooperation Agency (GTZ) Field crops (Sorghum, millet, wheat, barley and some legumes) 783 1980–1981 The International Board for Plant Genetic Resources (IBPGR) 30 crops of human and animal food 351 Southern and Eastern Yemeni Governorates 1969–1989 IBPGR Hakimi and Ya’ni (2008); Guarino (1989) Phase 2: 1990s 70 plant species 617 Tehama, central and south highlands, and east regions 1990–1999 AREA programme Jaradat (1997) Sorghum and millets 685 Al-Dhalea, Radfan, Yafe’a, Abyan, Lahj, and Tehama. 1992 Sorghum and Millet Improvement Project Sorghum and millet 294 Saada, Taiz, Sana’a, Al-Dhalea, Ibb and Socotra 1992 Sorghum and Millet Improvement Project Amer and Al-Dahmashi (1997) Continued on next page 81 Aljarm ouziet al G enetic Resources (2023),4 (8),71–90 Table 3 continued Main Genus/Species No. of accessions Location(s) Year Project/programme Reference Phase 3: 2000–present time Sorghum bicolor, Pennisetum americanum, Zea mays, Vigna spp., Cajanus cajan, Phaseolus vulgaris, Trigonella foenum-graecum, Sesamum indicum, Raphanus spp. Corchorus olitorius, Abelmoschus esculentus, Eruca sativa, Cyamopsis tetragonoloba, Cucumis spp, Nicotiana spp., Capsicum annuum, Gossypium spp. 629 Sana’a, Hajjah, Al-Mahweet, Al-Hudiedah and Lahj 2007 The Rainfed Agricultural Project NGRC (2008) 36 species of human and animal food 390 Western and Eastern Coastal Plain 2008 AREA research programme NGRC (2009) Sorghum bicolor, Zea mays, Pennisetum americanum, Triticum aestivum, Hordeum vulgare, Lens culinaris, Trigonella foenum-graecum, Vicia faba, Pisum sativum, Vigna spp., Lablab vulgaris, Phaseolus vulgaris, Trifolium spp., Abelmoschus esculentus, Corchorus olitorius, Capsicum annuum, Sesamum indicum, Brassica napus, Linum usitatissimum, Coffea arabica 330 Sana’a, Amran, Ibb, Dhamar, Hajjah, Al-Mahweet and Al-Hodeidah 2009 AREA research programme NGRC (2010) Fruit crops (Vitis vinifera, Prunus amygdalus, Prunus persica, Cydonia oblonga, Ficus carica, Malus sylvestris, Morus alba, Pyrus spp., Olea spp., Ceratonia siliqua, Mangifera indica, Citrus spp., Manilkara achras (Mill), Musa spp., Psidium guajava L., Carica papaya L., Passiflora edulis Sims, Annona spp., Opuntia ficus-indica, Phoenix dactylifera) 150 Sana’a, Amran, Al-Mahweet and Hajjah 2009 AREA research programme NGRC (2010) Honeydew pumpkin (Cucurbita spp.) 70 Belad Alrous District, Sana’a governorate 2010 AREA research programme NGRC (2011) Sorghum bicolor (30), Pennisetum americanum (2) Zea mays (14), Triticum durum (1), Hordeum vulgare (2), Faba bean (1), Vigna spp. (14), Sesamum indicum (1), Trigonella foenum-graecum (1), Phaseolus spp. (1), Cajanus cajan (5) 72 Al-Salafiya Directorate and Bilad Al-Ta’am in Raymah governorate 2012 AREA research programme NGRC (2013) Continued on next page G enetic Resources (2023),4 (8),71–90 Plant genetic resource conservation in Yem en 82 Table 3 continued Main Genus/Species No. of accessions Location(s) Year Project/programme Reference Sorghum bicolor (33), Zea mays (7), Triticum durum (26), Hordeum vulgare (16), Lens culenaris (11), Vigna spp. (11), Pisum sativum (6), Trigonella foenum-graecum (9), Brassica spp. (1), Linum usitatissimum (3), Allium spp. (1), Cucumis sativum (1), Phaseolus spp. (1) 126 Sabah district in Al-Bayda governorate 2012 AREA research programme NGRC (2013) Sorghum bicolor (33), Zea mays (7), Triticum durum (32), Hordeum vulgare (20), Lens culenaris (4), Vigna spp. (3), Pisum sativum (8), Trigonella toeniccum (1) 108 Ans, Jahran and Al-Hada’a in Dhamar governorate 2012 AREA research programme NGRC (2013) Cereals, vegetables and fruits 282 Sana’a, Al Mahwit, Ibb and Taiz governorates 2014 The Agricultural Biodiversity and Climate Adaptation Project NGRC (2013) The project team collected a total of 368 landraces (228 from Dhamar and 140 from Hadramout and Almahrah governorates) and more than 20 species: sorghum, maize, wheat, barley, millet, cowpea, pea, bean, fava bean, lentils, fenugreek (Trigonella, spp.), sesame, Lablab purpureus, mustard (Brassica spp.), flax (Linum spp.), pepper (Capsicum annum), Eleusine spp., Pennisetum spp., Roselle (Hibiscus sabdariffa), Plectranthus spp., black caraway (Nigella sativa L.), fennel (Foeniculum vulgare) 