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            Geoplanning: Journal of Geomatics and Planning, Vol. 11, No. 2, 2024, 205-222 

 

Original Research 

Urban Sprawl Symptoms in Bandar Lampung 

Suburban Area, Indonesia  

Zulqadri Ansar 1,2*, Walter T. de Vries1 

1. Technical University of Munich, Germany  

2. Institut Teknologi Sumatera, Indonesia 

 

DOI: 10.14710/geoplanning.11.2.205-222  

Abstract 

This research investigates the phenomenon of urban sprawl in a medium-sized metropolitan area, specifically Bandar 

Lampung. It identifies the primary characteristics of urban sprawl and its impact on suburban development. The goal is to 

pinpoint the symptoms of urban sprawl through its spatial patterns, which may form systemically or sporadically, and 

predict their occurrence. The underlying theory is that urban sprawl symptoms can be observed in the rapid population 

growth and land use change in suburban areas. Using statistical and spatial analysis (Geographic Information System), we 

studied the population growth rate and land use alterations in Bandar Lampung and its suburbs over the past decade. Our 

study reveals that the population in the suburbs is growing faster than in the city. Over a decade, there has been a land use 

change to 1255 ha of built-up land. This change is strongly associated with the development of public infrastructure and 

road networks. We recommend implementing smart growth strategies to manage urban sprawl in medium-sized cities in 

Indonesia. Additionally, we provide a critical review of the causal relationships driving urban sprawl and its widespread 

impacts 
Copyright © 2024 by Authors,  

Published by Universitas Diponegoro Publishing Group.  

This open access article is distributed under a  

Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license 

 

1. Introduction 

Massive urban expansion beyond city boundaries may potentially trigger further informal urban sprawl 

(Brueckner, 2001; Clawson, 2014; Pendall, 1999). Urban sprawl is a form of unplanned, unstructured, and 

seemingly random urban expansion in suburban areas (Brueckner, 2001; Clawson, 2014; Kironde, 1997; Pendall, 
1999; Tian, Guo, et al., 2017), which  have significant effects on several factors. These include physical, economic, 

and social aspects. This transformation is manifested as a structural change in the spatial economy from 

agriculture to manufacturing and service industries, an exponential growth of population, and an increase in land 

prices along with land use dynamics. Combined these may eventually result in potential disasters, such as floods 
(Winarso et al., 2015). Urban sprawl and urban-rural land conversions have significantly increased in Indonesia 

since the reformation era in the 90s, particularly in Jakarta and on Java. One of the root causes of this 

phenomenon is the high population density on Java, which has put enormous pressure on land resources since 
the early 2000s (Verburg et al., 1999). This is partly due to an active decentralization policy, and more recently, 

due to increased investments in mega infrastructure both outside of Java as well as on Java itself. Several studies 

suggest that the most visible effect is the massive land conversion and socioeconomic changes from agriculture 

to urban settlement, industrial activities, and other activities (Hudalah et al., 2013). 

There is a considerable amount of research focusing on urban sprawl characteristics in Indonesia's large 

cities such as Jakarta, Surabaya, and Medan (Budiyantini & Pratiwi, 2016; Firman, 1998, 1997, 2000; Hudalah et 

al., 2007; Legates & Hudalah, 2014; Verburg et al., 1999). Despite this, there remains a gap in when it comes to 
the understanding of urban sprawl in medium-sized metropolitan areas. It's therefore crucial to investigate 

e-ISSN: 2355-6544 
 
Received: 20 Decembet 2023;  
Revised:  .07 February 2024.;  
Accepted: 27 May 2024; 
Available Online: 30 November 2024; 
Published: 04 December 2024 
 
Keywords:  
Sprawl, Suburban, Medium-Sized 
Metropolitan 

*Corresponding author(s)  
email: zulqadri.ansar@tum.de 
 

 

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whether these medium-sized cities share common traits with their larger counterparts or if they possess unique 

dynamics, growth patterns, and challenges. Since the era of decentralization, these medium-sized cities have 

experienced significant expansion. Yet, their capacity to manage this growth is limited, making them vulnerable 
to the negative impacts of urban sprawl, including environmental degradation and congestion. This research 

aims to generate novel insights to academic literature and planning practice. 

According to Dardak et al. (2006), urban areas in Indonesia are considered metropolitan if they have a 

population of over 1 million people and a population density above 150 people/km2, with 75% of the population 
working in non-agricultural fields. The size of several metropolitan areas in Indonesia varies significantly, with 

Jakarta being the largest at 10 million people and a density of 16,937 people/km. Bandung, Surabaya, and Medan 

have a population of around 2,500,000 people, while Makassar, Semarang, and Palembang have approximately 
1,500,000 people. Some cities have recently been added to the Metropolitan category with populations of about 

1 million, such as Batam, Padang, Bandar Lampung, and Pekanbaru. Moreover, there are several cities expected 

to be classified as metropolitan soon, as their populations are nearly exceeding 1 million, including Malang, 

Samarinda, Balikpapan, and Banjarmasin, among others. These cities are commonly known as "medium-sized 
metropolitan cities."       

Urban sprawl is a complex and multifaceted phenomenon that has physical, environmental, and 

socioeconomic effects. Contemporary urbanization has been characterized by urban sprawl, which is an extensive 
form of land use for urban purposes that has detrimental environmental effects (Nuissl & Siedentop, 2021). Urban 

sprawl is characterized by the rapid transformation of land use/land cover into urban built-up areas, which has 

caused a significant increase in the built-up area (Sahana et al., 2018). The transformation has led to a decrease 

in urban open space, the transformation of prime agricultural land and wetlands into built-up areas, and changes 
in densities of resident al housing and buildings, topography, and infrastructure. 

Urban sprawl is characterized by low-density, scattered, leapfrog development, strip development, and 

discontinuous expansion into suburban areas. Low-density housing is a typical characteristic of urban sprawl, 
often associated with inefficient use of land resources (Guan et al., 2020; Shi et al., 2023). Scattered and leapfrog 

development is another characteristic of urban sprawl, referring to the lack of a clear pattern in urban 

development. This type of development leads to spatial inefficiencies and excessive spatial expansion due to 

pressures to provide land to cater to the rapid growth of the population's need for housing (Frenkel & Ashkenazi, 
2008; Nuissl & Siedentop, 2021; Pendall, 1999). Strip development is another characteristic of urban sprawl, 

referring to the development of long, linear strips of urban development along highways and arterial roads. This 

type of development tends to be ad hoc and unplanned, leading to spatial inefficiencies and excessive spatial 
expansion (Ewing, 2008). 

