georgia journal of reading 6 volume 37, number 1 2014 quantum shifts by gerald boyd even though georgia is no longer a part of the parcc consortium and the parcc assessments no longer engender fear in the hearts of georgia teachers, it might be a good idea to review what is different about the common core state standards and decide what the quantum shifts are for the classroom and the teacher. we know what the three big premises for the ccgps are: 1) regular practice with complex text and its academic language, 2) reading, writing, and speaking grounded in evidence from text, both literary and informational, and 3) building content knowledge through the reading of content-rich non-fiction. o.k. what do these things really mean? i think we are getting used to the idea of text complexity, but there is an additional statement in that first premise that i consider a quantum shift academic language. we have for many years taught vocabulary in schools, and for almost as many years we have been teaching vocabulary wrong. (i’m not casting blame here because i am guilty of using all of the strategies i talk about.) using a vocabulary list that is unrelated to anything else that the students do provides a time-filling, but practically useless exercise. this practice is not what the ccgps premise expects. academic language is vocabulary that is used across all disciplines, and it includes words that students cannot recognize or define through context clues. as an example, i use the word “iterative” to describe the process for the implementation of the ccgps. that word is an academic word which simply means that the implementation will consist of stages of development. teachers will try things, make mistakes, learn from those mistakes, improve, and begin again. (that’s what they have always done.) the teaching of academic language, however, requires a different process. in order to scaffold the more challenging text required by the ccgps, teachers will need to extract the academic language within a text and pre-teach that vocabulary to students using the definition of the words implied by the text. this process does require a quantum shift from the way we have always done things. nevertheless, all research in reading will verify the idea that preteaching vocabulary is important. one teacher i talked to recently used the term “front-load vocabulary.” i like that term. virtually all words in the english language have more than one meaning, and it is important to teach vocabulary terms in the context in which they are used in the text. the next quantum shift i see with the ccgps is the idea of reading, writing, and speaking grounded in evidence from the text. again, we have for many years employed a version of this practice, but i don’t think many of us are prepared for what it really means. looking at the first standard for reading, students are required to extract both explicit and inferential evidence from text in order to draw conclusions or to determine a central theme or idea. with the ccgps, we get a whole new notion of what that process should look like. many times we are satisfied, and sometimes we are extremely proud, that students can make inferences about a piece of text. english teachers always get excited when students are able to cite a central idea or a theme about a text. the standards, however, go a quantum step further. the student actually has to cite the evidence verbatim from the text. citing evidence from text has for most been a notation function, but with the standards, it becomes a direct quotation function. when a student makes an inference, that student should be able to read the passage directly from the text which has led him or her to that inference. students should be able to read direct evidence from the text for explicit details, inferences, and central ideas or themes. i have demonstrated this process many times in close reading exercises. when a teacher asks a text-based question and a student gives an answer, the teacher’s next statement should be, “read it to me.” well, if these two shifts aren’t “quantum” enough for pre-teach vocabulary evidence from text synthesize ideas georgia journal of reading 7 volume 37, number 1 2014 you, wait until you hear the next one. even though we are no longer a part of the parcc consortium, the assessments created by the georgia department of education will have to be rigorous. otherwise, the standards will not be worth their weight in ink. if the new assessments are “parcc-like” in any way, there is another major shift that i would call quantum. the assessments should require a process called “writing to multiple resources and research.” again, for many years, it has fallen upon the english teacher to teach the research process. along with that process, we have taught students how to summarize and paraphrase text material and how to synthesize that material into a cohesive paper that bears the ideas of multiple resources. that process, however, only teaches students how to take ideas from several texts and put them all together in a single paper. that is altogether not the idea of what the standards are addressing. the new assessments should require the student to analyze and synthesize ideas across multiple sources and texts. now just what does that mean? first of all, the assessments should require the student to read two or more excerpts of text before responding to the prompt or the selected response items. the prompts will almost always require an analysis of the two or more texts, but that is not all. the prompt may ask the student to write an analysis of the affect one of the texts has on the other. it requires a very specific type of analysis which involves a specific type of critical thinking. how does text a treat a subject differently than text b? or how is something in text a treated differently in text b? this is a quantum shift that most students are not prepared for today. i really do not know how the new state assessments will shape up, but i have heard that they are being structured to be similar to the parcc prototypes that we have seen. if that is true, teachers will need to adapt their modes of teaching to prepare students for the new assessments. i do not worry about this change in classrooms because teachers have always stepped up to the plate to address the learning that students need. the problem is, we don’t have much time. all in all, the reality is that the standards seek to move students to that third premise – building content knowledge through the reading of content-rich nonfiction. this premise is dear to my heart, because since the inception of no child left behind, we have engaged in a process of fragmenting and narrowing curriculum to the point that the only concern in the classroom is the test. i have heard many teachers say, “i teach what is tested,” and to some degree that statement breaks my heart. there is so much more to the curriculum than just what is tested. that whole strand of speaking and listening is difficult to test, and most of the giant test developers simply ignore it. yet, the strand represents some extremely important skills for students to develop in life. i hope as we continue to develop units and lessons for the ccgps, we will recognize the importance of addressing the entire curriculum and teaching to build the content knowledge students will need to embrace the future. i constantly quote sidney lanier’s “marshes of glynn,” and i love the line that (taken out of context) says, “i am fain to face the vast sweet visage of space.” i want our students to be able to face the vast visage of space their futures hold. this article was first published as “common core shifts” in scribble ‘n bits, georgia council of teachers of english and has been reprinted with permission. articles, content, information and services presented in the georgia journal of reading do not constitute or imply endorsement, recommendation, approval or favor by the georgia reading association. teachers will need to extract the academic language within a text and pre-teach that vocabulary to students using the definition of the words implied by the text. teachers should require students to analyze and synthesize ideas across multiple sources and texts. when a teacher asks a text-based question and a student gives an answer, the teacher’s next statement should be, “read it to me.” an interview with alice ensley: district literacy coordinator at dalton county schools dalton county is an ethnically and language-diverse school district with the majority of students receiving free or reduced lunch. alice ensley is a dalton county curriculum specialist who has been recognized for her leadership in literacy education, particularly in regard to facing the challenges of the covid-19 virus. tovey: alice, thank you so much for agreeing to do this interview. as you know, you were identified as one of georgia’s leaders in literacy for the work you have done with digital content in your school district. can you please begin by explaining your title, current role, and education experience, along with an overview of the demographics, funds of knowledge, and challenges within dalton and whitfield county? ensley: my name is alice ensley and i am the curriculum specialist for literacy and social studies along with jennifer hastings. i work most closely with grades k-5 and jennifer works with grades 3-8. jennifer and i are responsible for curriculum work such as pacing, standards based report cards, and common assessments. we also work with our schoolbased instructional coaches and provide professional learning to our teachers. this year, the focus of our work has been overseeing the creation of digital content in literacy and social studies. i am in my 32nd year of teaching for dalton public schools. my eds is in curriculum and instruction. i have trained as a district literacy trainer and literacy coach from lesley university with irene fountas. dalton public school serves 7,903 students. 70% are hispanic, 20% white, 5% black, 2.5% asian, and 2.6% other. over the years, our student enrollment has changed as our city has grown. not only has our enrollment increased, but it also reflects the growing diversity and downward economic shift in our community. today, 75 percent of our 2 students qualify for free or reduced lunch, come from 43 countries and represent 22 native languages. at the same time, we have a nationally recognized high school by us news & world report and the first georgia department of education stem certified school north of metro atlanta. our elementary schools offer dual language programs in spanish and german. while the shift in demographics and economics is certainly a challenge, our focus has remained on helping all students achieve their highest potential. tovey: this has probably been the most challenging year ever for teachers. what have you seen to be some of the biggest challenges with the teachers you support as a result of the covid-19 situation? ensley: i feel the biggest challenge has been the constant change and uncertainty. i have found that elementary teachers are planners and doers, and this year they had to begin with so many unknowns. our teachers had to learn to use a digital platform that was somewhat unfamiliar to them, create learning environments that were new and different, and navigate cleaning protocols, temperature checks, and quarantines. and they, and their families, were going through the same pandemic! tovey: please explain some of the ways that you were able to support your teachers in literacy instruction during this time. ensley: our district was fortunate to have already begun a 1:1 digital device rollout prior to the pandemic. we had already experimented with digital learning days as well. in march, when schools closed, our team of instructional coaches and instructional technology specialists began creating digital content for our students. we had a few days to get ahead of our teachers and students and we paced out the remainder of the year and created lessons for that content. 3 when it became evident that we would need to continue digital learning in the fall, we met as a team and redesigned our digital platform. we wanted to create digital content that was like the instruction in the classroom. we wanted students to have a grade-level minilesson that was standards-based and taught by our teachers. we wanted students to have opportunities to meet in small groups and to practice skills independently. we thought it was important to include review and extension opportunities. finally, we wanted to create parent resources, as we knew parents would be instrumental in the success of our students. we knew that district pacing would be important due to the fact that students would most likely be coming in and out of face-to-face and digital instruction. we formed a team of instructional coaches and experienced teachers to begin creating videos of the reading, writing, and word study minilessons. classroom teachers then could add their own application and practice activities to meet the needs of their students. we have continued this all year, creating digital lessons and assessments for both face-to-face (if needed) and digital learning. tovey: what accomplishment or accomplishments regarding digital literacy content are you most proud of? ensley: i am most proud of the hard work of our instructional coaches and teachers who have helped with this digital build. this work was done in addition to their other responsibilities, but they have persevered because we know that this is what is best for our teachers and students. this is what we call the dalton difference! i am excited that we have these lessons for future digital learning needs but also for professional learning. these video lessons have also been a great support for our newer teachers who have not had as much 4 professional learning in literacy as we have been able to provide in the past. tovey: how are you able to measure how effective these initiatives have been? ensley: we have received positive feedback from parents and teachers but we will need to gather more feedback as the year ends. we will also want to survey students in order to measure engagement and effectiveness. we have looked at reading and writing assessments throughout the year but at this time, it is difficult to determine the factors that may be contributing to, or hindering, that growth. hopefully, our end of year assessments will help us know the impact of our work and our next steps. tovey: what do you see as lingering effects or future effects on literacy education on the dalton students and teachers as a result of the covid19 situation? what do you have in mind for combatting those challenges? ensley: i hope there will be positive effects from all of this. for instance, i hope our students realize how much their community and teachers care about their health, their well-being, and their academic growth. as for challenges, i worry about those students who were not able to come to school and who might not have had enough support at home. i hope we will give ourselves, and our students, grace and time to assess where we all are when we return and that we will take the time to meet the needs of our students and teachers. as we speak, we are discussing ways to begin to address these needs. one way we are thinking about helping both our students and our teachers who missed professional learning opportunities this year, is to have a clinical experience this summer. students will come in for 5 specialized tutoring and the teachers will stay for discussion, learning, and planning led by our coaching team. tovey: a lot of our readers are aspiring or current leaders in literacy. what advice do you have for them regarding facing literacy challenges either now or in the future? ensley: one thing i have learned in my 33 years of teaching is that there will always be challenges in education and especially in the area of literacy education. i encourage teachers to continue to read, learn, and perfect their craft. programs do not teach children to love reading and writing, teachers do. the best investment is always teacher expertise! tovey: is there anything else you like to add? ensley: i want to thank all of the educators this year who rose to the challenge and continued to educate the students of georgia, whether face-to-face or virtually. i hope everyone will have an opportunity to rest, reflect, and renew as we begin to think about the 21-22 school year! tovey: thank you so much for sharing your expertise and ideas with us, alice. the gjl readers will really appreciate getting the inside scoop on a georgia literacy leader. 6 georgia journal of reading 30 volume 41, number 2 2018 just as i was about to bring the class back together after a turn-and-talk (all names are pseudonyms), isaiah, one of my more outspoken students, piped up and said, “guys, stop talking or else we won’t have time for stations!” although i shook my head at his delivery, he was right. we had to get started quickly so i could see the two groups i was scheduled to meet with that day. i smiled as i watched the kids hurriedly quiet themselves, legs crisscross applesauce, ears ready to listen. no one can deny that guided reading is our favorite part of the day. as a teacher, i love getting to help small groups of students with a specific reading skill, while my other students interact with literacy in a hands-on way. but this has not always been the case. i used to think guided reading was the worst. let’s just say that in those days, isaiah would not be rushing the class to start stations. small group instruction was constantly interrupted by students with issues from everything to bickering with another student to “emergency” bathroom breaks. by the end of my second year of teaching, i knew i had to do something to take back my guided reading time and to give my students independence and responsibility taming the beast: how i took back guided reading by laura sandling during station time. somehow, someway, i had to tame the beast and take charge of this crucial time. through lots of trial and error and then sticking to what worked, i have found several key instructional and organizational tips for maximizing this crucial portion of the literacy block. guided reading can go from a chore to an enjoyable and learning-filled part of the day with clear procedures and high expectations. building our stamina, building our foundation “yes, i love building our stamina!” scarlett bounced up and down happily as i let the students get their book bins. it was only the second week of school, but my students quickly embraced the time we spent doing “read to self” to build our stamina to prepare for guided reading and stations. as the two sisters gail boushey and joan moser outline in their book the daily five (2014), building stamina in reading is a crucial step before the teacher can start meeting with any students. additionally, this stamina must be built independently. yes, independently. you may think you are already doing this, but think about when you first introduced “read to self” or another station. were you going around praising students as they read quietly, did great work on an activity, or “really focused”? when i first started to pull groups for guided reading, i consonantly wondered why my students would suddenly stop focusing and doing well, almost as if we had not just spent weeks practicing. this was because the students were not truly independent. i thought i was giving them support with my constant praise, but in reality, i hindered by students because i trained them to rely on my praise if they were doing well. now, i know that the key to building my students’ stamina is to stay back. it is hard at first because it is natural to praise students, but they need to be able to do a great job on their own, under their own power. it is especially important to track your students’ stamina. at the beginning of year, i use a stamina chart to graph how many minutes my students can read independently without interruptions. when they get to 25 minutes of focused reading, i know my students are truly independent. whether you are using the daily 5 or other literacy station models, building your students’ stamina is the first step. prepare and model, model, model! at first, i would lose count of the number of interruptions during guided reading. i would hear, “ms. s., can i go to the bathroom?” to the ever-distressing, “what am i supposed to do?” i stayed frustrated for almost three years until it finally clicked: my students are not going to magically know what to do if they do not know what to expect. georgia journal of reading 31 volume 41, number 2 2018 along with helping your students build their stamina and establishing their independence, the key is to model, model, model. even though it may be tempting to get every procedure and lesson over with in one day, don’t do it! students need many opportunities to practice with and without the teacher’s help. to accomplish this, use a variety of mini-lessons to teach and model desired behaviors (diller, 2003). every year, i teach mini-lessons on what the students will be doing and what i will be doing during guided reading. then, together we model correct behaviors and incorrect behaviors. finally, we practice! make sure the materials are prepared and ready. students should have their book bins or bags, word tiles, journals, headphones… whatever is needed to make your literacy activities run. i also check to see if my students are comfortable with one literacy station before i introduce another. we might spend several days or weeks to insure we have down the desired behavior and stamina. literacy station innovator, debbie diller (2003), suggests giving students about six weeks of practice time in their stations before even pulling small groups. furthermore, just as the lesson plan is imperative to the whole-group, it is crucial for the small group table. the pioneers of all things guided reading, fountas and pinnell (2012), outline a helpful structure of a guided reading lesson which includes: 1) introduction of text, 2) reading the text, 3) discussion of text, 4) explicit teaching points, 5) word work, and 6) extending understanding. you can use this format or another helpful plan to keep your guided reading lessons on track. use tried and true procedures ask three before me and the emergency chair i would be lying if i said that my students never have questions during our guided reading and daily 5 time. however, i teach the “ask three before me” procedure, which means they ask three friends before they wait in the “emergency chair.” even when they choose to sit in the emergency chair, my students know to wait until i can pause in my guided reading lesson to assist. wear antlers or a hat for no interrupting whenever i meet with a guided reading group, i put on my trusty candy-cane antler headband. yes, the antlers are as crazy as they sound. however, when i have them on, they easily convey to my students that they are not allowed to interrupt me because i am with a small group or reading with a student. i have seen teachers wear baseball caps, flower crowns, or funky glasses. pick whichever fits best with your personal style, but remember to teach the hat’s importance! give the students choices finally, one of the biggest changes i have seen from my guided reading and station time is to give students choice. i used to assign students the activity they would be doing if they were not meeting with me. however, i quickly learned that students will be much more engaged if they get to choose their activity. once you have taught all the procedures and students have built their stamina for that activity, let your students choose what they want to do. conclusion never stop reflecting now that you have received an overflow of information on guided reading and stations, it is time to take a step back. remember that your guided reading groups and instructional stations should always be evolving. according to fountas and pinnell (2012), guided reading requires self-reflection from the teacher. even the most experienced teachers need to evaluate their small group lessons and review what their students are doing when they are not at the guided reading table. if you are armed with the fundamentals, establish procedures that work best for your classroom and students, and reflect on your practice, you too can tame the beast! references boushey, g., & moser, j. (2014). the daily 5: fostering literacy independence in the elementary grades. portland, me: stenhouse publishers. diller, d. (2003). literacy work stations: making centers work. portland, me: stenhouse publishers. fountas, i.c., & pinnell, g.s. (2012). guided reading: the romance and reality. the reading teacher, 66(4), 268-284. doi:10.1002/trtr.01123 once you learn to read, you will be forever free. —frederick douglass georgia journal of reading 14 volume 37, number 1 2014 significance of prior knowledge activation: a close look at a bilingual kindergarten student’s response to a poem by dr. alma stevenson, georgia southern university when students come to school, they bring their linguistic and sociocultural backgrounds and the experiences they have been exposed to outside the classroom. when they participate in instructional activities, students’ backgrounds and experiences impact the way they perceive texts. for this reason, instructional approaches, wherein learning is conceptualized as a social process, have placed a central focus on valuing students’ experiences (vygotsky, 1978). within this frame, learning is socially constructed through interaction with people and the social environment, and requires the formation of meaningful connections between students’ previous experiences and sociocultural backgrounds and the new knowledge that is being taught. in order for this to consistently occur during instruction, both teachers and students need to cultivate such connections. consequently, the activation of prior knowledge has become an integral part of most contemporary instructional approaches. prior knowledge is structured, tacit, or explicit knowledge an individual possesses that “contains conceptual and metacognitive knowledge components” (dochy, de rijdt, & dyck, 2002, p. 267). prior or background knowledge is grounded in the schema theory. this theory contends that the knowledge or schema already stored in our memory structures the ways in which new information, such as an unfamiliar reading passage, can be comprehended, interpreted, and integrated into our mind (anderson & pearson, 1984). therefore, new learning is impacted and shaped by students’ pre-existing, relevant schema. moreover, their retention of new learning requires connecting it with this older knowledge in salient ways. it does not matter if students’ existing knowledge was obtained from experiences outside school or from instruction in school (marzano, 2004); it provides the necessary foundation for new learning. detecting and connecting with prior knowledge activating prior knowledge at the start of instruction has the objective of bridging the gap between what students already know and new concepts or topics about to be addressed in the classroom. initially, accessing and assessing the students’ prior knowledge provides teachers useful measures of what students know and what they have misconceptions about (alvermann, phelps, & ridgeway gillis, 2010). subsequently, connecting instruction with prior knowledge is one of the most important factors in promoting students’ comprehension, since it stimulates the students’ interest in the new knowledge and prepares their brains to form new cognitive connections between what they already know and their new learning. in the same way, the students’ linguistic background and cultural experiences, as reflected in their prior knowledge, can be used to foster understanding and opportunities to make meaningful associations. however, the essential moment-to-moment negotiations between teacher and students that build such connections require a great deal of quick, high-level thinking by teachers abstract this manuscript examines a kindergarten bilingual (spanish/english) student’s responses to a poem during a two-day writer’s workshop. a detailed description of the student’s illustrated initial response to the poem is compared with the student’s later response after the vocabulary embedded in the poem was discussed. the importance of considering students’ sociocultural backgrounds and activating their prior knowledge as essential parts of instruction is stressed. georgia journal of reading 15 volume 37, number 1 2014 during instruction. teachers need to instantaneously integrate social and cultural awareness, verbal and visual creativity, and sometimes difficult interpretations of students’ intended meanings. assessing and integrating english language learners’ background knowledge working with english language learners (ells) requires teachers’ awareness of not only the students’ prior knowledge, but of the linguistic demands a lesson requires from students. thus, it is important for teachers of ells to know specific strategies to address these demands and thereby assist ells in simultaneously learning content and english language skills. the siop model (echevarria, vogt, & short, 2008), which is supported by georgia’s department of education as an approach to ell education, includes many such strategies. one of the most important strategies for making a lesson’s content more comprehensible is pre-discussion of key vocabulary in order that students can move beyond decoding individual words and take in the content of the larger lesson. as a means to this end, it is recommended that teachers use graphic representations and illustrations to introduce vocabulary words and help ells understand new content. however, to do this well, the visuals must make sense within students’ existing schema based in their cultural, linguistic, and experiential backgrounds. as the following example demonstrates, sometimes the process of using graphics and illustrations to assess and activate students’ existing knowledge can reveal unanticipated connections by the students, and a resultant necessity for teachers to explicitly build new understandings and schema as alternatives to what students already know. a close look at a bilingual kindergarten student’s response to a poem an example of the impact of an ells’ linguistic and sociocultural background on their interpretation of a text is outlined in this classroom vignette extracted from an informal kindergarten classroom observation. the teacher was developing her class’s visualization skills by asking them to describe and illustrate their mental images of particular concepts or schema (miller, 2002, 2012). her chosen strategy was to read a poem and then ask students to respond by illustrating the mental images they visualized while listening to the poem. [note that this approach is a bit reminiscent of mcconnell’s (1992) talking drawings strategy, which was later developed by paquette, fello, and jalongo (2007). however, in talking drawings, students are presented with a topic, asked to visualize their prior knowledge about the topic, and then draw that mental image – a guess of what is to come – all before hearing or reading a text (usually expository) regarding the topic.] in the case under examination here, ms. furlong (pseudonym), a public school teacher in a small town in southern new mexico, taught a dual-language (spanish/english) kindergarten class wherein students were instructed in english and spanish during alternating weeks. during an english language week, she presented to her students the poem ducks on a winter night by georgia heard (1997). she used a lesson structure suggested by miller (2002, 2012), as part of a two-day writer’s workshop activity. the poem reads: ducks asleep on the bank of the pond tuck their bills into feathery quills making their own beds to keep warm in the poem itself provides several opportunities for teaching both vocabulary and visualization, but it also contains possibilities for misinterpretation, some of which even ms. furlong may have not realized when starting the lesson. miller (2012) emphasizes the importance of students’ schema as a focal point in this strategy. in miller’s example, she noted that while teaching this lesson in her own classroom, one of her students thought that the “quills” in the poem referred to porcupine quills. similarly, when ms. furlong asked her students to illustrate their interpretations of the poem, one latino, predominantly spanish speaking student, drew and described the following: his picture was a clear indication of his pre-existing knowledge, but also his limited understanding of crucial english-language vocabulary: “bank” and “bills.” his hometown, located along the rio grande and surrounded by irrigated fields of pecan trees and cotton, does not have ponds with “banks” around them. moreover, the distinction between the general category of birds’ beaks and the specific subcategory “bills” as dollar bills “bank” as financial georgia journal of reading 16 volume 37, number 1 2014 of aquatic birds’ “bills” is likely not to be part of his experience at home or at school. this is especially unlikely since in everyday spanish both beaks and bills are referred to by the same noun: picos. in this way, the natural / outdoor interpretations were not apparent to the student. instead, the presence of the two english words, “bank” and “bills”, close to each other in the same poem, both of which have businessoriented meanings, clearly facilitated a financial, rather than a wildlife interpretation. thus, it is no surprise that he understood “bills” in its more commonly used sense, as dollar bills, and expected that those bills were connected to a commercial bank, such as is likely frequented by his parents. afterward, the teacher led an extended discussion and analysis of the poem, using visual representations to explain the poet’s intended interpretations of the vocabulary. she demonstrated how to choose amongst these alternatives on the basis of the context of the poem. subsequently, the same student produced another, substantially different, and more accurate representation of the poem: this example clearly illustrates one of the crucial benefits of assessing and activating students’ prior knowledge early in any instructional activity: the diagnosis of misconceptions and possible linguistic, cultural, and experiential barriers and gaps that might prevent students from fully understanding texts (bruner, 1986; vygotsky, 1978). ms. furlong used the students’ initial drawings as formative assessments that informed her about her students’ vocabulary knowledge and previous experiences. she then built new schema that both connected and contrasted with their background knowledge in order to allow them to fully understand the meaning of the poem. such preassessments are crucial for teachers to clarify and connect with students’ background knowledge and then construct understandings of new concepts in relationship with what students already know. closing thoughts in summary, activating and connecting with students’ prior knowledge is crucial in order to optimize their learning. research has shown that the most meaningful learning takes place when students are provided with opportunities and assistance to connect and compare new knowledge with their background experiences and skills (their existing schema). as discussed in this article, incorporating the students’ prior knowledge and background experiences facilitates students’ engagement and prepares their brains to connect new knowledge with their background experiences. in the same fashion, it is necessary to consider the impact of the students’ (especially ells) socio-cultural and linguistic backgrounds to facilitate their participation in the classroom. developing the ability to assess and build upon students’ prior knowledge before and during instruction provides teachers with the opportunity to construct learning upon the stable foundation of what students already know (bruner, 1986; vygotsky, 1978) and to interconnect topics so as to reinforce students’ understandings. references alvermann, d. e., phelps, s. f., & ridgeway gillis, v. (2010). content area reading and literacy: succeeding in today’s diverse classrooms (7th ed.). boston, ma: allyn & bacon. anderson, r. c., & pearson, p. d. (1984). a schematheoretic view of basic processes in reading comprehension. handbook of reading research, 1, 255-291. bruner, j. (1986). actual minds, possible worlds. cambridge, ma: harvard university press. dochy, f., de rijdt, c., & dyck, w. (2002). cognitive prerequisites and learning how far have we progressed since bloom? implications for educational practice and teaching. active learning in higher education, 3(3), 265-284. echevarria, j., vogt, m. e., & short, d. (2008). making content comprehensible for english. language learners: the siop model (3rd ed.). boston: allyn & bacon. heard, g. (1997). creatures of earth, sea, and sky: animal poems. honesdale, pa: wordsong publishers. marzano, r. j. (2004). building background knowledge for academic achievement: research on what ducks’ “bills” tucked in for sleep “bank” as the edge of a body georgia journal of reading 17 volume 37, number 1 2014 works in schools. association for supervision and curriculum development. mcconnell, s. (1992). talking drawings: a strategy for assisting learners. journal of reading, 36(4), 260269. miller, d. (2002). reading with meaning (1st ed.). portland, me: stenhouse publishers. miller, d. (2012). reading with meaning (1st ed.). portland, me: stenhouse publishers. paquette, k. r., fello, s. e., & jalongo, m. r. (2007). the talking drawings strategy: using primary children’s illustrations and oral language to improve comprehension of expository text. early childhood education journal, 35(1), 65-73. vygotsky, l. s. (1978). mind in society: the development of higher psychological processes. cambridge, ma: harvard university press. once you learn to read, you will be forever free. —frederick douglass georgia journal of reading 8 volume 37, number 1 2014 i began my first year of teaching with enthusiasm and was excited to make a difference in the lives of my students. ready to implement the strategies i learned in my teacher preparation program. i thoughtfully arranged my students’ desks in cooperative learning groups, organized my classroom library, adorned the reading area with comfortable pillows and soft lighting and hung student work to create an inviting classroom community. yet, my attempts to foster an engaging learning environment were quickly squashed with the harsh reality of teacher accountability and the pressure from testing mandates. literacy coaching: providing leadership and support for the next generation of teachers by katie stover, furman university and crystal glover, university of north carolina at charlotte with a population of students who scored close to the bottom percentile in the entire state, the school’s administration called for a standardized and scripted instructional approach and the shuffling of students to create ability grouped classes. as the new teacher, i was given the group with the struggling learners. teaching a classroom full of students who were all below grade level left me feeling vulnerable and scrutinized when administrators relied on student test scores to judge my teaching abilities. i was expected to use a skill and drill approach to teach to the test and put all of what i learned about abstract new teachers face a number of challenges as they begin their careers. in fact, many leave the profession for a range of reasons including an overwhelming amount of information and responsibility, pressures of high stakes testing, and lack of support. to counter these challenges, the authors discuss ways literacy coaches can provide leadership and guidance to new teachers through building relationships, creating a climate of trust, and developing individualized support to enhance the teacher’s success. georgia journal of reading 9 volume 37, number 1 2014 effective and engaging teaching on hold. i was told to use data to drive my instruction and teach to the test if i wanted to see results. this left me feeling discouraged, unsupported, and second guessing my decision to become a teacher. i felt like the little mole that pops out of the whac-a-mole arcade game only to be whacked by the enormous, everpresent mallet just waiting to clobber me. the administrative mallet stripped me of my professional knowledge and enthusiasm for teaching and learning in an effort to create a factory-like setting of standardized test preparation. i wanted to quit. (anne, fourth grade teacher) challenges of new teachers like the teacher in the above vignette, new teachers face a number of challenges as they begin their professional careers. for 25% of first year teachers, these challenges prove too difficult and force them to abandon the profession after just one year. almost half of all new teachers quit teaching within five years (henke, chen, & geis, 2000; ingersoll, 2003). beginning teachers leave the profession for reasons such as inadequate pay, inadequate support from school administration, intrusions on teaching time, discipline problems, and limited input in decision making (deangelis, 2012; deangelis & presley, 2011; sass, flores, claeys, & perez, 2012). unlike many professions which provide new hires with an introduction period complete with on-the-job training, new teachers are often isolated and left to fend for themselves. they are frequently given a set of teacher manuals and expected to provide meaningful instruction and produce savvy test takers with little or no outside assistance. information overload research suggests that beginning teachers have difficulty managing the abundance of responsibilities they encounter in their first years of teaching (chorzempa, 2011). in an effort to ensure their preparedness for teaching, beginning teachers are inundated with information. this information overload can lead to confusion and frustration for novice educators that are managing their own classrooms for the first time (chorzempa, 2011). the massive amount of professional development and teacher training sessions leave new teachers unsure of where to place their focus. new teachers often complain of having so much information to sift through, that they neglect important aspects of their jobs (chorzempa, 2011). in talking with four beginning teachers, the authors found that these new teachers felt unprepared to handle the expectations placed on them to manage a classroom, communicate with parents, and implement differentiated instruction for diverse learners. pressures of standardized testing for many school districts, standardized test scores have considerable influence on the amount of state and federal funding schools receive. this can have a significant impact on low-performing schools or schools whose student populations come from poor or low-income families. for new teachers in these schools, the emphasis on testing adds an additional measure of stress and anxiety (brookings institution, 2011; tempel, 2012). novice teachers are often required to attend professional development designed to assist them with such things as test preparation strategies, data analysis, and assessment techniques. yet these training sessions often leave new teachers with more questions than answers. while these professional development measures may help ensure that teachers understand the importance of using data to drive instruction, such training fails to show beginning teachers how that concept translates into practice. this missing link represents a significant challenge for beginning teachers. a need for support the isolated nature of teaching can leave beginning teachers with feelings of doubt about their decisions to become teachers (chen, 2012). many new teachers feel disconnected from other teachers in the school community. veteran teachers, whose personal experiences have the potential to benefit beginning teachers, are often busy with the demands of their own classrooms and fail to offer much-needed support to the novice teachers in their school settings. this lack of support leads to further frustration and dissatisfaction on the part of beginning teachers. in many cases, these negative feelings affect new teachers’ ability to provide effective instruction to their students. research on the academic performance of students in classrooms taught by beginning teachers suggests the need for new teachers to receive on-the-job training and support during their initial teaching experiences (sterrett & imig, 2011). early support for new teachers is crucial in order to foster a sense of confidence, develop knowledge and pedagogy, and enhance student learning. researchers from the university of north carolina at chapel hill found that students in beginning teachers’ mathematics classrooms performed 21 days behind their counterparts taught by veteran teachers on end-of the-year assessment measures (henry, thompson, bastian, fortner, kershaw, purtell, & zulli, 2010). having the support of literacy coaches and mentors to scaffold the learning experience for novice teachers can help ease the transition into teaching and enhance the academic georgia journal of reading 10 volume 37, number 1 2014 performance of students in beginning teachers’ classrooms. literacy coaching offers leadership and support to counter these challenges, it is essential that beginning teachers have a mentor or literacy coach who provides leadership and guidance as they begin their teaching journeys. literacy coaches are commonly employed as instructional leaders within many schools. according to the international reading association (2004, 2006), a literacy coach works primarily with classroom teachers to improve instructional practices. however, literacy coaches wear many hats and are responsive to teachers’ needs beyond instructional support. for example, they may work with new teachers to discuss classroom management techniques, strategies for differentiating instruction for diverse learners, and ways to engage and motivate students to learn. literacy coaches also work with teachers to examine a variety of assessment options and guide them in analysis of the data to drive instruction (blamey, albert, & dorrell, 2008: walpole & mckenna, 2013). in the state of georgia, literacy coaches are expected to be fluent in the common core georgia performance standards and standardsbased education (stout, jeffcoat, mcswain, davis, chauvin, & throdore, 2010). literacy coaches in georgia are also required to have strong command of reading and writing within the content areas, response to intervention (rti), assessment, the interpretation of data, differentiating lessons based on data, and selecting and implementing appropriate interventions (stout et al., 2010).the ways in which literacy coaches support teachers is based on the strengths and areas of needed growth for each individual teacher. building off of the teacher’s strengths, the literacy coach fosters reflection and assists the teacher with goal setting. the individual needs of each teacher drive the differentiated coaching conversations (stover, kissel, haag, & shoniker, 2011). building relationships in order to provide effective leadership, it is necessary for literacy coaches to foster trusting relationships by establishing rapport early on. before the school year begins, the literacy coach should reach out to new teachers to introduce themselves and welcome them to the school. showing the teacher around the physical space of the school building, where materials are kept, and how to gain access to supplies helps orient the new teacher to the structural aspects of the school. planning a broad instructional timeline with new teachers to map out curriculum based on the grade-level and common core state standards familiarizes the teacher with instructional goals and objectives. topics such as classroom arrangement, management, assessment and grading expectations are important for beginning teachers to have a clear understanding. this work is crucial at the onset of the school year in order to provide the teacher with a foundational level of familiarity and comfort with the expectations and routines of the school so they are not left uninformed and guessing about what to do. getting acquainted to a new school and a new career for many, amidst an overabundance of information is when the most support is needed from a mentor or instructional coach. creating a climate of trust it is important in the role of a literacy coach to remain neutral. building trusting relationships by maintaining confidentiality and support is critical to the work of literacy coaching (l’allier, elish-piper, & bean, 2010). the role of the literacy coach is crucial to providing a non-evaluative liaison between the classroom teacher and the administration and ongoing demands of the nuts and bolts of teaching. fostering relationships where teachers feel comfortable talking openly about concerns and struggles without being judged allows the literacy coach to better meet each teacher’s individual needs and create an ongoing support system. in order for the new teacher to accept feedback, they must feel valued and comfortable working collaboratively with instructional coaches. building rapport and developing trusting relationships enhances the connection between the instructional coach and the new teacher. fostering teachers’ personal, professional, and emotional well-being helps teachers feel appreciated and supported. meeting individual needs like the diverse students in our classrooms, the type of support teachers need varies based on each individual teacher. stover, kissel, haag, and shoniker (2011) discuss the importance of differentiating support offered by literacy coaches based on the individual needs of teachers. this is particularly relevant to the support of novice teachers. some new teachers need development of classroom management skills while others need strategies to meet the needs of struggling learners. by meeting with new teachers on an individual and regular basis, the literacy coach can create a safe setting where the teacher will more likely share questions and challenges allowing the coach to better meet his/her individual needs. teachers and their students benefit from the leadership of literacy coaches. teachers can improve their instructional practice by including higher-level thinking questions, actively engaging students, and differentiated instruction (bean, belcastro, hathaway, risko, rosemary, & roskos, 2008). through collaborative partnerships between the teacher and the literacy coach, opportunities for focused selfgeorgia journal of reading 11 volume 37, number 1 2014 reflection and reflective professional development can lead to enhanced instructional decisions and improved student achievement (stover et al., 2011; taylor, pearson, peterson, & rodriguez, 2005). it is critical that teachers are reflective practitioners in order to navigate the complex field of teaching in an era of policy mandates and teacher accountability (moore & whitfield, 2008). with the leadership of a literacy coach, new teachers no longer have to feel isolated within the four walls of their classroom. final thoughts with the ongoing support and leadership of a literacy coach, new teachers can become more adept at meeting the complex demands and challenges of teaching. literacy coaching can fulfill a vital role in helping new teachers meet the demands of teaching without succumbing to the pressures associated with the profession. if new teachers such as the one mentioned in the opening vignette of this article are to conquer the world of high stakes testing and teacher accountability, they must be armed with the tools to accomplish this task. a literacy coach can provide the much needed leadership and support necessary for new teachers to meet the wide range of needs of students in their classrooms. references alliance for excellent education (2004). tapping the potential: retaining and developing high-quality new teachers. washington, dc. retrieved from http:// www.all4ed.org/publications/tappingthepotential/ tappingthepotential.pdf bean, r. m., belcastro, b., hathaway, j., risko, v., rosemary, c., & roskos, k. (2008). a review of the research on instructional coaching. paper presented at the american educational research association conference, new york. blamey, k., albert, l., & dorrell, b. (2008). c is for coach. what is it like to be an early childhood literacy coach? retrieved from http://damali2.files. wordpress.com/2008/10/c-is-for-coach.pdf brookings institution. (2011). new assessments for improved accountability. policy brief 2011-09. hamilton project. chen, l. (2012). improving teachers’ teaching with communication technology. journal of educational technology systems, 40(1), 35-43. chorzempa, b. (2011). don’t get left behind! improve your experiences as a new teacher. kappa delta pi record, 47(2), 72-75. deangelis, k. (2012). the effects of turnover: what we know about teacher attrition. school business affairs, 78(11), 14-16. deangelis, k. j., & presley, j. b. (2011). toward a more nuanced understanding of new teacher attrition. education and urban society, 43(5), 598626. henke, r., chen, x., & geis, s. (2000). progress through the teacher pipeline: 1992-1993 college graduates and elementary/secondary school teaching as of 1997. (paper no. nces 20000152). washington, dc: national center for education statistics. henry, g., thompson, c. l., bastian, k. c., fortner, c. k., kershaw, d. c., purtell, k. m., & zulli, r. a. (2010). teacher preparation and student test scores in north carolina. chapel hill, nc: carolina institute for public policy. retrieved from http://publicpolicy. unc.edu/research/teacher_portals_teacher_ preparation_and_student_test_scores_in_north_ carolina_2.pdf ingersol, r. (2003). is there really a teacher shortage? a research report co-sponsored by the center for the study of teaching and policy and the consortium for policy work in education. seattle: center for the study of teaching and policy at the university of washington. international reading association. (2004). the role and qualifications of the reading coach in the united states. a position statement. newark, de: author. retrieved from http://www.reading.org/libraries/ position-statements-and-resolutions/ps1065_ reading_coach.pdf international reading association. (2006). ira surveys coaches. reading today, 23(5), 1-3. moore, j., & whitfield, v.f. (2008). musing: a way to inform and inspire pedagogy through self-reflection. the reading teacher, 61(7), 586–588. sass, d. a., flores, b., claeys, l., & perez, b. (2012). identifying personal and contextual factors that contribute to attrition rates for texas public school teachers. education policy analysis archives, 20(15), 1-25. sterrett, w. l., & imig, s. (2011). thriving as a new teacher in a bad economy. kappa delta pi record, 47(2), 68-71. stout, m., jeffcoat, k., mcswain, g., davis, m., georgia journal of reading 12 volume 37, number 1 2014 chauvin, r., & throdore, k. (2010). georgia’s literacy conceptual framework for birth to grade 12. georgia department of education. retrieved from http://www. gadoe.org/curriculum-instruction-and assessment/ curriculum-and-instruction/documents/georgia %20literacy%20action%20plan%20-the%20 why%208-1-12.pdf stover, k., kissel, b., haag, k., & shoniker, r. (2011). differentiated coaching: fostering reflection with teachers. the reading teacher, 64(7), 498-509. taylor, b. m., pearson, p. d., peterson, d. s., & rodriguez, m. c. (2005). the ciera school change framework: an evidence-based approach to professional development and school reading improvement. reading research quarterly, 40(1), 40–69. tempel, m. (2012). testing our limits. rethinking schools, 26(3), 27-29. walpole, s., & mckenna, m. (2013). the literacy coach’s handbook: a guide to research-based best practice (2nd ed.). new york, ny: guilford. curl up with a good group you live to read. you can hardly wait to get cozy in your favorite spot and crack the pages of a good book. you’re also an educator. why not curl up with a good group, too? membership in the georgia reading association will connect you to others like you who inspire and teach others about reading. visit us at www.georgiareading.org the georgia reading association is a membership organization whose mission is promoting literacy in georgia. services include annual conferences featuring special speakers and authors, professional publications, grants and scholarships, and involvement in special projects. college students and retirees are encouraged to join and receive membership at a reduced rate. so, from one reading enthusiast to another, we invite you to join the gra and curl up with a good group. georgia journal of reading 18 volume 37, number 1 2014 writing conventions, also referred as grammar, was defined as “the set of rules that describes how words and groups of words can be arranged to form sentences in a particular language” (cowan, 2008, p. 3). cowan stressed that the ability to teach written conventions requires much more than fluency with the english language. rather, teachers of written conventions require “conscious knowledge of the grammatical rules of the language” (p. 2). several researchers have shown the importance of teachers possessing a thorough understanding of written conventions in order to develop their students’ knowledge and skills related to the proper use of written conventions (e.g., hadjioannou & hutchinson, 2010; meyer, 2003), especially when teaching struggling learners (moats, 1994). borg (2001) asserted that teacher education programs must include multiple learning experiences aimed to advance and sustain preservice teachers’ awareness of their knowledge of written conventions, as well as how this knowledge will affect their ability to teach written conventions. in this same manner, myhill and watson (2013) purported that knowledge about written conventions is not sufficient by itself. preservice teachers must also possess pedagogical understandings regarding the instruction of written conventions. the impetus for this study derived from a shared concern among faculty within a teacher education program: preservice teachers’ lack of proficiency with use of conventions in their writings. undergraduate students enrolled in this university’s teacher education program complete 12 hours of english courses and nine hours of courses identified as writing intensive as part of their prescribed degree plan. these courses, in addition to the learning experiences within all other the effect of explicit instruction with writing conventions among preservice teachers by laurie a. sharp abstract preservice teachers require both personal knowledge and pedagogical understandings with written conventions. concern with preservice teachers’ inability to demonstrate proficiency with written conventions prompted this study. this study utilized a pretest/ posttest design, and participants’ were preservice teachers enrolled in a teacher education program. participants completed five professor-created lessons aimed to develop personal knowledge with written conventions. findings showed statistical significance regarding participants’ personal knowledge after receiving explicit instruction with written conventions. georgia journal of reading 19 volume 37, number 1 2014 required courses, should ideally build preservice teachers’ proficiency with concepts related to proper use of written conventions. of greater concern is the fact that these preservice teachers seek certification at the elementary level, as well as certification to work with english language learners. therefore, these preservice teachers will eventually be teachers of written conventions to young students and nonnative english speakers. clearly, effective teachers of written conventions require both personal knowledge and pedagogical understandings related to instruction (mather, bos, & babur, 2001; moats, 1994; myhill & watson, 2013). based on the aforementioned assertions of borg (2001) and myhill and watson (2013), the researcher posited that learning written conventions through meaningful and relevant learning experiences was an important piece for preservice teachers enrolled in this teacher education program. with this in mind, this study sought to determine the effect of explicit instruction with written conventions embedded within the context of a language arts methods course on preservice teachers’ personal knowledge. methodology participants of this study consisted of 71 undergraduate students enrolled in a teacher education program at a public state university. all participants were classified as seniors and seeking elementary-level teaching certification, as well as certification for teaching english language learners. participants were enrolled in their final semester of university coursework. at the time of this study, all participants had successfully completed a minimum of 99 hours of undergraduate coursework, of which 12 hours were english courses (two freshman-level english courses and two sophomore-level english courses) and six hours were courses identified as writing intensive. writing intensive courses were selected courses within a program of study at the university aimed to achieve two purposes: (1) to improve the personal writing ability of students, and (2) to improve the professional writing ability of students within their program of study. at the time of this study, all participants were enrolled in a third writing intensive course, which was related to the implementation of language arts instruction at the elementary and middle grade levels. the content of this course seemed highly appropriate to achieve the purpose of this study. this study utilized a pretest/posttest design, with which data would be measured with a t test to determine if statistical significance was present. the pretest was administered at the beginning of the semester, before any formal instruction took place. the posttest was administered during finals at the end of the semester. throughout the semester, participants completed five lessons, which were developed as learning modules and delivered through blackboard, a web-based learning management system. each participant had individual access to the professor-created learning modules, and each learning module was accessible during a specified two-week window. participants’ activity within each learning module was accessed and tracked through administrative reports available in blackboard. the content of each learning module focused on a specific writing convention identified as part of the state-mandated english language arts curriculum for the elementary grades. the rationale behind this methodology was to ensure that participants were developing personal knowledge about specific writing conventions they would be expected to teach. the content of the five learning modules was as follows: lesson 1 – punctuation this learning module focused on the use of ending punctuation marks for sentences, commas, apostrophes, quotations marks, colon, and semicolon use. lesson 2 – spelling this learning module focused on common and advanced orthographic spelling patterns in english. lesson 3 – commonly confused words this learning module focused on proper use of commonly confused words, such as affect/effect. lesson 4 – parts of speech and sentence structures this learning module focused on the various parts of speech and sentence structures (e.g., run-on sentences, sentence fragments). lesson 5 – capitalization this learning module focused on the written conventions associated with capitalization. each of the five learning modules followed a pattern aligned with the lesson cycle (shown in figure 1), a lesson planning framework based upon best practices in teaching (mcgregor, n.d.). as participants accessed a learning module, they were guided through the following sequential steps: 1. state purpose and focus: participants were provided the objective for the learning module and interacted with a hook for engagement, such as a brief youtube video clip. 2. explanation of content: participants completed georgia journal of reading 20 volume 37, number 1 2014 a professor-created task sheet and viewed a professor-created presentation. task sheets and presentations focused on building participants’ personal knowledge of the learning modules’ content. while completing a task sheet, participants used valid and reliable references to gather information pertaining to the written conventions associated with the learning module, such as definitions and grammatical rules. 