









































An Analysis of the Effects of 
Frequency and Type of Physical

Activity on Self-Esteem in 
Adolescent Males

Isabella Romero, Avery Kaye, Camille Poulin, Mary Ellen 
Petersen

Volume Two
Edition Two
Spring 2022

 
GEORGETOWN SCIENTIFIC
RESEARCH JOURNAL

42



Georgetown	Scientific	Research	Journal	

An Analysis of the Effects of Frequency and Type of Physical 
Activity on Self-Esteem in Adolescent Males 

Isabella Romero, Avery Kaye, Camille Poulin, Mary Ellen Petersen 

Department of Psychology, Georgetown University, Washington, D.C. 
E-mail: iar15@georgetown.edu
https://doi.org/10.48091/gsr.v2i2.42

Abstract

The goal of this study is to determine the effect of type and frequency of exercise on the self-esteem of 
college-aged males using a two-part online survey distributed amongst Georgetown students. Recent 
literature has investigated the implications of exercise on individuals’ self-perception, in which partaking 
in frequent endurance exercise is associated with higher levels of self-esteem. Consequently, my research 
group postulated that if male college students perform endurance exercise, rather than strength exercise, 
then they will have a higher level of self-esteem. Additionally, it was hypothesized that if exercise is 
performed at a high frequency, versus a low frequency, then they would have a higher level of self-esteem. 
Frequency of exercise was operationalized through hours per week, in which each subject was then 
categorized into a type of exercise based on which they reported having the highest frequency. Self-esteem 
was calculated through responses to a modified version of the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (Rosenberg, 
1965). The results indicated that the high frequency endurance group had the highest mean self-esteem 
score, followed by the high frequency strength group, low frequency strength group, and low frequency 
endurance group. Through a 2x2 ANOVA test with a between-groups design, it was revealed that 
frequency of exercise, not type of exercise, had the most significant effect on self-esteem. Therefore, the 
relationship between frequency of exercise and self-esteem was found to be statistically significant, while 
that between type of exercise and self-esteem was not. These conclusions are relevant to building upon 
related academic literature concerning male self-esteem and the impacts of physical activity, as well as 
incorporation into university settings in order to improve students’ self-esteem levels.

Keywords: self-esteem, exercise, endurance, strength, frequency

1. Introduction

The intention of this study was to investigate
the effects of type and frequency of exercise on the 
self-esteem of male college students. To determine 
this relationship, a two-part online survey was 
distributed amongst the population of male 
undergraduate Georgetown University students, 
which consisted of questions regarding frequency 
of exercise and type of exercise, as well as scores 
resulting from participants’ self-reported responses 
to a modified version of the Rosenberg Self-
Esteem Scale.1 The study was designed to ascertain 

whether performing endurance exercise at a high  
frequency contributes to a higher level of self-
esteem in male college students than those who 
practice strength exercise at a low frequency. The 
hypothesis of the present study states that if male 
college students perform endurance exercise, 
rather than strength exercise, then they will have 
a higher level of self-esteem. Additionally, it 
was hypothesized that if exercise is performed at a 
high frequency, versus a low frequency, then they 
would have a higher level of self-esteem. 

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Georgetown	Scientific	Research	Journal	

1.1 Self-Esteem and Physical Exercise 

The effect of physical exercise on self-esteem, 
representing the bridge between physical and 
mental health, has become a prominent topic 
pervading modern society. Self-esteem embodies 
the evaluative portion of the self, representing 
cognitive, behavioral, and affective aspects. It also 
describes an individual’s general subjective 
perception of personal worth and is used as a 
measure of how much one “values, approves of, 
appreciates, prizes, or likes him or herself.”2 This 
concept is worthy of study because of its influence 
on several elements of the individual, including 
motivation, decision-making processes, 
interpersonal relationships, emotional health, and 
overall well-being, as well as for its role in 
numerous psychological issues such as anxiety, 
depression, and eating disorders3. 