Another key characteristic of urban sprawl is the lack of continuity in expansion. This is characterized by 

the unstructured, random, and unplanned expansion of urban areas, which contributes to changes in land use 

patterns of various shapes and sizes (Tian, Ge, et al., 2017; Yasin et al., 2021). Rapid land use changes, 
discontinuous or jumping development patterns, no green open space, following the transportation axis, 

separation between urban and residential land uses, and low accessibility are additional indicators of urban 

sprawl (Frenkel & Ashkenazi, 2008; Guastella et al., 2019). The non-spatial characteristics of urban sprawl 
include absolute population growth, the emergence of a divide between formality and informality, and ineffective 

property land rights institutions (Wu et al., 2006). Urban sprawl has negative impacts on the environment, 

economy, and society, including ecological fragmentation and loss of biodiversity, as well as an increase in 

greenhouse gas emissions, traffic congestion, and air pollution. Moreover, it concentrates wealth in certain areas 
while cutting off low-income communities from resources, exacerbating social and economic inequality. 

The definition of urban sprawl and the differentiation between urban and suburban areas are pivotal. These 

distinctions can be made through various methods (Mikelbank, 2004; Stokes & Seto, 2019). One approach 
involves using the administrative boundary to separate the city from the surrounding districts. Another factor 

is population density, as urban zones typically exhibit higher density, while suburban areas are less densely 

populated. Land use and economic activities can also create distinctions, with urban areas offering more variety, 

and suburbs often dominated by housing and minimal economic activities. Finally, the availability of 

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transportation infrastructure and the area's proximity to the city center can be indicative. Suburban zones 

typically rely more on private transport for accessing jobs and services in the city center. These factors contribute 

to defining and distinguishing urban and suburban areas. 

This study specifically investigates how urban sprawl occurs in medium-sized metropolitan areas, with 

Bandar Lampung as a sample area. The primary goal is to discern the key drivers, patterns, and areas affected 

by urban sprawl. Specific objectives encompass assessing the influence of infrastructure development, 

government policies, and demographic shifts on urban expansion. The research employs Geographic Information 
Systems (GIS) and remote sensing technologies to map alterations in land use and urban boundaries, aiming to 

understand the characteristics of urban growth, particularly in suburbs transforming from rural to urban. An 

additional objective is to formulate evidence-based recommendations for urban planning and policy adjustments 
to manage and mitigate the impacts of urban growth. The findings can contribute to a sustainable urban growth 

strategy for Bandar Lampung in particular and similar medium-sized cities in general. To achieve these 

objectives, the research poses the following research questions: What are the spatial manifestations of urban 

sprawl in medium-sized metropolitan areas? Are these spatial patterns systematic or sporadic? Is urban sprawl 
more prevalent in flat topography areas, or does it follow the expansion of roads and infrastructure? How can 

the observed manifestations of urban sprawl be interpreted and predicted? 

Bandar Lampung, situated at the most southern side of Sumatra, is a city characterized by its diverse 
geography, encompassing beaches, lowlands, and hills. This variety in landscape shapes the trajectory of the 

city's development, rendering it an ideal subject for studying urban expansion. With a population exceeding one 

million, the city exhibits rapid urbanization and population growth, mirroring the evolution of medium-sized 

cities throughout Indonesia. The city's substantial economic growth is primarily attributable to its role as a 
principal nexus between Java and Sumatra. Infrastructure initiatives such as the Trans Sumatra Toll Road and 

the establishment of new university campuses on the city's periphery are impelling urban expansion, stimulating 

land development and real estate investment, and reshaping the city's physical layout.  

However, this rapid expansion engenders environmental concerns, including potential damage to 

biodiversity and habitat alteration. These issues are particularly pertinent in Bandar Lampung, and 

understanding their implications is critical. With Indonesia's shift towards decentralization, cities like Bandar 

Lampung now wield greater autonomy in managing their urban development. This grants Bandar Lampung a 
unique position as a case study for examining the impact of local governance on urban growth. Rapid growth 

presents urban planning with substantial challenges, particularly in managing urban expansion and its impact 

on transportation, housing, and public services. Despite its significance, Bandar Lampung has not been as 
extensively studied as cities like Jakarta or Surabaya. Consequently, this research could contribute valuable new 

data and insights that could be applied to other cities in Indonesia and elsewhere experiencing similar 

urbanization patterns. The selection of Bandar Lampung as the research site was influenced by its distinct 

characteristics and pressing urban expansion issues. Moreover, the potential contributions of these findings to 
the body of urban planning literature and policy development for similar urban environments globally were also 

considered. 

2. Data and Methods 

2.1. Study Area  

Bandar Lampung witnessed an annual population increase averaging 18,907 individuals over the past 

decade, the city's expansion has transcended its administrative boundaries. The Soekarno Hatta highway, 

bisecting the city, delineates the urban and suburban areas. The city's land area is distinctly divided, with the 

eastern side, comprising over 50% of the total land, primarily utilized for agricultural purposes, whereas the 

western side is urbanized. In recent times, Bandar Lampung has seen an influx of land interventions and 

developmental initiatives. These encompass the construction of infrastructural projects on the city's periphery, 

the establishment of the trans-Sumatra toll road, and the inception of the New Town development project, which 

relocated provincial government buildings and spurred the creation of new growth centres. The construction of 

the Sumatra Institute of Technology (ITERA) campus triggered a surge in land prices in the vicinity. 

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Furthermore, the development of Airan Raya Hospital and the elevation of Radin Intan State Islamic Institute 

to university status contributed to the city's expansion. The Lampung Regional Police Headquarters (Polda 

Lampung) was also constructed adjacent to the ITERA educational area (Figure 1). 

 

Figure 1. Study Area 

2.2. Data 

The data referred to in this context is a collection of different types of information that can be used to 

understand and analyse a particular area. These data types include population data, which indicates the number 

of people living in a given area, as well as land use data, which reveals how the land is being used and for what 

purposes. Topographic data is also included, providing a detailed understanding of the physical features of the 

land, such as elevation and slope. The data is further categorized into three main types: quantitative data, which 

is numerical in nature and can be easily measured and analysed; qualitative data, which provides a more subjective 

understanding of the area and can be more difficult to quantify; and spatial data, which provides information on 

the location and shape of objects and can be represented in the form of a point, a line, or a polygon. 