3. guided practice: participants practiced applying knowledge and skills related to the content of the learning module through interactive games and quizzes accessible via the internet. 4. independent practice: participants completed a quiz within each learning module to demonstrate mastery of personal knowledge. quizzes consisted of 20 questions in varied formats, including matching, multiple-choice, and fill-in-the-blank. some of the quiz questions contained multiple responses; therefore, partial credit could be earned. quizzes were timed, and participants were given a 30-minute window to complete the quiz associated with each learning module. the format of the pretest and posttest was similar to the quizzes. the only difference was the pretest and posttest randomized questions related to all content: punctuation, spelling, commonly confused words, parts of speech and sentence structures, and capitalization. results data for participants’ performance on the quizzes, pretest, and posttest were entered into spss. descriptive statistics were first analyzed to check for a normal distribution of data. one outlier was identified, and this datum was removed from further analyses. after removal of this outlier, the remaining data met all assumptions, and a shapiro-wilks test confirmed normality of data (p > .05). figure 1. flowchart showing the instructional design of a lesson using the lesson cycle (mcgregor, n.d.). the lesson cycle is highly structured and adapted from madeline hunter’s (1994) instructional theory into practice (itip) model. the itip model is a linear framework that involves teacher decision-making throughout the process. as shown in figure 1, the lesson cycle shows the recursive process of instructional design. georgia journal of reading 21 volume 37, number 1 2014 an initial analysis of data revealed high mean scores for each of the learning modules’ quizzes (see table 1). further analyses were conducted using a paired samples t test to compare participants’ performance with the pretest and posttest (see table 2). the mean of the posttest (m = 70.21, sd = 11.95) was higher than the mean of the pretest (m = 58.77, sd = 12.85), t(69) = -7.05, p = .00, d = .92. the 95% confidence interval for the mean difference between the pretest and posttest was -2.23 to -1.14. therefore, the t test revealed a highly statistically significant difference between participants’ pretest and posttest scores. hence, the explicit instruction with written conventions had a significant effect on participants’ personal knowledge with written conventions. discussion faculty within a teacher education program shared a concern regarding preservice teachers’ lack of proficiency with written conventions. the need for teachers to possess both personal knowledge and pedagogical understandings of written conventions is documented (mather, bos, & babur, 2001; moats, 1994; myhill & watson, 2013). being that preservice teachers enrolled in this specific teacher education program were required to complete several courses that involve a great deal of writing, it seems reasonable to conclude that personal knowledge of written conventions was being developed. however, faculty noted that preservice teachers within this specific program were not able to consistently demonstrate application of personal knowledge with written conventions. although research exists that reported no statistically significant findings between explicit instruction with written conventions and students’ writing (petrosky, 1977), there is a body of research that showed instruction focused upon the improvement of students’ writing was more effective than isolated skill-based instruction (e.g., hillocks & smith, 2003; weaver, mcnally, & moerman, 2001). according to feng and powers (2005), the most optimal approach for instruction with written conventions involves crafting minilessons that are based upon errors present in students’ writing. while error-based instruction with writing conventions is a meaningful and authentic instructional approach, berger (2001) also emphasized the importance of a “scope and sequence that addresses many grammar conventions” and provides students with a “steady diet” of explicit instruction (p. 49). preservice teachers admitted to this teacher education program will eventually be certified to teach at the elementary level, as well as certified to teach english language learners. consequently, it was imperative that preparation of these preservice teachers included development of both personal knowledge and pedagogical understandings of written conventions. at the time of this study, preservice teachers were enrolled in a course that covers content related to implementation of language arts instruction. thus, with instruction already taking place that focused on pedagogical understandings, learning modules were created to focus upon development of personal knowledge simultaneously. as patterson (2001) contended, instruction related to written conventions must be “a means through which students learn more about themselves, their texts, and the world around them” (p. 55). analyses of data showed that the explicit instruction with written conventions had a statistically significant effect on preservice teachers’ personal knowledge of written conventions. this finding implies that a more concerted effort was needed to develop personal knowledge with written conventions among preservice teachers. however, this study took place in a senior-level course taken the semester before student teaching. would preservice teachers be better served if this effort took place earlier in their educational program? perhaps it would be more beneficial for preservice teachers to have time to sustain personal knowledge of written conventions while under the direction of faculty within the teacher education program. on the other hand, timing explicit instruction aimed towards personal development with written conventions to align with the delivery of content related to pedagogical understandings might be more meaningful. further research would be needed to determine when delivery of explicit instruction with written conventions should take place with preservice teachers. summary of quiz performance measure n m sd lesson 1 70 90.45 17.96 lesson 2 70 90.35 10.26 lesson 3 70 90.92 9.95 lesson 4 70 93.94 9.33 lesson 5 70 91.00 20.38 table 1 summary of pretest and posttest performance measure n m sd pretest 70 58.77 12.85 posttest 70 70.21 11.95 table 2 georgia journal of reading 22 volume 37, number 1 2014 it should also be noted that much of the university coursework, such as the freshman and sophomore level english courses, preservice teachers completed are courses offered outside of the teacher education program. therefore, university students from all other programs of study also enroll in these courses. it raises the question of concern with preservice teachers’ use of written conventions unique to students enrolled in the teacher education program, or is the concern universitywide? with this in mind, the content of courses aimed at developing students’ use of written conventions might also need to be examined and adapted to better meet students’ needs. references aminy, m., & karathanos, k. (2011). benefiting the educator and student alike: effective strategies for supporting the academic language development of english learner (el) teacher candidates. issues in teacher education, 20(2), 95-109. belk, j., & thompson, r. (1999). are preservice teachers literate in grammar and usage? eric report berger, j. (2001). a systematic approach to grammar instruction. voices from the middle, 8(3), 43-49. borg, s. (2001). self-perception and practice in teaching grammar. elt journal: english language teachers journal, 55(1), 21. cowan, r. (2008). the teacher’s grammar of english. new york, ny: cambridge university press. feng, s., & powers, k. (2005). the shortand longterm effect of explicit grammar instruction on fifth graders’ writing. reading improvement, 42(2), 67-72. hadjioannou, x., & hutchinson, m. c. (2010). putting the “g” back in english: preparing pre-service teachers to teach grammar. english teaching: practice and critique, 9(3), 90-105. hillocks, g. jr., & smith, m. w. (2003). grammar and literacy learning. in j. flood, j. m. jensen, d. lapp, & j. r. squire (eds.), handbook on teaching the language arts (2nd ed., pp. 721737). new york: macmillan. mather, n., bos, c., & babur, n. (2001). perceptions and knowledge of preservice and inservice teachers about early literacy instruction. journal of learning disabilities, 34(5), 472-482. meyer, j. (2003). living with competing goals: state frameworks vs. understanding of linguistics. english journal, 92(3), 38-42. moats, l. (1994). the missing foundation in teacher education: knowledge of the structure of spoken and written language. annals of dyslexia, 44(1), 81-104. mcgregor, k. (n.d.). unit/lesson plans & the lesson cycle. retrieved from www.tarleton.edu/~mcgregor/a%20 ed%20590%20f2f/module%204/lesson%20cycle. ppt myhill, d., jones, s., & watson, a. (2013). grammar matters: how teachers’ grammatical knowledge impacts on the teaching of writing. teaching & teacher education, 36, 77-91. doi:10.1016/j.tate.2013.07.005 patterson, n. g. (2001). just the facts: research and theory about grammar instruction. voices from the middle, 8(3), 50-55. petrosky, a. r. (1977). research roundup: grammar instruction: what we know. the english journal, 66(9), 86-88. doi: 10.2307/815294 weaver, c., mcnally, c., & moerman, s. (2001). to grammar or not to grammar: that is not the question! voices from the middle, 8, 17-33. focus newsletter news from members of the gra focus is a format that shares information from and about members and councils across georgia. this can be reviews of upcoming new books, dates of upcoming meetings, news or exciting happenings about a local council member. what a wonderful way to support the active people in our organization. this is a spot to publish interesting stories or poetry that a talented member or student has written. deadlines for focus are september 30, december 15, march 15 and june 15. send articles, thoughts, poems, etc. to: paula keinert | 4327 lehaven circle | tucker, ga 30084 | pkeinert@bellsouth.net georgia journal of reading 23 volume 37, number 1 2014 tacky and atambourine: enhancing first grade literacy through music by nancy mcbride arrington, georgia southern university abstract this integrative lesson engages students in retelling the story tacky, the penguin through music. first grade english language arts common core standards (elacc) are addressed as students play instruments, create movement, sing and chant, and discuss their roles throughout the process. students’ understanding, fluency, and discussion skills are enhanced through their participation. the activity requires inexpensive hand bells and basic classroom rhythm instruments, and can be facilitated by general education teachers or music specialists with their young students. while the focus of this lesson is on the development of first grade literacy, this activity can be easily adapted to other stories and grade levels. when teaching as an elementary music specialist in grades k-5 several years ago, i was approached by the first grade teachers in my school to contribute lessons to an interdisciplinary unit on the continents and to teach each lesson in music class during their study of each continent respectively. as one can imagine, it was easy to contribute a lesson consisting of folk songs/instruments/dances from north america. the lesson from the asia unit brought to life many instruments and songs resonating in pentatonic modes. the europe lesson afforded our students a rich heritage from classical music, along with french, spanish, and german children’s songs. didgeridoos and kangaroos were at the center of the australia lesson. african drumming rang georgia journal of reading 24 volume 37, number 1 2014 throughout our building during its respective lesson. the south america lesson focused on argentine and brazilian children’s game songs, along with the andean panpipes. when i began brainstorming about antarctica, i asked myself the same questions as i had regarding the other continents: who were famous composers from antarctica? what are some folk songs from antarctica? instruments? dances? well, i obviously drew a blank! using my best resource (my students!), i asked the first graders what they knew about antarctica. in unison they shouted, “penguins!” so, i visited the librarian for a recommendation for a children’s book. without hesitation, he presented me with tacky the penguin (lester & munsinger, 1988). as soon as i saw the book, i knew it was the one to use for my lesson. i, however, had to get creative to turn it into a musical lesson. this lesson, which is described in this article, served the purpose for contributing a musical antarctica lesson to the interdisciplinary continent unit for many years at my school. according to the common core state standards initiative (ccss, 2012), literacy instruction is the responsibility of all content areas, which includes music education. similar themes are shared between ccss for english language arts (ela) and the national standards for music education (nafme, 2014). some of the commonalities between these sets of standards include demonstrating independence, having strong content knowledge, comprehending, critiquing, and understanding other perspectives and cultures (weidner, 2013). additionally, other learningto-read skills correlate with music literacy skills. these include phonological awareness, sight identification, orthographic awareness, and fluency (hansen & bernstorf, 2002). coleman (n.d.), one of the authors of the common core state standards, developed the guiding principles for the arts and made connections between these principles and literacy. for example, principal one states, “studying works of arts as training in close observation across the arts disciplines and preparing students to create and perform in the arts” (para. 2). this interdisciplinary connection enables students to actively participate in performance. in addition to actively participating in reading through music, concepts of literacy can be taught and/or enhanced through music. research has demonstrated that music contributes to focused attention (asaridou & mcqueen, 2013; tierney & kraus, 2013) and enhances auditory processing (saffran, 2002; skoe & kraus, 2012). bernstorf (2013) reminds us that good music literacy can “provide the very same benefits as those who teach language reading, plus the enjoyment of an arts experience” (p. 2). as i examined this lesson in the context of literacy, i discovered that the musical retelling of tacky, the penguin also served as an effective read-aloud. therefore, in the description of this activity, i have noted the common core georgia performance standards (ccgps) in english language arts (ela) addressed in this lesson (gadoe, 2014). as stated earlier, my music students were my most valuable resource to utilize in generating creative ideas for lessons. through the years, i had found that their natural movements led to innovative choreography and that their chants at play developed into meaningful songs for school events, etc. therefore, it was natural for me to use their ideas when developing this activity: their contributions were invaluable, as they made many suggestions to make this activity more meaningful than i could have imagined. for example, i had initially only used the hand bells, tambourine, and drums for a select group to participate in their assigned part. i quickly learned that all students wanted a special role to play, and my first graders suggested having a “choir” and some “dancers” for the story. as a result, the crooning penguins and partying penguins groups were formed, joining the characters named in the book. based on my experience in the general classroom and in sharing this with preservice teachers, i have found that this activity can be facilitated by a general classroom teacher. the instruments used in the activity are basic and are most likely available to borrow from the elementary music specialist. these classroom instruments are inexpensive and can be purchased easily through pto or mini-grant funds. vendors that provide these basic instruments at reasonable costs include local education supply stores, toy stores, and online vendors such as musician’s friend (www. musiciansfriend.com/classroom-kids) and music is elementary (www.musiciselementary.com). the following is the description of the lesson activity in which i correlated music with the book tacky the penguin written by helen lester, illustrated by lynn munsinger. enjoy! lesson activity tacky, the penguin – retelling the story with music grade level: first ccgps: elacckrl5: recognize common types of texts (e.g., storybooks, poems) elacckrl6: with prompting and support, name the author and illustrator of a story and define the role of each in telling the story. elacckrl10: actively engage in group reading activities with purpose and understanding. georgia journal of reading 25 volume 37, number 1 2014 elacc1rl1: ask and answer questions about key details in a text. elacc1rl2: retell stories, including key details, and demonstrate understanding of their central message or lesson. elacc1rl3: describe characters, settings, and major events in a story, using key details. elacc1rl6: identify who is telling the story at various points in a text. elacc1rl7: use illustrations and details in a story to describe its characters, setting, or events. elacc1rf4: read with sufficient accuracy and fluency to support comprehension elacc1sl4: describe people, places, things, and events with relevant details, expressing ideas and feelings clearly. elacc1sl5: add drawings or other visual displays to descriptions when appropriate to clarify ideas, thoughts, and feelings. materials: lester, h. & munsinger, l. (illustrator). (1988). tacky the penguin. boston: houghton mifflin company. music instruments: hand bells – (pitches c, d, e, g, and c1) tambourine hand drums procedures for initial reading of the book: 1. share and discuss the title, author, and illustrator. use the illustrations to help students determine the type of story. 2. ask the students what they think the story is about, what they know about penguins, etc. 3. read the book, pausing to note how the illustrations contribute to the meaning of the story, the characters, setting, and/or events. 4. facilitate a discussion by asking questions about key details in the text, and other questions such as, “who told the story?” and “which words/phrases suggest feelings or appeal to senses?” procedures for retelling the story with music: as a group, the class will help retell the story with music as the teacher narrates, using the following directions. 1. assign the characters (companions, tacky, and hunters) represented by musical instruments, as described below. demonstrate proper playing technique of instruments. characters: 5 companions – represented with hand bells (the pitch, or note, which is printed on each bell, is denoted beside each companion’s name). goodly c lovely d angel e neatly g perfect c1 tacky – represented with tambourine hunters – represented with hand drums. play a steady beat on thump, thump, thump, and as a steady beat accompaniment to the crooning penguins’ chant. the steady beat can be related to their pulse or heartbeat in that it is evenly played (see chart below). partying penguins – perform the movements in the story crooning penguins – perform the songs/chants in the story 2. assign the partying penguins their role and allow them to create the following based on the feelings elicited by the words and phrases in the story at the respective times the words are read: a. performing strict marching pattern b. performing haphazard marching/tripping pattern c. performing splashy cannonballs 3. assign the crooning penguins their role and allow them to practice the following based on the feeling elicited by the words and phrases when they are read: a. “sunrise on the iceberg.” sing with sweet and pretty voice. (suggest using the pitches sol-mi, or sol-mi-la which are the pitches sung naturally in childhood songs such as “rain, rain, go away,” and “na nana boo boo”). b. “how many toes does a fish have?” sing with harsh and weird voice. c. chant. (hunters will accompany the beat of this chant with hand drums. beat is marked with x underneath the words). the steady beat will contribute to students’ fluency. “we’re gonna catch some pretty penguins, and x x x x we’ll march ‘em with a switch, and we’ll x x x x sell ’em for a dollar; and get x x x x rich, rich, rich “ x* x* x* (all add clap on *. use gradual increase in dynamics, or crescendo, which means “to get louder,” on the repetition of “rich.” 4. the teacher re-reads the story, allowing the characters to play their musical instruments and georgia journal of reading 26 volume 37, number 1 2014 perform their movements, singing, chants, etc. at the appropriate times, as follows: a. companions are named slowly, one at a time, to allow each student to play his/her individual bell after his/her respective name is called. b. every time the name “tacky” is used, the student assigned the tambourine shakes and beats his/ her instrument. c. when the words thump, thump, thump for the hunters are used, the students assigned the hand drums beat their drums. also, the drummers will play a steady beat to accompany the hunters’ chant. (see chart above for beats marked with x) 5. at the end, the teacher will facilitate additional discourse to include, “how did the illustrations, musical instruments, movement, and use of different voices help us understand the story better?” and “compare the characters.” it is my hope that your students (and you) enjoy using tacky, the penguin in this musical read-aloud as much as my students (and i) have. and, don’t forget … you can always use this activity in your antarctica lesson! references asaridou, s. s., & mcqueen, j. m. (2013). speech and music shape the listening brain: evidence for shared domain-general mechanisms. frontiers in psychology, 4, 321. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00321 bernstorf, e. (2013, fall). reading acquisition in music and language: the cry for preschool music endures. kodaly envoy, 24-28. coleman, d. (n.d.). guiding principles for the arts grades k-12. retrieved from http://www.aep-arts. org/resources-2/common-core-and-the-arts/ common core standards state initiative (ccss). (2012). implementing the common core state standards. retrieved from www.corestandards.org georgia department of education (gadoe). (2013). common core georgia performance standards (ccgps). retrieved from https://www. georgiastandards.org hansen, d., & bernstorf, e. (2002). linking music learning to reading instruction. (cover story). music educators journal, 88(5), 17. lester, h., & munsinger, l. (illustrator). (1988). tacky the penguin. boston: houghton mifflin company. national association for music education (nafme). (2014). national standards for music education. retrieved from http://musiced.nafme.org/resources/ national-standards-for-music-education/ saffran, j. (2003). absolute pitch in infancy and adulthood: the role of tonal structure. developmental science, 6(1), 35-47. skoe, e., & kraus, n. (2012). a little goes a long way: how the adult brain is shaped by musical training in childhood. journal of neuroscience, 32, 1150711510. doi:10.1523/jneuro-sci.1949-12.2012 tierney, a., & kraus, n. (2013). neural responses to sounds presented on and off the beat of ecologically valid music. frontiers in systems neuroscience, 7, 14. doi:10.3389/fnsys.2013.00014 weidner, b. n. (2013). supporting common core reading literacy in the music performance classroom. the illinois music educator. 73(3), 55-59. n empower members of the gra and local councils to become effective leaders in the field of literacy. n provide quality reading education services to all georgia educators. n recognize exemplary individuals, local, and state literacy efforts. n achieve maximum involvement of members at the local, state, and international levels to receive maximum benefits. n promote the goals and objectives of the international reading association of georgia. georgia reading association goals georgia journal of reading 40 volume 38, number 1 2015 the scene is the auditorium of a high-poverty school, where every third-grader has been assembled. when a visitor explains that each child will receive a dictionary of his or her very own, looks of surprise turn to joy. most live in homes without a dictionary. regrettably, many have never owned a book. this scene plays out again and again each spring as we visit schools in chatham county. after years of providing this service, we can think of no way of promoting literacy that is more visible or more rewarding. it is a simple program that teachers across the state can easily replicate in their schools at virtually no cost. in this article, we explain how. how it all started annie plummer, better known as “the dictionary lady,” began giving away dictionaries in 1992 after noticing that many of the students in her neighborhood walked to garrison elementary without any books (ward, 1999). at the time, garrison served children from three housing projects and two homeless shelters. annie’s ingenuity and determination helped her develop a workable strategy that over time she extended first to other savannah-area schools and eventually, through a network of family and friends, to schools in other cities. though annie plummer died in 1999, her work goes on. in 1995, her ideas inspired volunteer mary french to found the dictionary project, a nonprofit based in charleston, south carolina. this organization has helped launch projects across the nation and beyond. to date, more than 18 million dictionaries have been given to third graders (dictionary project, 2014). how you can get started undertaking a dictionary project is not difficult, though it helps to be organized! we suggest the following steps based on our experiences over a number of years. 1. decide the scope of your involvement. you can involve any number of schools, but our advice is to start with your own. after you’ve gone through the process once, you’ll have a much better idea of what is required. you can then decide whether to broaden the scope to other schools in your district. 2. gain the support of school administrators and third-grade teachers. do not simply assume that the obvious benefits of the project will eliminate the need to apprise teachers and administrators of how the project works. although resistance is unlikely, your colleagues need to be in the loop. 3. seek permission from the district. it is a good idea to gain district approval as well, though the principal can make a request on your behalf. in our experience, district-level administrators are enthusiastic supporters of the project. in fact, do not be surprised if they urge you to include all third graders from the outset. 4. locate funding. there are several options for obtaining the funds necessary to purchase the dictionaries. partnering with a local service group is a possibility we have found to be particularly effective. two organizations that have shown willingness in the past are the local rotary and the area pilot club, an organization devoted to brain-based disorders. another possibility is the parent organization that serves your school. still another is one or more of the school’s local business partners. occasionally, a single benefactor may wish to underwrite all of the costs. 5. plan logistics. once you’ve decided on the scope of the project and have secured the funds to carry it out, you’ll need to think through the process from start to finish. make a to-do list that includes the following: • determine the number of copies you will need, estimating a bit high. obtaining a few extra copies will ensure that no child is left out. • place an order. we recommend ordering through the dictionary project, which makes it possible to obtain dictionaries at very low cost–just $1.25 at this writing. • arrange for delivery. this means working out arrangements with the principal and third-grade teachers. the event could be as elaborate as an assembly or as low key as going from room to room. but everyone involved needs to know what will occur and when. 6. seek publicity. when all of the arrangements have georgia journal of reading 41 volume 38, number 1 2015 been made, contact local media. they are often happy to run a public interest story, and the publicity is good for the school. before doing so, however, be sure to notify the principal. a final touch could involve placing a sticker in each dictionary to credit the funding organization. it might contain an encouraging message as well, a practice started by annie plummer herself. when children opened their dictionaries, they discovered a handwritten note from annie: “a mind is a terrible thing to waste. i challenge you not to waste yours.” additional information is available from the dictionary project, 581 flannery place, mt. pleasant, sc 29466. call 843-856-2706 or visit their website at dictionaryproject.org. a final word “sadly,” remondi and rasco (2013) observe, “two out of three of the 16 million children currently living in poverty in the united states have no books to call their own” (p. 5). needless to say, this problem is not unique to the u.s., and the idea of combatting it by providing children with free books is hardly new. warwick elley’s book flood program (1975) provided thousands of books to children in developing countries. closer to home, reading is fundamental (rif) has given free books to children since 1966. but there is still much to do and there is room for many initiatives. providing third graders with dictionaries targets a key inflection point in their development as readers. it gives them a resource they can return to again and again. it is a means for each of us to think globally while acting locally. and it makes a difference. references dictionary project. (2014). retrieved from http://www. dictionaryproject.org elley, w. b. (1975). the impact of a ‘book flood’: interim assessment prepared for the new zealand book council. wellington, nz: new zealand council for educational research. remondi, j., & rasco, c. h. (2013). leadership message. in books have the power to change lives: reading is fundamental 2013 annual report. washington, dc: reading is fundamental. available: http://readingisfundamental.org/documents/us/rif2013-annual-report.pdf ward, p. r. (1999, december 24). “dictionary lady dies at 62.” savannah morning news. retrieved at http://savannahnow.com/stories/122499/loc plummerobit.shtml curl up with a good group you live to read. you can hardly wait to get cozy in your favorite spot and crack the pages of a good book. you’re also an educator. why not curl up with a good group, too? membership in the georgia reading association will connect you to others like you who inspire and teach others about reading. visit us at www.georgiareading.org georgia journal of reading 31 volume 42, number 1 2019 by morgan mitchell, sybil keesbury and vicki luther ready, set, grow: exploring the readiness and preparation of kindergarten students within a title 1 school abstract this article discusses a research study conducted to evaluate whether young students’ educational experiences prior to entering kindergarten affects their accomplishments within the content of english language arts and social development. data from the georgia kindergarten inventory of developing skills (gkids) and student learning objectives (slos) were analyzed in one high-poverty elementary school over the course of a full academic year. learning more about students’ early literacy and development can allow teachers to have a much greater understanding of their students’ needs. this, in turn, can benefit all students as they begin their formal educational experiences and as they learn and grow socially, emotionally, and cognitively. introduction while kindergarten is typically thought of as the beginning of a child’s formalized schooling, today’s students frequently attend some form of learning environment prior to the start of kindergarten. according to the national institute for early education research (2016), approximately 60% of georgia’s four-year-olds are enrolled in public preschools within the state. in addition, over 24,000 children, ages three and four, received funded services in head start programs within the state of georgia in 2018 (u.s. department of health and human services, 2018), and many other pre-kindergarteners attend private or public child care facilities. research constantly confirms that children who enter school with a strong foundation in language development are more equipped to read, while those who enter school with limited language skills are more likely to fall behind in academic achievements (wasik & hindman, 2018). young children who live in poverty are more likely to show deficiencies in critical language skills. recent statistics show that 34% of all students entering kindergarten are lacking in basic understandings of phonological concepts, thus negatively impacting their abilities to read in later years (kena et al., 2016; locasale-crouch et al., 2007). lottery-funded pre-k, head start, and the georgia department of early care and learning (decal) subsidize child care expenses for many low-income families, allowing young children living in poverty to become better prepared and more equipped for the rigors of elementary, middle, and high school (georgia department of early care and learning, 2016). social and emotional developmental factors are also critical the education of young children. for preschoolers, the acquisition of language allows for self-advancement and greater understandings of others; however, children living in low-income georgia journal of reading 32 volume 42, number 1 2019 households are more likely to have deficiencies in social, emotional, and linguistic fundamentals (mcdevitt & ormrod, 2013). economic insecurity and a lack of early literacy skills are both indicators of low social development in children (mcdevitt & ormrod, 2013). therefore, providing students from low socioeconomic backgrounds opportunities to become engaged in structured social environments prior to kindergarten can enhance cognitive, social, and emotional development. young children engaged in organized learning environments have occasions to learn social skills through the observation and imitation of educators and peers, and such modeling can enhance necessary foundational understandings (ormrod, anderman, & anderman, 2017). a review of the literature basic language and emergent literacy skills are paramount to a child’s development and growth. without such skills, a child is more likely to struggle in language arts and in a wider variety of subject areas as they move into older grades, as early literacy is a critical indicator of success in later grades (mullis, mullis, cornille, ritchson, & sullender, 2004). we often fail to appreciate the procedures necessary for student progression, especially in an area as multifaceted as english language arts, and teachers are often “unaware of the challenges” that students face when learning necessary etymological skills (barone, 2006, p. 8). this is especially true when teaching students of low socioeconomic status. children do not come to school equipped with the same background knowledge or rudimentary skills when they enter kindergarten, and many are developmentally deficient. the foundations of language development, especially in oral language, are developed in the first few years of a child’s life (biemiller, 2006). further research indicates that the initial foundations of reading must be developed well before a child even enters school (dougherty-stahl, 2014); therefore, it is pivotal that young children are positioned in environments where literacy is paramount and social learning consistently takes place. young children who have opportunities to learn in environments where fundamental skills are introduced are more likely to narrow the literacy gap (barone, 2006). as critical components of english language arts include reading, writing, listening, and speaking, beginning learners benefit from having meaningful and solid linguistic exposures. young children, when given opportunities to continually participate in meaningful conversations with peers and adults, are more likely to have better vocabulary, comprehension, and communication skills in later years (hart & risley, 1995). providing children time to practice speech through everyday conversations is critical in both language and social development (justice, jiang, & strasser, 2018). furthermore, constant engagement in read-aloud events is a particularly effective practice for developing oral language skills in children, as this enhances both listening and speaking abilities (straub, 2003). when made habitual, read alouds can demonstrate to young children the importance of the printed word and print concepts and can positively impact student motivation. collaborative, text-based discussions can allow for greater text-to-self and textto-world connections and for deeper understanding (giroir, romero grimaldo, vaughn, & roberts, 2015). children of poverty often lack educational resources and are frequently unable to participate in educational experiences at home (brophy, 2006). during the first few years of life, children develop linguistic, cognitive, social, and emotional skills at a rapid pace, and such resources and experiences are not available in impoverished home environments (trawick-smith, 2014; brophy, 2006). according to the national institute for early education research (2016), children who receive early learning opportunities are less likely to repeat a grade level and are more likely to graduate from high school later on. in addition, children with early educational experiences are less likely to engage in crime and are more likely to earn more money as adults. a background of the school environment this study was conducted in an inner-city, title i elementary school. at the time of the study, the school had a pk-5th grade enrollment of 708 students. in this same academic year, 99% of students were eligible for free or reduced lunch, 97% of the student population was black, 1% hispanic, 1% white, and 1% multiracial. in addition, almost one-third (30%) of students were in the school’s early intervention program (eip), and 10.2% of the student population received special education services (the governor’s office of student achievement, 2019). this elementary school has been classified as low-performing; with a recent score of 55.5 on the college and career reading performance index (ccrpi), it ranks much lower than the state average. in addition, school data shows that 61% of students who took the georgia milestones assessment during this particular academic year scored at a “beginning” level in english language arts components, and the percentage of students scoring georgia journal of reading 33 volume 42, number 1 2019 at a “below basic” literacy rate is far higher than the overall state average. only 15.1% of third graders and 36.6% of fifth graders were reading on grade level at the time of this study (the governor’s office of student achievement, 2019). research objectives the objective of this research study was to determine if kindergarten students’ schooling experience before entering kindergarten affected their foundational understanding of english language arts concepts, learning approaches, and social and personal development. to accomplish this goal, the data from the georgia kindergarten inventory of developing skills (gkids), as well as the student learning objectives (slo) data for kindergarten students were analyzed during a recent academic school year. eightynine students (n=89) were enrolled in kindergarten at this high-poverty, public school setting; information was collected to determine the percentage of these students who had gone to pre-k, head start, or day care prior to the beginning of the academic year. the list of students was coded to remove names and protect identities. spreadsheets were used to focus on three “previous schooling” environments (pre-k settings, head start settings, and day care settings) in order to make correlations and comparisons between prior schooling and kindergarten data. georgia kindergarten inventory of developing skills (gkids) data and each students’ individual score for the slo assessment were examined. because the gkids evaluation is a performance-based assessment aligned to the state mandated content standards, teachers are provided year-long data concerning the instructional supports needed for each individual child (georgia department of education, 2019). student learning objectives are content-specific, grade-level learning goals that are aligned to current curriculum standards. according to the georgia department of education (2019), slos allow educators and school systems methods in which to better understand and recognize success within the classroom. it is important to note that for the sake of this research, only a few specific areas were focused upon, as the purpose was look at whether or not different schooling experiences impacted kindergarten scores. research results results of students who attended pre-kindergarten (pre-k): forty-four (approximately 50%) of the eighty-nine (n=89) total kindergarten students attended pre-k before entering kindergarten. fifteen of these 44 students (approximately 34%) attended pre-k at the same elementary school prior to being promoted to kindergarten, while the other children attended local, public pre-k settings within the community. the average pre-ela student learning objective (slo) score for students who previously attended pre-k was 33.7758861 and the post score for ela was 83.1727273. the following table shows the percentages of the students’ abilities, according to the collected gkids data. this information displays the percentage of pre-k attendees who met or exceeded the kindergarten standards by the end of the academic year. kindergarten concepts or % of students: ela students who met or exceeded skills ● can describe the role of the 91% author and illustrator in a text ● can identify the front cover, back cover, and title page ● recognizes and names both upper and lower case letters adequately ● demonstrates basic knowledge of consonants and vowels ● recognizes common types of texts 80% ● actively engages in group reading activities ● can read commonly used high frequency words ● demonstrates appropriate 70% questioning skills ● demonstrates ability to work independently ● can capitalize words and can 61% name ending punctuation ● recognizes and produces rhyming 50% words ● orally produces and expands complete sentences ● demonstrates ability to use affixes 41% as a clue to word meanings with teacher support georgia journal of reading 34 volume 42, number 1 2019 pre-kindergarten (pre-k) approaches to learning and personal/social development gkids data revealed that 90% of the students who previously attended pre-k consistently demonstrated an ability to adjust to changes in routines and environments. in addition, 80% of the former pre-k attendees demonstrated self-confidence and were able to consistently work cooperatively with others. by comparison, the data found that less than half of the students displayed motivation and enthusiasm for learning, and only 20% demonstrated the ability to use a variety of problem solving strategies. kindergarten concepts or % of students: approaches to learning students and personal/social development who met or exceeded skills ● constantly demonstrates an ability 90% to adjust to changes in routines and environments ● demonstrates respect for self and for others ● constantly demonstrates 80% self-confidence ● consistently works cooperatively with others ● demonstrates ability to follow 70% age-appropriate directions ● constantly demonstrates appropriate questioning techniques ● seeks help when needed ● works independently ● demonstrates the ability to pay 50% attention within the age-appropriate learning environment ● exhibits imagination in storytelling, 45% writing, and drawing ● displays motivation and 40% enthusiasm for learning ● displays the ability to use a variety 20% of problem solving strategies kindergarten concepts or % of skills: ela students who met or exceeded skills ● can describe the role of the author 91% and illustrator in a text ● can identify the front cover, back cover, and title page ● actively engages in group reading activities ● recognizes and names both upper and lowercase letters adequately ● can read commonly used high83% frequency words ● recognizes and produces rhyming words ● demonstrates basic knowledge of consonants and vowels ● recognizes common types of texts 74% ● demonstrates appropriate questioning skills ● activity engages in group reading 60% activities ● demonstrates ability to use affixes 43% as a clue to word meaning with teacher support ● orally produces and expands complete sentences ● can capitalize words and can name ending punctuation results of students who attended head start: twenty-three (n=23; approximately 26%) of the 89 kindergarten students attended a local head start program preceding their formalized education. the average pre-ela student learning objective (slo) score for the students who attended head start prior to kindergarten was 32.933325 and the post score for ela was 83.2666667. based on the data obtained from the gkids assessments, the following table shows the percentages of the students’ abilities. this information displays the percentage of head start attendees who met or exceeded these kindergarten standards by the end of the academic year. head start approaches to learning and personal/ social development according to the gkids data, 91% of the students who attended head start adjusted well to changes in georgia journal of reading 35 volume 42, number 1 2019 kindergarten concepts or % of skills: approaches to learning students and personal/social development who met or exceeded skills ● constantly demonstrates an ability 91% to adjust to changes in routines and environments ● demonstrates respect for self and 83% for others ● consistently works cooperatively 74% with others ● consistently demonstrates self61% confidence ● demonstrates the ability to seek help when needed ● works independently ● demonstrates ability to follow age-appropriate directions ● demonstrates the ability to pay attention within the age-appropriate learning environment ● displays motivation and enthusiasm 52% for learning ● exhibit imagination in storytelling, writing, and drawing ● displays the ability to use a variety 22% of problem solving strategies routines and environments, and 83% demonstrated consistent respect for others and themselves. fiftytwo percent of these kindergarteners demonstrated motivation and enthusiasm for learning throughout the school year, yet only five of these 23 students were able to use a variety of problem solving strategies in a consistent manner. results of students who attended daycare: twenty-one percent (n=19) of the 89 kindergarteners went to some form of daycare prior to the start of kindergarten. the average pre-ela student learning objective (slo) score for the students who attended daycare prior to kindergarten was 30.291675 and the post score for ela was 73.777889. based on the data obtained from the gkids assessments, the following table shows the percentages of the students’ abilities. this information displays the percentage of daycare kindergarten concepts or % of students: ela students who met or exceeded skills ● can identify the front cover, 95% back cover, and title page ● recognizes and names both upper84% and lowercase letters adequately ● can describe the role of the author 63% and illustrator in a text ● demonstrates basic knowledge of consonants and vowels ● recognizes and produces rhyming 42% words ● recognizes common types of texts ● demonstrates appropriate questioning skills ● demonstrates ability to work independently ● can read commonly used high32% frequency words ● orally produce and expand complete sentences ● actively engages in group reading activities ● demonstrates ability to use affixes 21% as a clue to word meanings daycare learning and personal/social development fourteen of the 19 students (74%) consistently demonstrated that they were able to seek help when needed. eight of these students (42%) effectively demonstrated the ability to work independently. while ten of the 19 students consistently followed ageappropriate directions within the classroom, only six recurrently displayed motivation and enthusiasm for learning, and merely four of the 19 students (21%) demonstrated the ability to use a variety of problem solving strategies. attendees who met or exceeded these kindergarten standards by the end of the academic year. georgia journal of reading 36 volume 42, number 1 2019 kindergarten concepts or skills: % of approches to learning and students personal/social development who met or exceeded skills ● constantly demonstrates an ability 84% to adjust to changes in routines and environments ● demonstrates respect for self and 74% others ● seeks help when needed ● constantly demonstrates self63% confidence ● demonstrates ability to follow age53% appropriate directions ● consistently works cooperatively with others ● works independently 42% ● exhibits imagination in storytelling, 32% writing, and drawing ● displays motivation and enthusiasm for learning ● demonstrates the ability to pay attention within the age-appropriate learning environment ● displays the ability to use a variety 21% of problem solving strategies talking with the kindergarten team while collecting data, we had the opportunity to sit down and have an open conversation with the kindergarten teachers. we wanted to hear about their classroom experience with children from different previous schooling experiences. their comments remained anonymous in the hopes that we would receive complete honestly from each of them. we first asked, “do you believe that it is easy to access pre-k in this area?” they expressed their deep concerns on the difficulty of this and the many issues that occur with accessing pre-k within the community and went on to say that many parents/caregivers desire for their children to be placed in pre-k classes within the school but there are simply not enough spots for children. the teachers hope that the school will be able to add another pre-k class to make students’ transition into the rigors of kindergarten easier. they were all very passionate about this urgent need, and this brief discussion left us with an obvious understanding how desperate this community is for more access to free pre-k education for its children. we then asked, “do you see a difference in the children that went to pre-k, head start or day care?” the teachers all agreed that students who went to pre-k before coming to their class could be spotted immediately. the previous pre-k students were not only advanced academically, but in their selfconfidence and the ability to follow the structure of a school day. it was enlightening to hear the teachers express their thoughts on the head start program; most felt that there is a need to improve the program so that the transition into kindergarten will be a more positive one for students. we found this to be extremely interesting, as there was not a significant difference in scores between the students who attended pre-k and those who attended head start, and the ela post score for students who attended head start was even slightly higher than that of the students who attended pre-k. the kindergarten teachers also stated that daycare programs may be more easily accessible than the other options, but that does not mean that all daycare facilities have quality curricula set in place. analysis of the collected data overall, the data did not show an extremely substantial difference in success based upon the different schooling experiences prior to kindergarten. this data does show that pre-k and head start students did perform higher than those who attended daycare. both the preand post-ela student learning objective of students who attended daycare prior to kindergarten was points lower than those who attended pre-k or head start. in addition, those who attended daycare had more difficulty working independently and adjusting to changes in routines that those who attended pre-k or head start. we did see some areas that few kindergarteners consistently demonstrated ability; in english language arts, most of these students, regardless of previous schooling, struggled in the use of affixes to understand word meaning, and few students were able to demonstrate mastery of problem-solving techniques. as this research progresses in the future, it is our hope to follow these students for the next three years in georgia journal of reading 37 volume 42, number 1 2019 order to more deeply analyze the long-term impact of pre-schooling as the students move on to higher grade levels. because the process of assessing the gkids data is left more to the teachers’ and administrative discretion (georgia department of education, 2019), we would also like to know more about the process by which they choose to assess the standards, allowing us to better understand the system that is used. conclusion the purpose of this research was evaluate whether the type of schooling impacts students’ readiness for academic success. the data show that high-quality learning environments are imperative for all students, and perhaps especially for students of poverty. young children benefit, both cognitively and socially, from early learning environments. students who are in such settings are able to develop a beginning sense of self and of personal initiative, as well as a greater academic foundation (bakken, brown, & downing, 2017). from this research, we learned that not all prekindergarten settings are exactly alike. we also determined that while students who attended pre-k had higher skill percentages, other programs can be effective in preparing children for kindergarten. the environment itself may not be the most important factor; instead, teachers continue to be the most significant influence in a child’s educational journey, and students who have passionate earlycare educators who understand child development are more prepared for school (bakken, brown, & downing, 2017). high-quality, effective teachers who have high expectations of students are more likely to make an impact in high-poverty schools (barone, 2006). whether in pre-k, head start, or in a daycare environment, children learn, grow, and develop best with they have supportive caregivers who help them flourish. references bakken, l., brown, n., & downing, b. (2017). early childhood education: the long-term benefits. journal of research in childhood education, 31(2), 255-269. https://doi.org/10.1080/02568543.2016.12 73285 barone, d. m. (2006). narrowing the literacy gap: what works in high-poverty schools. new york, ny: guildford press. biemiller, a. (2006). vocabulary development and instruction: a prerequisite for school learning. in d.k. dickinson & s.b. neuman (eds.)