The connection between self-esteem and 
physical exercise is a highly relevant topic within 
modern-day psychology. The organized 
competitive sports and fitness industry in the 
United States has become a rapidly growing force 
to compensate for the increasingly sedentary habits 
that have become a staple of the American lifestyle, 
with physical activity being ingrained into 
academic curricula4. Recent literature has since 
investigated the implications of exercise on 
individuals’ self-perception, in which partaking in 
frequent endurance exercise has been correlated 
with a higher level of self-esteem. Physical activity 
has been observed to directly affect self-esteem in 
adults5, and increased frequency in the practice of 
it was found to be a significant variable in 
improving this aspect.6 As suggested by an 
intervention of physical activity on Iranian medical 
students, aerobic exercise, which is 
interchangeable with the term endurance exercise, 
was observed to significantly increase self-esteem 
scores after an eight-week period.7 To further 
detail, endurance is one of four categories of 
exercise (including strength, balance, and 
flexibility), and is characterized by activities that 
increase breathing and heart rate, such as walking, 
jogging, or swimming.8 Additionally, it has been 

suggested that increased levels of physical activity 
have a positive impact on self-perceptions on the 
social and athletic levels in the adolescent age 
group.9 Specifically in the college-aged group, 
perceived body image of individuals who engaged 
in regular exercise through sports was positively 
affected by participating in this activity, along with 
psychological well-being, self-esteem, and exercise 
flow.10 Exercise flow is the spiritual state that 
pushes a person to continue athletic activities. The 
implications of self-esteem are especially 
significant in regard to overall well-being, in which 
a study utilizing pertinent variables such as 
physical self-esteem, exercise self-efficacy, and 
affect found that regular physical activity increased 
physical self-esteem and improved quality of life 
for the young adults participating.11 The effects of 
exercise participation on physical self-concept have 
also been found to positively influence mental 
well-being, and in turn, influence the changes in 
mental well-being via the improvement of self-
esteem.12 Furthermore, higher levels of physical 
exercise have been observed to prompt a higher 
score of subjective well-being over that of low-level 
exercise.13  

Reasons as to why this may be stem from 
previously established theories, such as Maslow’s 
Hierarchy of Needs, in which self-esteem plays a 
significant role as a basic human motivation, as 
individuals require both appreciation and inner 
self-respect to build self-esteem and fulfill the 
requirements to achieve self-actualization.14  This 
could suggest that individuals who partake in 
frequent exercise may do so to gain respect 
amongst their peers, achieve a feeling of belonging, 
or seem more socially likeable, which contributes 
to their levels of self-esteem. Furthermore, 
engaging in regular exercise releases β-endorphins
in the peripheral and central nervous system, 
which elevates an individual’s mood and decreases 
anxiety levels. In consequence, these findings 
suggest a positive influence in self-esteem because 
of improvement in mood, thus implying a 
correlation between the factors of exercise and 
positive self-perception.15 Bandura’s self-efficacy 
theory is also relevant to this study, in that both 

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Georgetown	Scientific	Research	Journal	

suggest a relationship between exercise and self-
esteem. Self-efficacy, referring to one’s belief in 
their own ability to succeed in a certain situation, 
is significant in this context due to its impact on 
self-esteem for its positive influence on individuals’ 
resiliency to obstacles and stress, healthy lifestyle 
habits, improved professional performance, and 
academic achievement. In reference to the 
hypothesis of this study, Bandura’s research 
positively supports the presented hypothesis, in 
that if an individual has a high level of self-
confidence in their athletic abilities, there may also 
be a correlation associated with the frequency of 
exercise that they engage in.16  