383 Several districts in the governorates of Dhamar, Hadramout and Al-Mahra governorates 2019 The conservation and sustainable use of local landraces project - BSF NGRC (2022) 83 Aljarmouzi et al Genetic Resources (2023), 4 (8), 71–90 Efforts have also been made to conserve genetic resources of threatened and endemic species ex situ in various research stations located in different agricultural regions. Notably, a specialized team from the El-Kod research station in Abyan governorate collected the Socotra wild pomegranate (Punica protopunica Balf. f.) in 1989 and 1990. This threatened species, which is endemic to the Island, has been confirmed by international organizations such as the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) to be one of the species at risk of overexploitation without natural regeneration. The collected seeds were grown, and the trees were nurtured at the El-Kod research farm (Bazara’a, 2000). Regeneration and multiplication of genebank seed samples Even under optimal storage conditions, it is necessary to periodically regenerate and multiply seed accessions due to the decline in viability over time and the limited quantity of preserved seeds resulting from their distribution to users such as researchers and farmers. Hence, NGRC carries out annual processes to regen- erate seed accessions that are at risk of viability loss and to multiply accessions with limited quantities. The most recent regeneration and multiplication initiative was conducted by NGRC in 2014. Due to the prevail- ing war conditions, regeneration operations were sus- pended from the beginning of 2015 until 2020, result- ing in no activity in this regard during that period. Subsequently, with the initiation of the ‘Participatory Conservation and Sustainable Use of Local Varieties’ project, funded by the Benefit Sharing Fund (BSF) of the ITPGRFA, approximately 200 plant accessions (mainly cereal crops) were regenerated in the governorates of Dhamar and Hadramout (Seiyun) (FAO, 2023). Table 6 shows the numbers of seed samples that have been regenerated until 2014 and those still requiring regeneration, as reported by NGRC in Dhamar. Conservation changes and trends in genebanks The study period witnessed several notable positive changes and trends in the field of genebank conserva- tion, including: • Increase and expansion of plant samples: The number of seed accessions in the NGRC genebank increased from 3,281 in 2006 to approximately 6,500 accessions in 2021. Similar growth was observed in the Genetic Resources Center (GRC) of Sana’a University, with the number of accessions rising from 1,528 to over 3,000 (Table 5). • Improved energy security: Noteworthy progress was made in securing electrical energy for cold storage in the NGRC genebank in Dhamar. Solar energy systems were introduced in 2016, funded by the Agricultural and Fisheries Production Encouragement Fund (AFPEF). Additionally, the Public Corporation for Grain Development and Production (PCGDP) provided a solar energy system for the GRC at the Faculty of Agriculture, Sana’a University, in 2019. • In 2022, with support from the Crop Trust and the ITPGRFA, the NGRC genebank in Dhamar was provided with several solar energy batteries to improve the electricity supply for cooling the long- term seed storage. • Safety duplication: Copies of seed accessions from cereal and leguminous crops were sent to ICARDA in 2013 and subsequently stored in the Svalbard Seed Vault (Table 4). However, there were also negative changes and trends observed in germplasm conservation in genebanks. Negative impact on field genebanks: The conserva- tion of plant genetic resources in field genebanks man- aged by research stations across the various regions was significantly affected by the war and its associ- ated socioeconomic and institutional consequences. The lack of operational budgets hindered essential agricul- tural activities such as ploughing, levelling, weeding, pruning, grafting, fertilizing and irrigation. Fuel short- age and high prices further exacerbated the challenges faced by research stations in adequately maintaining the field genebanks. In certain field genebanks in the northern (Al-Errah) and central