., handbook of early literacy (vol. 2, pp. 41-51). new york: guildford press. bright from the start: georgia department of early care and learning (decal). (2019). http://decal. ga.gov/prek/default.aspx brophy, j. e. (2006). effective schooling for disadvantaged students. in m. s. knapp & p. m. shields (eds.), better schooling for the children of poverty (pp. 211–234). berkeley, ca: mccutchan publishing. dougherty stahl, k.a. (2014). fostering inference generation with emergent and novice readers. the reading teacher, 67(5), 384-388. georgia department of education. (2019). georgia kindergarten inventory of developing skills (gkids). https://www.gadoe.org/curriculum-instruction-andassessment/assessment/pages/gkids.aspx giroir, s., romero grimaldo, l., vaughn, s., & roberts, g. (2015). interactive read-alouds for english learners in the elementary grades. the reading teacher, 68(8), 639-648. hart, b., & risley, t. (1995). meaningful differences in the everyday experiences of young american children. baltimore, md: paul h. brooks publishing. justice, l.m., jiang, h., & strasser, k. (2018). linguistic environment of preschool classrooms: what dimensions support children’s language growth? early childhood research quarterly, 42(1), 79-92. https://doi.org/10.1016.j.ecresq.2017.09.003 kena, g., hussar, w., mcfarland, j., de brey, c., musu-gillette, l., wang, x., dunlop, velez, e. (2016). the condition of education 2016 (nces 2016-144). washington, dc: institute of education sciences, national center for education statistics, u.s. department of education. georgia journal of reading 38 volume 42, number 1 2019 locasale-crouch, j., konold, t., pianta, r., howes, c., burchinal, m., bryant, d.,…barbarin, o. (2007). observed classroom quality profiles in state-funded pre-kindergarten programs and associations with teacher, program, and classroom characteristics. early childhood research quarterly, 22(1), 3-17. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2006.05.001 mcdevitt, t.m., & ormrod, j.e. (2013). child development and education (5th ed.). boston, ma: pearson. mullis, r.l., mullis, a.k., cornille, t.a., ritchson, a.d., & sullender, m.s. (2004). early literacy outcomes and parent involvement. tallahassee, fl: florida state university. national institute for early education research (2016). state of preschool yearbooks. http://nieer.org/statepreschool-yearbooks/yearbook2016. ormrod, j.e., anderman, e.m., & anderman, l. (2017). educational psychology: developing learners (9th ed.). boston, ma: pearson. straub, s.b. (2003). read to me: a family literacy program for young mothers and their babies. in a. debruin-parecki & b. krol-sinclair (eds.), family literacy: from theory to practice (pp. 184-201). newark, de: international reading association. the governor’s office of student achievement. (2019). georgia school reports. https://school grades.georgia.gov/ trawick-smith, j. (2014). early childhood development (6th ed.). boston, ma: pearson. u.s. department of health and human services. (2018). head start program facts: fiscal year 2018. https://eclkc.ohs.acf.hhs.gov/about-us/article/ head-start-program-facts-fiscal-year-2018 wasik, b.a., & hindman, a.h. (2018). why wait? the importance of wait time in developing young students’ language and vocabulary skills. the reading teacher, 72(3), 369-377. gala membership application fill out the form below and mail it with a check for $20 ($10 for students and retirees), payable to georgia association of literacy advocates. do not send cash. send form to: dr. beth pendergraft, 269 sugarcreek drive, grovetown, ga 30813 q new membership q renew gala number ______________ date _____________ name ____________________________________________________________________ e-mail ___________________________________________________________________ city, state, zip ____________________________________________________________ circle one (if applicable): retiree member student member are you an ira member? q yes q no ira number ___________________________ home phone _________________________ work phone __________________________ georgia journal of reading 39 volume 42, number 1 2019 the georgia journal of reading is a peer-reviewed journal of the georgia association of literacy advocates. the georgia journal of reading is published in the fall and spring of each year and is sent to educators across georgia and surrounding states. the journal publishes articles that address topics, issues, and events of interest and value to teachers, specialists, and administrators involved in literacy education at all levels. we invite those interested in improving reading and language arts instruction at all levels to submit manuscripts for publication in future issues. please view our website for more information at www.gala.org information can be found under the link “publication.” submission guidelines: articles should deal with research, current issues, and recent trends in reading or literacy programs. appropriate topics for the journal include project descriptions, research or theoretical reports that address pedagogical implications or issues in reading education at the local, state or national level. preference is given to articles focusing on topics that impact georgia’s students and surrounding states.n manuscripts should be submitted electronically in microsoft word, double-spaced, and the format should conform to the guidelines presented in the publication manual of the american psychological association (6th ed.). n manuscripts should not exceed twenty double-spaced typed pages. n the author’s name, full address, telephone number, email address, and school/affiliation, and a brief statement on professional experience should be submitted on a separate cover page. n the author’s name or any reference that would enable a reviewer to know who the author is should not appear on the manuscript. n manuscripts will not be sent out for peer review until this information is provided. n all manuscripts will undergo a blind review by at least two members of the editorial board. n decisions will be made within 8-12 weeks of publication of the journal for which the submission was made. only electronic submissions will be accepted. questions may be addressed to georgialiteracyadvocates.gmail.com georgia journal of reading call for manuscriptsa b o u t t h e a u t h o r s robert a. griffin is an assistant professor in the department of literacy and special education at the university of west georgia, carrollton, ga 30118. email rgriffin@westga.edu. sybil keesbury, keesbury_sa@mercer.edu. keesbury is an associate professor in the tift college of education, director of the holistic child program, and has been teaching at mercer university for nine years. she has her ed.d in curriculum and instruction from gardnerwebb university, m.s., in special education from university of minnesota-mankato, and a b.a. from gustavus adolphus college. her area of interest is special education, with a focus on autism spectrum disorders and behavioral disorders. vicki luther, luther_vl@mercer.edu. luther is an associate professor in the tift college of education, where she teaches reading and literacy courses in the holistic child program. her research interests include early literacy skills, effective co-teaching practices, and teaching ready to children of poverty. vicki luther, luther_vl@mercer.edu, dr. luther is an associate professor in the tift college of education, where she teaches reading and literacy courses in the holistic child program. her research interests include early literacy skills, effective co-teaching practices, and teaching ready to children of poverty. morgan mitchell, morgankelleymitchell@gmail.com. mitchell graduated summa cum laude in may of 2017 from mercer university’s holistic child education program. she currently teaches in fulton county schools and will begin the master of education in school counseling program at georgia southern university this summer. rebekah e. piper, ph.d., is an assistant professor in the department of educator and leadership preparation at texas a&m university-san antonio in san antonio, texas. email rebekah.piper@tamusa.edu roberta d. raymond, ed.d., is an assistant professor of reading and language arts in the college of education at the university of houston-clear lake in houston, texas. raymond@uhcl.edu laurie a. sharp, ed.d. is the dr. john g. o’brien distinguished chair in education at west texas a&m university in canyon, texas. email laurie.sharp2013@ gmail.com. using choral reading with students with exceptionalities to improve reading fluency reading is one of the requirements that enhances individuals’ ability of adaptation to social life and fulfilment of their needs (kodal & akyol, 2018). from engendering listening and speaking skills in very young children, to the shepherding of young learners toward “beginning” reading and writing, educators use what they know to assist in the emergence of capable and enthusiastic readers. individuals use the reading skills learned from childhood to engage in the active process that builds new learning by combining new information with current knowledge (mokhtari, neel, kaiser, & le, 2015) and hopefully, a path of enjoyment throughout one’s lifespan. kodel and akyol (2018), who describe the five basic elements of reading as sound awareness, phonemic awareness, word recognition, reading comprehension, and fluent reading, agree that reading fluency contributes significantly to the reading success of learners of all ages. students with varying abilities, including students with exceptionalities, increasingly receive a majority of their reading instruction in general classrooms (schmidt, rozendal, & greeman, 2002), making the adoption of effective teaching methodologies to ensure that all students make adequate progress in all academic areas especially crucial. increasingly, teachers of striving readers have come to realize that a foundational problem for learners is the ability to read sight words, decode words, and read phrases and sentences automatically and rapidly (ming & dkes, 2008). these skills are crucial for learning content at all education levels, including primary, intermediate, middle grades, and secondary, the significance of which will have a resounding impact on future learning and academic achievement, particularly among students with exceptionalities (rasinski & young, 2017). how these skills may be achieved for students with exceptionalities through choral reading is the topic of this paper. in my preparation program to become a general educator, i was taught the primacy of reading for increased academic achievement of all children. at least 18 hours of reading courses were required in my undergraduate program, which included literacy development, relevant practica, and special education courses that drew me into the world of exceptionality, dyslexia, and the full array of perceptual and conceptual disabilities and corresponding etiologies, including the evidence-based teaching practices that were most effective with children with exceptionalities. providing specialized learning experiences to students with disabilities became my goal as a general education teacher, and, gradually realizing my heart as a special educator, i obtained a master’s degree in special education. i spent the majority of my teaching years as a special education teacher, learning disabilities learning specialist, and speech and language specialist. throughout my teaching career, i found myself engaged in teaching reading to all my students. it wasn’t, however, until i began supervising student teachers in a preservice special education preparation program during my doctoral program in curriculum and instruction, that i began to read about use of choral reading in my supervisee’s reflections and the success, albeit anecdotal, that they were having with their reluctant readers, most of whom exhibited or were diagnosed with some form of specific learning disability as an intervention for students receiving specialized reading instruction. it seems reasonable now, as a preparer of special education teachers, to reinvestigate the possibilities afforded by choral reading as an intervention for students with exceptionalities. as the literature that follows will reveal, choral reading has remained a vehicle for helping striving readers increase reading fluency and may play a role in today’s classrooms in building reading proficiency among students with exceptionalities. page 40 of 57 strategies addressing fluency difficulties in the united states, a significant number of learners struggle to achieve fluency in reading (rasinski & young, 2017). more than an academic frill, fluency is a necessary requisite for acquisition of critical reading skills, including increased rate of reading comprehension, word recognition, and academic achievement among both striving (block, 2019) readers and students with exceptionalities (begency, levy, & field, 2017; feldman, feighan, kirtcheva, & heeren, 2012; guerin & murphy, 2015; mehigan, 2020; merimee, 2017; park, kiely, brownell, & benedict, 2019; vaughn, solis, miciak, taylor, & fletcher, 2016; wood, 2020). fluent reading, recognized as reading words correctly, fast, and automatically without additional effort (kodan & akyol, 2018; rasinski & young, 2017), is related to many aspects of reading. it includes both word recognition and vocalization. additionally, it is determined by oral reading, a skill many striving readers feel reluctant to try. reading fluency requires skills such as expression, clarity, accuracy, and speed. two instructional strategies for improving fluency, silent reading and round robin reading (rrr) have not led to increased reading fluency as practitioners have traditionally expected (vaughn, solis, miciak, taylor, & fletcher, 2016). silent reading cannot provide the teacher with an accurate accounting of what meaning the learner is gleaning and the requirement to read aloud to classmates as in round robin reading, can put striving readers and those with exceptionalities in a stressful position by displaying their disfluent reading skills in front of others. as hasbrouck (2007) avers: when children read too slowly or haltingly, the text devolves into a broken string of words and/or phrases; it's a struggle just to remember what's been read, much less extract its meaning. so it's important that teachers determine if their students' fluency is at a level appropriate for their grade. if not, how should it be developed? if a student is appropriately fluent for her grade level, how does a teacher help maintain that student's fluency? and, how does a teacher make these determinations? (p. 2). repeated reading, the re-reading of short, meaningful paragraphs until student reaches a satisfactory level of fluency, has also been used to assist both striving and accomplished readers alike. during this activity, the accomplished reader begins by reading text orally to the striving reader, and then the striving reader reads the text aloud. the good reader corrects the mistakes when the other vocalizes the text. in this way, striving readers develop both fluent reading and comprehension skills (mutia, 2018; paige, 2011; rohmah, 2019). while this “parroting” process may prove successful for some learners, as in round robin reading, it also can make striving readers and those with exceptionalities uneasy by putting their disfluent reading skills on full display. the student is still reading solo before a more accomplished reader and unprotected from criticism, no matter how constructive it is or how gently it is offered. the purpose of any strategy should be to encourage reading and the enjoyment that comes from it. when an emergent or striving reader’s confidence is disrupted, it could lead to uneven skill achievement making reading a seemingly unattainable goal (paige, 2011). helping younger students develop proficiency in word recognition, reading fluency, and ultimately comprehension, while using whole class strategies that aim to create a meaningful context for inclusive literacy education, may lead to greater reading success. choral reading, a reading strategy that involves two or more students reading a passage in unison, where striving readers following the reading model provided by more proficient readers in a group, has long been recognized as a vehicle for improving fluency among students with page 41 of 57 exceptionalities (kodal, & akyol, 2018). this instructional strategy, which is the topic of this paper, provides the interpersonal modeling needed by learners with exceptionalities, while providing a safe space for internalization of fluency skills to occur. conceptual framework the conceptual intricacies of choral reading, an instructional strategy for improving reading fluency, may be explained through a theoretical framework based on the work of vygotsky (1978) and wertsch (1985; 1991). vygotsky’s zone of proximal development (zpd) is often applied to educational phenomena to explain the gains that students (and adults) are able to cognitively achieve when engaged in learning with a more knowledgeable other, who takes on a modeling role. vygotsky’s (1978) notion of socio-cultural learning hold that learning takes place on two cognitive planes – the interpersonal and intrapersonal planes of cognition. the interpersonal plane of cognition is characterized by a verbal interchange between two or more individuals. an example would include two individuals having a conversation where information is exchanged while both are engaged in active listening. the intrapersonal plane of cognition is characterized as the process of “internal” learning, when new understanding is gained as a result of verbalized information that is intercepted, internally mediated and manipulated, and eventually given meaning. it is here where and vygotsky’s (1978) and wertsch’s (1991) theories intersect. wertsch (1985) posited that learners use cultural or mediational tools in gaining understanding. these tools shape both social (i.e., interpersonal) and individual (i.e., intrapersonal) processes. appropriating these processes is language and/or “voice.” when applied to the process of choral reading, we can postulate that both interpersonal and intrapersonal planes of cognition are taking place. during choral reading, students of varying reading abilities are engaging in a social, yet simultaneously personal, level of oral reading. oral reading, embodied as interpersonal speech happens during the initial phase, followed by intrapersonal speech, where the mind manipulates and mediates the speech intercepted by the learner. the social nature of oral, or choral reading, therefore, can provide a mediational means that can shape the social and individual processes that are receptive to reading fluency. unique struggles for students with exceptionalities the variables that affect a learner’s acquisition of language pose significantly higher challenges to students with exceptionalities, particularly those with specific auditory and/or verbal disabilities, as well as those lacking integrity in the areas of auditory comprehension, auditory memory, auditory discrimination, sequencing, and/or closure, and phonemic awareness. these difficulties manifest in the classroom in the learner experiencing difficulty in comprehending oral directions, putting meaning to stories read to him/her and developing soundsymbol relationships, a critical prerequisite for beginning readers. children with specific learning disabilities that affect language development and usage cannot read what they are unable to sense and perceive. the result is interruption in reading fluency, frequently observed as slow, labored, and staccato-like decoding, and comprehension difficulties. as stevens, walker, and vaughn (2016) remind us, “when word recognition is slow and labored, cognitive load is occupied at the expense of understanding text” (p. 1). shaywitz and shaywitz (2005) provide a biological explanation for reading fluency difficulty as related to dyslexia, which they describe as a “disorder within the language system and more specifically within a particular subcomponent of that system, phonological processing” (p. 1). they refer to magnetic resonance imaging, or mri, as providing evidence of a neurobiological “signature” for dyslexia, specifically a disruption of two left hemisphere posterior brain systems, one parieto-temporal, the other occipito-temporal. they cite evidence page 42 of 57 https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/functional-magnetic-resonance-imaging that indicates that the left occipito-temporal system is responsible for the development of fluent (automatic) reading (p. 1), a key component in the development of reading comprehension. low auditory memory, particularly among students with dyslexia, compromises the student’s ability to answer comprehension questions, grasp a selection’s main idea, and sequence events – skills associated with higher order thinking and inferential thinking (torgesen & hudson, 2006). effective central auditory processing skills are needed for learners to recall details in oral and written verbal assignments, draw inferences from what has been read, and grasp the meaning of written material before the read to the end of a sentence, paragraph, or chapter. combined with low visual memory, visual sequencing, and visual closure, central auditory processing difficulties often lead to the learner’s inability to recognize and pair letters with sounds and blend sounds into words, negatively impacting his/her ability to read, either silently or aloud. when a learner is unable to recall a symbol, sound, or word he has just seen, reading orally or silently becomes a monumental task, leading to disturbances in revisualization which affect spelling and writing in addition to reading (reutzel, 2015). in the absence of auditory and/or visual integrity, auditory and visual processing generally is compromised, affecting not only phonemic awareness and acquisition, but reading fluency as well. for children with exceptionalities, other variables that compromise reading fluency, including environments in which learners have not received appropriate reading instruction, feel unsafe to take risks, or experience a climate of distrust, unfairness and non-acceptance of mistakes, only exacerbate their challenges and often lead to reading avoidance due to unsuccessful reading performance (damico et al., 2009). choral reading for students with exceptionalities for students with exceptionalities who are striving readers, the benefits of choral reading may be even greater than for their typically developing peers (merimee, 2017). authors agree that choral reading increases reading fluency among culturally and linguistically diverse learners as well as those with exceptionalities (paige, 2011; raddi, 2018; rasinski & young, 2017; turner, 2010, 2012), and the evidence appears to be growing internationally (itani, 2017; kodal & akyol, 2018; mutia, 2018; nasution, zulkarnain, & suhariyanti, 2020; rohmah, 2019). for students who are culturally or linguistically diverse, choral reading provides opportunities for learners to benefit from modeling by a more knowledgeable other (vygotsky, 1978). choral reading strategies appear to work well for increasing fluency among culturally and linguistically diverse learners, along with initial instruction in english, highly contextualized experiences, varied opportunities for practice, and peer assisted learning strategies. for students with exceptionalities engaged in choral reading, peer-assisted modeling provides a scaffold for learning word identification, pacing, intonation, expression, and prosody. the choral reading context provides reassurance and creates a safe space for learners to try, learn, and develop many of the skills essential for successful reading. what a child with an exceptionality can achieve with guidance and encouragement from a skilled partner during choral reading, surpasses what the child can achieve on his or her own. as a result, aver vadasy, sanders, and peyton (2005), students with exceptionalities approximate the skill of decoding as modeled by others. further, rasinski (2017) posits that, along with modeling fluent reading, choral reading can guide the development of appropriate fluency instruction in the classroom, particularly for those with exceptionalities. hasbrouck (2006) affirms that choral reading group members may be teachers, parents, students, or others, stating that “it is possible that the lowest performing students may have difficulty keeping up with even a moderate pace. however, they can follow along, participating when they can, and still hear the text being read accurately and with good pacing and phrasing” in choral reading (p. 3). in choral reading, typically all students read the page 43 of 57 file://///insight/search%253fq=timothy%20rasinski file://///insight/search%253fq=chase%20young same text aloud – in unison in the presence of the teacher, who serves as their model. at the end of the activity, the teacher provides feedback to students in terms of vocalization, reading speed, and prosody (raddi, 2018). according to richards (2000), for example, prosodic cues such as those provided in a choral reading activity during a study by rasinski, padak, linek, & sturtevant (1994), gave students a way to hold onto grammar patterns – a critical skill for students with exceptionalities and concluded that this skill was necessary for fluent oral reading to occur. choral reading, asserts hodges (2015) is successful when students not only are able to identify their own deficiencies, but recognize what they are doing correctly. choral reading benefits carbo (2007) contends that choral reading promotes appreciation for literature, increased interest in and enjoyment of – reading. choral reading strategies are recognized as improving reading fluency by positively influencing reading ability among secondary and middle grades students by expanding vocabulary, sight word recognition, and decoding skills (faver, 2009; guerin & murphy, 2015, paige, & magpuri-lavell, 2014). adolescents may be more reluctant to engage in choral reading initially, but soon discover that there is a prosody and rhythm to choral reading that are akin to recitation of song lyrics in a variety of music genres (harris, marchandmartella, & martella, 2000). jennings, caldwell, and lerner (2014) assert “because students find choral reading enjoyable, they willingly practice the word recognition that helps them to give a polished performance” (p.213). if students enjoy choral reading they might have more motivation when they are reading, and this is very important for striving readers and those with exceptionalities. providing students with an activity that gives them the satisfaction of delivering a “well-rehearsed, expressive rendition" (p. 213) is especially significant for those with learning disabilities. choral reading has been observed to have benefits beyond increasing reading fluency in the area of classroom management (haydon, border, embury, & clarke, 2009) as well as reaching striving readers with emotional and behavioral disorders (mcdaniel, duchaine, & jolivette, 2010). poetry reading, for example, when used as a conduit for choral reading, is especially helpful to readers, including adolescents with disabilities, due to its dual effect as stimulant and equalizer (hodges, 2016). poetry may serve as an appropriate vehicle for incorporating choral reading in the curriculum, making it possible for all students, including students with exceptionalities and students who are culturally and linguistically diverse, to reap the benefits of this reading strategy. specifically, learners with exceptionalities and diverse learners can gain a sense of visual control, especially through orally reading poetry, where there are just a few words on a line with ample white space. additionally, poems are often predictable, through rhythm, a rhyming pattern, or a repeated phrased. predictability is an immense boost to a student with a disability, for whom learning is anything but predictable. the teacher should choose a poem that is appropriate for all instructional reading and interest levels before engaging students in a lively conversation regarding the poem (i.e., anticipatory set). electronic or paper copies of the poem should be provided to all students and then read aloud while students listen. the teacher should read with all the expression, sound effects, or movement that the poem evokes. prosody (patterns of stress or intonation) and body language are important elements of the reading and provide interest and motivation for learners with exceptionalities. the poem should be read a second time – slowly – while students follow along using a larger visual, such as a promethean board. the reading speed can be gradually increased depending on the reaction of the students. when students appear to feel comfortable with the words and movements, the teacher can elicit volunteers to page 44 of 57 begin reciting the poem themselves. solo reading should only be given to those who volunteer. if no one appears to be ready to read alone, allow each line to be read by two or more individuals in the class or group (i.e., choral reading). students can practice reading the poem or section of the poem with assigned parts (i.e., rereading), especially if it will be performed for others. these steps in the choral reading process can be followed by simple naming questions, followed by increasingly more complex or inferential questions that encompass cognitive skills associated with sequencing, predicting, forming conclusions, thinking metaphorically, analyzing, and generalizing to other mediums. conclusion in the u.s. and globally, students are exposed to increasingly higher reading demands, making effective comprehension of a variety of academic texts and topics across content areas an expectation, and accurate and automatic word recognition, prosody, and reading fluency a necessity (stevens, walker, & vaughn, 2016). for those students who transition from the elementary grades to middle and secondary grades as fluent readers, when they encounter new syntax, vocabulary, and divergent meanings, most, if not all, will typically navigate these new learnings successfully. for students with exceptionalities who are not fluent readers, however, the stakes are even higher and the challenge to gain meaning from what they read will be that much greater. students with exceptionalities often find it challenging to reach a level of word recognition automaticity and when word recognition is laborious and their energy is largely expended on decoding, reading fluency is compromised. thus, fluent reading is critical for students to be able to pivot their attention from the decoding process to comprehension of text. this is important not only for the understanding of academic text, but for personal reading enjoyment and the motivation to become a lifelong reader as well. choral reading has been found to be an effective method to improve reading fluency of learners with exceptionalities (kodal & akyol, 2018; mutia, 2018; paige, 2011; rohmah, 2019). this strategy is wholly consistent with the underpinnings of zpd, or zone of proximal development (1978) and vygotsky’s principles of socio-cultural learning in that learners with exceptionalities who engage with more able reading peers can approximate decoding with the help of a model that can scaffold future learning. the difference between what students can do without help and what they can do with help is brought to the fore during either peer assisted or teacher-led choral reading. in addition to having a positive impact on the development of word recognition, reading comprehension skills, and academic achievement, this strategy has the potential to encourage peer interaction, provide opportunities for improved reading comprehension, and increase overall academic achievement for all readers, including those with exceptionalities (raddi, 2018). hasbrouck (2006) reminds us that reading fluency is not a singular skill necessary for successful reading and educators will continue having ongoing debates about which strategies most effectively increase reading success. questions regarding repeated reading, round robin, or reading the same or several different passages that have much of the same vocabulary, do not negate the need for fluency practice, particularly how it affects reading comprehension, academic achievement, and reading enjoyment. in the classroom setting, choral reading may just provide the exhilarating mix of listening, vocalizing, and motivation that today’s students with exceptionalities both need and deserve. references begency, j. c., levy, r. a., & field, s. a. 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(2018). the effects of the choral and echo reading strategies on a second grade student with dyslexia. dissertation. caldwell university, proquest dissertations publishing. page 47 of 57 https://doi.org/10.26756/th.2017.8 https://scholarworks.wmich.edu/reading_horizons/vol47/iss2/5 http://repository.uinbanten.ac.id/id/eprint/2115 https://doi.org/10.46576/ijsseh.v1i3.817 http://repository.radenintan.ac.id/id/eprint/3111 https://doi.org/10.1111/ldrp.12193 rasinski, t., & young, c. (2017). effective instruction for primary grade students who struggle with reading fluency, inclusive principles and practices in literacy education (international perspectives on inclusive education, vol. 11), emerald publishing limited, 18 jul 2017; 143-157. https://doi.org/10.1108/s1479363620170000011010. rasinski, t., paige, d., rains, c., stewart, f., julovich, b., prenkert, d., rupley, w. h., & nichols, w. d. (2017). effects of intensive fluency instruction on the reading proficiency of third-grade struggling readers. reading and writing quarterly: overcoming learning difficulties, 33(6), 519-532. rasinski, t. v., padak, n. d., linek, w. l., & sturtevant, e. (1994). effects of fluency development on urban second-grade readers. journal of educational research, 87(3), 158–165. reutzel, d. r. (2015). early literacy research: findings primary-grade teachers will want to know. the reading teacher, 69(1), innovative & integrated instruction (july/aug., 2015), 14-24. richards (2000). be a good detective: solve the case of oral reading fluency. the reading teacher, 53(7), 534-539. rohmah, a. n. (2019). developing reading fluency through choral repeated reading strategy for the eighth grade students of smp n 3getasan in the academic year 2018/2019, graduating thesis, 1-65. http://e-repository.perpus.iainsalatiga.ac.id/id/eprint/5529. shaywitz, s.e., & shaywitz, b. a. (2005). dyslexia. biological psychology, 57(11), 1301-1309. stevens, e. a., walker, m. a., & vaughn, s. (2016). the effects of reading fluency interventions on the reading fluency and reading comprehension performance of elementary students with learning disabilities: a synthesis of the research from 2001 to 2014. journal of learning disabilities, 50(5), 576-590. torgesen, j. k., & hudson, r. f. (2006). reading fluency: critical issues for struggling readers. in s.j. samuels and a. farstrup (eds.). reading fluency: the forgotten dimension of reading success. international reading association. vadasy, p. f., sanders, e. a., & peyton, j. a. (2005). relative effectiveness of reading practice or word-level instruction in supplemental tutoring: how text matters. journal of learning disabilities, 38(4), 364-380. vaughn, s., solis, m., miciak, j., taylor, w. p., & fletcher, j. (2016). effects from a randomized control trial comparing researcher and school-implemented treatments with fourth graders with significant reading difficulties. journal of research of educational effectiveness, 9(1), 23-44. https://doi.org/10.1080/19345747.2015.1126386 vygotsky, l.s. (1978). mind in society: the development of higher psychological processes harvard university press. wertsch, j. v. (1985). vygotsky and the social formation of mind. harvard university press. wertsch, j. v. (1991). voices of the mind. harvard university press. wood, k. p. (2020). first-grade teachers’ perspectives on children’s oral reading fluency and automaticity. dissertation. walden university. https://scholarworks.waldenu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=10288&context=dissertatio ns. page 48 of 57 file://///insight/search%253fq=timothy%20rasinski file://///insight/search%253fq=chase%20young https://doi.org/10.1108/s1479-363620170000011010 https://doi.org/10.1108/s1479-363620170000011010 http://e-repository.perpus.iainsalatiga.ac.id/id/eprint/5529 http://e-repository.perpus.iainsalatiga.ac.id/id/eprint/5529 file://///doi/full/10.1177/0022219416638028 file://///doi/full/10.1177/0022219416638028 file://///doi/full/10.1177/0022219416638028 file://///doi/full/10.1177/0022219416638028 https://doi.org/10.1080/19345747.2015.1126386 https://scholarworks.waldenu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=10288&context=dissertations https://scholarworks.waldenu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=10288&context=dissertations georgia journal of reading 30 volume 41, number 1 2018 abstract phonological awareness encompasses three main subsets of skills: awareness of words, syllables, and sounds. these three skills work in concert to support students’ reading development. by purposefully utilizing time in the classroom, teachers can embed phonological awareness activities during common transitions, thus maximizing students’ exposure to early literacy skills. through these deliberately planned activities, teachers can not only provide effective instruction, but they can ensure that throughout the school day, transitions run smoothly with fewer disruptions and off-task behaviors. as ms. simpson (all names are pseudonyms) completed her read-aloud, she glanced at the clock and took note of the time. she clapped her hands in the first part of a well-known rhythmic pattern. her 4k students, finishing the pattern, knew it was time to get quiet and line up to wash hands so that they could head to the cafeteria for lunch. as students washed their hands and mrs. simpson ushered them to the line, several children were having their own conversations. “i have an apple for lunch,” jade whispered to kendra at the sink. “ewwww! i hate apples!” kendra shouted. as jade’s face started to morph into what surely indicated an imminent tantrum, ms. simpson came up behind them and attempted to diffuse the situation. “apples are delicious! i wonder if you can guess my [fuh-nol-uh-jee]syllables words sounds maximizing learning: embedding phonological awareness throughout the day by dr. shawnna helf, dr. lindsay yearta and dr. kavin ming favorite fruit. i’m going to say the sounds slowly and i want you to put them together. listen as i stretch the sounds, and then you will blend the sounds together to figure out what my favorite fruit is… ready?” the girls both looked at mrs. simpson and nodded. they were ready. “ok, my favorite fruit is a /p/ /l/ /u/ /m/.” “oooh, plum!” kendra quickly blended the sounds and smiled at her teacher. as kendra and jade headed toward the line at the door, an idea came to mrs. simpson. she knew that due to transitions between activities, she was wasting at least five to ten minutes daily and needed every bit of instructional time that she could get. in this case not only was she able to distract these students from their squabble, she also provided them with phonemic awareness practice. preparing for lunch is one of many transitions that occur daily in early childhood settings. put simply, transitions are the periods of time spent moving from one place or activity to another (price & nelson, 2011). common transition times include restroom breaks, snack time, group time, recess, special area classes, arrival and dismissal. some transitions occur quickly and frequently (e.g., lining up at the classroom door), while others take longer (e.g., restroom breaks). taken together over the course of the day, this time adds up. poorly managed transitions can result in the loss of instructional time and may also lead to unwanted student behaviors. georgia journal of reading 31 volume 41, number 1 2018 within the recent past, there has been an increased emphasis on academic achievement. this has resulted in teachers being required to teach more, and students being required to process larger amounts of information (lee, 2006). in order for students to successfully meet the academic demands of an ever growing curriculum, there must be sufficient time for learning (amadio, 2004). teachers must make deliberate efforts to increase students’ engaged time, or their time-on-task. engaged time is the amount of time that students spend directly involved in learning activities (greenwood, 2002). when teachers effectively engage students in academic tasks, there is an increased likelihood that greater student learning will take place, which ultimately leads to higher levels of student achievement (fisher et al., 2015; johns, crowley & guetzloe, 2008). research conducted on 30 schools nationwide that have demonstrated student growth have “made every minute count” by maximizing time on task (sparks, 2011). there are many occurrences throughout the day that interfere with the amount of time that students can be fully engaged in learning activities. these can range from a 10-second intercom call to a 5-minute transition between classroom activities. according to mastropieri and scruggs (1994), transitions constitute one of the major sources of off-task behaviors. transitions occur when students move from one activity to the next or from one location to the other. throughout the school day, students are involved in multiple transition points, and these moments of off-task activities can have a compounding effect, leaving students with little time to be engaged in sustained learning (johns, crowley, & guetzloe, 2008; lee, 2006). the purpose of this article is to encourage teachers to consider common transitions in their classroom schedule and begin viewing those periods of time as opportunities for learning. with thoughtful and purposeful planning, transitional time can serve to not only improve classroom management, but also as an opportunity to embed extra skill instruction in the school day. specifically, we focus on a foundational reading skill, phonological awareness. we provide ideas for embedding phonological awareness instruction during transitions and offer considerations for practice. what is phonological awareness? phonological awareness is an umbrella term that refers to the broad awareness of sounds within spoken language; under this umbrella are three subsets of skills: word awareness, syllable awareness, and phonemic awareness (national early literacy panel, 2008; national institute of child health and human development, 2001). word awareness and syllable awareness skills involve larger units of sounds, and are considered easier to master than skills involving smaller units of sound. as phonemic awareness involves the ability to hear and manipulate the sounds in spoken words, it is considered the more challenging for students to achieve (callaghan & madelaine, 2012; yopp & yopp, 2000). table 1 includes a description of individual phonological awareness skills arranged in order of increasing complexity (see appendix a). why is it important? teaching young children to read is a major goal for primary grade teachers (pfost, hattie, dorfler & artelt, 2014). before children learn to read print, they must understand how the smallest components of words work, and how these units impact a word’s meaning (adams, 1990; zeece, 2006). while phonological and phonemic awareness are essential language skills that support young children’s reading development, the acquisition of phonemic awareness is especially critical because it has been found to be a strong predictor of reading achievement (foorman et al., 2016; machado, 2013; manning & kato, 2006; murray, 2012; nichd, 2000). further, children who receive phonemic awareness instruction around the time when they begin to learn to read demonstrate more skillful abilities than children without this instruction (armbruster, lehr, osborn, & adler, 2009; uhry, 2011). reciprocally, children with reading challenges often exhibit poor phonemic awareness skills (abbott, walton, & greenwood, 2002; manning & kato, 2006). phonemic awareness can contribute to later success in reading (machado, 2013; murray, 2012; nichd, 2000) and as such, teachers have a responsibility to ensure that each student has a strong foundation in phonemic awareness. embedding phonological awareness during transitions opportunities to embed phonological awareness throughout the day abound. below we consider the three subsets of phonological awareness: word awareness, syllable awareness, and phonemic awareness and provide examples for how teachers can easily integrate phonological awareness instruction during quick transitions (1-2 minutes) and longer transitions (3-5 minutes). each activity is flexible and could be done at any convenient time during the day. subset: word awareness, skill: rhyming quick transitional activity. as the teacher calls students to line up individually, he/she provides a word (e.g., sat) and points to students individually to generate words that rhyme with the target word (e.g., mat, cat, bat). when the student provides a correct rhyme, the teacher provides positive feedback and the student moves to line up. when the students run out of rhymes, the teacher selects a new target word and georgia journal of reading 32 volume 41, number 1 2018 continues until all students are lined up. longer transitional activity. the teacher gives each student a card with a different picture. the students have to identify the picture on their card and then find a classmate (or classmates) who have pictures that rhyme with their picture. for example, if a student has a card with a picture of a dog, they would identify that it was a dog and then find classmates who have pictures that rhyme (e.g., frog, log, hog). when the students are in groups, the teacher leads the class in checking whether everyone is in the right place. if extra time remains, the teacher can challenge students to come up with more words that would fit in the group. at the culmination of the activity, the teacher calls each group to line upcollecting their picture cards as they move into line. subset: syllable awareness, skill: syllable identification quick transitional activity. the teacher identifies objects around the room and gives students opportunities to count the number of syllables in the word. he/she points to the object, names it (e.g., calendar), and asks students to repeat the word. then students clap the number of syllables in the word (/ cal/ /en/ /dar/) and then, on the teacher’s signal, hold up the fingers to show the number of syllables in the word. for example, the students would hold up three fingers for calendar. the teacher can then provide feedback on the responses. the activity can continue for as long as the transition lasts. as the students become proficient with this game, the teacher can select larger words with more syllables, give students the opportunity to “be the teacher”, and/or provide a number and ask students to identify objects around the room that have that many syllables. longer transitional activity. the teacher leads students in an activity focused on identifying and counting syllables. the teacher has a bag filled with small objects (e.g., eraser, pencil, crayon, block) and selects a student to close his or her eyes and select an object from the bag. the student has to feel the object, determine what it is, and then open his or her eyes. the teacher will provide feedback on their response, and ask the whole class to say the name of the object together. then, the children will clap each syllable in the word and hold up their fingers to show the number of syllables in the word. if additional time remains after all the items have been selected from the bag, the teacher can lead the class in arranging the items from the least to the greatest number of syllables. subset: phonemic awareness, skills: phoneme blending and segmenting quick transitional activity. the teacher will use a big book for this activity. for example, the teacher could have silly sally (wood, 1994) open to the page where silly sally and the pig are dancing. the teacher will say, “i see something on this page. can you guess what i see? i want you to listen to these sounds and blend them together quickly to say the word. i see a /p/ /i/ /g/. what do i see?” the teacher provides a signal and then the group responds together, “pig”. if the group gets the word correct, they can line up. the teacher will continue until all groups have had a turn. this activity works in the inverse as well. the teacher could tell students, as she points to the pig, “i’m going to name something i see and then you tell me all the sounds you hear in that word. i see a pig. what sounds do you hear in pig?” longer transitional activity. the teacher will provide each student with five counters for this segmenting activity. if it’s not feasible to use counters, students can use their fingers to tap each sound they hear. the teacher will provide each student with five counters for this segmenting activity. the teacher can again refer to the images in a big book and after choosing one will say, “i want you to move one counter for every sound you hear in the word “desk.” the student will move a counter for each sound that is heard. once each student has their counters in place, the teacher can lead the class in segmenting the word, emphasizing each sound while touching each corresponding counter. students would then blend the sounds together quickly to say the word while sweeping their finger from left to right under the counters. the teacher should begin with shorter words and increase in complexity as students get more familiar with the task. instructional considerations all of the examples provided above can be adapted by teachers to fit their classroom schedule, teaching style, and needs of students. table 2 includes additional resources related to phonological awareness, including more activities that can be incorporated into classroom transitions. below we offer a few considerations for implementing phonological awareness practice and supporting the needs of all learners. error correction in order to keep these transitional activities efficient, it’s important to have clear error correction procedures in place. if an incorrect answer is provided, the teacher should model the proper response. for example, if a teacher is asking students to segment the sounds in the word pit and a student responds /pi/ /t/, the teacher would provide corrective feedback by first modeling the skill. for example, the teacher would respond, “listen. georgia journal of reading 33 volume 41, number 1 2018 the sounds in pit are /p/ /i/ /t/).” the teacher would then encourage the student’s participation, “let’s do it together. the sounds in /pit/ are: /p/ /i/ /t/.” the next step requires having the student complete the task independently, “now it’s your turn. what sounds do you hear in the word pit?” the teacher could also decide to make error correction a whole group activity, instead of stating the correct answer singularly, the teacher could have the class respond in a choral manner. this could serve as a way to increase on-task behavior of the group and take pressure off students who make errors. using pictures picture cards are useful tools for phonemic awareness practice. it is important to select pictures that are age appropriate, interesting, and clearly represent the target word. in some instances, the teacher may need to ensure the students know what is on their cards prior to the start of the activity. for example, there are some pictures students could name differently: plate/dish, rabbit/bunny, shoe/boot. further, we do not recommend including labels with the pictures. doing so could cause students to be right for the wrong reason. specifically, a student may sort cards by beginning sound simply by looking at the first letter of the words, rather than saying the word and isolating the initial sound orally. teachers can provide a preview of the words represented on the picture cards by quickly flipping through each picture card saying, “this is a ______.” after the teacher names the image, the students will repeat the name of the image, and then the cards are distributed before the activity begins. easy to more difficult when delivering phonemic awareness practice, teachers should move from easy to more difficult skills and should target one to two skills per instructional session. these decisions should be made based on students’ instructional needs. this guiding principle of easy to more difficult also applies to how teachers should select examples for students as they practice. specifically, when working with syllable identification, blending, and segmenting, teachers should begin with compound words that can more easily be separated auditorily (e.g., /sun/ /shine/) then move to other types of words (e.g., /pen/ /cil/). when working with phoneme segmenting and blending, teachers should start with words that have a few sounds (e.g., vowelconsonant (vc) and consonant-vowel-consonant (cvc) word types) and then move to more complex words as students demonstrate mastery. providing support there are several ways teachers can support students as they practice (mcgee & ukrainetz, 2009). to begin, teachers should model skills for students prior to independent practice. this may involve physical movement like stomping, clapping, jumping, finger tapping as well as the use of manipulatives like pictures and counters. these supports can be beneficial because they provide students concrete representations during practice. for example, when counting the number of sounds in a spoken word (e.g., /map/) students can use their fingers to tap each sound (/m/ pointer finger taps thumb, /a/ middle finger taps thumb, /p/ ring finger taps thumb). tapping in this way can help students segment each sound and then they can look to their fingers to see how many sounds were represented in the word. finally, consistent corrective feedback, like the procedure described above, provides continuous support for students as they develop proficiency. linking to letters while phonological awareness and phonemic awareness are auditory skills, research has indicated that phonemic awareness training can be enhanced in a developmentally appropriate manner by linking to letters (ehri, 2013; nichd, 2000). letters are the visual symbols that bridge the gap between oral and written language. when students understand that letters are the written representation of the sounds that they speak as they practice their phonological awareness activities, it enables them to put familiar sequences together to make words. for example, if a teacher engages students in blending onset-rime words, he could say the word /b/-/in/, ask students to indicate what word he said, and then show them the letter sequence with the onset letter on one flash card and the rime letter cluster on another flash card. the teacher would put the two cards together to show students how they work to make a word. as the teacher segues into linking letters to sounds, the use of environmental print and students’ names can also be effective as students are able to make personal associations with these words (tompkins, 2015). this activity could be especially beneficial for students who are transitioning to formal reading instruction (see appendix b). conclusion with increased accountability measures and pressure to prepare more students with fewer resources and less time, teachers today can feel rushed to get through the curriculum. therefore, providing students with opportunities to practice skills in a fun and inviting way requires taking advantage of every minute in the classroom. phonemic awareness activities can be an effective use of time (johnson & keier, 2010) and can easily be integrated into transition times throughout the day. the practice of embedding phonological awareness activities in common transitions keeps students engaged, leads to improvements in georgia journal of reading 34 volume 41, number 1 2018 student behavior, and increases students’ learning opportunities. fisher et al. (2015) states that for learning to occur, students must, in some way, be paying attention, and each of these transitional activities enable teachers to maximize the amount of on-task experiences that students have throughout the day. each of the activities provided are also straightforward, inexpensive, effective, and engaging. while the ideas and examples discussed above are by no means exhaustive, we offer them as a way to provide teachers with a starting point for examining and expanding their current practices, specifically as it relates to maximizing students’ opportunities to learn. references abbott, m., walton, c., & greenwood, c. r. (2002). phonemic awareness in kindergarten and first grade. teaching exceptional children, 34(4), 20-26. adams, m. (1990). beginning to read: thinking and learning about print. cambridge, ma: mit press. amadio, m. (2004). instructional time: introduction to the open file. prospects, 34(3), 267-270. armbruster, b. b., lehr, f., osborn, j., & adler, c. r. (2009). put reading first: the research building blocks of reading instruction: kindergarten through grade 3, (3rd ed.). [washington, d.c.]: national institute for literacy. callaghan, g., & madelaine, a. (2012). levelling the playing field for kindergarten entry: research implications for preschool early literacy instruction. australasian journal of early childhood, 37(1), 13-23. ehri, l. c. (2013). grapheme-phoneme knowledge is essential for learning to read words in english. word recognition in beginning literacy (pp. 3–40). mahwah, nj: lawrence erlbaum. fisher, c., berliner, d., filby, n., marliave, r., cahen, l., & dishaw, m. (2015). teaching behaviors, academic learning time, and student achievement: an overview. journal of classroom interaction, 50(1), 6-24. foorman, b., beyler, n., borradaile, k., coyne, m., denton, c. a., dimino, j., wissel, s. (2016). foundational