1.1.1 Motivation Behind Sample and Independent 
Variable of Type of Exercise 

Researching adolescent men was of particular 
interest to this study due to findings in past 
literature which demonstrate that boys have a 
higher perceived athletic competence and are more 
physically active on average than girls,17 yet the 
underrepresentation of boys’ self-esteem in the 
media runs counter to conventional wisdom. 
Prompted by a 1995 study by the American 
Association of University Women18 that 
incorrectly reported that educational bias results in 
girls’ having a lower self-esteem than boys, a wave 
of corrective measures towards girls was issued, 
while current research suggests that the differences 
in self-esteem scores between genders is actually 
quite minimal19. In the same vein, there exists a 
social pressure on men to conform to a certain 
body type attained by frequent exercise, which may 
negatively impact self-esteem if not achieved, but 
also improve self-perception if this body type has 
been obtained.  Thus, this study intends to fill the 
gap in academic literature based on the serial 
underrepresentation of male-centered self-esteem 
studies. Additionally, the comparison of exercise 
types is a variable not commonly studied when 
examining exercise and self-esteem and represents 
another gap in academic literature that this study 
intends to fill. The comparison between endurance 
and strength exercise is especially relevant to this 
study, in which endurance training has been 

postulated to be effective in raising self-esteem,20 
and strength has been used in previous research as 
an appropriate comparison point.21 

2. Methods

2.1 Participants 

The sample was derived from Georgetown 
undergraduate male students at a minimum of 15 
participants per independent variable, leading to a 
minimum of 60 total participants. Recruitment 
occurred through a voluntary basis based on 
responses to a widely distributed flyer exhibiting a 
QR code leading to the study’s survey.  

2.2 Apparatus 

To conduct data collection, a two-part online 
survey was distributed amongst male 
undergraduates through the issuance of a flyer and 
location specific recruitment techniques. This 
survey featured questions regarding participants’ 
demographic information, including ethnicity, 
class year, and international student status. It also 
inquired about participants’ frequency of exercise 
in terms of how many hours performed per week. 
Additionally, participants were asked which 
category of exercise, strength, or endurance, they 
prefer based on how many hours per week they 
exercise each. Lastly, each subject self-reported 
responses to a modified version of the Rosenberg 
Self-Esteem Scale, which was used to calculate 
their total self-esteem score on a range from 0-
40.22 A consent form was presented at the premise 
of the survey to ensure consent and maintain 
participant confidentiality.  

2.3 Design 

The design of this research took on the form of 
a 2x2 factorial study, in which the independent 
variables of type of exercise and frequency of 
exercise were further divided into the categories of 
endurance and strength, and high or low level of 
frequency, respectively. Additionally, it assumed a 
between-subject design, in which participants 
identified with one level of each independent 

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Georgetown	Scientific	Research	Journal	

variable, selecting strength- or endurance-based 
exercise and high or low frequency of exercise. The 
materials necessary for this study included a survey, 
consent form, and flyer with a QR code to access 
the web-based questionnaire. 

2.3.1 Accounting for Extraneous Variables 

Extraneous variables that may affect the results 
of this study generally cannot be controlled for but 
will be mentioned in order to account for possible 
interference. One factor that may influence the 
outcome of my statistical analysis is responses with 
extreme amounts of exercise hours logged, which 
could occur, for instance, if individuals on an 
organized sports team respond to the survey. To 
control for this phenomenon of regression to the 
mean, my research group manually eliminated 
these outliers. An additional factor that may affect 
the outcome of this study is the effect of external 
stress stemming from the academic environment 
that contributes towards a lower self-reported self-
esteem score, such as collecting data during 
midterm season or a period with an especially 
heavy workload. Furthermore, the threat of self-
reporting bias as a measurement error, which 
encompasses the deviation between the self-
reported and true values of the same measure, is 
existent due to the method of volunteer sampling 
in the study’s recruitment of participants. 

2.3 Procedure 

First, a survey was created, containing a 
consent form and questions regarding 
demographic information, type of exercise 
between endurance or strength, frequency of 
exercise on an hour per week basis, and a modified 
version of the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale.22 
Data was collected from October 15th to 
November 12th, by which the survey was then 
terminated and inaccessible online to limit the 
responses to a certain time period.  