• The first dataset consists of population data for Bandar Lampung and its suburbs, obtained from statistical 

data released by the Central Bureau of Statistics (Badan Pusat Statistik). This data can be accessed freely 

at http://www.bps.go.id/. The population data, collected between 2012 and 2022, includes 33 villages or 

suburbs, 13 of which are in South Lampung Municipality and 20 in Bandar Lampung Municipality. 

• The second dataset is land use and land cover data obtained from aerial and satellite imagery of the suburbs 

of Bandar Lampung. The dataset is available in the open repositories of the United States Geological 

Survey (USGS, https://www.usgs.gov/) . The USGS publishes aerial photography data with medium-

grade quality that is freely accessible by all parties. The satellite used by the USGS is Landsat, and the 

name of the aerial photo is Landsat Images. The aerial images were collected in 2012 and 2022, enabling 

us to monitor land cover with medium resolution. 

• The third dataset is topographic data, released by the Geospatial Information Agency of the Republic of 

Indonesia. It can be obtained for free by downloading the data at  https://tanahair.indonesia.go.id/. This 

information is downloaded in Tif format and then changed into Shapefile format by ArcGIS. 

• The fourth dataset is infrastructure data, including road development and public facility development in 

the suburbs of Bandar Lampung. High-resolution aerial photographs collected from the National Institute 

of Aeronautics and Space of Indonesia (LAPAN) were used to obtain this data. This aerial photo is a 

Pleiades aerial photo. The data was obtained free of charge for research purposes by requesting data 

collection from LAPAN. The aerial image was taken in the last year's aerial photo (2022). 

https://doi.org/10.14710/geoplanning.11.2.205-222
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https://www.usgs.gov/
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2.3. Methodology 

The current study utilizes a blend of spatial and quantitative approaches to comprehend the phenomenon 
of Urban Sprawl. Spatial techniques, including Geographic Information System (GIS) and remote sensing, enable 

geographic visualization of urban growth and the tracking of urban development over time. GIS is a software 

designed for storing, managing, and analyzing geospatial data. In this research context, it integrates data such 
as land use, population, and infrastructure into a single system. It facilitates complex spatial analysis, helping in 

identifying patterns and trends in the data. Remote sensing is a technique that collects data about the earth's 

surface using satellites or aircraft. In this study, it has been employed to track land use changes over a decade. 

Simultaneously, quantitative methods measure population growth rate, land conversion area, and analyze 
patterns based on variables like topography, public infrastructure, and road network. The findings are then 

visualized through mapping, infographics, or tables. These two methodologies collectively aid in understanding 

the process of urban sprawl occurring in Bandar Lampung's suburbs (Figure 2 and Table 1).  

There are several causes described in literature. Each of these are addressed hereunder. Government Policies. 

Government policies can inadvertently promote urban sprawl through subsidies for public infrastructure and 

services, affordable housing, low land prices, and transportation policies. Poorly integrated policies across 

different dimensions can also contribute to urban sprawl. Adequate transportation policies are crucial in 

preventing urban sprawl. Settlement development programs and governments' inability to meet housing needs 
can also be factors. Moreover, local governments often lack experience in managing urban growth (Gómez-

Antonio et al., 2016; Habibi & Asadi, 2011; Hosseini & Hajilou, 2019; Majewska et al., 2022; Nazarnia et al., 2019; 

Taiwo, 2022; Yasin et al., 2021). Urban sprawl is often attributed to weak planning laws and single-use zoning 
by many experts. Development policies, such as zoning, urban growth boundaries, or development control, are 

often absent, according to some experts. Several studies have found that incorrect perceptions and policies related 

to urban growth contribute to urban sprawl. This is often caused by ineffective urban planning and land use 

policies, accompanied by poor decision-making in a region, particularly with regards to controlling urban growth 

and land use (Vargas-Hernández & Zdunek-Wielgołaska, 2021; Weilenmann et al., 2017; Xi-Liu & Qing-Xian, 

2018; Yasin et al., 2021).  

Mobility and Private Vehicle. Population mobility and the use of private vehicles are the primary causes of 

urban sprawl in cities. Private vehicles are a defining feature of urban sprawl. This type of development is 
characterized by roads and pathways that prioritize private vehicle use to access shopping and other activity 

centers. Because of segregated development patterns, residents in peripheral areas become reliant on private 

vehicles, resulting in high transportation costs and lengthy commutes. As mobility increases, so does private 

vehicle use, leading to traffic congestion, air pollution, and other negative impacts. This problem is exacerbated 
by inadequate transportation infrastructure. Private vehicle use encourages low-density development patterns 

and leads to the expansion of urban areas into surrounding rural areas, resulting in more cars and air pollution. 

The likelihood of urban sprawl increases with the number of private vehicles owned (Almeida Santos et al., 2018; 
Ewing & Rong, 2008; Firman, 2002; Gómez-Antonio et al., 2016; Hakim & Parolin, 2009; Hölzl, 2018; Majewska 

et al., 2022; Manesha et al., 2021; Mehriar et al., 2020; Restivo et al., 2019; Slaev et al., 2018).  

Ineffective Urban Planning. Urban planning and control are essential to mitigate urban sprawl. However, 

several factors contribute to it, including inadequate urban planning policies, weak local governance, and 

ineffective urban growth control policies. Inadequate policies and weak governance can encourage uncontrolled 
development, including in rural areas that should be preserved. Government policies that prioritize integration, 

homeownership, and stability also contribute to urban sprawl. To promote sustainable urban development, it is 

crucial to understand the needs of both urban and rural land users. Ineffective growth control policies can lead 
to uneven growth and exclusion of low-income groups and minorities. Policies that encourage development in 

peri-urban areas are also causes of urban sprawl. Irregular urban land use patterns and a lack of spatial sense can 

also contribute to sprawl. This is often accompanied by rigid planning (Bidandi & Williams, 2020; Gómez-

Antonio et al., 2016; Mustafa & Teller, 2020; Nazarnia et al., 2016; Nuissl & Siedentop, 2021; Xi-Liu & Qing-
Xian, 2018).  