skills to support reading for understanding in kindergarten through 3rd grade (ncee 2016-4008). washington, dc: national center for education evaluation and regional assistance. greenwood, c. r. (2002). academic engagement: current perspectives on research and practice. school psychology review, 31(3), 328-349. johns, b. h., crowley, e. p., & guetzloe, e. (2008). engaged time in the classroom. focus on exceptional children, 41(4), 1-6. johnson, p., & keier, k. (2010). catching readers before they fall: supporting readers who struggle, k-4. portland, me: stenhouse publishers. manning, m., & kato, t. (2006). phonemic awareness: a natural step toward reading and writing. childhood education, 82(4), 241-243. machado, j.m. (2013). early childhood experiences in language arts: early literacy (10th ed.). belmont, ca: wadsworth cengage learning. mcgee, l. m., & ukrainetz, t. a. (2009). using scaffolding to teach phonemic awareness in preschool and kindergarten. the reading teacher, georgia journal of reading 35 volume 41, number 1 2018 62(7), 599-603. murray, b.a. (2012). tell me about fred’s fat foot again: four tips for successful pa lessons. the reading teacher, 66(2), 139-144. national early literacy panel. (2008). developing early literacy: report of the national early literacy panel. washington, dc: national institute for literacy. national institute of child health and human development, nih, dhhs. (2001). put reading first: the research building blocks for teaching children to read. kindergarten through grade 3. washington, dc: u.s. government printing office. retrieved from: https://www.nichd.nih.gov/publications/pubs/ prf_k-3/documents/prfbooklet.pdf national institute of child health and human development. (2000). report of the national reading panel. teaching children to read: an evidence-based assessment of the scientific research literature on reading and its implications for reading instruction (nih publication no. 004769). washington, dc: u.s. government printing office. pfost, m., hattie, j., dorfler, t., & artelt, c. (2014). individual differences in reading development: a review of 25 years of empirical research on matthew effects in reading. review of educational research, 84(2), 203-244. price, k. m., & nelson, k. l. (2011). planning effective instruction: diversity responsive methods and management, (4th ed.). belmont, ca: wadsworth cengage learning. tompkins, g. e. (2015). literacy in the early grades: a successful start for prek-4 readers and writers (4th ed.). boston, ma: pearson. uhry, j. k. (2011). teaching phonemic awareness. in j. r. birsh (ed.), multisensory teaching of basic language skills (3rd ed.) (pp. 113-143). baltimore, md: brookes. yopp, h. k., & yopp, r. h. (2000). supporting phonemic awareness development in the classroom. the reading teacher, 54(2), 130-143. zeece, p. d. (2006). sound reading and reading sounds: the case for phonemic awareness. early childhood education journal, 34(2), 169-175. literature cited wood, a. (1994). silly sally. boston, ma: houghton mifflin harcourt. a b o u t t h e a u t h o r s marisa gonzales is a student in the m.ed. reading program at the university of west georgia. she may be reached at mgonzal7@my.westga.edu robert a. griffin is an adjunct faculty member at the university of west georgia in the department of literacy and special education. he may be reached at rgriffin@westga.edu. shawnna helf, phd, is an associate professor of education at winthrop university in rock hill, south carolina where she teaches graduate and undergraduate courses in literacy. she can be reached at helfs@winthrop.edu. katie stover kelly is an associate professor of education at furman university in greenville, sc, and coauthor of from pencils to podcasts: digital tools to transform k-6 literacy practices (solution tree, 2017) and smuggling writing: strategies that get students to write every day, in every content area, grades 3-12 (corwin, 2016).her new coauthored book with lester laminack will be published by heinemann this fall. find her on twitter @ktkelly14. kavin ming is an associate professor of education and director of the m.ed. in literacy program at winthrop university in rock hill, south carolina where she teaches undergraduate literacy methods courses and graduate content area literacy and practicum courses. she can be reached at mingk@ winthrop.edu. melissa mitchell, m.ed., is a doctoral student in the reading education track in the school of teaching, learning, and leadership at the university of central florida. she may be reached at melissa. mitchell@ucf.edu. lindsay yearta is an assistant professor of literacy and educational technology at winthrop university in rock hill, south carolina. she has several peerreviewed publications on digital literacies in the k-12 classroom and has co-authored the book from pencils to podcasts: digital tools for transforming k-6 literacy practices with katie kelly. she may be reached at yeartal@winthrop.edu. vassiliki zygouris-coe is a professor in the school of teaching, learning, and leadership, university of central florida. she may be reached at vassiliki. zygouris-coe@ucf.edu. georgia journal of reading 36 volume 41, number 1 2018 appendix a table 1. phonological awareness skills arranged from easier to more complex phonological awareness skill the ability to… word awareness word comparison identify specific characteristics of words “listen to the following words: met, happy. which word is longer?” rhyming identify and create oral rhymes “listen to the following words: glad, sad. does glad rhyme with sad?” -or “listen to the following word: boy. can you think of two other words that rhyme with boy?” sentence segmentation identify specific words in spoken sentences “listen to the following sentence: today, we had pizza for lunch. i will say the sentence again. this time i want you to use your counters. move one counter for each word that you hear.” syllable awareness syllable blending identify and blend units of sound in spoken language “listen to this name that has more than one syllable: /a/-/lan/. whose name did i say?” syllable segmenting identify and segment units of sound in spoken language “this object in our classroom has more than one syllable: table. can you tell me how many beats it has? can you stretch the word so that i can hear the beats?” syllable identification identify units of sound in spoken words “i am going to say a word: closet. can you clap the number of syllables that you hear?” syllable deletion delete units of sound in spoken words “listen to the following word: birthday. if i take away the birth, what do i have left?” onset-rime blending combine the beginning and ending parts in spoken words “listen. if i say the word: /s/-/it/, what word did i say?” onset-rime segmentation stretch spoken words to hear its beginning and ending sounds “listen to the following word: broom. i will say the beginning of the word, br-. can you say the ending?” phonemic awareness phoneme blending hear the individual sounds of the word sounded out slowly and then combine the sounds together to say the word aloud georgia journal of reading 37 volume 41, number 1 2018 phonological awareness skill the ability to… “listen to the following sounds, /d/-/e/-/sk/. what word do these sounds make? phoneme segmentation hear a whole word pronounced and isolate its individual sounds “listen to the word, book. say the word slowly and take a breath between each sound.” phoneme identification identify the individual sounds in spoken words. “look at the picture of this trashcan. what is the first sound that you hear in can?” phoneme deletion delete individual sounds in spoken words “listen to the word, box. can you say box without the /b/?” phoneme manipulation identify and work with individual sounds in spoken words “listen to the word, pen. can you change the /p/ in pen to /h/?” “listen to the word, pen. can you change the /e/ in pen to /a/?” “listen to the word, pen. can you change the /n/ in pen to /t/?” appendix b table 2. additional resources related to phonological awareness what phonological difficulties might look like from the perspective of the parent, student, and teacher: phonological activities from the florida center for reading research: internet-based phonological awareness games, created by paws inc and ball state university: phonological awareness mini lessons that target specific skills: phonological awareness activities across multiple skill areas: http://www.readingrockets.org/helping/target/ phonologicalphonemic http://www.fcrr.org/curriculum/pdf/gk-1/pa_final_ part3.pdf http://www.professorgarfield.org/phonemics/ farmintro2.html https://www.readinga-z.com/phonological-awareness/ phonological-awareness-lessons/ http://www.phonologicalawareness.org/ georgia journal of literacy volume 43, spring 2020 a comparative study of the effects of computer-assisted instruction on the reading achievement of first graders tracy renae hudson linda reeves *rebecca m. giles lauren r. brannan university of south alabama *corresponding author: rebecca m. giles, ph.d. rgiles@southalabama.edu university of south alabama college of education and professional studies leadership and teacher education ucom suite 3100 75 university blvd., n. mobile, alabama 36688-0002 (251) 380-2899 office (251) 455-3708 cell (251) 380-2758 fax abstract with reading proficiently by the end of third grade as a common goal, many school districts are exploring options to enhance early reading instruction. the purpose of this study was to investigate whether the supplemental, computer-assisted reading program i-ready would significantly affect first grade students’ reading achievement. participants (n=159) were first graders at two elementary schools treatment (n= 82) and comparison n= 77). an independent samples t-test was used to compare the mid-year reading achievement scores of the treatment and comparison groups and found no statistically significant differences between groups. following 10 weeks of twice-weekly 45-minute sessions of i-ready reading instruction for the treatment group, an independent samples t-test showed that no statistically significant differences in reading achievement existed between the treatment and comparison groups. several possibilities for this finding are discussed. keywords: reading, first grade, computer-assisted instruction page 49 of 68 georgia journal of literacy volume 43, spring 2020 literacy competency may be regarded as the cornerstone of academic success. both educators and parents recognize the longstanding effects of literacy failure on the development of self-confidence and motivation to learn, which adversely impacts overall academic performance (armbruster et al., 2001; national reading panel, 2001). with the transition from learning to read to reading to learn that occurs around fourth grade, ensuring that children are successful readers by the end of third grade is of utmost importance (fiester, 2010; reynolds et al., 2011). in fact, seventy-five percent of students who are poor readers in third grade will remain poor readers in high school (fiester, 2010). further, relationships have been found between third grade reading deficits and ninth grade course failures (dorsey, 2015). this need to ensure early reading success has led many school districts to explore options for enhancing early reading instruction. beginning reading instruction reading instruction and the acquisition of reading skills have been popular topics of interest for over 50 years, and the research is both prevalent and varied. despite multiple theories and various models which offer frameworks for approaching reading instruction, learning to read continues to present a struggle for many students. the national reading panel (nrp, 2000), viewed as quite conservative in its numbers, reported an estimated 20% of children encounter reading difficulties before third grade, while reynolds, wheldall, and madelaine (2011) supports adams’ (1990) broader claim that at least a third of the population has or is experiencing literacy acquisition difficulties. gaps in reading achievement have been consistently identified in comparing performance between white and black students, english language learners and native english speakers, and disabled and nondisabled populations of students. as a result, there is a pervasive need to address the disparate reading abilities among these different groups (coffee et al., 2014). the creation of the nrp in 1997 was one of the first organized approaches to evaluating the research on reading inclusive of “alphabetic, fluency, comprehension, teacher education, and computer technology” (coffee et al., 2014, p. 82). the nrp cited five essential components for reading instruction; known as the “big 5,” these components are phonemic awareness, phonics, vocabulary, fluency, and comprehension (national reading panel, 2000). a noted limitation in the nrp report, however, was that its scope included reading for school-age children, and it did not address the research on early childhood. in consideration of nrp’s limitation, the national early literacy panel (nelp) was convened page 50 of 68 georgia journal of literacy volume 43, spring 2020 in 2002 with the purpose of synthesizing the existing research on the development of literacy skills in early childhood. nelp identified six fundamental emergent skills. these skills consist of alphabet knowledge, phonological awareness, automaticity in naming letters and numbers, automaticity in naming objects or colors, writing letters or names, and phonological memory. nelp also identified five categories of intervention: code-focused intervention which involved establishing the relationship between the letters in written words with the sounds in spoken words, shared reading interventions, parent and home programs, pre-school and kindergarten programs, and language enhancement interventions (national reading panel, 2000; national early literacy report, 2008). both the nrp and nelp substantiate the scientific basis for instructional targets and intervention, but the translation of such massive reports and publications still proves to be challenging (national reading panel, 2000; national early literacy report, 2008). overwhelmingly, the research has established a need for instructional competency during the first couple of years of schooling to overcome literacy deficiency (reynolds et al., 2011). methods for delivery of reading instruction reading instruction can align with various theoretical concepts or frameworks. the nrp’s evaluation of the various instructional approaches and its establishment of the “big 5” provides a narrowed focus for approaching reading instruction. phonemic awareness, phonics, vocabulary, fluency, and comprehension are essential to any program choice or explicit instructional practice. the question of how efficient and how applicable a given program may be for a particular setting remains largely unanswered due to the scarcity of affirmative data. while reading instruction may be delivered explicitly by an educational professional using any variety of programs that address the skills determined most essential, the era of technology has also ushered in the option of computer-based instruction (messer & nash, 2018). consequently, there are multiple software programs across the educational spectrum created to addresses student needs by program design. messer and nash (2018) affirm the success of one-on-one tutoring in phonics instruction but also hold that efficacy is greater with the instruction coming from a professional educator rather than a paraprofessional. it is, however, costly to employ adequate personnel to implement such instructional practices. the costly nature of a professional educator’s time opens the door for the more cost-effective page 51 of 68 georgia journal of literacy volume 43, spring 2020 nature of computer-based instruction. the availability of computer-assisted instruction provides the opportunity for professional instruction at a greater economic advantage since differentiated instruction or even individual attention can be provided despite staffing limitations allowing students to receive supplemental instruction without pulling a classroom teacher away from other responsibilities. along with cost effectiveness, computer-assisted instruction also offers such advantages as enhanced motivation, individual pacing, instant feedback, and a combined sense of learning with judgment-free response (messer & nash, 2018). computerassisted instruction provides a variety of supports, like pictures and animations, that facilitate emerging literacy skills (macaruso & rodman, 2011) that may also improve motivation. additionally, computerized feedback is instant for all students without the time required by teachers to work through assignments that have been submitted by an entire class (blok, et al., 2002). prompt response allows students to work at their own pace and level, thus, the appropriateness of independent practice may be substantially enhanced. two studies investigating kindergarteners’ phonological awareness training using computerassisted instruction provided via waterford early reading program (werp) found positive results. hecht and close (2002) reported that at-risk kindergarteners using werp scored higher on tests of phonological skills, letter-sound knowledge, and word reading than those who did not use werp. in a study by cassady and smith (2004), kindergartners using werp made greater gains than controls on tests of phonological awareness. macaruso and walker (2008) examined the benefits of lexia’s early reading as a supplement to a phonics-based reading curriculum for kindergartners. two matched classes (morning and afternoon sessions taught by the same teacher using the same curriculum) in an urban, public school system served as the treatment and comparison groups. results showed a significant increase on posttest measures of phonological awareness skills for students receiving computer-assisted instruction, particularly for those with the lowest pretest scores. similarly, macaruso and rodman (2011) conducted two studies examining the use of computer-assisted instruction to supplement a phonicsbased reading curriculum for urban preschoolers and kindergartners. for preschoolers, the treatment group made significantly greater gains in phonological awareness. for kindergartners, treatment students with low pretest scores made significantly greater gains, particularly in word reading. overall, preschoolers and lowperforming kindergartners benefited from the intensive practice provided through computer-assisted instruction. page 52 of 68 georgia journal of literacy volume 43, spring 2020 gibson, cartledge, and keyes (2011) examined the effects of a computerized supplemental reading program on the oral reading fluency, reading growth rates, and comprehension of eight african american first graders. using the dynamic indicators of basic early literacy skills (dibels) oral reading fluency (orf) as a posttest measure, all participants increased their reading fluency and improved their comprehension scores. seven of the students increased their reading rate. these findings led researchers to support computer-assisted programs as supplementary interventions. bennett, gardner, cartledge, ramnath, and council (2017) conducted a study investigating the effects of a multicomponent, supplemental intervention on the reading fluency of seven urban, african-american second graders who showed reading and special education risk. the packaged intervention combined repeated readings and culturally relevant stories, delivered through a novel computer software program to enhance oral reading fluency and comprehension. results showed that participants exceeded the growth rates for comparison peers, thus, supporting the beneficial effects of both repeated reading strategies and computer delivered instruction. keyes and vostal (2016) investigated the impact of a computer-assisted intervention on the oral reading fluency of four elementary (1st-6th grade) students with learning disabilities. the students engaged with the computerized repeated reading program for 30 minutes three times a week for 10 weeks in an inclusive classroom during the readinglanguage arts block. data revealed mixed results as all students increased their oral fluency on progress monitoring generalization passages and tended to reach their goals, but only two of the four students showed a positive level change on the computerized repeated reading intervention passages. keyes et al. (2016) examined the effectiveness of a supplemental repeated reading intervention delivered through a computerassisted instruction program on the oral reading fluency (orf), comprehension, and generalization of second graders who were at risk for reading failure. six students received the read naturally software edition (rnse) treatment passages three to four times a week for 7 to 12 weeks. a multiple baseline across participants design with embedded changing criteria tactics revealed orf increases for all six participants. aims-web stories and classroom reading materials were used to assess clinical and classroom generalization. five of the six participants increased their orf on both generalization measures. comprehension assessments revealed mixed results. todtfeld and weakley (2013) found that 3rd-grade students using ipage 53 of 68 georgia journal of literacy volume 43, spring 2020 ready in ohio public schools showed significant improvements on state tests in comparison with those who did not use the program. it should be noted, however that third, fourth and fifth grade students were studied, and there was only evidence that i-ready made a difference in map communication arts composite scores for third graders. given the broad availability of computer-assisted program options and the fact that there is still a significant gap in achievement, their classroom use must be investigated further. since the current body of research acknowledges at least minimal positive effects of computerbased programs in providing supplemental reading instruction (messer & nash, 2018), it is important to explicitly consider program attributes when assessing potential effectiveness (coffee et al., 2014). among the many program options, some may offer more relevant insight and ease of accessibility that may be more, or less appealing, and ultimately more or less effective depending on the individualized needs of the targeted student population. significance and purpose the extent to which new technologies effectively support reading instruction and learning in the classroom is unknown. there is little empirical research on the topic generally and even less that specifically addresses computerassisted reading instruction for first graders. there is, however, promising evidence of the effectiveness of reading instruction, such as computer-based technology, that integrates print and visual texts (todfeld & weakley, 2013). for the past three years, many first-grade students in a large, southern school district have not demonstrated proficiency on the star early literacy test, which is the district’s primary measurement tool for reading achievement. in effort to increase reading achievement, the district recently adopted a new reading program (wonders) aligned to common core state standards. two years later, the district piloted a new computerassisted supplemental reading program (i-ready) with the goal of significantly improving students’ reading achievement. the purpose of this study was to investigate whether the computer-assisted reading program had a positive impact. the specific research question is as follows: are end-of-the-year star scores higher for first graders who receive supplemental reading instruction through the i-ready program? method participants purposive sampling was used to identify a school that implemented page 54 of 68 georgia journal of literacy volume 43, spring 2020 i-ready and a demographically similar school that did not implement i-ready. participants (n=167) were first grade students at two public elementary schools within the same district located in the southeastern united states. both were title i schools in an urban setting, serving a high poverty student population with all students receiving free lunch. school size was also similar, as both enrolled over 500 students in kindergarten through fifth grade with over 35 teachers. the treatment group (n=85) included four first grade classes, and the comparison group (n=82) included five first grade classes. table 1 shows the demographics for both groups. table 1 participant demographics group gender race m f black other treatment 45 40 81 4 comparison 47 35 82 0 total 92 75 163 4 first grade teachers at both schools had previously participated in a half-day professional development for the i-ready program. participants in the treatment group received 150 minutes of core instruction daily using the mcgraw-hill literacy curriculum wonders and two 45minute session of i-ready computerassisted reading instruction each week. teaching and learning materials wonders is a literacy program developed by mcgraw-hill aligned to common core state standards (dorsey, 2015). it provides a comprehensive set of connected resources for teaching elementary (k6th) students reading, writing, and critical thinking skills along with a social emotional learning curriculum for kindergarten and first grade. the wonders program is equipped with teacher lesson plans and materials for full implementation as well as professional development resources (mcgraw-hill, 2019). all print resources are also available digitally, and the program is equipped with a data dashboard that provides for organization and recording of student assessments and other links (shafferman, 2016). all schools in this study used the wonders program as a core reading curriculum. teachers implemented this program within their two-hour literacy block in their daily schedule. in addition to the core curriculum, one school in the present study piloted the iready, a supplementary computerbased program. the i-ready software package delivers student instruction, performance diagnostics, and progress reports based on k-12 common core state standards in mathematics and reading. designed to provide differentiated instruction page 55 of 68 georgia journal of literacy volume 43, spring 2020 in order to simultaneously address the individual needs of multiple students, the program can be used as a supplement to teacher-directed whole and small group instruction. the adaptive diagnostic varies in difficulty based on the student’s previous answers so that correct answers lead to more challenging questions while incorrect answers lead to easier questions. immediately following the diagnostic, students work on customized online instruction that includes an interactive lesson, example problems, and practice problems. while the target audience is students who are struggling academically, i-ready can be used to promote growth of all learners, since assessment data is used to match online lessons to a specific standard or sub-skill based on individual need. the program uses student centered engagement features, such as choosing a custom theme, earning tokens, and playing games, to motivate student participation (edsurge, 2019). the star early literacy test was used in this study to measure reading achievement. designed for use from kindergarten through second grade, it is a computer-adaptive assessment that assesses proficiency in early literacy skills, such as general readiness, phonemic awareness, graphophonemic awareness, phonics, vocabulary, comprehension, and structural analysis (renaissance learning, 2014). using the rasch ability scale, the test data provides a score ranging from 300-900 called the scaled score (ss), which identifies a student’s reading level as emergent (ss below 675), transitional (ss 675 -774) or probable (ss 775 and above) (renaissance learning, 2014). data collection and analysis having received necessary permissions from the district, school administrators, and the university’s institutional review board, mid-year (january) and end-of-year (may) star early literacy data for both groups (treatment and comparison) were acquired from the databases of the two sample schools. missing scores resulted in the analysis of data for 82 treatment participants and 77 comparison participants. to protect confidentiality, names were removed, and each participant was given an identification number. spss statistical software was used for data analysis. in order to control for differences in reading achievement between groups, the mid-year reading achievement scores, as measured by the star early literacy test, were compared using an independent samples t-test. results indicated no statistically significant differences in reading achievement at the beginning of this research study, t(157) = -0.08, p = .94. this provided additional evidence of the similarity between the groups. then, the end-ofyear reading achievement scores, as measured by the star early literacy test, were compared using page 56 of 68 georgia journal of literacy volume 43, spring 2020 an independent samples t-test to determine if differences existed between the two groups at the conclusion of the treatment. results the results of an independent samples t-test conducted at the end of the year to compare the reading achievement of the treatment and comparison groups indicated no statistically significant difference in scores for students who participated in the i-ready program (m = 712.08, sd = 99.20) and those who did not participate in the i-ready program (m = 726.87, sd = 106.11), t(157) = 0.91, p = .37. table 2 provides the means and standard deviations for the treatment and comparison groups. table 2 means and standard deviations for groups on reading achievement n mean standard deviation treatment i-ready program 77 712.08 99.20 comparison no i-ready program 82 726.87 106.11 discussion while computer-assisted instruction could have merit for targeting instruction to student’s needs with respect to improved reading achievement, the results of this study did not support this position. findings from this study are like those of dynarski et al. (2007), who evaluated five computer-based reading programs used to provide first-grade instruction in reading in 42 schools with 2,619 students and did not find a significant impact on reading growth from computer-based instruction. while dynarski and colleagues attributed less direct instruction as contributing to the nonsignificant influence of computerassisted instruction, that does not appear to be the case here. there are, however, several possible reasons that could account for the limited measurable benefit of the i-ready supplemental computer-assisted reading instruction for first graders in this study, which include implementation procedures, student age, student engagement, and student selection. first, implementation procedures could have possibly affected the results. in this study, students were expected to spend 45 minutes on computer-assisted instruction in reading during two sessions on two separate days each week. scheduling conflicts resulting from field trips, assemblies, and school-wide early dismissals along with student absences could have caused inconsistency in the occurrence of computer-assisted instruction sessions per student. similarly, technical difficulties and page 57 of 68 georgia journal of literacy volume 43, spring 2020 lack of computer proficiency could have resulted in students receiving less than the total 45 minutes during each session that occurred. if all students participated in an entire 45minute session twice weekly, the results may have been different. given time constraints within the school day, supplemental computerassisted reading instruction provided outside of the regular instructional day may yield more significant results. since age is typically a predictor of maturity, the age of students in this study could have been a substantial factor as well. student’s ability to focus for 45-minute intervals of computer-assisted instruction requires a functional level of maturity that may be beyond many 6-year-olds. getting distracted easily, having poor concentration, lacking time management skills, and/or tiring easily may have prevented students in this study from receiving the maximum benefits of the computerassisted instruction. as with all instructional success, student engagement may have also been a crucial factor, as students lacking motivation for proficiency will not perform to their highest abilities. students who were bored and unfocused or disinterested in the computer activities were very likely to have made random selections in their responses rather than a vested effort to answer cognitively with intentional accuracy. another factor of particular relevance to explaining this study’s finding is the student selection. participant scores were analyzed for in-tact classes without any regard to students’ reading level. there was no categorical focus in the selection process. computer supported instruction has been found to engage readers labeled at-risk in ways that may help compensate for inadequate reading ability (mckenna et al., 1999), and those at-risk of academic failure are sometimes the most adept and interested in understanding and utilizing computer-based learning (alvermann, 2001). further, research studies have shown positive, albeit inconsistent effects of computerbased instruction on improving reading abilities for students with learning disabilities and reading difficulties (stetter & hughes, 2010). thus, supplemental computerassisted instruction may result in the greatest gain for low-performing students. if the students had been intentionally selected based on certain performance competencies or lack of competency, such as low midyear star scores, then the results may have yielded a different outcome. a final factor contributing to the limited positive influence of computer-assisted instruction in this study could be a lack of alignment with instruction delivered via computer with that delivered by the teachers. in a study of first-grade students at risk for reading disabilities page 58 of 68 georgia journal of literacy volume 43, spring 2020 by torgesen, wagner, rashotte, herron and lindamood (2010), there were no differences in student reading performance between students assigned to the different intervention conditions using computer-assisted instruction, but the combinedintervention students, who received instruction delivered by specially trained teachers to prepare students for their work on the computer, performed significantly better than control students who had been exposed to their school’s normal reading program. thus, researchers concluded that reading instruction integrated very closely with students’ experiences on the computer were needed to obtain a positive result. in this study, no attempt was made to coordinate teacher-delivered instruction with the computerassisted instruction. limitations there are several limitations that should be considered when examining the results of this study. the primary limitation of this study was the limited sample size (n=85). a larger sample size would increase the precision of being able to generalize the findings to a larger population. furthermore, the study site was likely not representational of all elementary schools. another limitation of the study is that class enrollment cannot be considered random selection, thus, limiting the generalizability of the study findings to individuals with similar demographics. a final limitation is related to the measure used. although the reported reliability of the star early literacy test is known, all measures are subject to some error, and the reliability with the specific participants in this study was not known. future research it is difficult to ascertain a specific reason for the outcome of this study, but the results do provide insight into the essential need for further research to support the selection and purchase of instructional materials. currently, there is a lack of research evaluating the effect of computer-assisted instruction on reading achievement. with the overwhelming saturation of computer-related products that will surely become available to educators in the years to come, more studies are needed to inform and justify decisions regarding their purchase and implementation. additional research is needed to further investigate the effectiveness of computer-assisted instruction delivered for students of various ages and reading abilities. research on the effectiveness of various programs providing computer-assisted reading instruction across kindergarten, first-, and second-grade classrooms should be conducted, and it is recommended that the computer-assisted instruction provided is intentionally aligned with the instruction being delivered by teachers as part of the normal reading page 59 of 68 georgia journal of literacy volume 43, spring 2020 curriculum. studies with a larger sample size, longer research timeline, and a more controlled environment conducted over multiple sites would be additionally informative. research ensuring diverse demographics of participants would be particularly beneficial as this would increase the generalizability of results. conclusion although the data were not conclusive, this study opens a doorway for developing future studies and provides meaningful data for school and district administrators responsible for spending funds to purchase programs for computerassisted instruction. the level of popularity and perceived effectiveness of computer-based instruction in reading may vary, but computers have won a permanent place in today’s classrooms. computer technology may be part of the long-term solution for dyslexic and other at-risk students as a result of its capacity to provide highly specialized instruction and practice for relatively low cost with relatively high fidelity (torgesen et al., 2009). similarly, ipads® have been utilized in educational programs for individuals with autism spectrum disorder (neely et al. 2013; el zein et al., 2016). beneficial results of computer-assisted instruction with specialized populations, however, does not guarantee that it will yield similar favorable results with all students. northrop and killeen (2013) recognize that incorporating technology into academic instruction has the potential to increase engagement and motivation but caution that academic achievement could be hindered as children gain proficiency with technology rather than with the targeted literacy concepts. for many, varied reasons, further investigation of supplemental, computer-assisted reading instruction and teachers’ use of technology for meaningful reading and writing instruction must also be explored. references adams, m.j. 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(2016). programming for generalization of oral reading fluency using computerassisted instruction and changing fluency criteria. education and treatment of children 39(2), 141-172. doi:10.1353/etc.2016.0011 macaruso, p., & rodman, a. (2011). efficacy of computer-assisted instruction for the development of early literacy skills in young children. reading psychology, 32(2), 172–196. https://doi.org/10.1080/02702 711003608071 macaruso, p., & walker, a. (2008). the efficacy of computerassisted instruction for advanced literacy kills in kindergarten children. reading psychology, 29(3), 266–287. https://doi.org/10.1080/02702 710801982019 mcgraw-hill. (2019). wonders: resource overview. https://s3.amazonaws.com/ec ommerceprod.mheducation.com/unitas /school/explore/sites/readingwonders/wonders-2020overview-brochure.pdf page 62 of 68 georgia journal of literacy volume 43, spring 2020 mckenna, m.c., reinking, d., labbo, l.d., & kieffer, r.d. (1999). the electronic transformation of literacy and its implications for the struggling reader. reading and writing quarterly, 15(2), 111127. https://doi.org/10.1080/ 105735699278233 messer, d., & nash, g. (2018). an evaluation of the effectiveness of a computerassisted intervention. journal of research in reading. 41(1), 140-158. https://doi.org/10.1111/14679817.12107 national early literacy panel (us). (2008). developing early literacy: report of the national early literacy panel: a scientific synthesis of early literacy development and implications for intervention. national institute for literacy. national reading panel. (2000). report of the national reading panel: teaching children to read: an evidencebased assessment of the scientific research literature on reading and its implications for reading instruction. nichd clearinghouse. neely, l., rispoli, m., camargo, s., davis, h., & boles, m. (2013). the effect of instructional use of an ipad®on challenging behavior and academic engagement for two students with autism. research in autism spectrum disorders, 7(4), 509 –516. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rasd. 2012.12.004 northrop, l., & killeen, e. (2013). a framework for using ipads to build early literacy skills. the reading teacher, 66(7), 531 –537. https://doi.org/10.1002/trtr.11 55 renaissance learning. (2014). star early literacy technical manual. wisconsin rapids, wi: renaissance learning, inc. reynolds, m., wheldall, k.,& madelaine, a. (2011). what recent reviews tell us about the efficacy of reading interventions for struggling readers in the early years of schooling. international journal of disability, development, and education. 58(3), 257-286. https://doi.org/10.1080/10349 12x.2011.598406 page 63 of 68 georgia journal of literacy volume 43, spring 2020 shafferman, b. (2016, november 16). wonders: data dashboard [blog post]. https://techtiptuesdayblog.wo rdpress.com/2016/11/16/won ders-data-dashboard/ stetter, m. e., & hughes, m. t. (2010). computer-assisted instruction to enhance the reading comprehension of struggling readers: a review of the literature. journal of special education technology, 25(4), 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1177/01626 4341002500401 todtfeld, d., & weakley, w. (2013). the impact of instructional reading technology programs on student reading achievement. (doctoral dissertation, northwest missouri state university) https://www.nwmissouri.edu/ library/fieldstudies/2013/todt feld,%20danny.pdf torgesen, j. k., wagner, r. k., rashotte, c. a., herron, j., & lindamood, p. (2010). computer-assisted instruction to prevent early reading difficulties in students at risk for dyslexia: outcomes from two instructional approaches. annals of dyslexia, 60(1), 4056. page 64 of 68 georgia journal of reading 6 volume 38, number 1 2015 abstract this article describes a qualitative study conducted to explore the daily roles and responsibilities of middle school literacy coaches and to compare them with the international reading association’s recommended standards literacy coaches (ira, 2006). four middle school literacy coaches, all employed at different middle schools within the same district in the southeastern united states participated in this study. findings reveal some consistencies in roles such as building rapport and evaluation of literacy needs. adolescent literacy is a cornerstone of students’ academic success (wise, 2009). students typically acquire basic skills that serve as the foundation for reading and writing in the elementary school years. in the middle grades however, students must build on those foundational skills to develop sophistication in their application of literacy strategies in order to comprehend a variety of texts across content areas. concerns about adolescent literacy have been voiced consistently over the past two decades. since 1992, periodic assessments of reading conducted by the national center for education statistics (nces) show that the majority of u.s. students in grades 4 and 8 have scored at only a “basic” level of literacy. similarly, researchers have found that one out of every four adolescents could not read well enough to identify the main idea in a passage or to comprehend informational text (allington, 1994; kamil, 2003). several initiatives have been undertaken in order to address adolescent literacy concerns. in 2005, for example, the federal initiative striving readers provided funding to school districts to raise reading achievement levels of secondary students by improving the quality of literacy instruction across the curriculum. reading next: a vision for action and research in middle and high school literacy (biancarosa & snow, 2006) identified fifteen critical elements of effective adolescent literacy and literacy programs, including professional development for teachers that is long term and ongoing; interdisciplinary teacher teams that meet regularly to discuss student needs and to align instruction with those needs; and leadership from both administrators and faculty who have comprehensive knowledge of literacy teaching and learning. including instructional coaches as part of the middle school literacy team, is one way in which schools seek to provide ongoing professional development and literacy leadership. current research on literacy coaching supports the idea that, through job-embedded professional development, literacy coaches can contribute to improvements in the quality of teacher instruction and student literacy learning (bean & eisenberg, 2009; joyce & showers, 2002). professional organizations, such as the international reading association, have compiled standards for reading professionals, with a focus on performance, suggested knowledge, and skills that these professional should possess. while some research has examined the role of literacy coaches at the elementary school level, little is known about the work of literacy coaches in middle school (mraz, algozzine, & watson, 2008; walpole & mckenna, 2004). this study sought to address that need by examining the roles and responsibilities of middle school literacy coaches and comparing those roles and responsibilities with the international reading association’s recommended standards for literacy coaches (ira, 2006). middle school literacy coaches: perceptions of roles and responsibilities by katie stover, ph.d. and maryann mraz, ph.d. georgia journal of reading 7 volume 38, number 1 2015 the inclusion of literacy specialists to provide guidance and support has been widely accepted for many years. the roles these educators fulfill, however, have changed in recent years (mraz, algozzine, & kissel, 2009; vacca, vacca, & mraz, 2011). throughout the latter half of the twentieth century, the primary responsibility of reading specialists was to work with struggling readers in small groups or in pull-out programs, where students received specialized literacy instruction outside of their regular classrooms. often, there was little collaboration between the classroom teacher and the reading specialist about the type of instruction a student received in the pull-out setting (dole, 2004). concerns about the effectiveness of these programs led to a shift toward in-class collaborative instruction between reading specialists and classroom teachers, the specialist’s role was expanded from working solely with students to shared leadership and coaching responsibilities to improve the quality of classroom instruction (bean, 2004; bean, cassidy, grumet, shelton, & wallis, 2002). policy initiatives such as the no child left behind act (u.s. department of education, 2001), race to the top (u.s. department of education, 2010), and the common core state standards (2010) have prompted educators and researchers to examine both the preparation and continuing education of literacy teachers (bean, 2004). shifting the role of a reading specialist from teaching students to coaching teachers has been one initiative designed to improve reading instruction by providing ongoing, consistent, and relevant professional development to teachers (vacca, vacca, & mraz, 2011). there is a growing recognition that literacy coaches offer guidance and support to help teachers refine their instructional practices. still, variation in the roles these literacy professionals fulfill remains vague. some focus specifically on supporting classroom teachers in their daily implementation of the school’s literacy program (guth & pettengill, 2005; ira, 2006). others support teachers by working across subject areas or by providing general and specific professional development session (dole, 2004). yet others report that administrative tasks and paperwork consume much of their time (dole & donaldson, 2006). the occupational titles of those who do the work of literacy coaches are often as varied as the roles they fulfill. an international reading association survey found that over 89% are referred to as a “literacy coach” or a “reading coach” (ira, 2006). additional commonly used titles for professionals engaged in literacy coaching include specialist, facilitator, curriculum, instructional, reading specialist, literacy facilitator, or academic specialist. other titles reference a place, such as a school building in which a literacy work works (e.g. middle school literacy specialist). the roles of middle school literacy coaches share some commonalities with elementary and secondary coaches. walpole and mckenna (2004) explain that coaching models should adapt to the needs of the setting. all coaches regardless of level act as instructional leaders, provide professional development and resources to teachers, collaborate with colleagues, and use assessment to drive instruction. however, the roles of the middle school literacy coach are unique in that specific knowledge of how to assist middle school teachers in building a better understanding of content area reading, using textbooks effectively, and applying literacy strategies across subject areas are essential (ira, 2000). the roles of the middle school literacy coach are multifaceted and complex. sturtevant (2003) and toll (2005) explain that literacy coaches in middle and high schools are seen as teacher leaders, and may be expected to do any combination of the following: mentor teachers, observe classes, work with teacher teams, advise administrators on school wide literacy issues administer and analyze literacy assessments, and work with parents or community groups. while the potential responsibilities for middle school literacy coaches can be overwhelming, the international reading association (2006) has established four broad standards for the role of the literacy coach: (1). skillful collaborators: collaborate with the school literacy team; promote positive relationships among school staff; address family literacy needs; (2). skillful job-embedded coaches: provide professional development for teachers; demonstrate lessons; engage in classroom coaching for individual teachers; support content area reading, differentiated instruction, and materials acquisition; (3). skillful evaluators of literacy needs: analyze data and monitor student progress; conduct assessments for individual students or groups of students; (4.) skillful instructional strategists: know how reading and writing process relate within various content area disciplines. the purpose of this study was an in-depth investigation of the roles and responsibilities of four middle school literacy coaches by addressing the following questions: 1). how do middle school literacy coaches define their roles and responsibilities? 