3. Results

This analysis revolved around data collected
from the survey distributed amongst male 

undergraduate Georgetown students, focusing on 
the effects of frequency and type of exercise on self-
esteem. The sample consisted of 67 male 
participants who self-reported hours of exercise 
according to type, as well as provided responses to 
a modified version of the Rosenberg Self-Esteem 
Scale. Participants’ answers to the questions on the 
distributed survey were the source of these stated 
independent variables.  

Demographic information was collected from 
each subject to supplement the data in this research 
study. Since the study specifically targeted 
Georgetown men, the frequency for gender was 
100% male. For race, participants were able to 
select from a range of options, of which there were 
a reported 52 White/Caucasian (77.6%), 8 Asian 
American (11.9%), 5 African American (7.5%), 1 
Alaska Native (1.5%), and 1 Other (1.5%). Class 
year was also recorded, with 7 being from the class 
of 2022 (10.5%), 27 being from the class of 2023 
(40.3%), 26 being from the class of 2024 (38.8%), 
and 7 being from the class of 2025 (10.5%). Lastly, 
whether a participant was an international student 
was noted, with 9 subjects (13.4%) belonging to 
this category, and 58 (86.6%) not. 

The nominal independent variable of 
frequency of exercise was split by the mean number 
of hours spent exercising per week, with this 
reported value being rounded to the nearest half 
hour. Splitting the total number of hours reported 
by the mean, which included hours related to 
endurance, strength, and general exercise, allowed 
me to divide responses into categories of “high” 
and “low” frequency, represented by the numbers 
one and zero when coding, respectively. To 
determine the subjects’ preferred type of physical 
activity, a new variable was created that involved 
manually designating a type of exercise to a 
participant based on which category of exercise 
they reported a higher frequency for. The variable 
of endurance was then coded as the number 0, and 
the variable strength as 1, in order to further 
analyze the data. Out of the 67 male participants, 
the majority of the population, 74.6%, indicated 
preference towards endurance exercise, while 

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Georgetown	Scientific	Research	Journal	

25.4% preferred strength. 55.2% of these subjects 
were classified as practicing low frequency of 
exercise, while 44.8% were identified as practicing 
high frequency.  

Self-esteem, the dependent variable of this 
study, was measured using a modified version of 
the interval Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale.22 
Participants were able to select from “strongly 
disagree”, “disagree”, “neither agree nor disagree”, 
“agree”, or “strongly agree” in indication of their 
level of agreement with each statement on the 
scale. Adding the neutral option of “neither agree 
nor disagree” allowed participants to choose from 
a broader range of choices to express their 
alignment with the original statements on the 
Rosenberg scale (“Pros and Cons”). Items featured 
on the scale featured phrases subjects could allocate 
their levels of agreement to.  

Figure 1. Scale Used to Capture Participants’ Self-
Reported Self-Esteem Levels, Adapted from the 
Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (1965) 

The adapted scale used for this study has ten 
items, of which items 1, 2, 4, 6, and 7 were 
calculated by associating the numbers 0, 1, 2, 3, 
and 4 to the statements “strongly disagree”, 
“disagree”, “neither agree nor disagree”, “agree”, 
and “strongly agree”, respectively.  Items 3, 5, 8, 9, 
and 10 were reverse scored, so that the scores 
ranged from 0 for strongly disagree to 4 for 
strongly agree22. The responses were summed to 
produce a total composite score ranging from 0-
40. The addition of a neutral option to the
Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale required further
calculations to determine the boundaries between
normal, high, and low ranges, resulting in the
normal range for the adapted scale being between
20 and 33, low self-esteem being indicated by
scores below 20, and high self-esteem being
indicated by scores above 33. This scoring helped
lead the interpretation of the means, in which level
of frequency by exercise category was compared to
level of self-esteem. The mean for the high
frequency endurance group (32.5 total score, SD =
5.09) was observed to be higher than the mean low
frequency response for endurance exercise  (23.3
total score, SD = 7.95). The mean for the high
frequency strength group (24.8 total score, SD =
7.26) was noted to be higher than the mean low
frequency response for the same category (27.8
total score, SD = 5.97) (see Table 1). Thus, it was
observed that the high frequency endurance group
had the highest mean self-esteem score, followed
by the high frequency strength group, the low
frequency strength group, and the low frequency
endurance group.