highlands (Dhamar), some fruit trees were cut down by residents for fire- wood during periods of gas shortage and high prices resulting from the war and siege (Figure 6). Complete destruction of field genebanks occurred in the South- ern Highlands Agricultural Research Station (Osaiferah, Taiz) for mango, guava and coffee varieties, as well as in the Southern Coast Agricultural Research Station in El- Kod, Abyan governorate. Similarly, the field genebank for pomegranate at the College of Agriculture and Vet- erinary Medicine, University of Dhamar, experienced the same fate, with all preserved trees being cut down due to war and siege conditions. Limited implementation of biotechnologies: The use of biotechnologies, such as tissue culture, for the conservation of plant genetic resources has not been possible due to a lack of resources, including electrical energy sources, laboratory materials and equipment. Thus, no duplicates of the accessions maintained in field genebanks had been maintained in tissue cultures and thus, as safety duplicates. Limited multiplication and regeneration of seed samples: Except for a limited number of seed accessions regenerated and multiplied through funded projects such as the ‘Participatory Conservation and Sustainable Use of Landraces’ (2019–2023) (NGRC, 2022) and activities supported by the General Corporation for Grain Production and Development, the war’s economic effects halted vital regeneration programmes and seed multiplication activities. Improper storage conditions, insufficient seed quantities and difficulties in providing seeds to farmers and researchers have led to a decline in seed viability. Hundreds of samples are currently at risk of spoilage and loss, requiring regeneration and multiplication. Genetic Resources (2023), 4 (8), 71–90 Plant genetic resource conservation in Yemen 84 Figure 5. Areas of plant genetic resources collection in various parts of Yemen (1989–2019). Source: NGRC (2021), NGRC database (2021) and FAO (2023) Table 4. Number of accessions of some types of Yemeni plant genetic resources preserved outside Yemen (SGSV, 2023). ICRISAT, The International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics; CIMMYT, The International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center; ICARDA, The International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas; IITA, International Institute of Tropical Agriculture; US NPGS, United States National Plant Germplasm System. *, includes the following genera: Capsicum, Nigella, Citrullus, Linum, Coriandrum, Medicago, Teramnus and Ricinus. Crop ICRISAT ICARDA IITA CIMMYT US NPGS Others Svalbard Sorghum 2,144 3,376 45 5,565 Maize 2 1 3 Wheat 13 33 12 115 173 Barley 66 25 55 146 Millet 289 49 338 Cowpea 25 12 37 Lentil 38 48 86 Bean 3 3 Peas 50 50 others* 2 7 33 88 130 Total 2,435 127 25 35 3,446 463 6,531 85 Aljarmouzi et al Genetic Resources (2023), 4 (8), 71–90 Table 5. Changes in the number of species and accessions of genetic material in seed and field genebanks in Yemen (2006–2020). Source: FAO (2009) and AREA (2021). Centre/Reserve Institution Site No. of species No. of accessions 2006 2020 2006 2020 National Genetic Resource Center (NGRC) Agricultural Research and Extension Authority Dhamar 56 47 3,281 6,300 Genetic Resource Center College of Agriculture, Sana’a University Sana’a 38 54 1,528 > 3,000 Genebank Nasser’s College of Agricultural Sciences, University of Aden Lahj 9 0 136 0 Field genebank of date palm and lemon The Valley and the Desert Agricultural Research Station, Seiyun Seiyun 1 1 67 48 Field genebank of coffee, guava and mango The Southern Highlands Agricultural Research Station Osaifr, Taiz 16 0 36 0 Field genebank of pomegranate The College of Agriculture and Veterinary Sciences, Dhamar University Dhamar 1 0 22 0 Field genebank of mango and date palm Tihama Plateau Agricultural Research Station Al-Kadan, Surdud, Al- Hudeidah 5 2 64 47 Field genebank of apricot, grapes, almond, pomegranate, fig and olive The Northern Highlands Agricultural Research Station Al-Errah, Sana’a 11 6 218 78 Field genebank of apple, olive and almond. The Central Highlands Agricultural Research Station Dhamar – 65 55 144 Field genebank