2). how do the daily roles and responsibilities of middle school literacy coaches compare to the recommended standards defined by ira for that role? statement of the purpose although literacy coaches have been studied at the elementary level (walpole & mckenna, 2004), little research has been conducted related to the role of georgia journal of reading 8 volume 38, number 1 2015 literacy coaches at the middle school level. professional organizations have provided guidelines for the work of middle school literacy coaches, however little is known about if and how these guidelines are put into practice. this study was conducted to examine the roles and responsibilities of middle school literacy coaches and to compare those roles with the international reading association’s recommended standards for literacy coaches (ira, 2006). the author was interested in middle school literacy coaches’ perspectives on the allocation of time, the definition of their roles and responsibilities, and how their daily roles and responsibilities compare with the recommended ira standards for the role of the literacy coach at the middle school level. the following questions were examined from the perspectives of four middle school literacy coaches: how do middle school literacy coaches define their roles and responsibilities and how do the daily roles and responsibilities of middle school literacy coaches compare to the recommended ira standards? methodology participants and context this study was conducted in a school district within the southeastern united states. the district served approximately 20,000 students representing a blend of urban, suburban, and rural regions. four middle school literacy coaches participated in this study. each participant was employed at a different middle school within the same district. all coaches had previously worked as middle school teachers teaching language arts, math, or science. their transition to the role of the literacy coach had occurred within the previous one or two years, therefore, these participants were relatively new to the literacy coaching position. data collection and analysis to better understand the roles and responsibilities of middle school literacy coaches, data was collected from multiple sources including survey data, semistructured interviews, and documents, such as daily logs and schedules. the interviews sought to ascertain participants’ perspectives on their preparation for their position, their current roles and responsibilities, and the rewards and challenges of their work (see appendix a). a constant comparative method (glasser & strauss, 1967) was used to analyze the qualitative data collected in the study. the transcripts were read multiple times to initiate the data analysis process. codes were assigned based on the patterns in the participants’ data. these codes were categorized into themes and labeled. to further investigate the roles and responsibilities of each participant, samples of weekly schedules and daily logs were requested from each participant. the use of triangulation of multiple data sources allowed the researchers to make comparisons among the findings. additionally, each participant completed a survey (see appendix b) that listed specific behaviors within each of the four standards for literacy coaches recommended by the international reading association. following a model similar to cassidy and cassidy’s “what’s hot, what’s not” survey (2008), participants were asked to rate whether each behavior was part of her current coaching role or not part of her current role. each participant was also asked to indicate whether she believed that each behavior should be part of the coaching role or should not be part of the coaching role. the validity of the survey was grounded in the importance placed on each item by the international reading association’s standards for middle and high school literacy coaches (2006). findings roles and responsibilities in response to the first research question, how do middle school literacy coaches define their roles and responsibilities, all four coaches reported that they fulfilled a variety of responsibilities influenced by the needs of teachers, the decisions of administration, and their own professional judgment. three out of the four coaches reported consistencies in their daily roles and responsibilities in terms of spending time working with teachers in classrooms and providing professional development. as one coach stated in her interview, “i am a teacher, not an administrator.” three coaches saw themselves as supportive figures that collaborate with teachers in a non-evaluative manner. they viewed themselves as equals, learned from the teachers, and shared their own expertise. through building rapport with teachers, the three coaches purported that they were able to create trusting relationships and increase teacher buy-in and participation. these three literacy coaches described their role as comprised of tasks such as helping teachers to plan effective lessons, sharing ideas and resources, and providing feedback to help teachers reflect and continue to grow professionally. one referred to her job as “hopping around” from class-to-class and subject-to-subject in order to model strategies and coach individual teachers. the work coaches did with teachers varied based on the needs of each individual teacher. for example, one coach stated that for a teacher who needs more support, she gradually released the modeling process throughout an entire day with that teacher. during first period, the coach taught the lesson while the classroom teacher observed. following reflection and debriefing, the coach and the teacher co-taught the second period georgia journal of reading 9 volume 38, number 1 2015 class in order to give the teacher more support before implementing the technique on her own. when the teacher was comfortable with the strategy, she then taught the lesson to another class while the literacy coach observed and provided feedback. three coaches reported that it was often necessary to conference with teachers in order to identify the teacher’s needs and desired areas for professional development. according to the coaches, these conversations were crucial in helping the literacy coach design effective and appropriate support. coaches worked across subject areas with all classes to model strategies and provide a variety of literacy support. for example, the biology teacher was dissecting frogs and invited the literacy coach into her class to preteach the necessary vocabulary for this unit of study. this same literacy coach did a read aloud about pythagorean theorem to an algebra class to tap their prior knowledge of the subject and model fluent reading. later in the week, the literacy coach came back to the same math class to show the students how to read the word problem to determine and highlight key words while the teacher explained the steps of problem solving and the mathematical equations to solve the problems. all three literacy coaches reported that acquiring and sharing resource materials with teachers was on ongoing part of their role as a coach. for instance, one literacy coach noted that if students struggled with the concept of figurative language, she provided the teacher with helpful resources to teach and reinforce this concept. while three out of the four literacy coaches reported similar findings about the daily work they do at their schools, one coach shared somewhat different roles and responsibilities. instead of working in classrooms with teachers, this coach spent the majority of her time analyzing standardized test data and scheduling remediation and enrichment groups. she also did more operational tasks such as testing, and planning family movie nights and accelerated reader parties. she explained that there was a need for someone to analyze the data for the teachers because they simply did not have time to do so. due to the extended amount of time spent on data analysis, this literacy coach only taught lessons sporadically. as she stated in the interview, “i don’t have a lot of in-class time because teachers don’t ask.” furthermore, she had no experience with planning and facilitating professional development for teachers. this literacy coach explained that she did not feel needed and, therefore, did not know what to do or how to allocate her time if the teachers did not explicitly ask for assistance. time allocation data collected from the interviews provided some insight about the allocation of time for the middle school literacy coaches. three of the literacy coaches reported spending approximately 75% of their time working in the classrooms with teachers, providing demonstration lessons, coaching, and debriefing. one coach spent little time working directly with teachers and spent more time behind the scenes organizing various programs and analyzing assessment data. the researcher planned to collect data in the form of a written daily log over the period of one month depicting how the literacy coaches’ time was allocated. however, only one of the literacy coaches provided this data and reported the allocation of her time as follows: n 27 hours conducting, facilitating, or analyzing assessments n 23 hours planning professional development n 22 hours in classrooms n 21 ¼ hours in team meetings or discussions with teachers n 15 ½ hours writing lesson plans n 11 ½ hours conducting professional development n 6 ½ hours in meetings such as staff meetings or literacy team meetings n 4 ½ hours organizing and distributing materials to teachers n 1 hour participating in professional development challenges and rewards in addition to providing information about roles, responsibilities, and time allocation, analysis of the interview data revealed the challenges and rewards that literacy coaches reported experiencing as part of their work. all four coaches interviewed reported concern about unclear role expectations, particularly in their first year. one coach, in her second year of coaching at the time of this study, reported that she remained uncertain about how she was expected to spend her time. while the literacy coaches faced many challenges, they also reported experiencing rewards in their work. one coach found the ability to work with all students and to fulfill a variety of roles to be refreshing. she shared that she felt rejuvenated with her new position after 21 years of teaching and “enjoys learning from and helping teachers.” additionally, three coaches expressed their belief that the opportunity to impact instruction and student achievement has the potential to create a broader impact across the school, not just within a single classroom. one coach stated that the eighth grade teachers closed the gap on the scores of their formative assessment and credited this success to the strategies the coach shared with them. another coach reported, “i am passionate about the need to teach content area literacy strategies… if i was behind the door of my own language arts classroom, i would not be able to do that.” georgia journal of reading 10 volume 38, number 1 2015 alignment of roles with the standards the second research question addressed how the daily roles and responsibilities of middle school literacy coaches compared with the recommended ira standards. figure 1 summarizes the coaches responses to the survey that asked what standards were part of their current coaching role and what standards they believed should be part of their coaching role. all four coaches noted that all aspects of standard 1: skillful collaborator and standard 2: skill jobembedded coaches were part of their role as a literacy coach and should be part of their role. they also reported that standard 3: examining student work to analyze trends and results, and conducting assessment were part of their current role and should be part of their role. however, the coaches’ responses were not consistent with one aspect of standard 3. part of this standard includes interpretation of assessment to help faculty to understand different assessment tools and how to use them diagnostically to guide instruction and enhance teacher effectiveness. while all four literacy coaches believed this should be part of their jobs, only two coaches reported this as something they do on a regular basis. standard 4: skillful instructional strategists is broken into two subsections. all four coaches reported that they have appropriate content area knowledge of how reading and writing relate to the content area and also felt that this was something that should be part of their role as literacy coach. however, there were inconsistencies about the other aspect of this standard. in terms of providing instruction to students, whether in a small group or individual setting, two coaches reported this was part of their job and should be, while the other two coaches reported that this was not part of their current role and should not be. discussion previous research has found little consistency in the roles and responsibilities of literacy coaches (ira, 2004). in 2000, the international reading association acknowledged that literacy coaches assume multiple roles depending on the needs of students and teachers with whom they work. middle school literacy coaches’ responsibilities are often as varied as the myriad contexts in which they work. in fact, coaches, classroom teachers, and principals tend to have varying perceptions of the roles of responsibilities of the literacy coach (mraz, algozzine, & watson, 2008; quatroche, bean, & hamilton, 2001; shaw, 2006). this study examined the roles and responsibilities of four middle school literacy coaches. while some uncertainty about the daily work of literacy coaches persisted, consistencies in terms of role expectations emerged, as the roles of three of the four study participants aligned with the recommended standards from the international reading association. specifically, the importance of establishing rapport with teachers was one theme that consistently emerged from the data. another common characteristic of the roles of the coaches in this study demonstrate that they all are involved with evaluating the literacy needs of students but to different extents. as relatively new literacy coaches, the role itself was unclear. however, professional development offered to all coaches through a statewide initiative proved to be helpful. three of the coaches discussed how the training was beneficial. they felt that they learned a lot and became stronger coaches as a result. one reported learning “new skills, websites, and information to share with teachers.” the state-level initiative also provided guidelines for the coach’s job description stating that 75% of coaches’ time should be spent working with teachers and students in classrooms. as suggested by one coach, this aligns with the ira’s standards and prevents the coaches from being used figure 1 standard 4: skillful part of current not part of should be shout not be instructional strategists role current role part of current role part of current role content area knowledge 4 4 provide instruction to students 2 2 2 2 georgia journal of reading 11 volume 38, number 1 2015 as substitute teachers for example. all coaches in this study assumed several roles as they worked in a variety of settings that were also identified in the review of the literature. based on survey results, all four literacy coaches reported the following roles as part of their responsibilities: act as an instructional leader in the area of literacy, provide professional development and resources to help teachers develop effective instruction, demonstrate lessons and provide ongoing support, provide one on one coaching by observing teachers in a nonthreatening manner and providing feedback, facilitate assessment processes, and have effective communication skills. as suggested by the state guidelines, the coaches spend much of their time supporting teachers in the classroom. all four coaches describe the importance of modeling strategies and coaching teachers to become proficient on their own. one coach stated that she teaches sporadically and does more behind the scenes work such as data analysis because teachers do not request her assistance. the remaining coaches however describe getting to know teachers through coaching conversations where they ask questions to determine teachers’ needs and adjust their support based on teachers’ comfort levels and needs (stover, kissel, haag, & shoniker, 2011). these literacy coaches model effective literacy strategies until the teacher is ready to implement them effectively on their own. by spending time in classrooms modeling and providing support, the literacy coaches build trust with the teachers they support. overall, it is evident in the literature that, when literacy coaches have a thorough understanding of the diverse needs of adult learners, successful coaching techniques, knowledge of effective instructional practices, and clear roles and responsibilities, they have a greater potential to promote changes in classroom practice (ira, 2004; toll, 2005). based on the data analysis in this study, building a rapport with teachers emerged as a central theme in contributing to an effective interaction between coach and teacher. ira’s standard 1: skillful collaborators includes promoting positive relationships among school staff. all four literacy coaches reported this as part of their role and all believed it should be part of their role. by establishing and emphasizing positive relationships, the coaches were able to position themselves as a supportive figure in the building instead of an evaluative one. for example, one participant explained that, in order to build rapport with the teachers, this literacy coach made a concerted effort to assume a supportive instead of an evaluative role. an example of this can be seen when the coach describes how she spent more time modeling for some teachers before she released them to implement the technique on their own and avoided observation before teachers felt comfortable with her presence in their classrooms. her principal gave her feedback that indicated that the literacy coach was well received and that she positioned herself effectively as a supportive professional. another coach established rapport by making it clear from the beginning that she was not the “know-all-expert” and that they will both learn together. she validated the positive techniques of teachers, particularly those who she is “not sure if they have bought into [her] yet.” to emphasize the value of collaboration, this coach approached teachers by asking if they were interested in co-teaching and sharing their collective knowledge. one teacher remarked, “i’d love if you could come in once a week because there is always something that i learn from you.” the literacy coach responded, “i always learn from [you] too.” this demonstrated the coach’s effort to build trusting, equal relationships with teachers. when literacy coaches worked together with teachers to build a learning community where teachers and coaches collaborated to establish goals and identify areas of needed professional development, coaches were able to better approximate the standards suggested by the international reading association for their role. when trusting and mutually communicative relationships were established, coaches reported that teachers were less resistant. by positioning themselves as peers with teachers, the literacy coaches were able to show teachers that they were supportive and not evaluative authority figures. both similarities and differences are apparent in the coaches’ roles as skillful evaluators of literacy needs (ira standard 3). all coaches reported that they were involved with the administration of assessments for students. additionally, they participated in data analysis and progress monitoring of students as part of their roles as a literacy coach. one literacy coach stated, “most of the work i do is with data… our system is 100% driven on data.” another coach mentioned the use of a specific assessment to determine needs of students and differentiated instruction. however, survey results reveal that two out of the four literacy coaches did not engage in ira’s standard 3 as part of their roles and responsibilities but believe it should be part of their jobs. standard three states that coaches’ roles should include leading faculty in understanding, selecting, and using multiple forms of assessment as diagnostic tools. both similarities and differences in the work that each coach does at the school level reveal the need for more consistencies in roles and responsibilities for literacy coaches. the interview data indicated that the role of the georgia journal of reading 12 volume 38, number 1 2015 literacy coach is complex. all four literacy coaches reported challenges and rewards of their positions. their roles were dependent on the needs of individual teachers, directives from administration, mandated state requirements, and day-to-day challenges such as maneuvering between a variety of content area classes. one literacy coach described the challenge of the literacy coaching role as walking a fine line with administration and teachers and requires the need to remain neutral. when literacy coaches have a solid understanding of and respect for the diverse needs of adult learners, they can promote changes in classroom practice (bean, belcastro, hathaway, risko, rosemary, & roskos, 2008; ira, 2004; stover, et al., 2011; toll, 2005). by providing consistent and responsive professional development that is centered on enhancing the quality of instruction, literacy coaches have the potential to play an effective role as a member of the school’s literacy team. continued research in the area of literacy coaching is critical as we continue to refine the ways in which professional resources can be applied to improve teacher quality and enhance student achievement. references allington, r. (1994). the schools we have. the schools we need. the reading teacher, 48(1), 14-29. bean, r.m. (2004). promoting effective literacy instruction: the challenge for literacy coaches. the california reader, 37(3), 58–63. bean, r.m., cassidy, j., grumet, j.e., shelton, d.s., & wallis, s.r. (2002). what do reading specialists do? results from a national survey. the reading teacher, 55, 736-744. bean, r. m., belcastro, b., hathaway, j., risko, v., rosemary, c. & roskos, k. (2008). a review of the research on instructional coaching. paper presented at the american educational research association conference, new york. bean r. m., & eisenberg, e. (2009). literacy coaching in middle and high schools. in k. d. wood & w. e. blanton (eds.) literacy instruction for adolescents: research based practice. new york: guilford. biancarosa, c., & snow, c. e. (2006). reading next: a vision for action and research in middle and high school literacy: a report to carnegie corporation of new york (2nd ed.).washington, dc: alliance for excellent education. cassidy, j., & cassidy, d. (2008, february/march). what’s hot for 2008? reading today, 25(4), 1, 10 11. common core state standards initiative (2010). common core state standards for english language arts & literacy. washington, dc: national governors association center for best practices and the council of chief state school offices. dole, j.a. (2004). the changing role of the reading specialist in school reform. the reading teacher, 57, 462–471. dole, j. a., & donaldson, r. (2006). “what am i supposed to do all day?”: three big ideas for the reading coach. the reading teacher, 59, 486-488. glasser, b. g. & strauss, a. l. (1967). the discovery of grounded theory: strategies for qualitative research. chicago, il: aldine. guth, n. d. & pettengill, s. s. (2005). leading a successful reading program: administrators and reading specialists working together to make it happen. newark, de: international reading association. international reading association (2000). teaching all children to read: the roles of the reading specialist. newark, de: author. international reading association. (2004). the role and qualifications of the reading coach in the united states. newark, de: author. international reading association. (2006). standards for middle and high school literacy coaches. newark, de: author. available: www.reading.org/downloads/ resources/597coaching_ standards.pdf joyce, b. & showers, b. (2002). student achievement through staff development. alexandria, va: association for supervision and curriculum development. kamil, m.l. (2003). adolescents and literacy: reading for the 21st century. washington, dc: alliance for excellent education. available: http://www.all4ed. org/publications/adolescentsand literacy.pdf mraz, m., algozzine, b., & kissel, b. (2009). the literacy coach’s companion prek-3. thousand oaks, ca:corwin press. georgia journal of reading 13 volume 38, number 1 2015 mraz, m., algozzine, b., & watson, p. (2008). perceptions and expectations of roles and responsibilities of literacy coaching. literacy research and instruction, 47, 141-157. national center for education statistics (nces). (2006). nation’s report card: reading 2005. washington, dc: u.s. government printing office. retrieved from http://nces.ed.gov/pubsearch/ pubsinfo.asp?pubid=2006451 quatroche, d., bean, r., & hamilton, r. (2001). the role of the reading specialist: a review of research. the reading teacher, 55, 282-294. shaw, m. (2006). a response to the ira survey of reading/literacy coaches. reading today, 23(6), 13. stover, k., kissel, b., haag, k., & shoniker, r. (2011). differentiated coaching: fostering reflection with teachers. the reading teacher, 64(7), 498-509. sturdevant, e. (2003). the literacy coach: a key to improving teaching and learning in secondary schools. washington, dc: alliance for excellent education. toll, c. (2005). the literacy coach’s survival guide: essential questions and practical answers. newark, de: international reading association. vacca, r., vacca, j., & mraz, m. (2011). content area reading: literacy and learning across the curriculum (10th ed.). boston: allyn & bacon. walpole, s. & mckenna m. (2004). the literacy coach’s handbook: a guide to research based-practice. new york: ny. the guilford press. wise, b. (2009). adolescent literacy: the cornerstone of student success. journal of adolescent & adult literacy, 52, 369–375. appendix a semi-structured interview guide middle literacy coaches: a study of roles and responsibilities establishing rapport & background information 1. tell me a little about yourself and your teaching experience. 2. what is your current title? who are your roles and responsibilities? who determines these? 3. discuss your preparation for your job. what are your areas of certification/licensure? what in-service preparation and/or support have your received? do you feel this is sufficient? why/why not? 4. how many years have you been in your current position? what did you do before that? why did you change? roles and responsibilities 5. do your roles and responsibilities differ from what you anticipated that they would be before your took the position? explain. 6. with whom do you work primarily? (e.g. teachers, students, administrators). why do you think it is this way? 7. when you work with teachers and students, what are some of your main responsibilities/activities? (e.g. direct teaching, co-teaching, planning, mentoring, evaluating, subbing, non-instructional duties) 8. do you work with other specialist such as special education teachers, esl teachers, speech therapists, etc? please describe your work with them. 9. what do you normally do in the course of a week? does this differ across the year or stay about the same? why? rewards/challenges 10. what do you find rewarding about your job? 11. what dilemmas do you face in your job? how do you solve these? conclusion 12. what else would you like to share about your position as a literacy professional? appendix b middle school literacy coach survey adapted from standards for middle and high school literacy coaches (ira, 2006) and what’s hot, what’s not (cassidy & cassidy, 2009) 1 – part of my current coaching role and should be 2 – part of my current coaching role and should not be 3– not part of my current coaching role but should be 4 – not part of my current coaching role and should not be georgia journal of reading 14 volume 38, number 1 2015 score standard 1: skillful collaborators (circle one) collaborate with school literacy team – collaborate with school level literacy team to determine school wide literacy strengths and needs and develop and to implement 1 2 3 4 a literacy program promote positive relationships among school staff – establish and emphasize positive relationships in a supportive, rather than an evaluative manner. 1 2 3 4 foundations of literacy –share with teachers a body of research about how students become successful readers, writers, and communicators 1 2 3 4 family literacy – serve as a resource to families (e.g., provide information to parents about how they can support their child’s reading development at home) 1 2 3 4 standard 2: skillful job-embedded coaches provide professional development – share literacy strategies for effective reading and writing instruction 1 2 3 4 demo lessons –demonstrate instructional strategies and provide ongoing support to teachers as they try the strategies themselves 1 2 3 4 classroom coaching (one-on-one) – observe teachers in a nonthreatening manner in order to provide feedback through reflective dialogue 1 2 3 4 content area reading – discuss/share strategies and ideas to enhance content area reading and writing 1 2 3 4 differentiated instruction –work with teachers to develop and implement differentiated instruction to meet the needs of individual learners 1 2 3 4 materials – assist teachers in selection and analysis of content area text and instructional materials 1 2 3 4 standard 3: skillful evaluators of literacy needs assessment –lead faculty in understanding, selecting, and using multiple forms of assessments as diagnostic tools to guide instructional decision making and enhance both teacher and program effectiveness 1 2 3 4 analyze data and monitor student progress – meet with teachers to examine student work and evaluate their success while analyzing trends and results 1 2 3 4 conduct assessment – for individuals or groups of students 1 2 3 4 standard 4: skillful instructional strategists content area knowledge – know how reading and writing processes relate with the various disciplines (i.e. english language arts, math, science, and social studies) 1 2 3 4 provide instruction – for individuals or small groups of students who are struggling readers (push-in, pull-out, or both settings) 1 2 3 4 georgia journal of reading 24 volume 41, number 2 2018 text sets engaging and informative reading material can be presented through the text set format for fostering the development of powerful readers. in this context, a text set is a set of books with a common theme. the books range in difficulty level from approximately two years below the designated grade level of the target class and two years above that level within an overarching range from grade two to grade eight. . the text set has information about a common theme that contains both fictionalized as well as basically factual information. often fiction is interwoven with fact in that the events depicted are couched in terms where characters experience the events within a historical context. the model text set presented herein, the westward movement, provides the readers with interesting and informative reading material. in addition, the study complements a text set previously studied titled the abstract students can become more powerful readers by engaging in lively and interesting print experiences. deep study of a topic such as the westward movement in a text set format can provide information and also enhance reading competencies. the authors propose that enjoyment of reading and related experiences is of paramount importance for developing competent and life-long readers. introduction emphasis on achieving higher test scores from well-meaning but generally uninformed political forces plays an ever increasing role in curriculum development and teaching strategies related to literacy instruction. this has led to increased focus on providing instruction that purportedly enhances students’ ability to more competently provide the “right” answers to test questions. in this light, shanahan (2014) determined that analysis of test items designed to drive literacy instruction is a misguided approach to literacy instruction. on the other hand, focus on strategies “that can make students sophisticated and powerful readers” (p. 187) is a much more effective approach for encouraging overall reading achievement with the added benefit of enhancing performance on standardized tests. we, the authors, agree with shanahan and place emphasis on providing extensive amounts of engaging texts in a variety of formats without regard for the specific types of questions that might appear on standardized tests. by renee rice moran, lashay jennings, stacey j. fisher and edward j. dwyer engaging strategies for developing reading competencies georgia journal of reading 25 volume 41, number 2 2018 trail of tears that chronicles the forced movement of native americans from the southeastern united states to the western territories. the movement of people from the eastern parts of the united states to the western territories primarily in the 1800s was encouraged by the federal government to secure lands. the introduction of the conestoga wagon promised settlers comfortable traveling. the monroe doctrine and the concept of manifest destiny appealed to the patriotism of easterners what appeared to be limitless opportunities. enthusiasm was powerfully enhanced by horace greeley’s admonition to, “go west young man.” a text set is a vehicle for building background knowledge through reading a variety of quality texts and eventually mastering reading of a “target text” (lupo, strong, lewis, walpole, & mckenna, 2018). the target text(s) is selected for students to demonstrate a comprehensive understanding of the major theme of the text set. practice with texts at instructional level and independent level and in-depth comprehension study can lead to success in reading and reporting on information presented in the target text(s). the target text(s) is not necessarily a more difficult text relative to readability but a text(s) that comprehensively and engagingly addresses the major theme of the overall text set. in addition, cummins and stallmeyer-gerard (2011) determined that study of a variety of texts with a culminating study of a target text encourages students to synthesize information leading to a broad understanding of the topic under study. the target texts in the westward movement set are dandelions (bunting, 1995) and train to somewhere (bunting, 1996). these elegantly written and beautifully illustrated texts provide a heartfelt experience for the reader. based on earlier study in the text set, students are likely to have a high level of understanding and appreciation of the bunting target texts. information can be enhanced through internet searches but, initially, the text set study is based on books. however, much background information for the teacher is available at www.history.com/topics/ westwardexpansion and for possible use by students to further enhance study of the westward movement. we like to stay with books to avoid over complicating study of the topic. we study maps on a large screen using an elmo™ projector. we encourage use of songs, and poems. for example, we sing and read the words to home on the range in connection with the westward movement text set. a basic model of a text set, the westward movement, is presented in appendix a with accompanying photographs 2 and 3. we have a sub-set of texts by mclaughlin (2001, 1994, 1993, and 1985) that we use on occasion when there are students who demonstrate that they would like to read and share reading experiences when using these texts. the text set provides opportunities for developing indepth knowledge of subject matter. all too often, as the national council for the social studies (2008) suggested, students experience superficial encounters with subject matter. in addition to providing in-depth study, we propose that text sets with accompanying target texts provide opportunities for encouraging reading fluency and comprehension. for example, in the westward movement text set there are stories and informational texts that can be made into readers’ theater productions. fostering reading fluency we propose that fluency can be enhanced through target texts by eve bunting books by patricia maclachlan georgia journal of reading 26 volume 41, number 2 2018 repeated readings of passages directly taken from text set material or in a summarized format. students practice using such strategies as echo reading, choral reading, paired reading, repeated readings, and shared reading to foster fluency (rasinski, 2010). in the shared reading strategy, in this context, students sit side by side and take turns reading, discussing content, and providing support for each other. the readers’ theater productions culminate in performance reading after high levels of fluency have been achieved. readers’ theater performances can be recorded and a cd produced. in addition, we produce cds of individual students reading a selection from one of the texts. the cd demonstrates to the student that he or she can be a fluent reader. we make professional looking labels using materials such as those produced by memorex™ and avery™. we can google™ the topic and under images find an appropriate picture to add to the label. a step further is to make a video recording of the reading using a smartphone. students are delighted with their cd recordings and video recordings. the video recordings can be emailed to the student’s home while the cd can become a family treasure. in this light, braker, (2013) determined that learning to read proficiently must be authentically interesting and enjoyable and not a quest for competence that demonstrates a “robotic” (p. 201) rendition of the text. we prefer a cd because it is a physical product rather than just a digital file. students like getting their hands on their very own cd. for example, a parent emailed to tell us that her son came racing out of school waving his cd and immediately wanted to play it in the van. students can become familiar with the evening news and the personalities who deliver the information. we invite students to watch the local evening news or other news formats and study how the reporters present the information. students develop news reports based on information from the text set. for example, a news reporter might interview a traveler and ask about crossing a river with a covered wagon. sometimes the news broadcast can get quite elaborate with eventual broadcast on the school closed-circuit tv system. some teachers prefer to tape news segments to present to their students that comfortably fit their instructional goals. there is generally good community support. for example, a teacher in a nearby school invited the anchor of the local six-o’clock news program to her classroom and he graciously accepted. the news anchor noted how important it is to read the news ahead of time and use appropriate phrasing, intonation, and energy. developing comprehension comprehension is encouraged through repeated readings described above and through questioning strategies. duke and carlile (2011) proposed that fluency is essential for readers to synthesize ideas from different sources to enhance what they proposed are “growth constructs” (p. 200). growth constructs, according to the researchers, can never be fully mastered but can be enhanced through fluency development and application of comprehension strategies. in this light, we like a simple but comprehensive set of questions based on a model presented by trosky (1972) (see appendix b). conclusions students learn to synthesize information and develop their knowledge based on a variety of printed texts. students enhance their knowledge by presenting their knowledge of the topic through activities such as reporting events in a tv news format. practice for news reporting encourages fluency development which enhances comprehension. students often say, “i want to sound good!” production of a cd and/or a video production adds to the competencies developed. we agree with martin and duke (2011) that application of “multiple strategy instruction” (p. 351) provides support and engaging activities for students, especially for lower achieving readers. in addition, we have found that the strategies presented herein can be modified by creative teachers for a wide variety of learning environments and grade levels. we greatly enjoy using text sets within the contexts presented above using a variety of strategies. study of the strategies presented suggests that the activities effectively complement a variety of standards. we especially like that the activities are enjoyable and provide an opportunity for lively and interesting study. in this light, an extensive review of research led guthrie and wigfield (2018) to conclude that literacy instruction must take place in a classroom environment that “generates productive and joyful literacy engagement continually” (p. 75). we appreciate the emphasis harvey and ward (2017) placed on developing literacy competencies within an enjoyable setting. in this light harvey and ward retired the word “struggling” and replaced it with the word “striving”. we hope that strategies presented herein can be a means for encouraging “struggling readers” to become “striving readers” and eventually, as harvey and ward proposed, “thriving readers” (2017). references braker, j. (2013). power of books. view from the chalkboard. reading teacher, 67, (3), p. 201. cummins, s., & stallmeyer-gerard, c. (2011). teaching for synthesis of informational text with georgia journal of reading 27 volume 41, number 2 2018 the competency levels of the students relative to the complexity of the information presented. not all of the books in the text set would likely be used with any particular group of students. the text set is dynamic in the sense that it is subject to change with the addition and possible elimination of texts. school and public librarians are invaluable support personnel. on the other hand, the target texts are fundamental to study in this text set context. westward movement model text set american girl collection (1999). welcome to kirsten’s world-1854: growing up in pioneer america. middleton, wi: pleasant company. (susan sinnott mentioned as the author on the copyright page.) bunting, eve. (1996). train to somewhere. ill. ronald himler. new york: clarion. read-alouds. the reading teacher. 64(6), 394-405. duke, n. & carlile, j. (2011). the development of comprehension. in m.l. kamil, p.d. pearson; moje, e.b., & afflerbach, p.p. (eds.), handbook of reading research: volume iv. (pp. 199-228) new york: routledge. guthrie, j. & wigfield, a. (2018). literacy engagement and motivation: rationale, research, teaching, and assessment. in d. lapp & d. fisher (eds.), handbook on research on teaching the english language arts. (4th ed. pp.57 – 84). new york: routledge. harvey, s. & ward, a. (2017). from striving to thriving. new york: scholastic. lupo, s.m., strong, j.z., lewis, w., walpole, s., & mckenna, m.c. (2018). building background knowledge through text sets: rethinking text sets. journal of adolescent & adult literacy. 61, (4), 433 – 444. martin, n.m. & duke, n. k. (2011) interventions to enhance informational text comprehension. in a. mcgill-franzen & r. allington (eds.), handbook of reading disability research. (pp. 345-361). new york: routledge. national council for the social studies (2008). a vision of powerful teaching and learning in the social studies: building social understanding. a position statement of the national council for the social studies. http://www.socialstudies.org/positions/ powerful rasinski, t. (2010) the fluent reader (2nd ed.). new york: scholastic. shanahan, t. (2014). how and how not to prepare students for the new tests. the reading teacher, 68, (3), 184-188. trosky, o. (1972). questioning behavior in the development of reading comprehension. in h.a. klein (ed.) the quest for competency in teaching reading. newark, de: international literacy association. appendix a: westward movement text set introduction the westward movement is the story of people from the eastern part of the united states moving west to find new homes and opportunities for more enriching and meaningful lives. the students read about the journey west and what the trip was like. the level of information presented at the outset will depend on moving west text set moving west text set continued georgia journal of reading 28 volume 41, number 2 2018 bunting, eve. (1995). dandelions. ill. greg shed. new york, ny: harcourt voyager books. collins, terry. (2014). into the west: causes and effects of u.s. westward expansion. north mankato, mn: capstone press. dean, arlen. (2003). the santa fe trail. new york, ny: power kids press/rosen. floca, brian. (2013). locomotive. new york, ny: athenaeum books for young readers. fox, mem v. (1991). the story of women who shaped the west: cornerstones of freedom. chicago, il: children’s press. friedman, mel. (2010). the oregon trail. new york, ny: scholastic. greenwood, barbara. (1994). a pioneer sampler: the daily life of a pioneer family in 1840. ill. heather collins. boston, ma: houghton mifflin. gunderson, jessica & daugherty, rachel. (2012). your life as a pioneer on the oregon trail. north mankato, mn: picture window books hallowell, george & holub, joan. (2011). wagons ho! ill. lynne avril. park ridge, il: albert whitman & company. harvey, brett. (1988). cassie’s journey: going west in the 1860s. ill. deborah k. ray. new york. ny: holiday house. hermes, patricia. (2002). a perfect place: joshua’s oregon trail diary. (my america series.) new york, ny: scholastic. hester, sallie. (2014). diary of sallie hester: a covered wagon girl. (fact finders: first person histories series.) north mankato, mn: capstone press. maclachlan, patricia (1985). sarah, plain and tall, new york, ny: harper collins. maclachlan, patricia. (1993). baby. new york, ny: delacorte. maclachlan, patricia. (1994). skylark. new york, ny: harper collins. maclachlan, patricia. (2001). caleb’s story. new york, ny: harper collins. mcmullan, k. (2003). a fine start: meg’s prairie diary. (my america series.) new york, ny: scholastic. patent, dorothy h. (1995). west by covered wagon: retracing the pioneer trails. photographs by william munoz. new york, ny: walker and company. rajczak, kristen (2015). life of a pioneer: what you didn’t know about history. new york, ny: gareth stevens. wright, courtni c. (1995). wagon train: a family goes west in 1865. ill. gershorn griffith. new york, ny: holiday house. (african american family.) appendix b: questioning strategies 1. literal questions wherein the answer is directly found in the text. ex. “where did the santé fe trail begin?” literal questions are usually easy for students to answer but are helpful for building confidence. however, we have to be cautious about asking too many literally based questions at the expense of more thought provoking questions. 2. inference questions involve drawing conclusions not directly stated but based on information presented. ex. “why did sacagawea help lewis and clark?” the text does not say precisely why something happened but the reader is asked to determine from context why something occurred in the selection read. 3. imagination questions are presented to study possible outcomes of events. ex. “what would have happened to meg’s family if their wagon got destroyed while they were crossing a river?” the text does not address this possibility but the reader can determine what might have happened based on the context of the overall selection. 4. evaluation questions are designed to study if a character/historical figure acted appropriately. ex. “was it fair that people who got to the prairie first took the best land for building homes and farms?” the reader is invited to provide a value judgement based on the events and the characters responses to those events in the selection read. 5. translation questions are asked to determine understanding of vocabulary and concepts. ex. “what is another way of saying ‘oregon fever’?” the reader is invited to translate terminology from one form of expression to another. this type of question encourages vocabulary building and measures understanding of terminology that is essential to comprehending the overarching theme of the text set. students can be encouraged to keep vocabulary cards with terms on one side and definitions on the other side. article connecting a community through a family literacy project and virtual writing collaboration: university students facilitate access to literature during the pandemic anne katz georgia southern university alexandra sledge-tollerson georgia southern university abstract the importance of accessing and sharing children’s literature took on new meaning as educators pivoted to remote and online learning models over the course of the past school year. in light of the pandemic, college of education pre-service educators enrolled in a fall 2020 language and literacy development course (which is usually scheduled to meet face-to-face twice a week) was re-structured as hybrid, where a group of students were scheduled to meet partially face-to-face and partially online on a weekly basis. i planned to adapt my family literacy project collaboration with a local community center, an academic service learning assignment that i incorporate each semester as part of the course. a second community literacy project embedded in the course involved reading and discussing look both ways: a tale told in ten blocks (reynolds, 2019), short stories that detail experiences of middle school characters on their walk home from school. my original plan was for both middle school students and pre-service educators to draft personal place-based writing short storiesinspired by the mentor textand participate in writing conferences. instead, zoom sessions were conducted in which both sets of students virtually conferenced about their writing pieces when schedules allowed. in this manner, authentic conversations about writing were being cultivated through a virtual approach. keywords: community literacy, partnership literacies, place-based reading and writing, middle school literacy, virtual writing conferences introduction the importance of accessing and sharing children’s literature took on new meaning as educators pivoted to remote and online learning models over the course of the past school year. in light of the pandemic, college of education pre-service educators enrolled in a fall 2020 language and literacy development course experienced a class that was restructured as hybrid. in this arrangement, a group of students were scheduled to meet partially face-to-face and partially online on a weekly basis. with insights shared from an undergraduate student and a professor, this article will describe two class assignments—a family literacy project designed for a local community center, as well as a place-based writing project conducted with local middle school students. a pre-service educator self-study intertwined with a professor’s commentary will provide an additional lens for reflection. in light of this course format, i adapted my family literacy project collaboration with a local community center, an academic service-learning assignment that is incorporated each 24 article semester as part of the course. students participated in online discussion boards and multiple zoom sessions in order to peer conference, conference with the professor, revise, and present their projects—rather than traditional face-to-face conversations that were usually held in the college classroom. a second community literacy project embedded in the course involved reading and discussing look both ways: a tale told in ten blocks (reynolds, 2019), short stories that detail experiences of middle school students on their walk home from school. my original plan (pre-covid 19) was for both middle school students and pre-service educators to draft personal place-based writing short storiesinspired by the mentor textand participate in face-toface writing conferences at the university. instead, zoom sessions were conducted in which local middle school students and university students virtually conferenced about their writing pieces when schedules allowed, along with video recordings that allowed for writing conferences to be deconstructed at a later time. this article provides insight into how authentic conversations about family literacy project development and place-based short story writing were cultivated through a virtual approach in the context of a university course. teachers benefit from “carefully planned and mentored opportunities during preparation for debriefing and reconciling prior beliefs with new knowledge and theories about pedagogy” (risko & reid, 2019, p. 425). the purpose of this work is to contribute to the literature on literacy teacher identity and funds of knowledge for family literacy activity development and place-based writing initiatives. an additional purpose is to strengthen connections between undergraduate teacher education candidates and community members (members of a local community center as well as urban middle school students). this will support efforts to cultivate an appreciation for diverse perspectives. family literacy project for local community center i provided each student in the course with a picture book for the family literacy project. all books were submissions that were sent to committee members in consideration for the 2020 notable books for a global society awards committee (children’s literature and reading special interest group, international literacy association)http://www.clrsig.org/nbgs-lists.html students were invited to design a family literacy activity around the picture book, incorporating research-based literacy skills and strategies they had learned over the course of the semester. these family literacy projects would be delivered to the executive director at a local community center for families at the early childhood center to use with their children. projects would include the following elements: -part 1a thoughtful letter to parent(s)/caregiver(s) explaining the family literacy activity. please include a discussion of effective verbal and nonverbal techniques to foster inquiry and collaboration. -part 2specific instructions for the activity. please include all materials, step-by-step procedures, prompting questions, ideas for differentiation, and extensions. *parts 1 and 2 will be included with the book and materials in a ziploc bag to be donated to the community center. students were invited to consider the following items for the family literacy letter and activity creation: family literacy letter constructs 25 http://www.clrsig.org/nbgs-lists.html article length (at least 3 paragraphs). thoughtful description introducing the family literacy activity. did the letter address all of these items? -point out author and illustrator. read the title and make a prediction about what the book might be about. -do a picture walk to activate child’s interest. -point out key vocabulary words/ discuss/ build schema. -make text-to-self or text-to-text connections. -encourage active conversationextending questions. did the letter address all of these items? -developing child’s identity as a reader. if your child enjoyed this book, you might consider checking out other books by this author. if your child was interested in topic, you might consider (another book). -introduce ideas for connected field trip or research/ website/ community connection(s). -developing the child’s identity as a writer. writing connections, such as writing a letter or journal entry to the main character. letter is personable. spelling, capitalization, grammar, punctuation, professionalism. family literacy activity constructs name of book – author and illustrator/ list of materials and resources step-by-step procedures prompting questions (at least 5) ideas for differentiation (at least 2) extensions (at least 3) activity is personable. spelling, capitalization, grammar, punctuation, professionalism. virtual discussion board and zoom sessionsfamily literacy letter students were asked to post a draft of their letter to the discussion board. they were then invited to find their peer review partner on the list that the professor had posted. a detailed rubric was provided (table 1) that students could open, type, save, and attach to their post. as i review 26 article and reflect upon student posts and responses, i was impressed by the depth of student responses in this virtual format. for example, in response to alexandria’s post, a colleague noted, “in the last paragraph, you could recommend that they visit a special place or take a trip into their city to a location they have never been to before to create a new memory.” the colleague also noted, “at the end of your letter, you provided another book that the child might be interested in if they liked the story. i would recommend maybe attaching a website about creating photo collages of memories.” i was was then able to provide additional feedback to alexandria, as follows— “nice job, alexandria. thank you for your valuable feedback, jordan. a few more suggestions that you might want to incorporate in your final letter 1. strong intro. perhaps focus a little more on providing an introduction to the book rather than current world events for this family literacy letter (although you can certainly mention). please let me know if you have any questions. 2. "...any unfamiliar vocabulary that your child may not understand." (you might include an example of several sample vocabulary words that you recommend that they discuss and a page number in parentheses here). thank you for your hard work for the families of the community center, dr. katz” this virtual discussion board format enabled more in-depth exchanges between students, and provided students with a forum to review my feedback to each individual student. students were encouraged to “read the feedback from your peer review partner and from dr. katz on your letter. if you would like to respond, or ask a question about their feedback, please do so.” i noted that many students continued the conversation on the discussion board after their initial posts, responding to myself and colleagues, and ensuring their work incorporated feedback from all parties. during a zoom session, several students commented that they planned to incorporate both my individual feedback to them, as well as other ideas gained from my feedback to colleagues, into their final letter. while i was initially concerned that this format would detract from authentic exchanges, the adapted virtual format in fact seemed to facilitate significant impact on students’ final family literacy letters, which was evidenced by the final product that was submitted. table 1 item feedbackplease fill in this column with your feedback. a. is the letter at least 3 paragraphs in length? b. is there an area where you would like more detail? please give the paragraph number and specific guidance (in a complete sentence please). c. did the letter address all of these items? please give specific feedback. 27 article 1. point out author and illustrator 2. read the title and make a prediction about what the book might be about 3. do a picture walk to activate child’s interest 4. point out key vocabulary words/ discuss 5. making text-to-self or text-to-text connections 6. encouraging active conversation extending questions d. did the letter address all of these items? please give specific feedback. 1. developing child’s identity as a reader. if your child enjoyed this book, you might consider checking out other books by this author. if your child was interested in topic, you might consider (another book). 2. introduce ideas for connected field trip or research/ website. 3. developing the child’s identity as a writer. writing connections, such as writing a letter or journal entry to the main character. e. did you see any spelling, capitalization, grammar, punctuation items that could be fixed? please be specific. f. please give any general positive feedback about what your colleague did well. family literacy letter alexandria’s letter was as follows: december 2020 hello parent(s) and caregiver(s), as a country, we are going through some hard times. our young ones at home need something interactive and inspirational to do while at home. with covid-19 among us, some of us have lost family members dear to us due to the virus and to other unfortunate events. our young people need something to help cope with these losses. they need to recreate those memories in some shape or form that they have shared with those loved ones. a book to help is grandpa’s stories. the book follows a young girl who has to find a way to keep her grandfather’s memories alive while also finding a way to say goodbye. the book is beautifully illustrated with watercolor pictures and poetic lines. the story follows the young girl’s journey to recreating those memories that she shared with her late grandfather. along with this book, i have created an activity for you and your young one to complete together. it will also help you both recreate and share those loving memories with each other 28 article about a loved one. my hope for you all is that this activity will help create a bonding experience for you and your family. you can come together as a family by retelling stories and sharing memories about a loved one in a creative way. the activity presented is inspired by the book grandpa’s stories, written by joseph coelho and illustrated by allison colpoys. together, you will both read the book, exploring a poetic and heartwarming story about memories that the young girl and grandfather have shared. as you read, please highlight how the authors use the seasons to express certain feelings, how the illustrations “paint a picture” for you as a reader, and any unfamiliar vocabulary (p. 2 budding, p. 9 rustle, p.10kaleidoscope) that your child may not understand. doing this together will help you complete the activity to go along with the book. as a family (or just you and your child), you will create a journal similar to the one the little girl creates at the end of the story. this will be a place for you to share your favorite memories for each season, and discuss certain places that you all shared with a family member that you’ve lost. the goal is to be creative and bond as you share these memories with each other. feel free to ask your young one about what emotions they feel when they talk about those memories. you can illustrate these feelings through drawings and words. grieving a loved one is a difficult experience for both adults and children. i hope this project opens discussions in the home about emotions, and how writing and sharing with people who care and love about you can help. if your child seems engaged in this form of coping with grief, i suggest reading the book i remember: poems and pictures of heritage (hopkins, 2019). “when someone you love becomes a memory, the memories become a treasure.” best wishes, alexandria joy virtual discussion boards and zoom sessionsfamily literacy activity during the following week of the course, students were invited to post a draft of their family literacy activity to the discussion board. in order to build a sense of rapport with the colleague that reviewed their family literacy letter, students conducted a peer review with the same partner. a detailed rubric was provided (table 2) that students could open, type, save, and attach to their post. as i review and reflect upon student posts and responses, i noticed thoughtful student responses in this virtual format. for example, in response to alexandria’s post, a colleague noted “in your first extension idea, i think it would be helpful to give more explanation. you can suggest that they make memories with the family member they chose. they can create another page in their journal as an addition.” i built upon this student feedback by suggesting that the student provide several sentence stems to facilitate the writing process. table 2 item feedbackplease fill in this column with your feedback. a. are all items included? please give specific feedback. are there sections 29 article where you would like a little more detail? please explain. • name of your bookauthor and illustrator • a list of all materials • step-by -step procedures • prompting questions (at least 5) • ideas for differentiation (at least 2) • extensions (at least 3) b. did you see any spelling, capitalization, grammar, punctuation items that could be fixed? please be specific. c. please give any general positive feedback about what your colleague did well! in a similar fashion to the discussion boards around the family literacy letter described earlier, this virtual discussion board format enabled more in-depth exchanges between students. it also provided students with a forum to review my feedback to each individual student. students were once again encouraged to “read the feedback from your peer review partner and from dr. katz on your letter. if you would like to respond, or ask a question about their feedback, please do so.” i noted that many students continued the conversation on the discussion board, responding to myself and colleagues, and ensuring their work incorporated feedback from all parties. during a zoom session, students clarified feedback from both colleagues and the professor. in addition, students shared additional ideas to strengthen their initial feedback, such as the importance of confirming that step-by-step directions were very clear to the reader and ensuring that ideas for differentiation appealed to a range of learning styles. i noted that the adapted virtual format strengthened students’ final family literacy activity submissions. family literacy activity alexandria’s family literacy packet contained the following activity instructions: a time of remembrance journal book: inspired by grandpa’s stories author: joseph coelho; illustrated by: allison colpoys list of materials needed for this activity:  handmade journal (gifted by me)  markers, crayons, colored pencils  pens/pencils  favorite family photos (copies) stepby-step procedures: you and your child will read the book together before starting the activity. key items to pay attention to as you both are reading include the following: a) notice the poetic lines that the author uses, b) discuss how the illustrations play a role in telling the story, c) and consider the repeated lines of “if all the world were. . .” to later use in your memory journal. 30 article also, as you read, please ask some of the following prompting questions to start a discussion. 1. after you have both read the book, have a discussion on which family member(s) you both would like to remember. 2. once the family member(s) has been chosen, begin reflecting on some of those specific memories you shared together throughout each of the four seasons. feel free to write these ideas down on a scrap piece of paper before you work on the final product. 