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Table 1. Frequency of Exercise by Type of Exercise: 
Mean and Standard Deviations for Hours of Exercise 
and the Number of Participants (n) Across 
Conditions. Note: Total Scores were calculated from a 
modified version of the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale 
with possible results ranging from 0-40.  

Frequency of Exercise 

Low Frequency of 
Exercise 

High Frequency of 
Exercise 

Type of 
Exercise 

M SD n M SD n 

Endurance 23.3 7.95 28.0 32.5 5.09 22.0 

Strength 24.8 7.25 9.00 27.8 5.97 8.00 

Figure 2. Mean Self-Esteem Total Score by Type 
of Exercise Group 

A 2x2 ANOVA test with a between groups 
design was considered the best method to 
analyze the data given that two independent 
variables and several means were to be 
compared simultaneously. The p-value 
associated with the ANOVA output was used 
to determine whether the difference between 
the means of each comparison were statistically 
significant, and results were interpreted in 
accordance with the null hypothesis of there 
being no effect of frequency or type of exercise 
on self-esteem. At the alpha level of 0.05, a 
significant result is identified by a p-value of less 
than this standard, allowing me to reject the 

null and determine a relationship between the 
independent and dependent variables. In the 
ANOVA performed for this study, it was 
revealed that frequency of exercise, but not type 
of exercise, had a significant effect on self-
esteem. This analysis indicated that there was a 
significant difference between groups of 
frequency of exercises, F(1, 63) = 10.167, p = 
0.002, η2 = 0.139. This was determined by
observing the p-values of the relationship 
between frequency of exercise and self-esteem, 
of which the p-value resulted in 0.002, which is 
less than the alpha level of 0.05, meaning I can 
reject the related null hypothesis. In contrast, 
the same test did not indicate a significant 
difference between groups of category of 
exercise F(1,1) = 0.741, p = 0.392, η2 = 0.012.
The p-value for the interaction between type of 
exercise and self-esteem was 0.392, which is 
greater than the alpha level of 0.05 which fails 
to reject the null hypothesis. Therefore, the 
relationship between frequency of exercise and 
self-esteem was found to be statistically 
significant, while the relationship between type 
of exercise and self-esteem was not. 
Additionally, the associated Post Hoc Test 
revealed the negative mean difference between 
low and high frequency, presenting a value of -
6.12, indicating once again that the high 
frequency exercise group had a significantly 
greater level of self-esteem than the low 
frequency group. 

4. Discussion
The purpose of this experiment was to

determine the relationship between type and 
frequency of exercise and level of self-esteem in 
the male undergraduate population. It was 
postulated that those who performed endurance 
exercise at a high frequency would have a higher 
level of self-esteem than those who performed 
strength exercise at a low frequency. My results 
found a statistical difference between groups of 
frequency, in which high frequency of exercise 
resulted in a higher level of self-esteem than 
that of low frequency of exercise, but not 

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Georgetown	Scientific	Research	Journal	

between groups of categories of exercise, 
meaning category of exercise had no effect on 
resulting self-esteem scores.  