of banana, papaya, mango and date palm The Southern Coast Agricultural Research Station Al Kod- Abyan 65 67 230 > 400 Field genebank date palm, coconut and Jasminum sambac The Eastern Coast Agricultural Research Station Mukalla, Hadramout 15 24 68 > 200 Total 217 266 5,705 10,217 Figure 6. Remains of the field genebank of mango, coffee and guava crops in the field genebank of the Osaifera experimental farm, Taiz Genetic Resources (2023), 4 (8), 71–90 Plant genetic resource conservation in Yemen 86 Table 6. Number of seed accessions in NGRC in Dhamar that have been regenerated until 2014 and those that need regeneration. Source: Data were collected during the genetic resources inventory of NGRC in 2014 (NGRC, 2022). Crop Scientific name No. of accessions No. of regenerated accessions No. of accessions needing regeneration Cereals Sorghum Sorghum bicolor 2,436 679 1,757 Millet Pennisetum glaucum 589 225 364 Maize Zea mays 505 108 397 Barley Hordeum vulgare 362 164 198 Wheat Triticum aestivum 351 229 122 Finger millet Eleusine coracana 36 0 36 Al-Tahf Eragrostis spp. 11 0 11 Legumes Cowpea Vigna unguiculata 451 88 363 Lentils Lens culinaris 180 78 102 Fenugreek Trigonella foenum-graecum 141 141 0 Beans Vicia faba 100 40 60 Kidney beans Phaseolus vulgaris 90 90 0 Peas Pisum sativum 80 80 0 Lablab Lablab purpureus 45 0 45 Vegetables Okra Abelmoschus esculentus 95 0 95 Radish Raphanus sativus 47 33 14 Eggplant Solanum melongena 42 0 42 Tomatoes Solanum lycopersicum 41 0 41 Carrot Daucus carota 19 0 19 Cumin Cuminum cyminum 20 0 20 Arugula Eruca sativa 10 7 3 Onion Allium cepa 10 0 10 Leek Allium porrum 3 0 3 Chilli Capsicum spp. 40 0 40 Cucumber Cucumis sativus 8 0 8 Pumpkin Cucurbita spp. 6 0 6 Melon Cucumis melo 60 0 60 Watermelon Citrullus lanatus 10 0 10 Calabash/Squash Cucurbita maxima 53 0 53 Mallow Corchorus olitorius 37 0 37 Oil and cash crops Sesame Sesamum indicum 88 71 17 Peanut Arachis hypogaea 9 0 9 Underutilized crops Coriander Coriandrum sativum 50 24 26 Black seed Nigella sativa 49 23 26 Gaps and challenges facing the conservation of genetic resources in Yemen This list of gaps and challenges in the conservation of plant genetic resources in Yemen, in addition to the recommendations and conclusions, is based on government documents, including the first, second and third country reports prepared as contributions to the FAO Reports on the State of the World’s Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture. AREA, as a national public agricultural research institution in Yemen, has asked the national focal point of the ITPGRFA and CGRFA to prepare a working paper to be presented at the planned National Conference on Genetic Resources but postponed it to an undefined future time after preparatory efforts of more than a year. Such a paper was prepared and reviewed by the steering committee and included a set of gaps, conclusions and recommendations. Moreover, the recently prepared documents on a road map of the agricultural research programmes and projects (AREA, 2022), prepared 87 Aljarmouzi et al Genetic Resources (2023), 4 (8), 71–90 by a specialist team, discussed thoroughly with the AREA management, and endorsed by higher agricultural authorities, are compatible with what is stated in this article. However, the content of this paper and other developments will serve as a background primary paper for any national symposium or conference when the time comes after the resumption of peace in the country. Based on the above-reported situation, the most significant points can be summarized as follows. In situ conservation gaps and challenges • Limited knowledge about rich areas/regions of plant genetic diversity and regions at risk of extinction and loss of diversity • Inadequate methodologies for monitoring and evaluating genetic diversity, including geographi- cal and plant species gaps • Lack of a policy for restoring cropping systems after disasters and wars • Absence of targeted collecting, propagation and reintroduction of rare and threatened species to their natural habitats • Insufficient sustainable use of economically promising plant species • Absence of in situ conservation and management of crop wild relatives and wild