3. next, see if you all can find some pictures that reflect those memories. if not, feel free to be creative and let you and your child draw out these memories. 4. with those memories that were written down still on scrap paper, let’s now put a poetic twist on them. use the prompt “if all the world were (stories, dreams, memories, etc.), (memory you want use), (then describe the memory as done in the book). for example: if all the world were stories, i could make my grandpa better just by listening, listening, listening to every tale he has to tell. 5. you will use this prompt for each of the four seasons, as shown in the book. 6. once you have a memory for each season, please take the time to write some more memories with the prompt of your choice. these do not need to relate to the season, but could be powerful memories in general that you would like to reflect upon. prompting questions: 1. how does the little girl relate her grandfather to each season (summer, spring, fall/autumn, and winter)? 2. are the illustrations for each season in the book similar to what you see during that season in your community? why or why not? please explain your thoughts, and discuss the illustrator’s choices in the book. 3. are any of the memories in the book similar to yours? 4. do you know why people use journals to write out their feelings? 5. how is a journal similar to a photo album? how is it different? ideas for differentiation: a. please feel free to make the brainstorming of ideas for your journal a field trip. if the family member’s house is close to home, or one of the locations that is associated with the memory is nearby, go visit it! go to the park and do the project over a picnic to make it more relaxing! b. instead of reading it together, let the sankofa read aloud youtube channel read it to you! this way, if your child is a visual learner, they not only have the book in front of them to follow along, but the audio to go with it as well. link: https://youtu.be/_4k_k07a8lm extensions: 1. feel free to do this activity not only for family members who have passed away, but also to create memories for your child to reflect on for when they get older. 31 https://youtu.be/_4k_k07a8lm article 2.the illustrations in the book reflect watercolor painting. as a family, make a trip to your local art supply store or find a painting group to relieve some stress. this can help you get through the hard days of grieving by being creative. 3. the book is written in a poetic style, and poetry can be fun to explore on your own. visit http://www2.nkfust.edu.tw/~emchen/clit/poetry_online.htm, where they explain what poetry is for children and also show them different forms and styles. feel free to let your child and you both write some poetry of your own. 4. writing prompts can help a child develop writing skills and more. visit jason reynolds, national ambassador for young people’s literature website (https://guides.loc.gov/jasonreynolds/grab-the-mic/wrr) where he has many prompts to spark creativity and discussion. self-study pre-service educators completed a pre-study survey and participated in a semi-structured interview to describe their current identity as a literacy educator at the beginning of the semester. alexandria shared the following items, providing context for how she evolved as a literacy educator during the pandemic. 1. how do i view myself as a reader? as a reader, i . . . i see myself as a reader who branches out into the various genres and doesn't mind exploring text(s) beyond my horizons. when reading books, i tend to focus on the characters at hand and try to visualize how they would look and behave from descriptions. also, if there is a family involved, that would be the key idea or part that will stick with me after finishing reading the book. (professor commentarythere is a focus on expanding as a reader through exposure to different genres and visualization strategies, as well as remembering key themes). 2. how do i view myself as a writer? as a writer, i . . . i’m just now gaining my confidence in all forms of writing. i would rather write poems or creative stories because it gives me a chance to be true to myself and tell stories from different perspectives. i believe that i’m a strong writer now that i’m in college, and have received additional help, when needed. (professor commentarythere is a focus on gaining self-confidence as a writer, developing one’s voice as a writer, and seeking help to better oneself as a writer). 3. how will i reflect on my practice as a literacy teacher? remembering to always evolve as a teacher and adjust my various tools with the different students i teach. i will take the time to reflect on certain instruction that does not work as effectively as i would have hoped. i will continue to improve in my practice. (professor commentarythere is a focus on self-reflection as a teacher and finding strategies that best meet student needs. there is a focus on continuous self-improvement). 32 http://www2.nkfust.edu.tw/~emchen/clit/poetry_online.htm https://guides.loc.gov/jason-reynolds/grab-the-mic/wrr https://guides.loc.gov/jason-reynolds/grab-the-mic/wrr article 4. what literacy strategies or activities can i use to get to know my students and their background? let them become storytellers; have them share some of their favorite memories from a different perspective than themselves. explore different forms of creative writing to see what style they enjoy most. host mini book fairs in the class to spark conversation on what their peers are reading to feed their imagination. (professor commentarythere is a focus on encouraging students to explore perspective and genres of writing, as well as reading motivation through peer interactions). 5. what is my vision of literacy instruction for my classroom? to have both genders in the classroom be confident in their writing ability, communicating about text to their peers, and enjoy reading until the point where they are reading different types of literature. i will instill the importance of expanding their horizons through literacy, and how reading can open many curiosity doors. (professor commentarythere is a focus on empowering students to be confident readers, writers, learners, and communicators). virtual discussion board and zoom sessionsplace-based short story as the course progressed and we moved to the place-based short story project, students were invited to post an update on their writing progress to the discussion board. the following prompt was posted: “you might tell us about the topic of your story, something that you discovered while writing your short story, something that surprised you about your writing process, or how you are using what you read in the look both ways text to inspire your own writing.” in order to continue building a sense of rapport with colleagues, students were invited to respond to two colleagues’ posts. alexandria shared the following: “for this short story, i choose to write about my neighborhood's hair store. my writing process for this story is pointing out small memories that remind me of the hair store. then, i started coming up with the certain hairstyles that reminded me of the store and so on. this writing process is similar to what i'd normally do because i tend to always jot down my ideas first before writing. to help "paint the picture," i plan on using some key dialogue from myself and the people in the store and naming of some key hair products. as i'm writing this story, it made me realize how important this hair store has been in my journey as a young adult because this the only hair store i've been shopping at for my entire life!” as i review and reflect upon student posts and responses, i noticed thoughtful student responses in this virtual format. for example, in response to alexandria’s post, a colleague made a text-to-self connection as she wrote “i am excited for your short story because i remember my trips to the hair store and salon. when i was younger, i used to get my hair braided twice a month. my mom would take me to the hair store on the way to the salon to pick out the kinds of beads (i loved clear) and any other hair accessories, such as bows, to match my school uniform and so on. my writing process is similar to yours, as i first come up with key memories and then key descriptors. i like your idea of using key dialogue from your visits and key hair products. i think it is a great idea and will add a lot to your short-story.” i appreciated the meaningful 33 article connections that were being shared among students through the online discussion board, and their insightful reflections on their writing process. place-based short story alexandria wrote the short story “hair trips that last a lifetime” to share with the middle school students, inspired by the mentor text. the short story follows: it was going to be a great weekend if i was going to the beauty supply store, “it’s amazing.” going to the beauty store was like winning the lottery. you had so many things you could buy—from hair products, flat irons, blow dryers, and anything else you could imagine! my neighborhood's beauty store was five minutes driving time from my house and ten minutes if you were walking. for as long as i can remember, this is the only beauty supply store that my family and i’ve used. red glowing lights in a times new roman font with the size of about 82 read the words “it’s amazing.” the parking lot was never full of cars so that meant we always had a chance to park right up to the front doors. as my mother and i, or even my grandmother, would enter the store, we would take the time to admire the hundreds of business cards, music promoters’ flyers, and local things happening in the neighborhood plastered all over the front door. “look at that hairstyle on that little girl, that’d be cute on you!” my mom would say as she read the many business cards of local hair stylists. trips like these only came up once every month, twice if we had a special occasion approaching soon. the routine for the hair store was different for each hair style. if it was braids, it was the same ole phrase, no matter who did them. “you are going to need about 8-10 packs of hair, since you got a big head girl!” the hair braider would typically say. i’d go down the long aisles of the hair stores, like the ones you’d see in your churches. my hands would touch any and every pack of braiding hair as my mom would search for the color i needed. once we reached the aisle, my mom would normally say, “ah! found it alex, 1b. how many packs do you need again? come here, girl, and stop messing around!” sometimes, i would get my natural hair braided by my aunt's close friend, so that didn’t require us to buy any packs of hair, just jam. the jam would come in at least three different sizes, different holds, and each size was represented by a color. for as long as i can remember, we’ve always bought the medium sized, orange container, maximum ten hold! i loved the smell of the jam. it sometimes smelled like fruit, and other times it reminded me of the smell of fresh wax. now, if it was a simple “do-it yourself” hairstyle presented by yours truly, jocelyn aka my mother, it was time to really do some serious spending. shopping for bows, beads, barrettes, knockers, and things of that nature was like shopping in a candy store. my mom normally would get the accessories that matched my school’s uniform. those colors consisted of a navy blue, khaki, shiny teeth white, and any other color that would match my stylish elementary wardrobe. the aisle for the accessories were always next to the wigs and a huge mirror. i’d normally wander over there while my mom would choose the accessories. i’d do a couple of ballerina twists, maybe a kool-aid smile, or just play with the wigs before my mom would come looking for me. “alex! alexxx! alexandria!” my mom would exclaim. i’d come running, just like alex the lion from madagascar, just to show her that i heard her, and i wasn’t playing around. there would be some days we’d just go to the hair store for just my mother, or just to go! those trips were always time consuming, but it was fun because it meant i can wander around 34 article the entire store! my mom would go on her separate journey, while i took my own into the wondrous aisles of products, jewelry, and my favorite— the wigs. the wig aisle consisted of two to three rows of a hundred types of wigs. you had your low pixie cut wigs, mid shoulder long swoop bang wigs, side part wigs with a splash of color, afro funk wigs, and anything else you could imagine a mom, young adult, or maybe even your oldest sister would wear. that wasn’t even the best part of the wigs, it was the mannequin heads they were placed on! some were a bit scary because they were missing the paint off of their eye, or they had no eyes! it was like walking down a haunted forest trail for halloween. imagine every time you walked past a mannequin headthe doll had pretty hair, but barely had a face! i’d normally run from the wig section to the jewelry section because they were surrounded by the bright, moon-like white lights. what topped the area off was the plush red carpet that filled it. i felt like a famous movie star window shopping for her grammy or movie debut that was happening later that night. as our trips would come to an end, we’d make our way to the one cash register in the front of the store. the cash register was so high up. the man behind the counter looked down to grab each item that was handpicked by my mother and i. “you all had a wonderful shopping experience, i see. some accessories for the cutie, and jewelry for you, ma’am?” the cashier typically always said. the sound of him typing the prices on the register was somewhat soothing because you knew each item was yours to take as soon as he read you the total. the total would range from about 30 to 50 dollars a majority of the time. my mother would pay with either cash or card. the cashier would then hand us our receipt, and we’ll be on our way. it was sad to walk out of those front doors, but you knew your journey had come to a great end. you had just filled a cabinet, top of a dresser, or drawer with new hair items and were on your way to getting a new hairdo! that was the typical journey of our hair store trips, and it was something i’d look forward to all the time. middle school student story a middle school student wrote the short story “peace of the night and day” to share with the college students, inspired by the mentor text. an excerpt of the short story follows: the most important place for me is the backyard. it has two large iguana green outdoor chairs and a square patio table. even though it is not such a big space, there are some really amazing hiding places, like in between the gate behind the house and also behind the firepit. i can sense the colors just by looking at the sky and feeling the wind blow around me. it’s calm and it’s also a place to meditate, play, and be peaceful. i always sit in the first chair to the right when i first enter the backyard. when the wind brushes on me, i feel relaxed (especially at night time because that’s the quietest time). i think the world is allowing me to release my stress and letting me finally untense. i've been tensing up ever since school started, beginning in 5th grade. the thing is you can imagine playing games and then hide and seek in the backyard also, we pretend we're playing our favorite imagination games too. virtual writing conferences zoom sessions were conducted in which both sets of students virtually conferenced about their writing pieces when schedules allowed. the reading professor also shared sample middle school student writing with university students during our in-person courses and noted student 35 article feedback, which was subsequently shared with middle school students. in addition, the reading professor shared university student writing with middle school students during our virtual sessions, recording elements of the conversation to share with the college students afterwards. in this manner, authentic conversations about writing were being cultivated through a virtual approach. middle school students commented that alexandria’s story “used strong detail” that made them feel like they were at the hair store along with her. a middle school student said that “you could feel her excitement as you are reading it. it almost felt like i was watching a video of her trip because there were so many adjectives and descriptions. i would like to try that in my writing soon.” a second middle school student noted that “i can hear her voice in the story, and that makes me want to try that strategy in my own writing in the future.” another middle student stated that it “made me think about special memories and times that i spend with my mom. reading this story made me want to talk about them with her, and then later write about them as well. i realized that it is important to record these memories and put them on paper.” alexandria found this feedback from middle school students to be powerful, and it made her proud of her writing piece. in reflecting upon these interactions, it is evident that these virtual writing conferences impacted both middle school and university students along their writing journey. conclusion after the project was complete, college of education pre-service educators completed a post-study survey and participated in a semi-structured interview to describe their current identity as a literacy teacher. alexandria shared the following insights: prompt response analysis how do i view myself as a reader? as a reader, i now know how to make the reading more relatable to the world around me for my future students. i’ve become more critical about how things around me can have more than one meaning when taking in other perspectives. i can thank the film life, animated (williams, 2016) for helping me understand that the way someone intended for something to be can be seen differently by its intended audience. the way owen can take simple disney movies and create life lessons from them is now how i look at books that i choose to read. i now dissect the text of a book and try and make it relate to my world around me, as well as find a life lesson that i can now use for myself. the student has made gains in their literacy teacher self-identity. she possesses strategies for connecting reading to the outside world and teaching perspectivetaking strategies to future students. 36 article how do i view myself as a writer? as a writer, i have grown from the start of this fall semester to now. at the start of this course, we introduced ourselves through “i am from” poems. this is where my spark for creative writing was planted once again. i began to become more confident in my writing from this activity, as i explored what is important to me. also, through jason reynolds “write, right, rite” prompts that we were introduced to in class, i have grown as a writer. i feel more confident from these exercises to express myself, through whether it be poetry or any other form of creative writing. the student has grown as a writer through poetry, creative writing, and in-class writing activities. she feels more confident as a writer, which will transfer to confidence as a writing teacher. how will i reflect on my practice as a literacy teacher? self-reflection will always be a start to see how effective the activities or strategies i choose to implement are being received. i will also take feedback from my students and colleagues. i would monitor my students’ progress and engagement level when giving certain activities/strategies, and even keep a self-reflection journal to jot down the “wins and wobbles” of how instruction went in the classroom. in addition to that, dr. victoria purcell-gates (2012) suggests that we should also find ways to learn from our communities and parents— to see how as teachers we can learn more about our students. in the video “how teachers can learn from communities and parents,” she states that we must remember that as teachers, we aren’t the only ones with the answers. in order to better ourselves and students learning in the the student will continuously self-reflect. she will enlist feedback from students and colleagues in order to grow as a literacy educator. the student will learn from researchers, in addition to maintaining connections with the families and communities that she teaches. 37 article classroom, we must communicate with both parents and the communities. what literacy strategies or activities can i use to get to know my students and their background? i would love to incorporate the “i am from” poems as an introductory activity in my elementary classroom to get to not only know my students, but also their background, values, and goals. including books/text like jason reynolds look both ways to spark interests about cultures and neighborhoods that have shaped students to be the person they are becoming will be an activity i would use as well. the article six tips for using culturally relevant text in diverse classrooms (kibler & chapman, 2018) suggests that a future teacher creates transformative experiences during reading. as a teacher, we can include text that shows students many perspectives from different individuals. while incorporating those types of text, i love the idea of using fishbowls to facilitate discussions regarding what has been read. the student will incorporate authentic literacy texts and meaningful activities in her future classroom. she will draw upon students’ funds of knowledge and researchbased strategies in order to build a strong literacy program for her future students. what is my vision of literacy instruction for my classroom? my vision for literacy instruction in the classroom is to make the instruction as much of a creative and interactive process as it can be. students will already come into the classroom with misconceptions about literacy. my goal as a teacher will be to try and eliminate those misconceptions, and to show them different strategies through various activities. also, i want to make literacy learning hands-on and meaningful for my students. the close reading activity is something that i would want to the student will incorporate close reading strategies as a future teacher. she is dedicated to ensuring that her students are critical readers who have access to hands-on, meaningful learning opportunities. 38 article incorporate into my classroom when discussing those difficult texts to make it interactive. the activity really helped me as a college student become engaged in my reading by being able to use different colored avery dots to represent how the text is working for the reader. alexandria presented on these two community literacy outreach projects during the university’s virtual research symposium. she shared the following insights: “these experiences have made me confident in my future career as a teacher, as it has helped me re-consider how we approach literacy in our daily lives. thank you for the opportunity to highlight the course and my transformative experiences.” i would like to express my gratitude to alexandria for sharing her experiences with us. can literacy educators forge these powerful personal connections around literature with students and families through innovative academic service learning outreach initiatives, and through the use of online platforms, during challenging times? a family literacy project and a virtual writing collaboration with middle school students sheds light on how university students facilitated access to literature for their local community during the pandemic, helping local students thrive. author’s note: i wish to acknowledge the faculty research committee of georgia southern university for their support of this publication. references coelho, j. (2019). grandpa’s stories: a book of remembering. new york: harry n. abrams. hopkins, l.b. (2019). i remember: poems and pictures of heritage. new york: lee & low books. kibler, k., & chapman, l. a. (2018). six tips for using culturally relevant texts in diverse classrooms. the reading teacher, 72 (6), 741–744. https://doi.org/10.1002/trtr.1775 learning for justice. (2012, march 15). how teachers can learn from communities and parents: dr. victoria purcell-gates. retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=37vsux0fd4&feature=youtu.be lyon, g. e. (1999). where i’m from. retrieved from http://www.georgeellalyon.com/where.html 39 https://doi.org/10.1002/trtr.1775 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=37-%09vsux0fd4&feature=youtu.be http://www.georgeellalyon.com/where.html article notable books for a global society. children’s literature and reading special interest group, international literacy association. retrieved from http://www.clrsig.org/nbgs-lists.html reynolds, j. (2021) library of congress research guide: "write. right. rite." series. https://guides.loc.gov/jason-reynolds/grab-the-mic/wrr reynolds, j. (2019). look both ways: a tale told in ten blocks. new york: atheneum books for young readers. risko, v. & reid, l. (2019). what really matters for literacy teacher preparation? the reading teacher, 72(4), 423-429. sankofa read-aloud channel. (2019, september 11). grandpa’s stories. [video]. youtube. https://youtu.be/_4k_k07a8lm williams, r. r. (director). (2016). life, animated [film]. united states: motto pictures. 40 http://www.clrsig.org/nbgs-lists.html https://guides.loc.gov/jason-reynolds/grab-the-mic/wrr https://youtu.be/_4k_k07a8lm georgia journal of reading 6 volume 42, number 1 2019 abstract k-12 classrooms are becoming increasingly more diverse. in order to address the literacy learning needs among all students more effectively, literacy teachers must be sufficiently prepared to address diversity in literacy education. this study explored current preparation practices among literacy teacher educators in one state located in the southern united states and used sociocultural theories as a lens to better understand reported practice. qualitative data were collected from 57 responses provided to an open-ended question included on an electronically disseminated survey. data were analyzed with coding and constant comparison techniques, which resulted in three major themes: coursework, authentic contexts, and resource materials. findings emphasized a strong need for literacy teacher educators to examine and evaluate their current preparation practices and identify ways to strengthen them to address multicultural education, critical pedagogy, and critical literacy more explicitly. limitations for this study were addressed, along with recommendations for future studies. introduction researchers have examined the extent to which teacher preparation programs prepare teacher candidates with the necessary skills to teach literacy (binks-cantrell, washburn, joshi, & hougen, 2012; clark, jones, reutzel, & andreasen, 2013; hoffman et al., 2005; moats, 1994; salinger et al., 2010; washburn, joshi, & binks-cantrell, 2011). in order to teach literacy in the pre-k-12th grade levels effectively, classroom teachers must have experienced high-quality literacy teacher preparation (hollins, 2017). to address this notion, the international literacy association by rebekah e. piper, laurie a. sharp and roberta d. raymond diversity in literacy education: how are literacy teacher educators preparing teacher candidates? georgia journal of reading 7 volume 42, number 1 2019 (ila) established criteria in the form of professional standards that delineate the dispositions, knowledge, and skills required among literacy practitioners (ila, 2017b; international reading association [ira], 2010). these professional standards address the multiple facets of literacy and provide teacher preparation programs with an evidence-based guide for highquality literacy teacher preparation. a specific area that has been at the forefront of ila’s mission is ensuring that classroom teachers are prepared to implement literacy practices that are “culturally sustaining and academically rigorous” (ila, 2017a, p. 2). to that end, ila has also emphasized the value of diversity within its professional standards (see table 1). attending to diversity in literacy education during teacher preparation is of utmost importance because classroom teachers must know how to select and use a variety of instructional tools and strategies to teach increasingly diverse student populations well (algozzine, o’shea, & obiakor, 2009; bennett, alberton gunn, gayle-evans, barrera, & leung, 2018; collins, 2006; nichols, rupley, webb-johnson, tlusty, 2000). during the past ten years, research findings have shown that the nation’s teaching force fails to reflect the cultural diversity represented among students (ingersoll & may, 2011; ingersoll & merrill, 2017; ingersoll, merrill, & stuckey, 2014; king, mcintosh, & bell-ellwanger, 2016). considering that the majority of classroom teachers and teacher candidates are white, middle-class, female monolingual english speakers who have had few substantive experiences with culturally diverse students, it is evident that many future and practicing classroom teachers do not share the same cultural backgrounds, experiences, and values of their students (kahn, lindstrom, & murray, 2014; ladson-billings, 1995b; wood, 2009; zeichner & hoeft, 1996). moreover, as novice teachers enter the classroom, they are too often provided with scripted, standardized, and uniform curricula that promote “sameness,” rather than “equity” (timberlake, burns thomas, & barrett, 2017, p. 50). thus, classroom teachers are not afforded opportunities to develop an appreciation for cultural differences represented in their classrooms or learn how to affirm these differences through pedagogical practices. this phenomenon is quite alarming as “culture strongly influences the attitudes, values, and behaviors that students and teachers bring to the instructional process” (gay, 2002, p. 114). along with cultural differences between teachers and students, research has also illustrated long-standing literacy achievement gaps between students by ethnicity, gender, race, and socioeconomic status (potter & morris, 2017; reardon & galindo, 2009; reardon, valentino, & shores, 2012). howard (2003) acknowledged that teacher educators must consider ways to prepare teacher candidates more meaningfully to meet the needs of all students in their classrooms. howard asserted that teacher candidates “must critically analyze important issues such as race, ethnicity, and culture, and recognize how these important concepts shape the learning experience for many students” (p. 195). with this in mind, the purpose of this study was to explore current preparation practices that literacy teacher educators use to address diversity in literacy education with teacher candidates. review of the literature ila identified professional standards to address the knowledge and skills necessary for literacy table 1 standard 4: diversity standards for reading professionals— revised 2010 (ira, 2010) candidates create and engage their students in literacy practices that develop awareness, understanding, respect, and a value of differences in our society. standards for the preparation of literacy professionals 2017 (ila, 2017) candidates demonstrate knowledge of research, relevant theories, pedagogies, essential concepts of diversity and equity; demonstrate and provide opportunities for understanding all forms of diversity as central to students’ identities; create classrooms and schools that are inclusive and affirming; advocate for equity at school, district, and community levels. georgia journal of reading 8 volume 42, number 1 2019 education (ila, 2017b; ira, 2010). at the time of this study, ila’s standards included the following six areas: (1) foundational knowledge, (2) curriculum and instruction, (3) assessment and evaluation, (4) diversity, (5) literate environment, and (6) professional learning and leadership (ira, 2010). literacy is the foundation for all learning, and ila’s standards identified specialized knowledge for administrators, classroom teachers (i.e., pre-kindergarten through elementary teachers, middle and high school content teachers, middle and high school reading teachers), education support personnel, specialized literacy professionals, and teacher educators. the focus of this study was the extent to which literacy teacher educators prepare teacher candidates as culturally responsive classroom teachers who skillfully address diversity in literacy education within the context of today’s classrooms. as classrooms become increasingly more diverse, classroom teachers are faced with meeting a wide range of student learning needs (nichols et al., 2000). thus, teacher preparation programs must offer carefully structured and welldesigned learning experiences that prepare teacher candidates to teach culturally diverse students effectively (kim, turner, & mason, 2015). the following review of literature provided an overview of key concepts that underpin diversity in literacy education and described challenges and recommendations for related teacher preparation practices. multicultural education in the early 2000’s, the united states entered an era characterized by the largest influx of immigrants and a rising number of u.s.-born ethnic minorities (banks, 2001; mcfarland et al., 2017). estimates have suggested that by the year 2050, african american, asian american, and latinx students will comprise nearly 57% of all students in k-12 classrooms (day, 1996). with such cultural diversity represented, it is imperative that teacher candidates are well-prepared to teach students whose cultural backgrounds will, more often than not, be unlike their own (clayton, 2011; hughes, gleason, & zhang, 2005; mckown & weinstein, 2008). therefore, teacher preparation programs must provide learning experiences that address multicultural education and prepare teacher candidates to work with culturally diverse students (gay & howard, 2000; nieto, 2010; nieto & bode, 2012; sleeter, 2001). multicultural education ensures educational equity among all students, regardless of race, ethnicity, or socioeconomic status (banks, 1995). multicultural education is concerned with social justice and aims to mitigate educational inequities by valuing and affirming diversity (nieto, 2010). according to banks (1995), multicultural education relates to the pedagogical strategies and techniques that classroom teachers use to (a) illustrate content-based understandings through representations of diverse culture groups; (b) help students recognize the knowledge-creation process and how it is influenced by race, ethnicity, and socioeconomic status; (c) promote democratic attitudes and values towards race; (d) facilitate academic success among all students; and (e) restructure school systems to address diversity effectively. critical pedagogy critical pedagogy is rooted in critical theory and refers to systems of actions and beliefs that are focused on social justice (burbules & berk, 1999). critical pedagogy challenges inequitable, oppressive, and unjust practices and strives to transform them. according to freire (1973), critical pedagogy requires the development of critical cultural consciousness, a process in which an individual uses critical thinking skills to examine their situation; develop deep understandings about the inequitable, oppressive, and unjust practices associated with their situation; and design, implement, and evaluate solutions to transmute social injustices. despite the fact that classrooms are becoming more diverse, school curriculum materials are still heavily ensconced in european and european american cultural norms, experiences, and contributions (nieto & bode, 2012). similarly, nash (2018) and pezzetti (2017) have recently brought to light a juxtaposition of explicit and implicit discourses about culturally diverse students among teacher candidates who are predominantly white, middleclass, female monolingual english speakers. although teacher candidates from the millennial and postmillennial generations have adopted discourses that “eschew racism and value diversity” (pezzetti, 2017, p. 132), they continue to exhibit “problematic, persistent binary and deficit discourse” that hinders the adoption of critically-oriented pedagogies (nash, 2018 p. 160). georgia journal of reading 9 volume 42, number 1 2019 for example, nash (2018) emphasized the need for teacher educators to move teacher candidates beyond colorblind discourse (e.g., “i see students, not color”) and develop discourse practices to candidly talk about cultural differences with students. in literacy education, critical literacy aligns with critical pedagogy and engages students who are marginalized in social action (shor, 1999) to face, question, and challenge the status quo (lee, 2011; stevens & bean, 2007). freire and macedo (1987) argued that teachers must transcend the teaching of basic literacy skills and focus instead on developing the knowledge and skills that promote students’ ability to critically examine historical and social concepts associated with ethnicity, gender, race, and socioeconomic class. additionally, lee (2016) clarified that critical literacy practices should be accessible to all students, invite students to critically analyze the social construction of power relationships, and empower students to be agents of social change. teacher preparation practices according to gay and kirkland (2003), teacher educators encounter a number of obstacles that interfere with their preparation efforts related to diversity in literacy education. for example, teacher candidates often possess poor understandings about self-reflection and lack knowledge of how critical reflection has the potential to influence praxis. additionally, teacher candidates have limited opportunities to engage with guided practice in self-reflection during enrollment in their teacher preparation programs. moreover, teacher candidates tend to possess erroneous notions that teaching is “the mastery of technical components that are applicable to all teaching contexts and student populations,” rather than “a personal performance, a moral endeavor, and a cultural script” (p. 182). gay and kirkland also acknowledged that some teacher candidates intentionally avoid developing cultural critical consciousness and self-reflection skills by averting, avoiding, or abating the value of diversityrelated topics. alismail (2016) asserted that teacher preparation programs must provide sufficient training that prepares teacher candidates to be “critical multiculturalists” who recognize “education as a way of addressing social inequalities shaped by differences in race, ethnicity, and social class” (p. 144). teacher preparation programs must employ transformative preparation practices that push teacher candidates to go beyond merely articulating what they learned about cultural diversity (taylor, kumi-yeboah, & ringlaben, 2016) and hold teacher candidates accountable for enacting what they learned as culturally responsive teachers (nash, 2018). similarly, bartolomé (2004) contended that visiting, observing, and engaging with field experiences in diverse school settings in and of itself fails to provide teacher candidates with the “political and ideological clarity” needed to “instruct, protect, and advocate for their students” (p. 119). instead, teacher candidates must be afforded frequent opportunities to examine, reflect, and engage in critical discourse regarding the relationship between ideology and power in educational practices, as well as with their own perceptual lenses (bartolomé, 2004; milner, 2003). theoretical framework this study draws on the concept of culturally relevant/responsive teaching as a theoretical lens to explore current teacher preparation practices that literacy teacher educators use to address diversity in literacy education with teacher candidates (gay, 2000, 2010; ladson-billings, 1995a, 1995b, 2009). gay (2000) defined culturally relevant/responsive teaching as “using the cultural knowledge, prior experiences, frames of reference, and performance styles of ethnically diverse students to make learning encounters more relevant to and effective for them” (p. 29). teachers who use culturally relevant/responsive teaching practices consider the strengths of culturally diverse students and design instruction according to these strengths. by affirming and validating the cultural heritage of students (gay, 2000, 2010), teachers make learning more accessible to all students (ladsonbillings, 2009). according to gay (2000, 2010), culturally relevant/ responsive teaching is a pedagogy that: (1) recognizes the legitimacy of cultural heritage and how culture affects learning; (2) establishes meaningful connections between home and school experiences; (3) draws from a repertoire of instructional strategies that address different learning styles; (4) instills the importance of knowing and respecting the cultural heritage of self and others; and (5) integrates georgia journal of reading 10 volume 42, number 1 2019 multicultural information, material, and resources seamlessly throughout the curriculum. implementing a culturally relevant/responsive pedagogy is of great benefit for culturally diverse students and enhances their academic performance, cultural competence, interpersonal relationships, self-worth, and social consciousness (gay, 2000, 2010; ladson-billings, 1995a, 1995b). for the past 50 years, researchers have emphasized the importance of teacher preparation programs ensuring that teacher candidates are sufficiently prepared to meet the needs of culturally diverse students (gay & howard, 2000; nieto, 2000; nieto & bode, 2012; sleeter, 2001). a common way teacher preparation programs have addressed this need is by integrating multicultural education components throughout their preparation program, such as in literacy coursework and field experiences (dooley, 2008; iwai, 2013; kim et al., 2015). however, ladsonbillings (1995b) cautioned against using “add on versions” of multicultural education components because they “exoticize diverse students as ‘other’” (p. 483). these understandings about culturally relevant/responsive teaching and teacher preparation provided us with a way to better understand current preparation practices that literacy teacher educators use to address diversity in literacy education with teacher candidates. methodology context this study was part of a larger cross-sectional study that we conducted in one state located in the southern united states. the goal of our larger study was twofold: (1) to elicit ratings for how literacy teacher educators viewed teacher candidates’ preparedness with ila’s professional standards for classroom teachers (ira, 2010); and (2) to identify ways in which literacy teacher educators cultivated teacher candidates’ understandings with each of these professional standards. we designed an electronic survey instrument in google forms and conducted a pilot test among a group of 20 teacher educators in disciplines other than literacy to gain feedback and ensure appropriate functionality. after pilot testing concluded, we made a few minor edits with wording and disseminated the finalized survey instrument by email. we kept the survey period open for five months and sent monthly email reminders to encourage participation. participants in order to develop a participant pool of potential survey respondents, we created a database of literacy teacher educators by accessing publically-available information on the internet. first, we accessed the state education agency’s website to obtain a listing of all state-approved, university-based teacher preparation programs. next, we consulted each university’s website and searched for the names and email addresses of faculty members who teach literacy courses affiliated with the university’s teacher preparation program. our efforts resulted in a participant pool of 457 individuals from 67 teacher preparation programs. data collection and analysis when the survey period closed, we had collected 65 completed surveys. to achieve the purpose for this study, we retrieved relevant survey data that described preparation practices respondents used to address diversity in literacy education with teacher candidates. we held an initial meeting to review concepts related to culturally relevant/responsive teaching and establish a systematic way to manage the coding process (fernald & duclos, 2005). after the initial meeting, we uploaded data in dedoose, a qualitative web application, and analyzed data collaboratively using two levels of coding (corbin & strauss, 2008). in the first level, open coding was used to identify initial categories that appeared in the data. in the second level, axial coding was used to identify connections between categories. throughout both levels of coding, we constantly compared data to refine categories (glaser & strauss, 1967) and kept analytic memos to record reflections, thoughts, and understandings (saldaña, 2016). during the coding process, we held regular meetings to debrief and discuss coding schemes until intercoder agreement was reached (fernald & duclos, 2005). findings among the 65 completed surveys received, 57 respondents described preparation practices they use to address diversity in literacy education with teacher candidates. respondents included 52 females and five males who teach literacy coursework in universitybased teacher preparation programs affiliated with private (n = 21) and public (n = 36) higher education georgia journal of reading 11 volume 42, number 1 2019 institutions. a total of 2,436 words were retrieved and analyzed, which generated three major themes: coursework, authentic contexts, and resource materials. a description of each theme, along with excerpts, is provided below. coursework respondents acknowledged the importance of addressing different types of diversity, such as class, gender, ethnicity, and race, through literacy coursework because many teacher candidates have limited understandings of diversity. one respondent explained that they begin every course with “a discussion about what makes up diversity.” this respondent further explained that the university’s close proximity to the united states-mexico border often creates narrow understandings of diversity, as “many individuals merely think of language or ethnicity.” broadening preconceptions about diversity among teacher candidates helped respondents support preparation program frameworks for “diversity, equity, anti-racist pedagogy, social justice work, and critical literacy.” one respondent asserted that their goal was for teacher candidates to understand that “culturally relevant teaching, social justice, and democratic classrooms” were not singular concepts for addressing diversity in literacy education, but instead were “a personal stance on how we walk through life.” in addition to class discussions, respondents identified other coursework components that they use to address diversity in literacy education. these components included “critical literacy discussions,” “readings,” “examinations,” “presentations,” “reflections,” “lectures,” and assignments geared towards “how to validate and honor diversity in the classroom.” respondents also disclosed that they use modeling to demonstrate instructional practices and create awareness among teacher candidates concerning cultural diversity. one respondent shared: i am from a minority, specifically, asian culture. i model for my [teacher candidates] the value of respect for diverse cultures in the way treat each person with dignity and respect. if appropriate, i also share my own culture with them, and they know they are free to do the same in my class. authentic contexts beyond the university classroom, respondents reported that teacher candidates gained much experience with diversity in literacy education through learning experiences held in authentic prekindergarten—12th grade school settings. respondents emphasized the significance and value of field experiences and classroom observations, as one respondent contended that teacher candidates “need to experience diversity before they can address it.” respondents reported that teacher candidates spent several hours “in schools with high populations of linguistic, societal, and cultural diversity.” for instance, one respondent described how their teacher preparation program ensured all teacher candidates experienced diversity in literacy education as a result of strategic field placements in schools with diverse student populations: during their junior year, all [teacher candidates] have a field placement in a bilingual or esl [english as a second language] classroom and work directly with those learners in various instructional settings. they are also placed in primarily urban low-ses [socioeconomic status] educational settings for their field placements. although 20 respondents indicated that teacher candidates completed field experiences and classroom observations in diverse school settings, they did not provide further information concerning the nature of required field experiences or classroom observations, such as corresponding assignments. some respondents raised specific concerns about how field experiences and classroom observations prepare teacher candidates for diversity in education. for example, one respondent confided: i’m not sure our [teacher] candidates are prepared for success with student populations unlike our own local school populations. there’s a sense that our institutional task is to only prepare future teachers for our community, rather than for the schools and students of the state or nation. another respondent acknowledged that while teacher candidates completed field experiences and classroom observations “in very diverse schools,” they were concerned that “literacy teacher educators continue to do as much as we can specifically linking equity and diversity issues to reading instruction.” georgia journal of reading 12 volume 42, number 1 2019 resource materials respondents referenced several resource materials that they use to address diversity in literacy education with teacher candidates. these resource materials included research reports, “classroom scenarios,” “videos of exemplary precision [teaching],” “flip books, “and “word walls.” yet, respondents overwhelmingly identified children’s literature as the primary resource material they used to prepare teacher candidates for diversity in literacy education. respondents explained that they use high-quality trade books in stand-alone children’s literature courses and “integrate literature throughout the curriculum, not just on special days.” respondents also described three specific ways in which they use literature with teacher candidates to promote understandings related to diversity in literacy education. first, respondents shared that they use “a variety of good solid literature” to demonstrate and model how to reinforce literacy practices that respect and value cultural differences represented among students. respondents also explained that they may use specific texts to create awareness about diversityrelated topics, such as disability, ethnicity, race, and socioeconomic class. lastly, respondents affirmed that they design course assignments requiring teacher candidates to “select, read, and respond to a diverse collection of children’s literature.” one respondent provided a broad overview of such an assignment: in my course, [teacher candidates] complete a classroom library organization project where they categorize books and identify gaps, such as the limited number of books that may address diversity. they also brainstorm ideas for how to increase culturally and linguistically diverse materials in their own classroom libraries. discussion as classrooms become increasingly more diverse, it is imperative that classroom teachers know how to implement “culturally sustaining and academically rigorous” literacy practices (ila, 2017a, p. 2). literacy teacher educators have the privilege and responsibility to provide teacher candidates with the training needed to address diversity in literacy education in their future classrooms effectively. with this in mind, this study sought to explore current preparation practices for diversity in literacy education among a group of experienced literacy teacher educators who were affiliated with university-based teacher preparation programs. we used the concepts of culturally relevant/responsive teaching and teacher preparation as theoretical lenses to better understand reported practices (gay, 2000, 2010; ladson-billings, 1995a, 1995b, 2009). our findings revealed that literacy teacher educators primarily address diversity in literacy education through coursework, authentic contexts, and resource materials. it was evident that participants in this study valued cultural diversity themselves and sought to engender awareness about diversity among teacher candidates enrolled in their respective teacher preparation programs. similarly, these participants reported using a variety of preparation practices to instill, within teacher candidates, ways that they may value cultural differences represented among students in their future classrooms. although participants expressed great confidence with preparation practices they implemented within the university classroom, they seemed less confident with preparation practices that occurred in genuine school settings. in addition, the extent to which participants explicitly aligned their preparation practices with concepts associated with culturally relevant/responsive teaching was not at all clear. likewise, it was unclear as to whether reported preparation practices were part of a well-designed and well-implemented teacher preparation program or were mere add-on components. our findings echo previous concerns that researchers have expressed regarding teacher educators and their role in preparing teacher candidates to work with culturally diverse students. like teacher candidates, many teacher educators are white, monolingual english speakers who “are limited in cross-cultural experiences and understandings” (melnick & zeichner, 1998, p. 89). as a result, teacher educators may feel uncomfortable, unprepared, and unskilled to address topics related to diversity and implement preparation practices that prime teacher candidates to be culturally relevant and responsive teachers (ellerbrock, cruz, vásquez, & howes, 2016). moreover, there are currently no mechanisms in place to ascertain teacher educators’ assumptions, beliefs, and commitment to culturally diverse students nor a systematic way to support continuous professional learning about culturally relevant/responsive teaching (jacobs, czop georgia journal of reading 13 volume 42, number 1 2019 assaf, & lee, 2011). “quality teacher preparation depends on quality teacher educators” (kosnik, menna, dharamshi, miyata, & beck, 2013, p. 524), yet very little attention has been given to literacy teacher educators, particularly upon their entry into the world of teacher preparation. preparing teacher candidates to adopt culturally relevant/responsive teaching practices begins during their enrollment in teacher preparation programs and under the direction of knowledgeable and skilled teacher educators (baumgartner, bay, lopez-reyna, snowden, & maiorano, 2015). however, kosnik et al. (2013) contended that closer scrutiny is warranted to identify the exact kinds of knowledge that literacy teacher educators need to prepare teacher candidates effectively, as well as any necessary institutional supports. our findings have suggested a strong need for literacy teacher educators to evaluate how their respective teacher preparation programs prepare teacher candidates to address diversity in literacy education. during these evaluations, literacy teacher educators should work collaboratively with colleagues to carefully examine preparation practices used during coursework, as well as during field experiences and classroom observations. all program requirements should be aligned with professional standards and address key concepts associated with diversity in literacy education comprehensively and systematically. most importantly, literacy teacher educators must ensure that teacher candidates learn meaningful ways to use culturally relevant/responsive literacy practices “to strengthen a literate society, making it more productive, more adaptable to change, and more equitable” (ira, 2010, p. 24). limitations and areas for further research every research endeavor yields limitations. within this study, there were methodological limitations that impacted generalizability of our reported findings. as such, the number of respondents in this study was small and included only literacy teacher educators from one state located in the southern united states. since this study was intended to be exploratory, future studies should replicate these procedures and include larger groups of literacy teacher educators that span multiple geographic areas. future studies may also consider utilizing research designs that provide a more comprehensive understanding of individual preparation practices in relation to the overall design of a preparation program. conclusion preparing teacher candidates for diversity in education is a tremendous responsibility. literacy teacher educators must ensure that their preparation practices cultivate future literacy teachers who implement culturally relevant/responsive teaching practices effectively. it is imperative for literacy teacher educators to recognize that culturally relevant/responsive teaching practices go well beyond addressing student differences. instead, literacy teacher educators must strengthen how future teachers are prepared to employ high-quality teaching practices that enhance educational equity among all students. references algozzine, b., o’shea, d. j., & obiakor, f. e. 