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Land Price. Land prices significantly influence urban sprawl through several mechanisms. Firstly, high 

land values in city centers often push people to seek cheaper alternatives, typically located in the suburbs. This 

shift develops pressure for land development, leading to urban sprawl. Secondly, fertile agricultural land in 

suburban areas is usually less expensive than city-center land. Consequently, it becomes a prime target for 
developers looking for affordable land for their projects. The resulting conversion of this agricultural land into 

residential or commercial spaces accelerates urban expansion. Lastly, land in areas affected by urban sprawl often 

transitions from agricultural to non-agricultural uses. This change is driven by the higher market value of non-
agricultural uses, prompting landowners to pursue greater economic returns (Elmanisa et al., 2016; Karakayaci, 

2019; Pendall, 1999).  

Topography. Topography and landscape features play a crucial role in shaping urban growth patterns. 

Cities located on plains have an advantage due to the availability of land for urban development, which can 

increase economic growth. However, areas with higher levels of terrain undulation are less suitable for large-
scale spatial expansion. This can encourage denser and more intensive spatial forms within the district. Physical 

constraints such as terrain undulations and landscape features can influence the direction of urban development 

and the pattern of urban growth in the region (Herold et al., 2003; Nandi & Dewiyanti, 2019; Yang et al., 2023). 

Population Growth. Urban sprawl is characterized by rapid population growth in the suburbs, often caused 

by people moving from urban centers to more financially affordable suburbs. Population growth has important 
spatial implications, particularly in terms of economic inequalities. Several studies indicate that urbanization 

leads to uncontrolled urban sprawl, which poses global challenges, climate change, and urban poverty. Rapid 

urbanization is a result of an increasing number of urban dwellers, with people migrating to cities for various 
reasons such as limited land in the city, a desire to be closer to nature, or to avoid the traffic, crime, and noise of 

the city. However, suburban residents can still access urban areas with their private vehicles. This phenomenon 

has the potential to disrupt sustainable urban growth due to the expansion of land beyond its availability, 

characterized by population and employment densities located in city centers and suburbs that are functionally 
and spatially linked. The expansion of land beyond its availability is a challenge to sustainable urban growth 

(Bagheri & Tousi, 2018; Carlucci et al., 2018b; Dura-Guimera, 2003; Frenkel & Orenstein, 2012; Guastella et al., 

2019; Guite, 2019; Hatab et al., 2022; Liu et al., 2018; Nuissl & Siedentop, 2021; Pendall, 1999; Tian et al., 2017; 
Yiran et al., 2020; Yue et al., 2016).  

In addition to the causes, several authors describe the impacts of urban sprawl. Each of these are 

dewc4ribed hereunder. Land Conversion. Urban sprawl can have both direct and indirect impacts on the 

environment. These include the loss of agricultural land and its conversion to residential or commercial use. 

However, building access roads and supporting infrastructure often require tilling and dredging of land, further 
damaging the environment. The conversion of agricultural land to urban use also comes at the expense of other 

areas such as forests, wetlands, and grasslands, and can lead to the loss or damage of free ecosystem services 

such as flood control and water purification. The destruction of wildlife habitats is another obvious 
environmental impact of widespread building development. Remaining areas of wildlife habitat may be too small 

to support all the native species that lived there before or may be widely separated from each other. These 

conditions force wildlife to traverse dangerous, human-dominated landscapes in search of food and mates, which 

can disrupt ecosystem balance and reduce the availability of natural resources for communities. Another direct 
impact of such conversion is the loss of agricultural land, resulting in farmers losing their livelihoods and 

investments in agricultural infrastructure such as irrigation (Bae & Chang, 2019; Cho et al., 2010; Firman, 2000; 

Hanham & Spiker, 2005; Harrison & Donnelly, 2011; Lennert et al., 2020; Mohammady & Delavar, 2015; Sahana 
et al., 2018; Schuster Olbrich et al., 2022; Van Metre et al., 2000; Verburg et al., 1999; Yue et al., 2016).  

Transportation and Energy Consumption. Urban sprawl leads to negative impacts on transportation, public 

health, and the environment. This includes increased reliance on private cars, longer commutes, higher costs, 

traffic congestion, and air pollution. As urban areas expand, they replace open spaces with concrete and asphalt, 

leading to a decrease in wildlife habitats and biodiversity. Longer distances between destinations also result in 
higher fuel consumption and increased energy consumption, which contribute to climate change and the 

depletion of natural resources. Transportation has major impacts on energy consumption and carbon emissions. 

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More people in an area means more energy is needed, causing increased emissions, energy use, traffic congestion, 

and destruction of ecosystems. Rapid and sporadic urbanization causes even greater negative impacts (Cartone 

et al., 2021; Hanif, 2018; Kakar & Prasad, 2020; Mohammady & Delavar, 2016).  

Congestion and Pollution. Urban sprawl can lead to traffic congestion and air pollution due to the reliance 

on private vehicles for commuting, shopping, and schooling. The lack of adequate public transportation 

exacerbates the problem. This results in longer travel times to work and an increase in private vehicle use for 

trips to commerce centers, which contributes to traffic congestion and air pollution from vehicle emissions. These 
negative effects reduce the quality of life in urban areas, as evidenced by studies. To mitigate these effects, it is 

crucial to improve public transportation options and promote alternative modes of transportation (Bart, 2010; 

Daniels, 2001; Kakar & Prasad, 2020; Krishnaveni & Anilkumar, 2020; Rubiera-Morollón & Garrido-Yserte, 

2020). 

2.4. Identifying the Manifestation of Urban Sprawl Symptoms 

This study explores urban sprawl by focusing on key indicators like Land Use Change and Population 

Increase. The former refers to the transformation of non-urban land, such as agricultural or forested areas, into 

urban spaces, including residential or commercial zones. The latter denotes a higher population growth rate in 

suburbs compared to urban areas. We employed a quantitative and spatial methodology to discern the indications 

of urban sprawl in Bandar Lampung's peripheral areas. The quantitative technique scrutinized population 

growth, and the spatial method inspected shifts in land use. The assessment of population growth served as the 

primary indicator, facilitating the recognition of urban sprawl symptoms. Our analysis unfolded over three 

phases. Initially, we assembled data encompassing the population and area of Bandar Lampung City and 12 

suburban villages under the administration of the South Lampung Regency for a decade (2012-2022), although 

the data extended only until 2021. Following this, we conducted a statistical analysis of the population, covering 

aspects such as growth, density, average growth, and growth rate. Finally, we compared the trend of population 

growth rates in urban and suburban areas over the previous decade. 