food plants • Weak technical capabilities, including a shortage of specialized staff in farm systems management, biodiversity, environmental systems management, plant taxonomy, remote sensing, control and mon- itoring, and evaluation systems. Additionally, lab- oratories in agricultural research, environmental protection and university science colleges lack cer- tain devices and equipment. • Lack of support and funding for managing natural sites, and inadequate funding for scientific research activities • Lack of coordination between relevant authorities, particularly between AREA and EPA, which serve as the national focal points for the ITPGRFA and CBD, respectively. Ex situ conservation gaps and challenges • Weak integration between on-farm/in situ and ex situ conservation • Absence of a plan for regeneration and multiplica- tion under normal and emergency circumstances. • Lack of a specialized supportive unit for commu- nication, publication and coordination of genetic resources • Genetic collection operations are not comprehen- sive and do not cover most geographical areas, genera or plant species • Weak human, technical and institutional capabili- ties in NGRC • Weakness in the basic infrastructure for managing plant genetic information • Weak participation of local partners and govern- ment institutions in collecting, preserving and using plant genetic resources • Lack of annual budgets to cover the expenses of collecting and preserving plant genetic resources • Weak cooperation and participation in regional and international initiatives in the field of conser- vation and use. Conclusion and recommendations Based on the preceding results and discussion, the plant genetic resources system in Yemen faces numerous problems and gaps, which have been exacerbated by the ongoing war since 2015. However, it is possible to identify a set of needs to develop conservation processes for both in situ and ex situ plant genetic resources in the country. In this regard, the most important recommendations can be summarized as follows: On farm/in situ • Assess the impact of threats and pressures on crop diversity based on scientific foundations • Identify areas of diversity and threats and develop an action plan for their conservation • Conduct targeted collecting of threatened and rare species • Reintroduce threatened or rare species and vari- eties into Yemen through a coordinated effort • Conduct inventory and survey operations for crop wild relatives, in coordination with ex situ activities • Promote in situ conservation and management of crop wild relatives and wild food plants • Develop a national seed policy that includes provi- sions for seed distribution mechanisms during and after disasters and wars • Enhance technical expertise in plant taxonomy, agriculture and environmental systems manage- ment, and monitoring and evaluation • Provide adequate funding and financial support for programmes and projects focused on managing natural sites and on-farm conservation • Develop effective mechanisms to enhance coop- eration and coordination among various relevant agencies. Ex situ (genebanks) • Improve storage conditions in genebanks by providing electricity, preservation equipment and materials, and conducting seed quality tests • Establish a centrally organized seed health system by providing resources and expertise • Enhance the national genetic resources informa- tion system, documentation and data exchange, and encourage the use of available information and accumulated knowledge • Allocate operational budgets to cover the expenses of genebanks • Implement seed regeneration and multiplication programmes for accessions at risk of loss • Develop the capabilities of genebank personnel for routine genebank operations including informa- tion management systems Genetic Resources (2023), 4 (8), 71–90 Plant genetic resource conservation in Yemen 88 • Provide NGRC with young male and female pro- fessionals and enhance their scientific and techni- cal capacities in various crucial areas such as labo- ratory conservation using biotechnologies, genetic data and information management, plant taxon- omy and characterization (particularly wild rela- tives), among