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(1996). teacher socialization for cultural diversity. in j. sikula (ed.), handbook of research on teacher education (2nd ed., pp. 176-198). new york, ny: macmillan reference library. once you learn to read, you will be forever free. —frederick douglass georgia journal of reading 15 volume 38, number 1 2015 an analysis of teachers’ discourse and their perceptions concerning the use of questioning and feedback during reading instruction in third-grade classrooms by dr. marie holbein and dr. jennifer farist abstract the purpose of this study was to investigate teacher talk during elementary reading instruction. the study was designed to gain insight into existing discourse patterns and to understand how change in these patterns might be facilitated. the design of the study evolved after a review of existing literature on the topic of teacher talk indicated a lack of widespread, intentional focus on classroom discourse and its potential impact on student learning. qualitative methods were used to capture the language used by third-grade teachers during read aloud instruction. data sources included audio recordings of lessons and teacher interviews. these methods were used to identify common communication patterns in the participating classrooms. after the initial analysis of discourse, the two most commonly used types of teacher talk, questioning and feedback, were investigated with more depth. the goal was to determine not only the types of questioning and feedback used by teachers but also the purpose of these two types of discourse. data were analyzed using a sociocultural lens based on the work of vygotsky. the study was built upon theoretical and empirical evidence that effective teacher talk promotes student learning. the participating teachers were involved in data analysis as they reviewed transcripts of the read aloud instruction and responded to questions related to their use of discourse in the lessons. results from the study highlight the need for an intentional focus on the discourse used by classroom teachers and provide insight into social and cultural factors that inhibit productive discourse. student learning is the primary purpose of schooling, and the teacher’s role is to create an environment that maximizes student learning. a component of that critical learning environment is the verbal interaction, or discourse, that occurs within the social and cultural context of the classroom. the discourse facilitated by georgia journal of reading 16 volume 38, number 1 2015 the teacher, often referred to as teacher talk, is the focus of this investigation. vygotsky (1986) recognized the importance of social and cultural contexts to learning, and his theory of cognitive development, now known as sociocultural theory, emphasized the interdependence of social and individual processes. he recognized a number of internal developmental processes which operate only when the child is interacting with people in his environment. one of these processes, internalization, occurs as social activities evolve into internal mental activities. the russian psychologist used the example of problem solving in children to illustrate this developmental process. when children find themselves unable to solve a problem, they routinely turn to an adult and verbally describe the situation. as they develop, children replace socialized speech with egocentric speech as language becomes an intrapersonal function in addition to its interpersonal use. he believed that only when speech became internalized did it begin to organize the child’s thought as an internal mental function. vygotsky (1978) used the term “meaning-making” to describe the process of linking new learning with what is already known. he theorized that meaningmaking is dependent upon utterances. the purpose of these utterances is joint meaning-making as one makes meaning for oneself and extends one’s own understanding while producing meaning for others. he concluded that the child develops into himself based on what he produces for others (wells, 1999). vygotsky’s theory (1978) provided a firm theoretical basis for learning and development that is of central importance to education. he agreed with controversial thinkers of his time period that individual developmental change was not simply biological but also rooted in society and culture. his work expanded on writings of his contemporary psychologists who were beginning to recognize the importance of the interaction of humans with their environment. he recognized the important distinction between animals and humans: animals react to their environment while humans have the capacity to alter the environment for their own purposes (schunk, 2008). vygotsky (1978) suggested that the use of sign systems (language, writing, number systems) was unique to humans, evolved as a culture developed, and led to behavioral changes and cognitive development. despite his interest in language as one of these sign systems, vygotsky’s writings lacked specific guidance on the types of language that would best facilitate the learning process in the classroom (wells, 1999). despite this apparent gap between theory and practice, educators who support social learning theories believe that knowledge and practical application of vygotsky’s theory will allow teachers to maximize student learning. vygotsky recognized the crucial role that expert members of the culture (such as parents or teachers) play in providing guidance and assistance to learners. however, he cautioned against too much guidance and assistance as the goal should be that children will become increasingly competent and autonomous participants in learning activities (wells, 1999). vygotsky’s sociocultural theory is based on the belief that ‘good learning’ occurs within a zone of proximal development (zpd), which is just beyond what the child can do independently, or in advance of their development (vygotsky, 1978). researchers in england developed a teaching approach called thinking together, with the goal of putting “a sociocultural theory of education into practice” (mercer & littleton, 2007, p. 69). their approach places a special emphasis on the teacher as a guide and model for language use. teachers encourage students to give reasons, seek clarification, ask questions, and listen to each other’s ideas. the results of a multiyear study indicate that the thinking together program had a positive impact on children’s collective problem-solving as well as their individual reasoning capabilities. this provides evidence to support vygotsky’s (1978) theory that social interactions begin on an interpsychological plane and influence individual thinking or the intrapsychological plane. the researchers concluded that the quality of dialogue between teachers and learners and among learners has a potentially powerful impact on learning (mercer & littleton, 2007). numerous researchers have called attention to the value of talk and social learning within the classroom setting (cazden, 2001; skidmore, perez-parent, & arnfield, 2003; wells & arauz, 2006). when evaluating characteristics of effective teachers, flynn (2007) concluded that teacher behavior, teacher-subject knowledge, and teacher-pupil interaction had more to do with successes than nationally prescribed objectives. the author asserted that teacher-pupil interaction, which included high-quality questioning and conversations designed to meet the needs of the group and individuals, appeared to be a key feature of the success of teachers’ lessons. the question-answer relationship (qar) strategy has been implemented during reading comprehension instruction to facilitate meaningful conversations about text (raphael, 1982). it is a strategy designed to “provide a common way of thinking about and talking about sources of information for answering questions” georgia journal of reading 17 volume 38, number 1 2015 (raphael, highfield, & au, 2006, p. 18). the language used with this strategy teaches students that answers can be found in the text or in background knowledge and experiences. by using the qar strategy, students are taught to make decisions about where the answer to a question would be found. questions that are in the book are labeled either right there or think and search, while those which require students to use background knowledge to answer are called author and me or on my own (raphael, highfield, & au, 2006). statement of problem despite theoretical and empirical evidence which points to the potential impact of effective teacher talk on student learning, findings from research have not been translated into common teaching practice. studies have determined that classroom discourse lacks evidence of effective strategies illuminated in research. instead, researchers in two studies found similar results: classroom discourse is typically teacher centered, interactions follow traditional initiateresponse-evaluate (ire) patterns, and questions are recall based, or those which elicit a single, correct answer (myhill, 2006; skidmore, perez-parent, & arnfield, 2003). purpose of the study the purpose of this study was to examine discourse, primarily in the form of teacher talk, as an instructional practice in elementary classrooms. the teacher talk that occurred during reading instruction in separate classrooms was examined generally and then more specifically. closer examination focused on the types of questions asked by teachers during read aloud and the feedback that teachers gave to students’ responses. finally, the study gave teachers an opportunity to critically examine and reflect upon their existing discourse practices as they reviewed transcripts of their teacher talk. four research questions, related to questioning and feedback guided the study. the fourth research question from the larger study will be highlighted in this article. the question was: to what extent do teachers’ perceptions concerning the use of questioning and feedback during reading instruction align with actual practice? this question was chosen because it combines data from each of the preceding research questions in order to compare teachers’ perceptions concerning questioning and feedback with actual practice. method participants the three participating teachers are third grade teachers at a k-5 elementary school in rural north georgia. the participants were selected based on convenience. the school has a population of approximately 550 students. the school is classified as a title 1 school based on a lower socioeconomic background of more than 50% of the students. the student population is mostly caucasian, with about 15% of the students classified as hispanic. at the time of this study, the school was in the final year of participation in the federally funded reading first grant. each of the participating teachers was assigned a pseudonym to protect their anonymity throughout the study. the pseudonyms used for the study were beth, susie, and ginger. each of the participating teachers had teaching experience in other grade levels, but they were all new to the third grade for the 2009–2010 school year. these teachers were intentionally moved to third grade by the principal at the beginning of the school year, which suggests that she is confident in their teaching ability and competence because of the importance of success for students in third grade. third grade is a year of high-stakes testing because third graders who do not pass the reading portion of the state-mandated test are not supposed to be promoted to fourth grade. data collection teacher interviews and audio recordings of instruction were the two data sources for this study. an interview was conducted with each teacher prior to audiotaping in each classroom. teachers were asked general questions related to the use of questioning and feedback during read aloud. they were also asked to explain how teacher talk during read aloud affects student comprehension and what variables impact the effectiveness of teacher talk. questions for this interview were based on the research questions for this study and were designed with the goal of identifying teachers’ beliefs about these topics. the questions were somewhat predictive in nature as they allowed teachers to make statements about the topics before being recorded or reviewing any transcript data. each interview was audiotaped for transcription and analysis. questions before recording 1) how do you decide what kinds of questions to ask during a read aloud? 2) how do you decide what kinds of feedback to give to student responses during a read aloud? 3) how does your teacher talk during affect reading comprehension? 4) what are some factors that impact your teacher talk during read aloud? each of the participating teachers was audiotaped using a voice recorder during read aloud instruction. georgia journal of reading 18 volume 38, number 1 2015 for three consecutive weeks, each teacher was audiotaped once each week. the third-grade teachers were all required to do with their homeroom class daily. homeroom classes were heterogeneously grouped, so during the read aloud time, each class contained students with a variety of reading abilities. reading teachers chose a book to read aloud to students, often related to grade level science or social studies standards, and they prepared comprehension questions in advance to ask students before, during, and after the reading of text. the literacy coach provided reading teachers with guidelines to follow when developing comprehension questions. these guidelines included a list of comprehension strategies and a schedule for teaching specific strategies. after the three weeks of audiotaping, transcripts were created from each read aloud session. teachers were given a copy of the transcripts and allowed some time to read and reflect upon the content of the transcripts. the teachers were then interviewed using questions that were related specifically to the transcripts and based on the research questions. the questions for this interview focused on the actual use of questioning and feedback during the read aloud time. these interviews were recorded for transcription and analysis. questions while reviewing each transcript 1) how did your teacher talk affect student comprehension during the read aloud? 2) what was your purpose for questioning during the read aloud? 3) what types of questions did you use during the read aloud? (higher level/recall) 4) what was the purpose of the feedback you gave to students during the read aloud? two weeks later, the researcher interviewed each teacher again using culminating questions based on the research questions. questions for this interview were created with the goal of allowing teachers to reflect on their actual practice. the questions were also designed to address differences between beliefs and practices that emerged when prior interview responses were compared to the read aloud transcripts. the qualitative nature of this research permitted the adjustment of the interview questions as the study progressed. the questions were refined slightly based on patterns and questions that emerged during data collection. these final interviews were also recorded for transcription and analysis. final questions 1) how do you decide what kinds of questions to ask during a read aloud? 2) do you normally have a “correct answer” in mind when you ask a question? 3) how do you decide what kinds of feedback to give to student responses during a read aloud? 4) how does your teacher talk during read aloud affect reading comprehension? 5) what are some factors that impact your teacher talk during read aloud? 6) are you generally satisfied with your teacher talk during read aloud? if not, what would you change if no limiting factors existed? to compare teachers’ perceptions regarding teacher talk during read aloud instruction with actual practice, frequency tables that were created after coding of transcripts were compared to interview data. teachers were asked during each of the three interviews to reflect upon their existing and future practices as they identified areas for improvement. though this study was not designed to facilitate change among the participating teachers, this type of reflection upon effectiveness is critical to improved teaching behaviors (topping & ferguson, 2005). allowing teachers to compare their thoughts about the subject of teacher talk with their actual practice promotes awareness of effective and less than effective teaching practices. results and analysis the research question which guided the study was as follows: to what extent do teachers’ perceptions concerning the use of questioning and feedback during reading instruction align with actual practice? to answer this question, transcript data was compared to teachers’ interview responses. analysis of teacher questioning transcript data revealed that assessment was the most commonly used purpose for questioning. an example of this frequent pattern of questioning occurred when susie was introducing a book about eleanor roosevelt to her students. she used questions and feedback to determine if students could name text features which are often found in nonfiction text. this was an assessment of prior learning: susie: what kind of things might we see in a nonfiction book? student: the headings. susie: headings, good, what else? student: captions. susie: captions, good, what else? student: subheadings. susie: subheadings. student: graphs. susie: yes, graphs. (students continue naming text features.) georgia journal of reading 19 volume 38, number 1 2015 susie: yes, all those things that we’ve talked about all year in nonfiction we might find in this book about eleanor roosevelt, okay? the frequency of assessment-type questions in the transcripts supports what the teachers said in interviews about knowing correct answers in advance and guiding students toward those correct answers. the teachers planned questions that typically had a single correct answer and they frequently assessed the students to be sure that they also knew the correct answer. this practice led to a predictable, teacher-dominated communication pattern which was especially noticeable when listening to the recorded. the teachers in this study did not seem willing to sacrifice control of conversations; they had an apparent recognition that they wouldn’t always know where the conversation might lead if controlled by students. in another study, teacher and researchers who were intentionally attempting to infuse more student initiated dialogue into reading instruction described how they wrestled with decisions about when to enter conversations to explicitly teach reading strategies or interject accepted interpretations of text (aukerman, belfatti, & santori, 2008). they worried not only about what would be said but also about what would be learned. this struggle was based, in part, on the recognition that in an educational system driven by assessment and accountability, students will at some point be expected to know the one correct answer and that answer may or may not emerge during a studentled discussion. further analysis of the teachers’ perceptions about the purpose of questioning compared with actual practice suggests that teachers may be unaware of their multiple purposes for questioning. each of the teachers described her purpose for questioning very specifically: to teach students the qar strategy. as predicted, the transcripts did contain multiple references to the qar strategy. students in all three classes were regularly asked which strategy (“right there,” “think and search,” “author and me,” or “on my own”) would help them find the answer and then they were asked to explain why they chose that answer. however, the data suggests that the primary purpose of questioning for all teachers was assessment. this included assessing student knowledge of the qar strategy but also the assessment of content knowledge, vocabulary, comprehension of text, and text features. an example of this pattern of assessment from ginger’s transcript: ginger: there’s that vocabulary word-diligence, what does that mean? student: working hard. ginger: yes, what was the time called? student: the great depression. ginger: good, the great depression (reading from text) okay, we talked about that word, migrant workers, it means people who move from place to place in search of work, there’s a picture there of a young migrant child and they work just as hard and often times for as many hours as the adults do and we read that cesar even a lot of times didn’t attend school, he went to work to earn money for his family. and if you’ll look at the picture here the caption shows us a family picking grapes in california. okay, i want you to turn around and get with your group to discuss what were some of the working conditions for these migrant farm workers? students: (discussing with group) teacher: ok, what type of question? are you having to use the book at all or is it completely in your head? i see three groups holding up think and search, that is correct, you had to use the book because the book, the author, gave us clues about what the migrant workers were dealing with. now, was the answer in just one sentence or on just one page? student: no teacher: no, and that is why it is a think and search question. another inconsistency related to the use of questions during was noted when the transcript data and interview data were compared based on the nature of questioning by teachers. each of the teachers described her questioning as somewhat balanced. beth noted, “one read aloud which was fictional had more recall-type questions, but there was a good mix of recall and higher level questions on the other two read aloud lessons which were based on nonfiction text.” susie stated that she “tried to incorporate all types of questions, especially higher-order thinking questions,” and she also described the types of questions that she used as “recall questions in which students had to think and search for the answers and inferential questions.” ginger also felt like she “had a good mix of questions, with qar, the ‘right there’ and ‘think and search’ are more recall where ‘author and me’ and ‘on my own’ are generally higher level.” the teachers recognized that effective questioning is balanced (cruickshank, bainer, & metcalf, 1999; topping & ferguson, 2005). despite this recognition, the majority of questions used by all teachers would be considered lower level based on the cognitive process dimension (anderson, et al, 2001, p. 67–68). most of the time, students were asked questions which required them to remember or understand, which are considered the lowest two levels of the cognitive model based on the cognitive processes required to answer those types georgia journal of reading 20 volume 38, number 1 2015 of questions. an analysis of the transcripts revealed that beth most often used remembering questions that required students to recall or repeat facts from text or previous instruction. this type of question was used when she was reviewing vocabulary words: “okay, what’s knowledge?” or “what does text mean?” these questions required students to recall definitions they had previously learned, so they would be considered lower level based on the cognitive process involved in answering. these questions promote retention of facts but not transfer of knowledge. on the other hand, susie and ginger used more understanding questions which required students to classify or explain answers. these questions were often used when students were asked to explain the type of question (based on qar strategy), such as when susie asked, “why was this a ‘think and search’ [question]?” the teachers used a limited amount of applying and analyzing questions during the. ginger asked her students to analyze a character’s feelings when she said, “how do you think he is feeling now, and how have his feelings changed?” this question is considered higher level and an example of a question that promotes meaningful learning. susie was the only teacher who used a question that required students to evaluate when they were giving their opinion about text. analysis of teacher feedback when asked about their purpose for giving feedback to student responses the teachers indicated that they normally used feedback to guide students to the correct answer. in fact, based on the feedback given by teachers in the transcripts, this was often unnecessary because students had already given a correct answer. this is apparent because teachers responded with acknowledging and accepting efforts or praising and accepting efforts about 75% of the time. these types of responses indicate that the students gave a correct answer. in contrast, teachers clarified or corrected and encouraged much less often, about 25% of the time, which indicates that students gave incorrect, incomplete, or hesitant responses far less frequently. the limited amount of correction and encouragement would suggest that students spent little time working in what vygotsky (1978) called their zone of proximal development (zpd). according to vygostky, to promote cognitive development, students should be performing tasks, with the help of a teacher, which they could not perform independently because of the difficulty level (schunk, 2008). in this study, teachers seem to be performing tasks with or for students that the students could perform independently without teacher assistance. even the students seem to recognize that they need more independent practice with text. an example of this is found in beth’s transcript: beth: what are some text features that we might see in a nonfiction book? beth: okay, let’s open up the book and do a picture walk. first of all, on the first page we do have a table of contents. how many chapters do we have in this book? student: five beth: where could we go in this book if we don’t remember what a word means? student: glossary beth: okay, do we have a glossary? student: yes beth: (continues reviewing text features…maps, photographs, etc.) student: are we going to read? beth: yes, we’re going to read student: can we read by ourselves? beth: we will start reading (teacher reads from text) this dialogue illustrates the lack of challenge for students as they are not required to think about answers to questions. as vygotsky explained it, “the only good learning” is that which is in advance of development (1978, p. 89). teachers in this study used vague terms to describe the types of feedback they used. they described their feedback as “encouraging” or “not negative.” however, an analysis of the kinds of feedback used determined that the majority of feedback was evaluative in nature. teachers used feedback to evaluate student responses, and they maintained strict control of the conversation, usually following the ire pattern of communication. this common pattern consisted of the teacher initiating a conversation (often with a question), the student responding, and the teacher evaluating the student’s response. here are samples of this frequent discourse pattern: beth: by looking at this book, who can tell me—is it going to be fiction or nonfiction? (initiate) student: nonfiction (respond) beth: nonfiction is correct, how do you know—look at the clues on the front of the book. (evaluate/ initiate) student: a photo. (respond) beth: a photo, exactly, it has real pictures. (evaluate) susie: okay, emily, what did eleanor do to help franklin win the presidency? tell me the type of question that is. (initiate) student: think and search (respond) georgia journal of reading 21 volume 38, number 1 2015 susie: good, it’s a think and search, now let’s answer that, what did she do? (evaluate/initiate) student: she walked through the crowds and then that showed respect from her. (respond) susie: okay, she roamed through the crowds to talk to people because he couldn’t. (evaluate) this pattern is consistent with what mehan called the “teacher’s agenda” (1978). it is a stance adopted by teachers for the purpose of achieving educational objectives while maintaining social control (mehan, 1979). throughout this study, teachers fulfilled their responsibility of evaluating the performance of students. teachers in this study seemed to be aware of the time involved in mastering all of the standards and their obligation to evaluate student performance and then “move on” to new concepts. the alignment between perceptions and actual practice was also explored during the interviews. these interviews allowed teachers to explain the social and cultural context which encompassed the verbal interactions. during the interview conducted while teachers reviewed transcripts and in the final interview, teachers were asked what changes (if any) they would make in the teacher talk that might improve comprehension. teachers were also asked what factors might prevent those changes from being made. beth felt like she “should have given the students more opportunities to respond to what they had heard.” she said, “i should have used more open-ended questions related to why they chose a specific qar strategy.” she noticed what was evident in the transcripts; she had used 106 assessment type questions and only 18 open-ended questions. beth added that being “assigned a specific comprehension strategy… we must focus on that strategy” limited her ability to change her teacher talk. susie mentioned that she would like to be able to ask questions that “involved multiple strategies” when practicing reading comprehension. she agreed with beth that being required to “stick to a certain comprehension strategy limits the type of questioning a teacher can do.” though the participating school discourages multiple strategy reading comprehension instruction, a well-known national reading document published by the national institute of child health and human development states that multiple strategy instruction seems to be the most effective way to teach cognitive strategies (2000). in addition, the report concluded that teaching a variety of strategies can result in increased learning, increased memory and understanding of new text material, and better reading comprehension. susie also noted that time was a limiting factor in improving reading comprehension. she “was surprised at how often i mentioned that we were in a hurry, i believe that might have hindered comprehension.” susie recognized an example of this hurried discussion in her transcript. she posed a genuine information question before reading that was intended to build background knowledge as students shared experiences from their own lives. susie asked the question and allowed students to discuss their answers with their peers, but when it came time to share their thoughts with the whole group, the discussion was cut short by the teacher. susie: okay, listen for this question. have you ever been somewhere and been homesick and wished you were at home? talk to your partners about what kind of question that is, and then answer that question with your group. (students talking in groups) susie: okay, guys, my turn. emily, what kind of question is that? student: on my own. susie: okay, why is it ‘on my own’? student: because it’s not about the book. susie: excellent. i’m not asking you about the book. it’s not really about the book although this person is in the same predicament. i’m asking about you. susie: cody, tell me about a time, real quick. student: well, my maw-maw and paw-paw were taking me and my sister to this christmas party, and i wanted to be at home with my parents. susie: okay, you missed your parents; homesick is a bad feeling. okay, hands down. we don’t have time for everybody’s story. when asked about changes that she would like to make, ginger expressed a desire to do more “handson and technology activities as follow-ups to my (especially for science and social studies themes).” this statement suggested that ginger has a desire to create a more social, less teacher-directed climate during the read aloud time. she also believed that time was a limiting factor and “guidelines and expectations [as a result] of the reading first grant” inhibited changes. each of the teachers mentioned challenges to effective teacher talk related to the school culture. it seemed that teachers control interactions in the classroom setting while administrators and the literacy coach exhibit control over instructional strategies (such as questioning and feedback) used by teachers. it is evident from teachers’ responses that the culture of georgia journal of reading 22 volume 38, number 1 2015 the school influences student learning. teachers were also asked during the culminating interview about their “general level of satisfaction” with the teacher talk used during read aloud. this question was added to the final interview after the transcripts were created because the researcher wanted to determine if teachers were satisfied with the lessons after reviewing the transcripts or if they had specific changes in mind when they had a chance to review the lessons. despite statements by each of the teachers which indicated a sense of resistance to “being told what to do” during, each of the participating teachers expressed an overall satisfaction with the read aloud lessons. though susie expressed an overall satisfaction with the teacher talk used during her , she did mention two possible changes that she felt could improve her lessons. she was concerned that she “rushed the students…i was surprised at how often i would say ‘okay, quickly’ or ‘i need an answer right now.’” another area of concern was the focus on a single comprehension strategy. she said, “it would be wonderful to be able to plan a read aloud and then ask whatever we thought was appropriate for the particular book. i would like to be able to do that.” when ginger was asked the same question about her level of satisfaction and the changes that could improve her lessons, she also described herself as “overall pretty satisfied with it.” she did point out that she felt “somewhat scripted…with [questions] prepared [in advance for ].” however, she admitted that she doesn’t “always stick to that.” she explained further: i do if i think about a question when i’m reading; i do ask it or talk about it. if a student asks me something in the middle of reading i try not to ignore that even though that’s not something i originally planned to talk about. implications for action this investigation of teacher talk was designed to gain greater insight into existing discourse patterns and to attempt to understand how change in these patterns can be facilitated. the focus of this study was the discourse used by classroom teachers. however, the results of the investigation identified another potential influence on teacher talk in classrooms: those outside the classroom such as administrators, professional development providers, and policy makers. more productive discourse will be the result of changes facilitated by both of these groups. implications for classroom teachers teacher talk is a potentially powerful instructional tool. to take advantage of this instructional tool, teachers must become aware of their current practices, intentionally use questions and feedback for multiple purposes, and strive to move students more quickly to a level of independent learning by actively involving them during instruction. though participation in this study was somewhat inconvenient for busy classroom teachers, they seemed to appreciate the opportunity to review the transcripts from their recorded instruction. each teacher recognized areas for potential improvement. these areas of improvement would not have been uncovered without participation in this study. to disrupt comfortable habits, classroom discourse must become a deliberate object of study (cullican, 2007). recent studies have concluded that opportunities to analyze and reflect upon classroom discourse can lead to greater understanding by teachers of the impact discourse has on student learning (reznitskaya, 2012; thwaite & rivalland, 2009). questioning of students should continue to be a common strategy used during reading comprehension instruction. teacher’s questioning as an ongoing evaluation tool fulfills a major part of the teacher’s responsibility in the classroom. however, adjustments to the types and purposes of questions are necessary to maximize student learning. the results of this study highlight a noticeable lack of balance in the types and purposes of questioning used by teachers. feedback should also be used for multiple purposes, such as building upon student responses or inquiring further, not simply to evaluate student responses. according to vygotzky, every function in the child’s development occurs twice; first, on the social level, and later, on the individual level (1978). guided practice using questions and feedback which invoke higher order thinking skills will allow a child to develop cognitive processes first, between people (interpsychological) and then apply those processes as an independent task inside the child (intrapsychological). changes in the types of statewide end of year assessments support this needed shift in focus toward more cognitively challenging tasks for students. according to the national pta, states (including georgia) are moving towards assessments in which “students will be asked not only what the answer is to a question, but why-i.e. how they know or what evidence supports their answer.” (national pta, 2013) teachers need to move students more quickly to the independent stage during reading comprehension instruction. this need became apparent during the analysis of explicit language used during instruction involving the qar strategy. teachers focused, for at least three weeks, on teaching, modeling, and georgia journal of reading 23 volume 38, number 1 2015 practicing a strategy that students had been using for over a year. although the authors of this strategy endorse a “gradual release of responsibility” when using the strategy (raphael, highfield, & au, 2006, p. 37), the teachers appeared to be reluctant to move toward more independent practice for students. this independent practice seemed appropriate and necessary based on the level of student success indicated by the teachers’ frequent use of affirming and praising feedback during the strategy instruction. vygotsky (1978) recognized that children are capable of doing much more in “collective activity or under the guidance of adults” (p. 88) and warned that “learning which is oriented toward developmental levels that have already been reached is ineffective” (p. 89). implications for administrators, professional development providers, and policy makers some of the necessary changes to teacher talk are beyond the control of classroom teachers. those who make decisions about time allocated for planning and instruction and those who develop timelines and curriculum maps must allow and support an intentional focus on teacher talk as a powerful instructional tool. teachers need to be given time to focus on improving instructional practices related to teacher talk, and they must have professional development opportunities that link the latest strategy for reading instruction to educational theory. in addition, outside observers must recognize the benefits of social learning in classrooms. the results of this investigation of teacher talk indicate a need for teachers to have time to record themselves and then reflect on their practice. a researcher who has studied classroom discourse around the world concluded that regular monitoring of classroom discourse and selfevaluation as part of in-service training was necessary for teachers (wells & arauz, 2006). teachers also need to be given opportunities to reflect on their beliefs about teaching practice. this is the key to connecting theory and practice (hardman, 2008). references to educational theory as the basis for teaching practices were noticeably absent from teachers’ interview responses. professional development providers need to recognize that teacher training for new strategies, such as qar, needs to be more detailed. this includes any learning theory the strategy is based upon. teachers in this study appeared to be implementing strategies that they were not well informed about. without a thorough explanation of the strategy, teachers may not be implementing it properly. if teachers are unfamiliar with why a specific strategy is beneficial, they may become resistant to implementation. this could explain teachers’ statements regarding the timetable for teaching specific comprehension strategies at the participating school. teachers explained unenthusiastically, “basically, we just do what we’re told to do.” they reiterated, “a comprehension strategy is chosen for us and we must focus on that strategy.” those who influence classrooms from the outside must recognize and discourage questioning and feedback practices which promote short-term memorization rather than meaningful learning. in addition, those who are observing classrooms need to look for and encourage a greater balance between teacher and student directed activity during reading instruction. vygotsky’s theory (1986) described the progression to reflection and logical reasoning at the intramental level as a result of discussion, interaction, and arguments at the intermental level. the apparent absence of social interaction at the intermental level could be affecting learning at the intramental level. vygotsky described social interactions as the foundation of learning, “social relations or relations among people genetically underlie all higher functions and their relationships” (vygotsky, 1981, p. 163). those who influence classrooms from the outside need to encourage social interaction during reading instruction; this can strengthen the foundation for meaningful learning. concluding remarks this investigation of teacher talk revealed discourse patterns which are consistent with those commonly described throughout educational research on the topic. the researchers in this study identified a gap in existing research, a frequent absence of the teacher’s voice in studies of classroom discourse. for that reason, the teacher’s voice was intentionally included in this study. further exploration into external influences on the discourse used by classroom teachers is necessary to gain greater insight into the problem of ineffective discourse practices and possible solutions. to maximize student learning, the discourse that occurs within the social and cultural context of the classroom must be targeted for examination and improvement. this type of improvement is not simple. it requires teachers to “partially relinquish control of the flow of discussion, give up the habit of evaluating each student contribution, and allow students to initiate when they have something that they consider relevant to contribute [to conversations]” (wells, 2007, p. 264). despite the challenges, improved classroom discourse is possible when the topic becomes an intentional focus of instructional practice and teachers take advantage of the social aspects of learning. references anderson, l. w., krathwohl, d.r., airasian, p.w., cruikshank, k. a., mayer, r. e., pintrich, p. r., georgia journal of reading 24 volume 38, number 1 2015 wittrock, m. c. (eds.). (2001). a taxonomy for learning, teaching, and assessing: a revision of bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives. new york: longman. aukerman, m. s., belfatti, m. a., & santori, d. m. (2008). teaching and learning dialogically organized reading instruction. english education, 40(4), 340–364. cazden, c. b. (2001). classroom discourse: the language of teaching and learning. (2nd ed.). portsmouth, nh: heinemann. cruickshank, d. r., bainer, d. l., & metcalf, k. k. (1999). the act of teaching. (2nd ed.). boston: mcgraw-hill college. cullican, s. j. (2007). troubling teacher talk: the challenge of changing classroom discourse patterns. the australian educational researcher, 34(2), 7–27. flynn, n. (2007). what do effective teachers of literacy do? subject knowledge and pedagogical choices for literacy. literacy, 41(3), 137–146. hardman, f. (2008). teachers’ use of feedback in whole class and group-based talk. in n. mercer & s. hodgkinson (eds.), exploring talk in schools (pp. 131–150). thousand oaks, ca: sage publications, inc. mehan, h. (1979). learning lessons: social organization in the classroom. cambridge, ma: harvard university press. mercer, n., & littleton, k. (2007). dialogue and the development of children’s thinking: a sociocultural approach. london: routledge. myhill, d. (2006). talk, talk, talk: teaching and learning in whole class discourse. research papers in education, 21(1), 19–41. national institute of child health and human development. (2000). report of the national reading panel. teaching children to read: an evidence-based assessment of the scientific research literature on reading and its implications for reading instruction: reports of the subgroups (nih publication no. 00-4754). washington, dc: u.s. government printing office. national pta. (2013). parents’ guide to new tests in georgia. retrieved from http://www.pta.org raphael, t. e., highfield, k., & au, k. h. (2006). qar now: question answer relationships. new york: scholastic, inc. reznitskaya, a. (2012). dialogic teaching: rethinking language use during literature discussions. reading teacher, 65(7), 446-456. schunk, d. h. (2008). learning theories: an educational perspective (5th ed.). upper saddle river, nj: pearson. skidmore, d., perez-parent, m., & arnfield, s. (2003). teacher-pupil dialogue in the guided reading session. reading: literacy and language, 37(2), 47–53. topping, k., & ferguson, n. (2005). effective literacy teaching behaviours. journal of research in reading, 28(2), 125–143. thwaite, a., & rivalland, j. (2009). how can analysis of classroom talk help teachers reflect on their practices? australian journal of language and literacy, 32(1), 38-54. vygotsky, l. s. (1978). mind in society: the development of higher psychological processes (m. cole, v. john-steiner, s. scribner, & e. souberman, eds.), cambridge, ma: harvard university press. vygotsky, l. s. (1981). the genesis of higher mental functions. in j.v. wertsch (ed.) the concept of activity in soviet psychology (pp. 144-188). armonk, ny: sharpe. vygotsky, l. s. (1986). thought and language. (a. kozulin, ed.) cambridge, ma: mit press. wells, g. (1999). dialogic inquiry: towards a sociocultural practice and theory of education. new york: cambridge university press. wells, g. (2007). semiotic mediation, dialogue and the construction of knowledge. human development, 50, 244-274. wells, g., & arauz, r. m. (2006). dialogue in the classroom. the journal of learning sciences, 15(3), 379–428. georgia journal of reading 6 volume 41, number 2 2018 scenario for the first time in his school career, my son, brennan, struggled. he went from a kid who loved school to one who didn’t care about it anymore. his grades were slipping, and he really didn’t care. reading and writing practice passages would come home with failing grades and notes from his 4th grade teacher stating, “no strategies used” in red pen. i would ask him why he didn’t use strategies, and he would shrug his shoulders and say, “i don’t know.” as a former teacher myself, i would look over some questions and bring to his attention ones he missed. his response was, “i’m just not as smart as the other kids.” this happened repeatedly throughout the school year. it got even worse as the dreaded standardized test approached. more practice passages came home with failing grades and tears flowed from my son’s eyes. it’s heartbreaking watching your very smart child, whose love of learning has been squashed; call himself “stupid” all because the focus of his class is this test. parent’s perspective the context surrounding struggling readers, relating i became personally more interested on the topic of high-stakes testing due to the emphasis being placed on my own child and how he has been reacting to the pressure. his grades have plummeted as it has become closer to testing dates, and he does not like to read or write anymore. the excitement of learning is being taken away to be able to prepare for a test that is shallow at best. more and more school districts have implemented a “one size fits all” type curriculum and are holding teachers accountable for their students’ scores on these tests. teachers are changing their own teaching styles in order to prepare for these tests and losing out on valuable teaching. when i was teaching, years ago, i strived to come up with creative ways to get the students interested in reading a certain novel, writing stories, or even learning different skills. this kept both advanced and reluctant students engaged in the learning process. in everything i taught, i tried to help the students make real-world connections. i wanted my students to read stories, novels, and expository text that interested and intrigued them and helped them begin to understand the world in which we live. i wanted to take advantage of the imaginative rehearsals that great literature provides before my students reached adulthood (gallagher, 2009). if our emphasis as educators is testing, our students will miss out on more than just passing a test. i recently shared my concerns about the current emphasis on teaching to the test with one of my professors from my master’s in reading program. this article is a result of our discussions about the sense of urgency we both feel that things in our schools must teaching to the test from a parent’s perspective by amy kettle and melinda miller georgia journal of reading 7 volume 41, number 2 2018 change in order for our students to become proficient readers and writers who can do much more than pass a test. it is our hope that teachers and administrators who read the article will discover meaningful ways to help their students develop as life-long learners who read and write for a variety of purposes. narrowing of the curriculum higgins, miller, and wegmann (2007) emphasize that the current high-stakes assessment trend in the united states moves in the direction of greater standardization and uniformity, due to legislation (campbell, 2002) such as the no child left behind act (2002). “given the on-going climate of accountability,” according to the authors, “most schools and districts see no alternative other than to work toward meeting the states’ standards and legislative mandates” (p. 319). no child left behind (2002) had two specific goals: for all students to attain proficiency in reading and mathematics by 2013-14, and by the same years, for all students to be proficient in reading by the end of third grade (readence, bean & baldwin, 2008). with the pressure created by the new legislation came the push to teach to the test, which more often than not, came in the form of one-size-fits-all test preparation activities. the problem is that each student learns at a different pace and brings different experiences to the table. though proponents of nclb (2002) may proclaim that higher test scores prove nclb is working, the reality is rising test scores are primarily the result of repetitive drilling for the narrow content the exams cover, not real educational improvements. the unfortunate result is that groups that have traditionally fallen behind such as minority groups, students with special needs, and english language learners, may be falling further behind (national center for fair and open testing, 2007). when testing drives instruction, subject areas that are not tested are frequently not taught, and the current trend is to eliminate science, social studies and electives altogether in order to focus on reading and math. when this happens, students miss out on content-rich lessons in other subjects that would ultimately help them on a statemandated test. additionally, such practices remove important opportunities for students to widen and deepen knowledge that is foundational to developing readers. without a broad knowledge base, our students stand no chance of being excellent readers (gallagher 2009). students involved in massive test preparation classes receive massive amounts of shallow instruction (gallagher, 2009). teaching to the test when the curriculum is narrowed, many teachers lose the opportunity to teach in ways that are compatible with their professional identities (berliner, 2009). teachers often feel pressure from administrators to teach to the test, which results in changing of teaching styles to “better fit” teaching to the test. this type of teaching instruction sacrifices students’ critical thinking. according to miller and higgins, (2008), “nationwide, teachers have even departed from what they know about effective teaching and learning because the effects of low test results have strong repercussions, such as students failing to pass a specific grade or to graduate” (p.124). administrators also hold teachers responsible for their students’ test scores. being “held responsible” really means one thing to classroom teachers—teaching to the state-mandated exams administered each spring (gallagher, 2009). many teachers who teach to the test tend to teach skills in isolation, and rich, meaningful curriculum instruction is replaced with kill and drill practices. gallagher (2009) coined the term “readicide,” which he defines as “the systematic killing of the love of reading, often exacerbated by the inane, mindnumbing practices found in schools” (p. 2), which can be caused by “a curriculum steeped in multiple-choice test preparation” which “drives shallow teaching and learning” (p. 8). he further states that “rather than lift up struggling readers, an emphasis on multiple choice test preparation ensures that struggling readers will continue to struggle” (p. 8). schools spend so much more time prepping for the test that quality reading time is being taken out of schools. read aloud time was my favorite part of the day. my students were attentive when i read to them, and they wanted me to keep reading because they were immersed in the story. even my reluctant readers were in engrossed in listening to my read aloud. on the other hand, it has been my experience that reluctant readers do not do well with test prep curriculum. according to gallagher (2009), in recent years, test practice type reading has overshadowed the reading of novels and other authentic text, and many high georgia journal of reading 8 volume 41, number 2 2018 school seniors have graduated as good test takers, but not as avid readers. there is no excitement in learning reading and writing skills in isolation. if students are bored with the curriculum, they tend to lose interest in school, they are not motivated, and they grow to be nonreaders. it becomes less and less surprising that one in three high school students drops out (gallagher, 2009). even the students who do not drop out could experience reduction in college readiness and even future preparedness for the job market as a result of the narrow test-prep curriculum. emphasis on “centralized curriculum, standardized testing, accountability, required courses of study—could kill creativity, the united states’ real competitive edge” (zhao 2006). gallagher (2009) implores teachers, literacy coaches, and administrators to recognize how our current practices are harming students and take a stand to do what is right for our students. as he puts it, “we need to find this courage. today. nothing less than a generation of readers hangs in the balance” (p. 118). fletcher (2001) posits that students perform better on standardized tests when their teachers focus on best practices, rather than teaching to the test. frawley (2014) states “the practice of good writing development needs to be facilitated despite the demands of the high-stakes environment…” (p. 23). manzo (2001) compares students who have been subjected to the drill and practice of isolated skills to those who have received effective writing instruction. the author reports that students in the latter category score better on standardized writing tests. according to higgins, miller, and wegmann (2007), “high-quality, evidence-based instruction need not be sacrificed in preparing students to succeed on standardized writing assessments” (p. 310). fortunately, there are many ways teachers can help students become proficient readers and writers who read and write for a variety of purposes without teaching to the test. integrating good teaching methods to integrate good teaching practices, it is important to look at strategies that have been identified as best practices over the years. decades ago, murray (1972) described writing as a process and emphasized the need for teachers to focus on the process of writing, rather than the finished product. flower and hayes (1981) and hayes and flower (1986) added their thoughts when they offered that the writing process is made up of the following components: planning, translating, and reviewing. atwell (1987) described her version of the writing process as “in the middle.” the author included prewriting and planning, drafting, revising, editing, and publishing. for atwell’s writing workshop, she combined the writing process with peer and teacher conferencing and mini-lessons. in addition, giacobbe (1982) named time, ownership and response as essential for writing. more recently, fletcher (2017) posited that the writing workshop provides sustained time, ideally every day, for students to experiment with the written word and practice the craft of writing. as students are allowed to choose their own topics during writing workshop, they feel ownership over what they have written, and they receive response to their writing from teacher and peers through conferences. in addition, votteler and miller (2017) have identified the writing workshop and the writing process as best practices for writing instruction. higgins, miller, and wegmann (2007) stated that the writing workshop and the writing process combined with the 6+1 traits of writing and scaffolding through different modes of writing enable students to “write creatively and communicatively” and “…pass all necessary standardized tests in writing” (p.311). the 6 + 1 traits include: ideas, organization, voice, word choice, sentence fluency, conventions, and presentation. the traits fit naturally into the writing process as students use the traits as a tool for revision. students are taught in mini-lessons the art of assessing their own writing through the 6 + 1 traits and they quickly become proficient at wordsmithing and editing their masterpieces. when considering good writing strategies, it is important for a teacher to scaffold writing instruction for students by first modeling how he/she learns and what he/she is thinking, then gradually releasing writing responsibility to students. cooper and kiger (2003) describe the modes of writing instructional routines, which include write-aloud, shared writing, guided writing, collaborative or cooperative writing, and independent writing. this idea is based upon pearson’s (1985) idea of gradual release of responsibility from teacher to student. if teachers model metacognition as well skills and procedures, students will eventually emulate them and become successful writers. georgia journal of reading 9 volume 41, number 2 2018 according to miller and higgins (2008), “…effective instructional practices and mandated testing demands can coexist if teachers choose methods that not only provide authentic learning experiences, but also prepare students to pass state tests. reading workshop and writing workshop are two such methods that enable students to practice authentic reading and writing for sustained periods while honing their skills” (p.124). reading and writing workshops go hand-in-hand. in reading workshop, students are engaged in reading and responding to a variety of texts for sustained periods of time. according to ivey (2000), “giving all students, especially those experiencing difficulty, more time to read in school is the most certain way to help all students become more skilled and engaged, and even to be more prepared to achieve on standardized tests.” (p. 43). gallagher (2009) stressed the importance of providing a wide variety of interesting authentic literature from which students can choose. in a typical reading workshop, the teacher provides an extensive range of books on a variety of levels, catering to many different interests and representing various genres. classroom libraries should also include multicultural books that represent the cultures and ethnicities of all students in the classroom, as well as others. according to leland, harste and huber (2005), students develop identities as cultural and literate people through interactions with others, critical literacy instruction, and multicultural literature in classrooms. a typical reading workshop format includes sustained silent or quiet reading time, reading response activities, teacher-student