In addition to the population analysis, we investigated changes in land use over the last decade. This 

involved a comparative study of land cover in 2012 and 2022. The data analysis process consisted of three steps. 

Initially, we digitized 2012 and 2022 satellite images of Bandar Lampung into vector data using ArcGIS mapping 

software. We then classified the vector data based on land cover criteria. Finally, we overlaid the 2012 and 2022 

land cover data to comprehend the changes. This approach produced a map displaying the distribution of land 

that underwent functional changes over a decade. The spatial method effectively observes changes in land use 

representing the sprawl phenomenon; however, its success is significantly dependent on the quality of the 

acquired satellite images. 

2.5. Identifying the Variations in and Inter-relations between Independent and Dependent 
Variables 

The focus of this study is the exploration of the nexus between various independent variables and the 

dependent variable, which is the transformation of land use from 2012 to 2022. Several independent variables 

are considered in this study, such as topography, roads, public facilities, land price, land type, and regional 

administrative boundaries. The study seeks to understand how these variables influence land conversion, a 

process denoting the shift from undeveloped to developed areas, such as residential zones. Data for this study 

was procured from a previous analysis comparing the landscape of 2012 to that of 2022. 

The first independent variable in our study is topography, which relates to the landscape's physical 

features, including elevation, slope, and terrain type. Topography can influence the pattern and speed of urban 

sprawl, with areas characterized by gentle slopes and fewer physical barriers often experiencing swift and 

extensive changes in land use. The examination of topographic variables occurred in three primary stages. The 

first step was processing DEM/SRTM data in vector format (TIFF) to create topographic maps. The second 

step was reclassifying this data by elevation class and converting it into polygon format (shapefile). Lastly, we 

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overlayed the topographic map with the land use change map from 2012 to 2022. This process is crucial for 

understanding how topography impacts land use change. 

The second independent variable refers to public facilities, such as universities, hospitals, and office parks. 

The expansion of public infrastructure into suburban regions can act as a catalyst for urban growth and changes 

in land usage. In order to investigate this variable, the coordinates for each public facility were processed using 

ArcGIS, a Geographic Information System software. Around these coordinates, a 'buffer' or radius of 

approximately 1000 meters was created to represent the service area of the public infrastructure. This buffer 

map was then combined with a map of land that had undergone conversion between 2012 and 2022. The result 

was a map highlighting areas where land use changes correlated with the type of public infrastructure present. 

This procedure is key in identifying trends in land use near specific public infrastructure projects. 

The third independent variable in this study is road infrastructure. This refers to the primary 

transportation routes in an urban environment. The construction or expansion of roads can enhance accessibility 

and result in changes in the function of adjacent land. This variable's value was obtained through three crucial 

stages: digitizing the road infrastructure lines into ArcGIS, creating a 'buffer' or radius of about 500 meters 

around the road network map, and superimposing this buffer map with the land use change map. The end product 

is a map of land use change based on road classification. This procedure is crucial for identifying land use change 

trends along specific road classes. 

Table 1. Research Design 

Research 

Targets 

Data 

Requirements 

Data Source Data 

Collect 

Data 

Analysis 

Approach 

Analysis 

Techniques 

Output 

Identifying 

the 

manifestation 

of Urban 

Sprawl 

symptoms 

• Population in 2012 

• Population in 2022 

• Central Bureau of 

Statistics 

Secondary Quantitative • Statistic Urban 

Population 

Growth 

• Landsat Imagery in 

2012 

• Landsat Imagery in 

2022 

• Pleiades Imagery in 

2022  

• https://www.usgs.gov/ 

(Web of U.S Geological 

Survey) 

• LAPAN (National 

Institute of Aeronautics 

& Space of Indonesia) 

Secondary Spatial 

Analysis 
• GIS Technique 

(Classified, 

Overlayed) 

• Quantitative 

Analysis 

Land Use 

Change Map 

Identifying 

the variations 

in and inter-

relations 

between 

independent 

and 

dependent 

variables 

• Topography spatial 

data 

• Land use Change 

2012 &2022 

 

• BIG (Geospatial 

Information Agency of 

Indonesia) 

• Results of Land Use 

Change Analysis from 

2012 - 2022 

Secondary Spatial 

Analysis 
• GIS 

Technique 

(Classified, 

Overlayed) 

• Quantitative 

Analysis 

Distribution 

of land 

conversion 

based on 

Topographic 

classification 

• Public facilities 

coordinate 

• Land use Change 

2012 &2022 

 

• BAPPEDA (Regional 

Development Planning 

Agency) 

• Results of Land Use 

Change Analysis from 

2012 - 2022 

Secondary Spatial 

Analysis 
• GIS 

Technique 

(Classified, 

Overlayed) 

• Quantitative 

Analysis 

Distribution 

of land 

conversion 

based on 

Public 

Facilities 

classification 

• Road Infrastructures 

• Land use Change 

2012 &2022 

 

• BAPPEDA (Regional 

Development Planning 

Agency) 

• Results of Land Use 

Change Analysis from 

2012 - 2022 

Secondary Spatial 

Analysis 
● GIS 

Technique 

(Classified, 

Overlayed) 

• Quantitative 

Analysis 

Distribution 

of land 

conversion 

based on 

Road 

Infrastructure 

classification 

 

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Figure 2. Theoretical Framework Design 

3. Results and Discussion 

3.1. Population Growth 

Bandar Lampung's population statistics indicate an increase of 216,860 people over the past eight years, 

or an average of 27,107 people per year. The combined population of Bandar Lampung and its suburbs is 

1,253,582, with 70% living in urban areas and 30% in suburban areas. As described in the previous chapter, the 

Soekarno-Hatta bypass highway separates urban and suburban areas: urban areas are located to the west of the 

bypass highway, while suburban areas are located to the east.  