others. It is also important to fos- ter NGRC to assume coordinating responsibilities across the different areas and activities. • Develop an awareness-raising strategy and plan highlighting the importance of the country’s genetic resources and biodiversity • Establish and strengthen communication, cooper- ation and coordination among all relevant local, regional and international organizations involved in genetic resources and genebanks • Conduct inventory and survey operations for crop wild relatives, in coordination with on-farm or in situ activities. Acknowledgments We extend our sincere thanks and appreciation to Dr Muhammad Al-Khasha’a, Director General of the Agricultural Research Station on the southern coast, Al-Kod, Abyan governorate, Mr Amjad Bgigo from the Eastern Coast Agricultural Research Station, Mukalla, Hadramout, Mr Ali Abdul-Mughni Al-Maqtari from the Tihama Plain Agricultural Research Station, and Dr Saeed Saif, Director General of the Agricultural Research Station in the Southern Highlands, Taiz governorate. We would also like to express our gratitude to Dr Muhammad Hizam Al-Mashreqi, Dr Fouad Al-Qadasi and Dr Nadir Al-Absi, from RNRRC, and thanks to all NGRC employees and the leadership of AREA for their support and cooperation in providing the necessary data, information and images for this study. Furthermore, we express our thanks and gratitude to the Benefit Sharing Fund of the ITPGRFA for their support to the NGRC Committee during the period 2019–2023, and in disseminating the project’s outputs, including this study. Author contributions Maeen Ali Al-Jarmouzi prepared the study proposal, collected, organized, analyzed the data, wrote and improved the manuscript’s drafts. Khalil M. Alsharjabi contributed to reviewing and improving the study proposal, collecting the data, writing the manuscript, editing and improving the manuscript’s drafts at different stages. Luigi Guarino provided support through guidance, reviewing and improving the manuscript draft, enhancing the translation of the manuscript and providing important references. Conflict of interest The authors declare no known conflicts of interest or any financial or personal relationships influencing the work or materials appearing in the article. References Al-Ghouri, M., Sailan, A. A., Bahumaish, A., Al-Muallem, A. 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Pages 107. doi: https: //doi.org/10.1016/j.ejbas.2013.09.002 http://www.nordgen.org/sgsv http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/721331468334834796/Environmental-and-social-impact-assessment http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/721331468334834796/Environmental-and-social-impact-assessment http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/721331468334834796/Environmental-and-social-impact-assessment http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/438861468334798669/Republic-of-Yemen-Rainfed-Agriculture-and-Livestock-Project http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/438861468334798669/Republic-of-Yemen-Rainfed-Agriculture-and-Livestock-Project http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/438861468334798669/Republic-of-Yemen-Rainfed-Agriculture-and-Livestock-Project https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejbas.2013.09.002 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejbas.2013.09.002 Introduction Materials and methods Results and discussion State of in situ conservation and on-farm management Surveys and inventories of plant genetic resources On-farm management and improvement of plant genetic resources for food and agriculture Providing seeds to farmers and researchers in case of disasters to restore cropping systems Changes and trends in on-farm genetic resources conservation Status of ex situ conservation of plant genetic resources (genebanks) Supporting the targeted collection of plant genetic resources Expanding diversity in genebanks Regeneration and multiplication of genebank seed samples Conservation changes and trends in genebanks Gaps and challenges facing the conservation of genetic resources in Yemen Conclusion and recommendations Acknowledgments Author contributions Conflict of interest