On average, subjects pertaining to the high 
frequency group were associated with a higher 
total self-esteem score. At an alpha level of 
0.05, this relationship was found to be 
significant, allowing us to reject the related null 
hypothesis.  On the contrary, subjects 
pertaining to the endurance group only had the 
highest mean self-esteem score when associated 
with the high frequency exercise group. At the 
same standard of comparison, the relationship 
between category of exercise and self-esteem 
was found to be not statistically significant; 
thus, I failed to reject the null hypothesis. The 
resulting significance of the interaction effect, 
but not the main effect, was in alignment with 
the hypothesis regarding frequency, but not 
that regarding category. 

These conclusions are significant to the 
field of psychology and the growing collection 
of academic literature on the relationship 
between physical and mental health. 
Additionally, these findings corroborate 
previous research that highlights the positive 
effects of exercise on self-esteem in the target 
population of adolescent males,23 especially 
regarding frequency of this activity.24 Moreover, 
the fact that no significant main effects between 
type of exercise and self-esteem was 
unprecedented, given that previous studies have 
supported endurance as the most effective form 
of exercise to improve this variable.25 This 
inconsistency speaks to the replicability of these 
past studies and sheds light on the need for 
revision of previous research that supports this 
conclusion. 

Though the results of this research indicate 
a significant effect of high frequency of exercise 
and self-esteem, this study still has its 
limitations. A limitation to my study’s internal 
validity was the notable imbalance between 
subject groups, in which 50 endurance 
participants were analyzed in this study versus 

17 strengths. This highlights an issue within 
the way I operationalized the independent 
variable of exercise, as categorizing each 
participant in an exercise group based on their 
frequency of exercise could have been 
compromised by the subjects who practiced 
both (n = 63). Moreover, having a small sample 
size of 17 for the strength category could have 
contributed towards a type II error. As a result, 
this inequality between samples may have 
inhibited the study’s efforts to accurately reflect 
the population through statistical analysis, thus 
affecting the results of these tests. Additionally, 
the way in which the questions on the survey 
were formatted, in that it explicitly named the 
variables exercise and self-esteem, could have 
hinted at what the purpose of our study was and 
influenced participants’ responses. More 
specifically, subjects may have misreported their 
number of hours exercised if they felt like their 
actual frequency of exercise was below average, 
leading to a misrepresentation of the reality of 
the population’s true exercise habits. These 
limitations may be addressed in further 
replications of this study to improve the 
accuracy of my results.  

This study illustrated that frequency of 
exercise significantly improves the self-esteem 
levels of undergraduate males, which is relevant 
to the understanding of how physical 
performance may affect mental health. By 
prioritizing external validity as part of this study 
through random sampling, these results may be 
generalized to the greater college-aged 
population of males. However, a limitation to 
this study includes the lack of determination of 
whether exercise itself drove the resulting self-
esteem or inversely, if self-esteem motivated the 
individuals to partake in high frequency 
exercise. Only a longitudinal study could answer 
this question, and this limitation invites further 
replications to be performed to investigate this 
discrepancy as well as add to the growing 
collection of academic literature on self-esteem 
within this population to bring about better 
insight into this topic. Moving forward, 

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Georgetown	Scientific	Research	Journal	

colleges and universities may use the 
conclusions articulated in this study to 
implement programs that encourage a high 
frequency of exercise amongst their 
undergraduate males in hopes of improving 
self-esteem in this population of their 
student body.  

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1. Rosenberg, M. (1965). Society and the adolescent 

self-image. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University 
Press.

2. Blascovich, J., & Tomaka, J. (1991). Measures 
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3. Cherry, K. (2021). What Is Self-Esteem?
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6. Yìğìter, K. (2014). The effects of participation 
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7. Gilani, S. R. M., & Dashipour, A. (2016). The 
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8. American Heart Association. (2018). Endurance
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9. Stein, C., Fisher, L., Berkey, C., & Colditz, G.
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12. Kim, I., & Ahn, J. (2021). The effect of changes 
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14. Maslow, A. H. (1943). A theory of human 
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17. Noordstar, J. J., van der Net, J., Jak, S., Helders, 
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18. Hartwell-Walker, Marie (2016, May 17). Boys 
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19. Ibid.
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Effects of Physical Activity on Self-Esteem: A 
Comparative Study. International Journal of High 
Risk Behaviors and Addiction.
https://sites.kowsarpub.com/ijhrba/articles/132
21.html.