Table 2. Population Growth, Density & Growth Rate 2013 – 2020 

  2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 
 Density 

(people/km) 

Growth 

Rate 

 CORE 741.84 756.54 771.23 785.70 800.02 814.11 828.06 877.22 5,913 18.25% 

SUBURBAN 294.88 299.23 304.16 309.77 314.87 321.08 325.20 376.36 2,501 27.63% 

Subdistricts 200.20 204.15 208.06 212.03 215.89 219.70 223.44 263.35   

Villages 94.68 95.08 96.10 97.74 98.98 101.38 101.76 113.01   

Table 2 shows that the total population in urban areas remains higher than in the suburbs. Table 3 shows 

that the population density in urban and suburban areas in 2020 is different. Urban areas have a higher population 

density of 5,913 people/km2, covering 51.63 km2, while suburban areas have a lower population density of 2,501 

people/km2, covering 98.86 km2. Despite the lower density, suburban areas have a higher population growth 

rate than urban areas. From 2013 to 2020, the growth rate trend in the two areas is also different, with urban 

areas having a growth rate of 18.25% and suburban areas having a growth rate of 27.63%. This indicates that 

the population increase in suburban areas from 2013 to 2020 has been at a faster rate than in urban areas. 

3.2. Land Conversion  

The second manifestation of suburban sprawl in Bandar Lampung is land conversion. This has been 

identified through a spatial approach that observes the conversion of agricultural land into built-up areas in the 

suburbs. This observation was conducted by comparing two land use maps from 2012 and 2022, which covered 

a total area of 15,047 hectares. 

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Table 3. Land Cover in Suburb of Bandar Lampung 2012 - 2022 

No Land Cover in 2012 
Area (ha) 

Change 
2012 2022 

1 Water Bodies 5.99 5.55 -0.43 

2 Open Spaces 178.57 125.26 -53.31 

3 Agriculture - Plantation 3,534.06 3,261.46 -272.60 

4 Residential 3,013.39 4,268.18 1,254.79 

5 Swamp 4.12 4.12 0.00 

6 Agriculture - Fields 3,152.17 2,732.70 -419.48 

7 Grassland 1,401.43 1,312.37 -89.06 

8 Agricultural - Fallow 3,757.49 3,337.57 -419.92 

 Total 15,047.23 15.047,22 0 

Sources: RTRW of Lampung Province 

   
   Figure 3. Land Use 2012              Figure 4. Land Use 2022 

 
Figure 5. Land Use Change 2012 - 2022 

Figure 3, 4, and 5 visually illustrate the land use maps in 2012 and 2022, respectively. The maps provide 

a clear visual representation of the changes in land use over the course of a decade. It is worth noting that 

residential areas are shown in brown, while agricultural land is shown in ivory. Upon comparison of the two 

maps, it becomes apparent that there has been a significant conversion of agricultural land into built-up areas. 

Specifically, the data shows that 1,254.79 hectares of agricultural land were converted into built-up areas over 

the course of the decade, averaging roughly 125 hectares per year. This represents a substantial loss of 

agricultural land, which has important implications for food production and the environment. Interestingly, the 

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conversion of land was dominated by residential areas, which rapidly expanded beyond the administrative 

boundaries. In 2012, the residential area was 3,013 hectares, but by 2022, it had increased by 4,268 hectares. 

Meanwhile, agricultural land drastically declined to 2,732 hectares. This data is presented in Table 3, which 

provides a more detailed breakdown of the changes in land use over the decade. 

3.3. The Variations and Inter-relations Between Independent and Dependent Variables  

3.3.1. Land Conversion and Topography  

The analysis results are derived by utilizing the land use map, which provides critical information about 

the land conversion process based on topography class. Figure 6 presents a detailed overview of the land 

conversion, highlighting the various regions where changes have occurred throughout the area. 

 
Figure 6. Land Use Change based on Topography 

Upon examining Figure 6, it becomes evident that the majority of the land conversion occurred at an 

elevation of 51-100 meters above sea level (masl), accounting for a total of 901 hectares or 72% of the conversion. 

Additionally, another 331 hectares, or 27%, were converted at an elevation of 101-200 masl. Interestingly, the 

areas classified as high topography, which are above 200 masl, accounted for less than 1 hectare or approximately 

0.3% of the overall land conversion. It is evident that the differences in elevation play a significant role in the 

conversion process, indicating a direct correlation between elevation and land use changes. Moreover, the data 

highlights the need for more in-depth studies into the effects of topography on land use conversion processes, 

which could help develop more effective land use policies and strategies. 

3.3.2. Land Conversion and Infrastructure 

The next analysis carried out is the analysis of the type of infrastructure on land use change in the suburban area of 

Bandar Lampung, the aim is to find out how much the development of various types of infrastructure contributes to land use 

change in the area. The Table 4 presented below provides an overview of the extent of land conversion that has 

taken place in the vicinity of recently constructed infrastructure. The land conversion is categorized into two 

distinct groups: road connections and other urban facilities, which include universities, hospitals, government 

buildings, and flyover roads. It is important to note that the observational radius of the infrastructure varies 

depending on the type of road. Arterial roads, for instance, span an impressive 500 meters to the left and right, 

while collector roads span 200 meters to the left and right. These observational radii are significant because they 

directly impact the extent of land conversion that has taken place in the area. As such, it is crucial to understand 

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the implications of this land conversion, particularly with respect to environmental degradation and urban 

sprawl. 

Table 4. Land Use Change based on Road Infrastructure and Public Infrastructure 

Road Classification (Radius 500 m) Area (ha) Public Infrastructure (Radius 1 km) Area (ha) 

Arterial Primary Road 183.91 Toll Gate 27.47 

Arterial Secondary Road 14.58 High Education Facilities 130.25 

Primary Collector Road 61.57 Health Facilities 53.52 

Secondary Collector Road 710.67 Market 52.76 

   
Industrial Park 13.73 
Government district 45.60 

Total 970.73 Total 323.34 

Upon thorough analysis, it was discovered that 26% of the total land conversion, equivalent to 323.34 

hectares, occurred around new infrastructure projects. This indicates that the majority of the land was 

repurposed for these projects. Moreover, 77% or approximately 970.73 hectares are situated around or along 

road networks, underscoring the significance of road networks in facilitating land conversion. To provide a more 

comprehensive understanding of the situation, Figure 7 and 8 have been included, which shows the percentage 

distribution of different types of infrastructure on land conversion in the peri-urban area of Bandar Lampung. 

This visualization serves as a valuable resource for anyone seeking to gain a deeper understanding of the 

underlying dynamics of land conversion in this area. 

 Figure 7. Land Use Change based on Road 

Infrastructure  

Figure 8. Land Use Change based on Public 
Infrastructure 

3.4. Discussion 

Urban sprawl, the uncontrolled expansion of urban development, affects many cities worldwide, including 

Bandar Lampung, Indonesia. This phenomenon involves the rapid transformation of rural and agricultural land 

into urban areas, leading to increased car dependency and reduced population density. Characterized by the swift 

conversion of land use into urban built-up areas, urban sprawl significantly increases these developed areas 

(Sahana et al., 2018). This study aims to understand the occurrence, influencing factors, and growth patterns of 

urban sprawl in Bandar Lampung. By combining field research and literature findings, this study analyses 

quantitative data on land use change and population density, comparing them with previous research theories. 

It pays particular attention to the impact of development policies and infrastructure development on urban 

expansion. The study concludes by providing practical, evidence-based recommendations for policy makers, 

urban planners, and other stakeholders to manage future urban sprawl. 

This research offers a unique geographical and social perspective on urban sprawl in medium-sized cities, 

providing in-depth knowledge of the phenomenon. It offers critical insights that can impact urban planning and 

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policy-making for similar sized cities. The study expands our understanding of how urban sprawl happens, 

specifically how infrastructure and topographic factors influence the development of medium-sized cities. This 

knowledge can aid in creating more effective strategies to control urban sprawl. A unique aspect of this research 

is the application of the spatial analysis method of buffer and overlay analysis. This approach produces more 

accurate and reliable results, crucial for urban planning decisions. The study also provides a comprehensive 

analysis of urban sprawl drivers, using a combination of quantitative and qualitative methods. This approach 

allows for a deeper understanding of the complexity of the urban sprawl phenomenon. Lastly, the research 

utilizes advanced GIS and photo-imaging technologies to analyze spatial patterns and the impact of 

infrastructure on urban sprawl. This approach offers a current perspective that improves the reliability and 

accuracy of the results. 

3.4.1. Symptoms and Process  

Urban sprawl, or urban expansion, is defined by higher population growth rates in the suburbs compared 

to the city centre. This research indicates a faster growth rate in the suburbs, with ratios of 27.63% and 18.25% 

respectively. Urban expansion is often a result of people relocating from the city centre to the more financially 

accessible suburbs (Bagheri & Tousi, 2018; Carlucci et al., 2018a). This shift increases housing demand in the 

suburbs (Carlucci et al., 2018a). In Bandar Lampung, suburban land is less expensive and housing construction 

is largely subsidized by the government, making it more affordable. The availability of land also influences 

population growth and contributes to urban sprawl (Nandi & Dewiyanti, 2019). Bandar Lampung's suburbs offer 

plentiful land, attracting urban residents with more affordable prices and larger land areas. 

The population density of an area often reflects the type of development. The study area shows a stark 

contrast between the suburban and urban areas. The suburban areas have a much lower population density of 

about 2,501 people/km, compared to 5,901 people/km in the urban areas. This low population density results in 

a sparse settlement distribution, contributing to the outward expansion of urban areas (Shi et al., 2023). However, 

challenges arise when urban expansion occurs without proper control or planning. Unchecked growth can lead 

to urban sprawl, limited access to public services, increased infrastructure costs, and loss of green space. If based 

on appropriate spatial planning, low-density development can be beneficial. Unfortunately, low-density urban 

growth is often poorly planned and managed. Ideal planning should manage urban growth to maintain quality 

of life, support sustainable development, and ensure equitable access to public services. Despite low density, 

access to essential facilities such as health, education, clean water, and sanitation is crucial in supporting quality 

of life. Therefore, urban planning needs to consider how to integrate low-density suburban areas with the 

infrastructure of larger cities, such as transport and public services. 

Contemporary urbanisation is characterised by urban sprawl, which is an extensive form of land use with 

negative environmental impacts (Nuissl & Siedentop, 2021). Rapid population growth has spurred increased 

demand for housing and land in peri-urban areas for residential, commercial, and office activities. Due to the low 

population density, land availability in peri-urban areas is limited. This has significant implications for urban 

planning, including the loss of open land. This study found that high population growth in peri-urban areas has 

led to a significant reduction in agricultural land. In the past decade, there has been a notable conversion of land 

use in the suburbs of Bandar Lampung. More than 1,250 hectares of agricultural land, plantations, and pastures 

were converted to residential land. On average, 125 hectares of open land are converted to residential land each 

year, reflecting the rapid urbanisation of the area. 

Out of the 1,250 hectares converted, 89% was agricultural land turned into developed land. Developers 

often prefer transforming paddy fields, as these have an abundant groundwater supply near the surface, 

eliminating the need for deep excavation to access water. Furthermore, the soil structure of paddy fields ensures 

high stability for housing foundations. Conversely, other open land types like wetlands and peatlands possess 

irregular soil structures and inadequate groundwater conditions. The expansion of urban areas onto agricultural 

land poses a threat to the livelihoods of farmers in peri-urban regions. A decrease in agricultural land can 

significantly impact food production, leading to reduced food availability for the community. This can directly 

affect the income of individuals in peri-urban areas (Bae & Chang, 2019).  

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The subsequent symptom is the evolution of facilities and road infrastructure. The study revealed that 

95% of the converted land is situated along road infrastructure, with the remainder around public facilities. This 

indicates that road infrastructure on the city's periphery is vital for accommodating urban growth. Convenient 

access to major roads is essential for urban expansion and land conversion. An article by Ewing & Rong (2008) 

highlights that road development typically occurs in long, linear patterns along motorways and arterial roads. 

This type of development tends to be unplanned, featuring jumps and ribbon patterns, which can result in spatial 

inefficiencies and sprawl. 

3.4.2. Urban Sprawl Manifestation 

The research demonstrates that the urban sprawl in Bandar Lampung is evident and quantifiable. Data 

indicates a significant geographical expansion of the city boundary, with an increase in the built-up area of 1255 

ha over the past decade. The transition in land use from agricultural to residential, educational, commercial, and 

industrial signifies the city's rapid and often unpremeditated growth, pointing to urban sprawl. The study also 

reveals a population growth rate of 27.63% in Bandar Lampung's suburbs. This statistic is a testament to the 

general urbanization trend, where residents are moving from dense city centers to expansive suburbs. Factors 

driving this trend include the quest for affordable housing, improved quality of life, and infrastructure 

development such as roads and public transportation, which facilitate access to the city center. These findings 

align with numerous references that define urban sprawl attributes. The literature indicates that urban sprawl 

typically involves vast geographical expansion, increased land use, and population dispersion to suburban areas 

(Brueckner, 2000; Johnson, 2001; Tian et al., 2017) further emphasize that sprawl often stems from infrastructure 

development that enables population mobility and easy access to urban resources.  