21. Gäbler, M., Prieske, O., Hortobágyi, T., & 
Granacher, U. (2018). The effects of concurrent 
strength and endurance training on physical 
fitness and athletic performance in youth: A 
systematic review and meta-analysis. Frontiers in 
Physiology, 9.
https://doi.org/10.3389/fphys.2018.01057

22. Rosenberg, M. (1965). Society and the adolescent 
self-image. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University 
Press.

23. Stein, C., Fisher, L., Berkey, C., & Colditz, G.
(2007). Adolescent physical activity and 
perceived competence: Does change in activity 
level impact self-perception? Journal of Adolescent 
Health.
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/p 
ii/S1054139X06006008.

24. Yìğìter, K. (2014). The effects of participation 
in regular exercise on self-esteem and 
hopelessness of female university students. Social 
Behavior and Personality: an International 
Journal, 42(8), 1233–1243.
https://doi.org/10.2224/sbp.2014.42.8.1233

25. Gilani, S. R. M., & Dashipour, A. (2016). The 
Effects of Physical Activity on Self-Esteem: A 
Comparative Study. International Journal of High 
Risk Behaviors and Addiction. https://
sites.kowsarpub.com/ijhrba/articles/13221.html.  

50



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17. Noordstar, J. J., van der Net, J., Jak, S., Helders, 
P. J. M., &amp; Jongmans, M. J.
(2016). Global self-esteem, perceived athletic 
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9

18. Hartwell-Walker, Marie (2016, May 17). Boys 
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19. Ibid.
20. Gilani, S. R. M., & Dashipour, A. (2016). The 

Effects of Physical Activity on Self-Esteem: A 
Comparative Study. International Journal of High 
Risk Behaviors and Addiction.
https://sites.kowsarpub.com/ijhrba/articles/132
21.html.

21. Gäbler, M., Prieske, O., Hortobágyi, T., & 
Granacher, U. (2018). The effects of concurrent 
strength and endurance training on physical 
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systematic review and meta-analysis. Frontiers in 
Physiology, 9.
https://doi.org/10.3389/fphys.2018.01057

22. Rosenberg, M. (1965). Society and the adolescent 
self-image. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University 
Press.

23. Stein, C., Fisher, L., Berkey, C., & Colditz, G.
(2007). Adolescent physical activity and 
perceived competence: Does change in activity 
level impact self-perception? Journal of Adolescent 
Health.
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/p 
ii/S1054139X06006008.

24. Yìğìter, K. (2014). The effects of participation 
in regular exercise on self-esteem and 
hopelessness of female university students. Social 
Behavior and Personality: an International 
Journal, 42(8), 1233–1243.
https://doi.org/10.2224/sbp.2014.42.8.1233

25. Gilani, S. R. M., & Dashipour, A. (2016). The 
Effects of Physical Activity on Self-Esteem: A 
Comparative Study. International Journal of High 
Risk Behaviors and Addiction. https://
sites.kowsarpub.com/ijhrba/articles/13221.html.  

51



52




	Table of Contents
	Letter From the Editors
	Increasing COVID-19 Vaccine Uptake in the United States: Addressing Reasons for Vaccine Hesitancy th
	An Analysis of the Effects of Frequency and Type of Physical Activity on Self-Esteem in Adolescent M
	Addressing American Obesity: A Policy Proposal
	The Select Agent Regulations: Structure and Stricture
	An Evaluation of the Human Impact of Climatic Factors in Cook County, Illinois
	An Evaluation of Food Insecurity in the D.C. Community
	About the Authors
	Meet the Staff
	Acknowledgements