However, unique factors emerge in the specific context of Indonesia, where dynamics such as local 

government policies and regional economic factors significantly influence urban sprawl patterns. For instance, 

in Bandar Lampung, local government policies that encourage infrastructure development without sufficient 

planning may have expedited urban sprawl beyond what is typically seen in developed countries' cities. Urban 

sprawl in Bandar Lampung is evident through substantial geographical expansion and land use change, 

substantiated by data demonstrating a shift from agricultural to more urbanised uses of land. This local context 

provides a unique perspective to this phenomenon, highlighting the necessity to consider local factors when 

understanding and managing urban sprawl. This growth can jeopardise the livelihoods of farmers in the 

surrounding areas. There could be a significant reduction in agricultural land, impacting food production and 

availability. This, in turn, directly affects the income of people living in these areas (Bae & Chang, 2019). 

3.4.3. Systemic or Sporadic 

This data demonstrates that urban sprawl in Bandar Lampung exhibits a mixed pattern, with certain 
aspects being systematic and others sporadic. Systematic patterns of expansion emerge through the land use 
changes along the arterial and collector road corridors, marked by a significant rise in residential and commercial 
development. On the other hand, sporadic patterns of sprawl are observed as well, especially in areas less 
accessible to major development plans. Development in these regions appears spontaneous and irregular, 
frequently driven by uncoordinated land speculation and property investment. 

The observed patterns mirror those observed in other global cities. Urban sprawl often unfolds 
systematically due to government policies and substantial infrastructure investments, according to Nazarnia et 
al. (2019). Conversely, the literature also acknowledges that sprawl can transpire sporadically, particularly in 

rapidly growing cities with lax land use regulations (Vargas-Hernández & Zdunek-Wielgołaska, 2021; Xi-Liu & 
Qing-Xian, 2018). Economic, social, and political factors often dictate whether urban sprawl is systematic or 
sporadic, as highlighted by Nuissl & Siedentop (2021). In Bandar Lampung the presence of both patterns 
suggests variations in local policy effectiveness and responses to swift economic pressures. Urban sprawl in 
Bandar Lampung is a blend of systematic and sporadic trends. These tendencies underscore the need for a more 
dynamic and responsive planning approach, as well as further research to gain a deeper understanding of how 
policy, infrastructure, and economic factors interact to shape urban development patterns. 

 

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3.4.4. How can Sprawl be Explained and Predicted? 

This study reveals that factors such as topography, road development, and public infrastructure 

significantly influence the patterns of urban sprawl in Bandar Lampung. Data analysis indicates that areas with 

a flat, easily developed topography tend to experience faster urban expansion compared to regions with more 

challenging contours. This implies that the ease of development affects the pace and direction of urban expansion. 

Infrastructure development, especially roads, and public facilities like schools and health centres are key 

predictors of urban development. Areas newly accessible by arterial and other collector roads often become prime 

locations for new residential development, attracting more residents to settle outside the city centre. 

These findings corroborate existing theories in urban studies and planning literature. The literature has 

consistently recognized the importance of topography in urban development. Research by Herold et al. (2003) 

and Yang et al. (2023) demonstrate how topography influences not just physical development but also 

infrastructure costs and land use. This affirms that favorable topography can expedite urban sprawl by lessening 

the costs and technical challenges of development. Moreover, the urban expansion model explained by Brueckner 

(2000) and the springboard development theory (Kakar & Prasad, 2020; Mohammady & Delavar, 2016) illustrate 

that infrastructure, particularly roads, play a pivotal role in shaping the patterns and extent of urban sprawl. 

New roads and transport infrastructure make previously inaccessible or less desirable areas more accessible, 

promoting faster and farther urban expansion from the city centre. 

The findings validate these theories by demonstrating that the manifestations of urban sprawl in Bandar 

Lampung, in terms of topography and infrastructure, align with principles identified in recent literature. These 

insights can aid in more sustainable urban planning and development. A deeper understanding of these factors 

can help stakeholders make better-informed decisions about infrastructure development. 

4. Conclusion 

Urban sprawl refers to the uncontrolled and unplanned expansion of urban areas into neighboring rural 

regions. This process is typically characterized by the transformation of rural land into low-density residential, 

commercial, or industrial developments. Urban sprawl introduces a variety of economic, social, and 

environmental impacts. It's essential to manage this process effectively to mitigate potential negative 

consequences. Urban expansion in Bandar Lampung has largely occurred to the east, in suburban areas where 

public infrastructure development has occurred and led to considerable land conversion of approximately 1255 

hectares. The direction of urban expansion has been guided by public infrastructure development, including 

roads and educational facilities. Housing demand and population growth rates are significant factors influencing 

the magnitude of urban expansion. Urban sprawl typically develops in the direction of new infrastructure and, 

without proper planning, can result in unregulated expansion. Land prices, particularly in areas where they are 

lower, significantly influence the direction of sprawl. The private sector, driven by profit, often spearheads this 

process, while the government's involvement remains limited. These factors together indicate a deviation from 

the intended controlled urban growth, suggesting the failure of the initiative. Urban expansion often leads to an 

increased dominance of the private property sector in spatial development, thereby reducing the role of local 

governments. This imbalance can result in the private sector governing land use decisions, often at the expense 

of coherent urban planning and enforcement. Efforts by the government to increase low-cost housing also 

contribute to urban sprawl, pushing low-income households into new suburbs. 

This study aims to explore and elucidate the symptoms and processes of urban sprawl by identifying its 

spatial manifestations, patterns, and directions of expansion in mid-sized metropolitan regions. The research 

contributes to the scientific field by providing tangible evidence on the dynamics of urban sprawl and the factors 

propelling it in mid-sized cities, with a particular focus on the roles of infrastructure and landscape. Moreover, 

it offers valuable insights into the efficacy of current urban planning strategies. Future studies could explore 

strategies to regulate urban sprawl and promote sustainable urban development. This could encompass 

enhancing land use regulations, improving government oversight of the private sector, or advocating for urban 

planning strategies that prioritize sustainable development. Strategies could also include advocating for higher 

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densities and mixed-use development to mitigate urban sprawl. Additionally, evaluating the effects of urban 

sprawl on different socio-economic groups and investigating strategies to alleviate its negative impacts would 

be beneficial.  

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