conferences, mini-lessons on reading strategies, read-aloud, shared reading experiences, partner reading, literature circles, and book talks or book sharing by teacher and students. students work at their own level and at their own pace on self-selected reading materials (tompkins, 2015). teachers may work with small groups of students on similar levels in a guided reading format during this time as well to listen to and observe students and to give prompting on strategy use. in addition, the teacher spends time observing and collecting anecdotal records on students as they work independently or collaborate with others. reading workshop stands in stark contrast with the reading passage format typically seen in today’s classrooms. when teachers hand students a passage to read and answer the questions, they are not reading for any other purpose than to simply answer the questions. if there is no purpose set before the reader before they begin, they will likely not pull out the information that was intended. additionally, the student has had no choice in what they will read, and often the passage is likely not something the student would find interesting. the following is an example of a mini-lesson that can be done within reading workshop to address the requirement set forth by some districts to include reading passages in reading instruction. the topic of the mini-lesson is purpose for reading. ● students receive a one-page passage entitled, “house.” the first time they read it, they are to highlight what words they felt were important to the story. ● students are then instructed to read the story again and highlight words that a burglar would find important. ● students are then instructed a third time to read the passage, looking for words a real estate agent would find important. ● students and teacher then discuss the importance of having a purpose for reading. reading aloud is an important part of reading workshop that is often left out of the school day in order to “fit in” other requirements that have been mandated by the district or state. in some schools, reading aloud is even frowned upon or thought to be wasted instructional time (layne, 2015). shannon (2002) states, “the first rule of teaching literacy is to read to your kids” (p.6), and according to routman (1991), “reading aloud should take place daily at all grade levels, including junior high and high school” (p. 32). if a teacher brings reading to life with interesting books, there is a possibility of peaking the interest of even the most reluctant readers. teachers serve as a model of fluent reading and expose students to a variety of genres and topics through read aloud. layne (2015) states that reading aloud to students helps to improve their comprehension, syntactic development, vocabulary, engagement, fluency, and attitudes towards reading. the author goes on to explain that he places a “do not disturb” sign on his door during read georgia journal of reading 10 volume 41, number 2 2018 aloud time to demonstrate to his students and others in the school that “something they might presume to be less important than ‘real instruction’ was actually just as important as everything else we did” (p. 27). avery (2002) puts it nicely when she states, “i realized that both the literature and the way i conducted the read aloud sessions provided a foundation with written language that touched every aspect of the children’s learning—and was indeed ‘teaching”” (p. 216). read aloud time should be part of every school day and should not be squeezed out in favor of other subjects. trealease (2006) suggests setting aside a certain time each day that is sacred as the reading time. in addition to that, the author recommends reading as much and as often as time allows. reading and writing workshops offer a natural setting in which children have sustained times each day to practice reading and writing and orchestrate all of the strategies they have learned through minilessons, read-alouds, conferences, think-alouds and modeling done by the teacher. in addition, students are encouraged to collaborate, which brings in the social nature of language (vygotsky, 1978). according to higgins, miller, and wegmann (2007), “learning is constructed as students are given a variety of experiences, ideas, and relationships with peers and teachers” (p. 311). the authors state that the learning that occurs as a result of these experiences helps students to become better at reading and writing, and in turn, improves scores on high stakes tests. tompkins (2017) suggests teaching using reading and writing workshops throughout the school year to provide students with time to read and write and instruction on reading and writing strategies. she goes on to state that a couple of weeks before a standardized test, it is a good idea to familiarize students with the testing format. other than that, reading and writing should be taught in a natural setting in which students are provided meaningful, joyful, authentic experiences with literature (routman, 2018). conclusion in this article, we have offered reading and writing workshops as alternatives for monotonous kill and drill regimens, lack luster lessons, test-like writing prompts and reading passages with benchmarking every few weeks. we believe that through reading and writing workshops, students can experience meaningful and authentic literacy activities that excite them and help develop them as not only proficient readers and writers, but as people who love reading and writing. if students are taught to read and write well, they will perform well on mandated reading tests. but if they are only taught to be test-takers, they will never learn to read and write well (langer, 2002). through this article, we hope to be a voice for students and teachers to help alleviate the pressures that come with high-stakes testing. we hope brennan and other students will grow to love reading and writing again. we further hope that they will not be anxious or scared when it is time to take the standardized test, but that they will feel self-assured and well prepared because reading and writing are something they can do well because they do them every day in meaningful ways. we hope to have reached a parent, a teacher, or an administrator who will stand up for what is right for our students so they can not only become confident at taking and passing high stakes tests, but they can grow into lifelong avid readers and writers who find joy in writing for themselves and for others. n empower members of the gra and local councils to become effective leaders in the field of literacy. n provide quality reading education services to all georgia educators. n recognize exemplary individuals, local, and state literacy efforts. n achieve maximum involvement of members at the local, state, and international levels to receive maximum benefits. n promote the goals and objectives of the international reading association of georgia. georgia reading association goals georgia journal of reading 18 volume 42, number 1 2019 used as a gender-neutral alternative to latino, latina, or hispanic.) because of changing demographics and population growth, schools throughout the country are becoming more culturally and linguistically diverse. in 2015, roughly 4.8 million or approximately 10% of all public school students in the u.s. were identified as english learners (mcfarland et al., 2018), and researchers predict that by the year 2030 approximately 40% of students will be english learners (goldenberg, 2013). furthermore, almost eight of every 10 english learners in the u.s. are native spanish speakers of latinx origin (mcfarland et al., 2018). academic performance among this rapidly-growing population of linguistically diverse students has consistently remained far below that of their monolingual peers (baker, richards-tutor, sparks, & canges, 2018). in 2017, the achievement gap in reading between english learners and their englishproficient peers on the national assessment of educational progress (naep) was 37 points in fourth grade and 43 points in eighth grade (mcfarland et al., 2018). english learners who value reading and see themselves as capable readers are motivated to engage more deeply with reading tasks (del rio, 2013), and prolonged reading engagement results abstract this qualitative study explored reading motivation among high school english learners whose first language was spanish. latinx english learners (n = 87) from two southeastern, suburban school districts took part in the first stage of the research. the researcher utilized subscores for self-concept as a reader and value of reading from a recognized reading motivation survey instrument along with reading subscores on a nationally recognized standardized language assessment to identify students who could be presumed to be less-motivated readers (n = 14) for interview selection. responses from six randomly selected interviewees from this less-motivated pool of participants demonstrated that they faced numerous obstacles toward becoming proficient readers, including challenging home environments and debilitating anxieties. overall, a series of complex factors were shown to inhibit reading motivation. implications and practical recommendations for educators are discussed. over the next 40 years, more than one million immigrants a year will move to the united states (pew research center, 2015). the pew research center (2015) predicts a 6% surge in the latinx population in the u.s. from 18% to 24% between 2015 and 2065. (as used in this study, latinx refers to an individual of latin american origin or descent, and this terminology is exploring the reading motivation of lessmotivated adolescent latinx english learners by robert a. griffin georgia journal of reading 19 volume 42, number 1 2019 in increased academic english proficiency which promotes overall academic success (cummins, 2011). studies have found a strong relationship between higher levels of student motivation and increased academic achievement (cox & guthrie, 2001; marks, 2000; schunk, meece, & pintrich, 2013). specifically, research has shown that less-motivated students report a sense of disconnect with academic content and a feeling of isolation stemming from being labeled a poor student (marks, 2000; mckool, 2007; schunk et al., 2013). as such, this study seeks to explore more completely what inhibits motivation in reading among high school latinx english learners. few studies exist specifically to explore what motivates english learners to engage in reading. of the few studies that have been conducted concerning english learners’ reading motivation (e.g., arzubiaga, rueda, & monzó, 2002; del rio, 2013; howard, 2012; ivey & broaddus, 2007; protacio, 2012), none addresses english learners’ reading engagement at the high school level. listening to what students say about reading is central to this study’s purpose. as such, this study seeks to determine what high school latinx english learners who are classified as lessmotivated readers say about themselves as readers and what factors promote or inhibit their motivation. the descriptor less motivated was chosen because motivation should be considered along a spectrum and cannot be defined dichotomously (schunk et al., 2013). expectancy-value theory as the conceptual framework undergirding this study, the expectancy-value model of achievement posits that motivation is strongly influenced by one’s expectation of success or failure at a task (applegate & applegate, 2010; atkinson, 1957; wigfield & eccles, 2000). proponents of the expectancy-value model have argued that an individual’s beliefs regarding competency and the extent to which one values an activity will determine the individual’s choice, persistence, and performance on that activity (eccles, 1983; gambrell, palmer, codling, & mazzoni, 1996; wigfield & eccles, 2000). people will attempt to attain goals they value and perceive as achievable (dörnyei, 1998). unfortunately, wigfield and eccles (2000) found that as individuals got older, their ability-related beliefs and values became more negative, which led to a decline in motivation and task engagement. trends in prior research past research into reading motivation among latinx students has primarily concentrated on the cognitive processes of individual students, but there is a growing trend toward viewing reading motivation through a sociocultural lens. additionally, prior research has concentrated primarily on elementary and middle school students. few studies exist that specifically address reading motivation among high school latinx english learners. arzubiaga et al.’s (2002) pivotal study of latinx english learners’ reading motivation focused on how sociocultural dynamics such as home environments and family routines promote or inhibit reading engagement. survey results (from gambrell et al.’s [1996] motivation to read profile) from 18 secondgeneration latinx english learners from mexico and el salvador in third and fourth grades and interviews with their parents suggested that family togetherness and the encouragement and emotional support it fosters positively related to how much children valued reading. family nurturance that promoted students’ perceptions of the value of reading included teaching children religious values and moral principles, encouraging them to do well in school, and inspiring them to pursue an academic future. furthermore, the extent to which families pursued spanish and english reading and cultural activities positively correlated with how students perceived themselves as readers. in contrast, the extent and strenuousness of parents’ work responsibilities and the number of young children at home negatively influenced children’s perceptions of the value of reading (arzubiaga et al., 2002). in their formative mixed-methods study, ivey and broaddus (2007) sought to determine what effective literacy instruction in reading and writing among adolescent latinx english learners entailed. interviews with 14 spanish-speaking latinx english learner beginners in an upper middle school esol language arts classroom revealed that effective reading instruction for english learners involves flexibility and variety in the selection of texts. students reported being motivated to read when texts matched their interests and were not overly difficult. ivey and broaddus (2007) cautioned against a blanketed, stereotypical selection georgia journal of reading 20 volume 42, number 1 2019 of reading materials and noted how students, even those with similar linguistic and ethnic backgrounds, have unique family, cultural, and educational histories that influence what is engaging for them. furthermore, this study revealed that when teachers take into consideration the larger sociocultural context of reading motivation and the individuality of each of their students, meaningful reading engagement is possible even before english learners have mastered contentspecific reading, writing, and language skills (ivey & broaddus, 2007). in her qualitative study, howard (2012) conducted three case studies to explore fourth-grade english learners’ (two latinx students who immigrated to the u.s. from mexico and one hindi-speaking student who immigrated to the u.s. when he was a toddler) perceptions of themselves as readers, the types of reading support programs they valued, and their reading preferences. survey results revealed that students were motivated to choose books their friends suggested, and surveyed students revealed that they were motivated to read when they were given the freedom to choose books that interested them. while they avoided overly long or difficult books, they favored graphic novels and fiction books most. parent expectation was the number one reason students said they read outside of school. an example of a sociocultural investigation of reading motivation among english learners is protacio’s (2012) qualitative study in which she interviewed six english learners (four boys and two girls) in the elementary grades from different ethnic and linguistic backgrounds about what motivated them to read. she discovered that english learners use reading to affiliate with their american peers and assimilate into their new culture. she also found that the students she interviewed were motivated to read interesting texts that are at their independent reading level. as integratively motivated english learners, the focal students in protacio’s (2012) study remarked that reading became a way for them to bond with their peers in the united states and learn more about their new culture. in short, protacio (2012) found that perceived competence, interesting reading materials, and social motivation all seemed to contribute to english learners’ reading motivation. using a quantitative approach, del rio (2013) examined how third-grade reading achievement correlated with the reading motivation of fourth-grade students and how reading motivation (as measured by the motivation to read profile [gambrell et al., 1996]) related to fourth-grade reading achievement scores. results from 207 fourth-graders in two different schools primarily of latinx origin demonstrated that reading motivation influenced but did not control the correlation between thirdand fourth-grade reading achievement scores. most significant for del rio’s (2013) study was its implication that students’ reading motivation in the early grades predicted future academic achievement. despite all the benefits of fostering increased reading motivation, research specifically investigating english learners’ reading motivation at the high school level is relatively scarce (protacio, 2012). investigating reading motivation among high school english learners, therefore, warrants concerted research. research is necessary to further clarify the strengths and learning needs of underperforming english learners. method as an expression of its exploratory focus, this study used a qualitative-dominant mixed methods design. over 300 high school latinx english learners in two suburban, southeastern u.s. school districts were invited to participate in this study, and 87 students (with the permission of their parents/guardians) agreed to participate in the first stage of the study, the survey phase. reading motivation survey results and standardized test scores for these 87 participants were used to ascertain students who could be presumed as less-motivated readers. specifically, three measures were used to collect data in a cascading design. adolescent motivation to read profile (amrp; pitcher et al., 2007) survey results and access for ells (wida, 2019) english reading proficiency subscores were used to categorize participants (n = 87) into below average subgroups for the following categories: english reading proficiency (n = 48), student selfconcept as a reader (n = 43), and student perception of the value of reading (n = 31). students who scored below average on all three measures were placed in a less motivated subgroup (n = 14), and from this group, six students were randomly selected to be interviewed (figure 1). georgia journal of reading 21 volume 42, number 1 2019 elicit more-detailed responses or because students provided rich responses that elicited further tangential discussion. each interview session was unique as the primary researcher and the research assistant probed to explore deep-seated emotions and experiences related to reading over multiple contexts. data analysis the primary researcher transcribed the interviews to promote familiarity with the data. the assistance of a shadow researcher, a doctoral candidate at the research university, was also utilized to assist with coding the transcribed interviews. the researchers read the transcripts repeatedly to ensure intimacy with the data. using a constant comparative approach (glaser & strauss, 1967/2017), each interview was coded separately using open coding, and the researchers shared their codes with each other. after becoming highly familiar with the data and agreeing on the preliminary, open codes, the researchers used the same approach to develop overarching or axial coding categories (creswell & poth, 2018). findings six students identified as less-motivated readers were randomly selected to participate in the interview sessions: timoteo, ulises, vicenta, ximena, yesenia, and zanetta (all pseudonyms). the depth of selfawareness of their own abilities as students and data collection the conversational interview protocol used in this study (see appendix a) is an adapted and abridged version of sturtevant and kim’s (2010) amrp conversational interview for english learners (aciels). ten questions were included on the interview protocol asking students to reflect on their reading experiences, primarily in english. probing questions were also included to elicit more-detailed information from student interviewees. an audio recorder was used to record the interviews. the interviewer and a research assistant, a native spanish speaker, took detailed notes on the students’ responses during the interview sessions. the researcher interviewed all students, while the research assistant sat in on each interview to translate for the interviewer or interviewee as necessary. to promote a natural manner of conversation, the interviewer began by telling interviewees about an interesting book that he had read recently and why that book was interesting to him. this brief introduction prepared the students to open up and share about their own reading experiences in an honest and reflective manner. the interview sessions ranged in length from 35 to 67 minutes, with the average length being approximately 50 minutes. some interviews were longer than others because more probing questions were needed to figure 1. procedure for selecting interview candidates. georgia journal of reading 22 volume 42, number 1 2019 readers was immediately apparent. in addition, the impediments they faced toward engagement with reading emerged from the conversational interviews. self-awareness students reported a strong sense of awareness about their academic aptitudes both in and out of the classroom. they were acutely aware of their reading skills and language capabilities in english. their reading motivation was linked to their image of themselves as poor students or nonreaders. they were specifically aware of their understanding of english and its impact on their perceptions of themselves as readers. in addition to being aware of their academic aptitudes, students were also highly aware of their own reading competence. their struggles with reading caused lower self-esteem and feelings of embarrassment for not being able to transfer learning from one language to the other. some of them expressed awareness that their limited vocabulary impeded their reading comprehension. almost all of the interviewees were also aware that they were in the less motivated subgroup without being told beforehand. when asked how she thought of herself as a reader, ximena said in a tone of self-defeat, “a little bit. not fluently. i’m an okay reader, not [an] excellent reader,” and yesenia managed to utter, “a little bit less,” meaning that she thought she was in the “less” reading group. ulises also knew right away into which group he fell, and he explained how he knew: i’m in below . . . because i don’t think i have the perfect way how to read, so why would i teach someone to read if i don’t even know how to? . . . i do know, but i’m not a perfect reader . . . because when i read, i read slow. sometimes i have to ask the teachers how you pronounce that word, and i . . . ¿cómo se dice “tartamudeo”?. . . i stutter a lot when i read. zanetta knew she was in the below-average group, but she contributed her lack of motivation to the absence of childhood reading experiences: “i think it’s below because when i was a little child, i never read a book, never in my life. i read a book, i think one time, then never.” zanetta also described as honestly as she could her sense of frustration at her own inability to learn english quickly enough, but her lack of progress likely came from her fear of failure: oh my gosh, i remember that because i feel so . . . i was so angry with myself because i don’t know . . . i don’t know english. i don’t know how to answer. i don’t know what do you say? i think it’s embarrassing because . . . for me, like example of me, i think i don’t read well in english, but it’s something interesting i have to do, and i have to learn. i think it’s more like leave. . . if you are scared of something, leave that, and you know you have to learn, so focusing that. what do you have to do? how is the best way? i think it’s more like that. zanetta’s honesty illustrated how english learners sometimes gave up on themselves because of their past failures with language. timoteo, in his verbose style, acknowledged his own internal lack of self-interest and motivation as the root causes of his poorer reading skills: through 1 to 10, i think i’m like a 4 or a 5, probably in the below average, probably because i don’t put 100% effort to learning how to read in english, which english is something important that will help you through all your life, but i just don’t put the 100% effort, and i bet if i did and i practiced at home, i would have been a good reader by now. unlike other students who had abandoned their hopes of improving, timoteo’s response showed some glimmer of hope that he could improve with time and effort, but self-depreciation still came across in his response. these excerpts exhibited the strong sense of self that pervaded the responses of interviewees, and they highlighted an apparent connection between self-image and reading motivation. impediments students faced significant obstacles with regard to becoming literate in both spanish and english and ongoing challenges to improving their reading proficiency. difficult home environments and anxieties concerning reading in public emerged as important subthemes that demonstrated the extent of their personal and emotional roadblocks toward reading success. these findings also underscored the magnitude of the challenges these students face. early traumatic experiences. students reported rifts or disturbances in the family, such as parental conflict or divorce, or other influential mitigating factors, georgia journal of reading 23 volume 42, number 1 2019 such as financial hardships. ulises, in what was a very touching exchange, talked about how his father abandoned the family: “he left us to . . . i don’t know. he left us . . . to make a new family, i guess.” ulises had to stay with his neighbors because his parents worked for long hours: “my mom had to work to feed me here. my dad had to work too. i stay with my neighbors, and then they all took care of me.” moreover, zanetta’s parents divorced when she was young: “when i was three years, my mom and my dad was separated.” likewise, vicenta’s mother left the family in mexico to come to the u.s. when vicenta was young: “she left me because she said in mexico we didn’t have a good life. she was unemployed. she didn’t have no water. she said, ‘i have to leave my child, so i could have a better life.’” these examples highlighted the traumatic experiences that shaped the perspectives of students concerning learning, schooling, and reading. the poverty and abject living conditions that many students interviewed had experienced were difficult to comprehend. timoteo described in detail what life was like for his family in mexico before coming to the u.s.: when i was a little kid, probably when i was four, i also lived in a small house, probably with two bedrooms. it was made out of, i think, wooden boards. it was in mexico . . . we didn’t have water running through our house—very poor lands, and to survive you would have to find jobs since you were young. sometimes you would see kids in the streets asking at least for a nickel to buy them something to eat. current living conditions. their living situations did not improve much after coming to the u.s. parent workloads were of primary concern as their parents worked for long hours in factories doing labor-intensive tasks to earn money for the family. heavy workloads served to distract the family from education for its members. timoteo also described in detail the work situation of his parents: i’m pretty sure that my parents would have love having a very good education because they could have probably had a better job and provide for their families with more money than they’re getting now, because right now, they are working at this factory. my dad, when it’s okay, $11 or $12 per hour, but even with all that money, he still doesn’t have enough to pay for the bill at the end of the week. he probably has 2 or 300 dollars left which probably will be used for needs from the house as well. [my mother] works in the same place, but she’s not in a higher rank like my dad. she has less years in there. while heavy parental workloads were common, students did household chores or managed multiple things at home, all of which did not allow them to focus exclusively on schoolwork when at home. ulises’s after-school routine involved him helping his mother in the afternoons: “i go help her. she does pillows, and i unfold the pillows to stack them in the back.” in his verbose and highly expressive manner, timoteo related his household responsibilities outside of school, responsibilities and chores that left little time for schoolwork: when i get home, i usually help my mom because she right now she can’t do much, so i have to help her with the babies. she does a lot of stuff because she’s taking these pills that the doctor gave her so she can feel better and work more around the house so she won’t get like . . . because without the pills, she gets really hard headaches. she gets big fever, and she collapse, and she can’t move a lot. that’s why she’s taking pills, and with the pills, they help her because she feels like she’s already ready to walk around, move more, but she still can’t . . . i help the baby. she takes care of the one that just was born, the newborn, and i take over my brother, the one year old, which i help her clean diaper, give him food and stuff like that . . . i also take care of my dog when i get home . . . i have been working a lot because my family is coming from north carolina, so we have to get the house ready for them and everything, and i had to clean the whole entire porch, which is actually a big porch. then they made me clean the whole, the porch bars, little bars. timoteo’s description highlighted the time restraints these students faced toward attaining any degree of literary or academic achievement. parental literacy. students were also largely aware of the ability or inability of their parents to read and write both in spanish and english. as such, students georgia journal of reading 24 volume 42, number 1 2019 were aware of their own family members’ reading abilities and linguistic competencies in spanish and english. although their own motivation to read was low, sensitivity about their family members’ education, level of learning, and grasp of language was high. literacy among their parents was generally low, and literacy in english was usually restricted to one parent, most often the father who worked outside of the home. students largely came from traditional, patriarchal home environments where reading was largely not part of their experiences growing up. their mothers suffered from low literacy levels, specifically in english. their fathers were more proficient, though not proficient enough in english to be able to help their children. ximena was asked about her parents’ literacy in english, to which she emphatically responded: “[my father] can understand english, and he knows how to speak it a little bit. no, my mom doesn’t know how to talk english.” ulises shared similar thoughts about his parents’ english skills, highlighting the obstacles his parents’ illiteracy posed to him: it makes it difficult because my mom doesn’t know how to speak english, and my dad, i can hardly understand him when he speaks english, so it’s hard to speak english [to them]. mom knows some words, but she doesn’t know it perfectly. likewise, zanetta was embarrassed by her mother’s inability to speak english correctly: mm-hmm, my mom doesn’t know nothing. that day we was in the grocery store, and she said, “dank you.” i said, “mama, it’s thank you.” yeah, thank you, thank you. no english! zanetta gave her father a little higher mark when she responded, “[dad] kind of learned, but he’s not good.” and timoteo shared how his father corrected his mother’s english: “she still has a few difficulty, but my dad always be like, ‘no, you’re spelling it wrong and reviews [corrects] her.’” anxieties about reading in public. to further illustrate the complexity of the challenge and obstacles to academic and reading success students face, students reported feeling anxious about the whole effort of learning english and reading. this theme denoted anxieties about reading or concerning the future because of students’ current perceptions about reading. for less-motivated students, reading in either english or spanish was difficult because the very act of reading created internal anxiety. internal anxiety was due to their own inability to read or to feelings of social anxiety that arose from being watched and ridiculed by peers and friends if they did not read well or made mistakes in reading. this internal and social anxiety not only prevented them from reading; it also made them apprehensive about future prospects of reading. students felt anxious about reading aloud in class, and they associated such public reading tasks with a deficiency within themselves, which made them want to avoid or escape from reading. when asked why she did not like to read in public, yesenia looked down and commented, “i don’t know. i think the people’s going to laugh at me,” and ximena responded matter-of-factly, “i don’t like reading out loud.” this unfavorable perception of reading aloud repeated itself. other interviewees shared feelings of anxiety related to learning tasks and school activities in general. for example, timoteo, in his distinctively reflective manner of responding to interview questions, remarked: [t]here’s a lot of students, and they’re all watching me. what if i mess up in a word? they’re probably going to be like, “you don’t know how to read,” or something. well, if it’s a small class, i don’t really mind, but if it’s like a big, big class with a lot of students, only if i know most of them. if i know everybody, i really don’t care. ulises, in a similar fashion, described his feelings of anxiety: [w]hen i started reading, i get nervous and i start . . . what’s it called? tartamudeo . . . stuttering, like you’re stuttering once i read. when i read, i just get nervous because i don’t like people hearing when i read. yeah. that concerns me next year since this year, words are difficult. some words are difficult to understand. imagine next year what’s going to happen. along these same lines, zanetta shared her anxieties about reading aloud: everybody says, “why you scared? you read so good.” i’m like, “i don’t know. i can.” i feel georgia journal of reading 25 volume 42, number 1 2019 embarrassed, i think. not really. it’s just when i am in the front [of] other people . . . i have to read out loud. i feel so bad because i want to read really good. i want to do it good, but i cannot sometimes. discussion and implications the students interviewed for this study faced numerous challenges in their quest to attain proficiency as english readers. coming from lowsocioeconomic backgrounds and home environments where both parents worked long hours, students found themselves facing almost insurmountable obstacles to reading engagement. as explained through the lenses of expectancy-value theory, the students’ self-awareness served as a further inhibitor to their motivation and success as their low self-esteem was reinforced from the negative experiences of their past failures with reading. factors inhibiting motivation as the interviewees for this study shared, latinx english learners experience much over the course of their lives that can adversely affect their motivation to read. economic and social hardships and the time constraints they bring with them are primarily responsible for the lower reading motivation of latinx english learners in general. economic hardships. english learners are first the children of immigrants, and their immigrant experiences shape their reading motivation more than other factors (ayón, 2014). as immigrants from second or third-world economies, latinx english learners face many financial hardships that interfere with their reading success. economic adversities coupled with the large families that are common in latinx cultures usually mean that parents—primarily fathers, if there are small children at home—work long hours at labor extensive, low-paying jobs, while mothers are left home to tend to household chores and take care of multiple children. according to data from the pew research center, more foreign-born latinx mothers stay home than any other demographic subgroup in the u.s., regardless of the economic constraints the family may face (livingston, 2014). moreover, latinx immigrants have strong positive beliefs about the value of hard work in getting ahead socially and economically in the u.s. (taylor, lopez, martínez, & velasco, 2012), but their immigrant experiences have largely contradicted their strong beliefs in the american dream. the great recession hit foreign-born latinos especially hard (taylor et al., 2012). immigrant parents work longer and harder than many other american workers. given these dismal work conditions, finding the time to read with their children is difficult for immigrant parents who work outside the home for long hours at labor extensive, blue-collar jobs. moreover, they are often paid much less than non-immigrant workers. in 2011, the median weekly wage of latinos working full time in the u.s. was $549 per week. white americans earned approximately 30% more per week on average (u.s. department of labor, 2012). low earnings like these can barely sustain a small family, much less a larger family. latinx immigrant families, therefore, have limited discretionary funds to spend on non-essential reading materials like books or magazines. economic conditions are so dire in some families that older adolescents are required to work to help their parents earn money to support the family, leaving little time to read or discuss reading with family members or peers. the number of teens working after school or on the weekends has declined over the last decade among non-immigrant teens, but immigrant children are more likely to need to work to help their families survive (soergel, 2015). non-immigrant teenagers who work at low-paying jobs from 10–15 hours per week are usually able to pocket their earnings, but the children of immigrants have to spend their earnings on the family. making a way for themselves in a new country while experiencing life on the lowest rungs of the economic ladder may make reading and schooling far-removed concerns for english learners and their families. social hardships. latinx english learners also face numerous social hardships that impede their reading motivation and engagement. parents of english learners are largely unable to help their children with their schoolwork or to read to their children because of their own lack of literacy. most significantly, english (l2) literacy among latinx parents of english learners is particularly low, though fathers who work outside of the home are somewhat better able to communicate socially in english. in a study conducted by the pew research center, over 60% of first-generation latinos georgia journal of reading 26 volume 42, number 1 2019 said they were unable to read a newspaper or book in english with any real sense of aptitude (taylor et al., 2015). in addition, spanish (l1) literacy is also low among many latinx immigrant parents because they often have not been well educated through no fault of their own (gándara, 2010). the situation, therefore, is one in which both parents often lack academic proficiency in both spanish and english, so not only are they not reading to their children in english, but they also are not reading to them in spanish. without sufficient proficiency in academic english or spanish, these parents are completely unprepared to help their children succeed in school, and reading a text to their children in english (or spanish) is largely out of the question. lower educational attainment among latinx parents is also a major factor inhibiting reading motivation for english learners. in contrast with only 6% of white mothers, over 40% of latinx mothers in the u.s. have not attained a high school diploma (gándara, 2010). fathers are usually not at home with the children, which leaves poorly educated latinx mothers badly equipped to read with their children or to help them with their schoolwork. given the strong positive influence of the educational attainment of parents on children, these statistics underscore the serious risks latinx students face toward reading success in particular and academic achievement in general (gándara, 2010). recommendations for educators understanding the theoretical dynamics of what negates or promotes reading motivation and engagement for latinx english learners is only the starting point. the purpose of this section, therefore, is to take the theoretical and make it practical to the extent that teachers and school leaders are capable. english language teachers, mainstream teachers of english learners, school leaders, and other educational stakeholders may use the suggestions discussed here as talking points to elicit instructional and other reforms that promote higher reading engagement for adolescent latinx english learners. empathetic teaching. more often than not, teachers and other educators with whom students interact during the school day have the greatest potential to be optimizers of reading engagement for english learners (chun, 2009; day & bamford, 2002). to this end, educators should be particularly mindful of the economic and social factors that impede reading motivation for the english learners they teach. creating empathy and understanding among teachers and other educators concerning the backgrounds and living conditions of latinx english learners is an important starting point in being able to reach more english learners. in accordance with expectancy-value theory, constant encouragement and celebrating wins, even minors ones, will help students find their own internal motivation to learn and read (lutz, guthrie, & davis, 2006). early literacy interventions. teachers and learning support specialists should focus their attention on those english learners who are most in need of their support and intervention. reading support for atpromise latinx english learners should begin earlier in their schooling (bowman-perrott et al., 2009; calderón et al., 2011; del rio, 2013; donovan & cross, 2002). focusing on younger students in earlier grades, especially males and less-proficient english learners, for reading interventions will result in more long-term successes in reading achievement (applegate & applegate, 2010; donovan & cross, 2002; halle et al., 2012; schiefele et al., 2012; sturtevant & kim, 2010). language teachers, though, should not give up hope of initiating reading interest for at-promise students even as late as high school. parent/family engagement. while teachers have no control over the home environments or upbringing of their english learners, they can reach out to parents of english learners in a variety of ways to encourage them to get more involved in their child’s learning. parent involvement in their child’s schooling and reading practices has more of a positive influence on student reading achievement than any other factor, including socioeconomic status, family size, or level of parental education (clark & rumbold, 2006). parents should be invited to literacy awareness evening or weekend events at their child’s school. such evening/ weekend events would be ideal times to distribute engaging texts directly to parents to help build home libraries and to bring in latinx community members and reading mentors to speak to parents and students together (gonzalez, borders, hines, villalba, & henderson, 2013). georgia journal of reading 27 volume 42, number 1 2019 conclusion motivation is a dynamic process influenced by multiple and varied factors. reading motivation for english learners is no exception. as a sizable and growing student subgroup in u.s. schools, english learners— latinos being the largest subgroup of them—lag behind their native speaking peers, principally in reading. their overall lack of motivation and reading success is more understandable given the economic and social hardships they face as an immigrant population making a way for themselves in a new and unfamiliar terrain. improving reading achievement and closing the achievement gaps will need to involve concerted effort from teachers, administrators, and educational policymakers alike. the solutions will need to involve educators changing the ways they perceive english learners and their capabilities, but larger, systemic fixes will also be necessary—expanded parental outreach, community-wide literacy awareness programs, etc. fixing the problem will require an “all-hands-on-deck” approach with students, parents, teachers, and school and community leaders working together to achieve viable solutions. references applegate, a. j., & applegate, m. d. 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(2000). expectancy-value theory of achievement motivation. contemporary educational psychology, 25(1), 68–81. doi:10.1006/ ceps.1999.1015 georgia journal of reading 29 volume 42, number 1 2019 appendix a: reading motivation interview protocol adapted from the conversational interview for english learners (sturtevant & kim, 2010) english directions: make sure the audio recorder is working prior to the interview session. have a notepad prepared to take detailed notes during the interview in the event a student declines having the interview recorded. familiarize yourself with the interview questions before the actual interview session in order to establish a more conversational setting. select a quiet, comfortable room for the interview. provide refreshments during the interview session. plan for the interview to take 20–30 minutes, but more time may be needed if the student speaks more than expected. follow up on any interesting comments and responses to gain more insight and a fuller understanding of the student’s reading experiences. lastly, make sure you have thought of a personal reading experience to share for the preliminary discussion before the interview session. say: before we begin, it is important to remember that your name will not be shared with anyone other than the researcher, the research assistant, and the faculty advisor. remember your participation in this interview is completely voluntary, and you may ask to stop the interview at any time. your responses to the questions will not affect your grade in any class, including this one. i am going to ask you some questions. i want to know about your reading experiences. there are no right or wrong answers. i really want to know how you honestly feel about reading and what reading experiences you have had. to help me understand your answers more, i would like to record your answers to my questions. may i record our conversation? wait for the student to respond. answer any questions the student may have about the interview process before proceeding. i have been reading a good book (or magazine, newspaper article, etc.) about . . . (explain the nature of the text, some of its main characters, etc.). i was talking with . . . (name a person) about it yesterday. i enjoy talking about good stories, books, or articles i have been reading. today i would like to talk to you about what you have been reading either from a fictional book, a newspaper, a magazine, a web site on the internet, anything you have been reading and learning about. are you ready to begin? b. interview questions 1. think about something important or interesting that you learned recently, not from your teacher and not from television, but from something that you have read. what did you read about? (wait time.) a. tell me about what you learned. (probe for language material was read in.) what else could you tell me? is there anything else? b. how did you know or find out about reading material on this topic (e.g., assigned by teacher, chosen by student at school or out of school)? c.why was this story (or reading) interesting to you? 2.did someone ever do something that got you interested español direcciones: asegúrese de que la grabadora de audio está trabajando antes de la sesión de la entrevista. tener una libreta preparada para tomar notas detalladas durante la entrevista en el caso de que un estudiante se niegue a tener la entrevista grabada. familiarizarse con las preguntas de la entrevista antes de la sesión actual con el fin de establecer un ambiente más conversacional. seleccione un salón tranquilo, y cómodo para la entrevista. proporcionar algo ligero de comer durante la sesión de la entrevista. planee que la entrevista tome 20-30 minutos, pero puede necesitarse más tiempo si el estudiante habla más de lo esperado. dar seguimiento a las observaciones y respuestas interesantes para obtener mayor conocimiento y una mayor comprensión de las experiencias de lectura de los estudiantes. por último, asegúrese de que ha pensado en una experiencia de lectura personal para compartir en el debate preliminar antes de la sesión de la entrevista. diga: antes de comenzar, es importante recordar que sus nombres no serán compartidos con nadie más excepto con el investigador, el asistente de investigación, y el consejero de la facultad. recuerden que su participación en esta entrevista es completamente voluntaria, y ustedes pueden abandonar la entrevista en cualquier momento. sus respuestas no afectarán sus calificaciones en ninguna clase, incluyendo ésta. voy a hacerles algunas preguntas. quiero saber acerca de sus experiencias de lectura. no hay respuestas correctas o incorrectas. con honestidad me gustaría saber cómo se sienten acerca de la lectura y que experiencias de lectura han tenido. para ayudarme a entender más sus respuestas, me gustaría grabar las respuestas que dan a mis preguntas. ¿puedo grabar nuestra conversación? espere a que el estudiante responda. contestar cualquier pregunta que el estudiante pueda tener sobre el proceso de la entrevista antes de proceder. he estado leyendo un buen libro (o una revista, artículo de periódico, etc.) acerca . . . (explicar la naturaleza del texto, algunos de sus personajes principales, etc.). yo estaba hablando con . . . (el nombre de una persona) de ello ayer. me gusta compartir las historias, libros o artículos buenos que he estado leyendo. hoy me gustaría hablar acerca de lo que tú has estado leyendo, ya sea un libro de ficción, un periódico, una revista, un sitio web en internet, todo lo que hayas estado leyendo y aprendiendo sobre tu lectura. ¿estás listo para empezar? b. preguntas de la entrevista 1. piensa en algo importante o interesante que hayas aprendido recientemente, no de tu maestro ni de la televisión, sino de algo que hayas leído. ¿qué fue lo que leíste? (espera tiempo.) a. dime lo que aprendiste. (sondea para obtener más información del idioma en que fue leído el material.) ¿qué otra cosa podría decirme? ¿hay algo más? georgia journal of reading 30 volume 42, number 1 2019 in reading a book or some other text? a.who? what did s/he do? 3.what types of reading have your teachers asked you to do this year in school? a. what is your favorite type of reading in school? why? b. do you have any classes where you can read materials in your home language? (probe for further explanation.) c. do you have any classes in which your teacher reads to the class? explain. how do you feel about this? d. in what class do you feel the reading is the most difficult? what makes it difficult? e. in what class is reading easiest? what makes it easy? 4.have you helped anyone else learn to read? explain. 5. do you belong to any clubs or organizations for which you read? a. could you explain what kind of reading or writing you do in these organizations (e.g., sometimes people read religious materials at church, or scout manuals at girl scouts or boy scouts)? 6. do you ever work or help others with work where you need to read (e.g., students sometimes help their parents in a job or family store)? (if yes, probe for more detail). 7. in the next year, what kinds of new materials would you like to learn to read? why? 8. do you think having two languages has ever caused a problem for you? explain. 9. is there anything that worries or concerns you about reading? please explain. 10. how do you think you could improve your own reading? why? a. do you try to do this? say: thank you for helping me learn more about high school english learners! appendix a: reading motivation interview protocol continued b. ¿cómo supiste o encontraste material sobre este tema (por ejemplo, fue asignado por el maestro, elegido por el estudiante en la escuela, o fuera de la escuela)? c. ¿por qué ésta historia (o lectura) fue interesante para ti? 2. ¿alguien alguna vez hizo algo para que te interesaras en leer un libro o algún otro texto? a. ¿quién fue? ¿qué hizo ella, o él? 3. ¿qué tipo de lecturas te han pedido tus maestros hacer en éste año escolar? a. ¿cuál es tu tipo de lectura favorito en la escuela? ¿por qué? b. ¿tienes alguna clase donde puedas leer materials en tu idioma natal? (sondea para más información.) c. ¿tienes alguna clase en la cual su maestro les lea? explica. ¿cómo te sientes acerca de esto? d. ¿en qué clase sientes que la lectura es más difícil? ¿qué es lo que lo hace difícil? e. ¿en qué clase la lectura es más fácil? ¿qué es lo que la hace que sea fácil? 4. ¿has ayudado a alguien más para aprender a leer? explica. 5. ¿perteneces a algún club u organización para la cual lees? a. ¿podrías explicar qué tipo de lectura o escritura hacen en estas organizaciones (por ejemplo., algunas veces leen materiales religiosos en la iglesia, o manuales de exploración en las niñas exploradoras o niños exploradores)? 6. ¿alguna vez has trabajado o ayudado a los demás con trabajo en el que tu necesitas leer? (¿por ejemplo, los estudiantes algunas veces ayudan a sus padres en un trabajo o negocio familiar)? (si sí, indaga para que te den más detalles). 7. ¿en el próximo año, que materiales nuevos te gustaría aprender a leer? ¿por qué? 8. ¿en algún momento te ha causado problemas el saber dos idiomas? explica. 9. ¿hay algo que te inquieta o preocupa acerca de la lectura? por favor explica. 10. ¿cómo crees que podrías mejorar su propia lectura? ¿por qué? a. ¿tratas de hacer esto? diga: ¡gracias por ayudarme a conocer más acerca de los estudiantes de preparatoria que están aprendiendo inglés! 2013 spring gjr full issue.pdf ���������� � ��������� � �� ��� ��� ������� ������������� ��������� �! �"�� ��#$% � �&!�&!� �� �'��(&()* ���+�� $�'�& �,�#�-�%!��.�($)* �/&0�� $�'�& �1�2�3$%� �45��(��6 %(7�8�� &-&"�) 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!�$#�"��$!��0�-�3�.& ��!�,�$!%!$�,$!!*������������� ¡¢£¤¤ building excitement for reading and building new friendships: using book bistro with pre-service teachers and middle school students students are quick to assume that there are no books that are relatable to them or that those books simply don’t exist. if there’s one thing that i learned from this experience, it’s that it is our responsibility to provide students with the opportunity to discover books that they relate to, to excite them about reading. i heard many students say things like “that’s just like me because…” and “i want to read that because…” which means that we’ve ultimately done our job. ~pre-service teacher this event was very fun. we got to see all these different books i would love to read them all! ~ 7th grade student on a dreary friday in january, one middle school language arts classroom is buzzing with chatter. inside are six tables, covered with checked cloths, glowing led candles, and menus. soft music is playing, and two teachers (dressed as chefs) are circulating through the room, distributing snacks. at each table are two preservice teachers and a group of 7th grade students. one group is passing around the crossover (alexander, k.) and discussing its cover art. another group is reading aloud passages from projekt 1065 (gratz, a.). at a far table, a pre-service teacher is showing students book trailers on her laptop. a large placard on the classroom’s door says, “welcome to book bistro.” this is our story. last year as i was planning my adolescent literature course for pre-service teachers, i had a “light bulb” moment. sitting in a presentation at the national council of teachers of english (ncte) annual convention, i listened to middle school teachers talk about the computerized reading system they were mandated to use and how their students had lost interest in reading. immediately, i thought of my friend kim, a dynamic 7th and 8th grade language arts teacher, who also is a model mentor to my pre-service teachers. she and i have had similar discussions over the past two years ever since her school adopted a computerized literacy program. this program was implemented across three content areas, and students have spent two class periods every week reading and responding to informational articles in order to meet the district’s goal for students to read 80 articles per year. as this program focuses on individualized, online instruction, it does not allow students opportunities to engage in book talks or peer discussions. kim noticed that many of her students seemed bored or frustrated, and often they did not try to finish their articles. additionally, her students were no longer interested in independent reading. kim wanted her students to return to school in january with a fresh outlook toward reading. for this to happen, we knew her students needed to have choices page 2 of 57 and be able to talk and share their thoughts out loud with peers. immediately, i thought about book bistro (hamilton, 2012; kasten & wilfong, 2005; wilfong & oberhauser, 2012). book bistro is “an independent reading strategy for encouraging students to read books on their own, bring books to class for a scheduled event, and linger over books in a cafe atmosphere” (kasten & wilfong, 2005, p.657). teachers can use this strategy to introduce students to want-to-read texts and to provide them a place to collaboratively discuss texts they have already read. in designing our book bistro, i wanted to include the pre-service teachers in my upcoming adolescent literature class. as a teacher educator, i know that my pre-service teachers best learn new pedagogical strategies when they see them enacted in real classroom settings rather than when they simply read about them in a textbook. like other literacy educators, i know my pre-service teachers not only need to possess knowledge of a wide range of texts; they also need to be able to book-match, assist students in self-selection, and create a “community of readers” within their future classrooms (shaffer, cruser, lowery, & shults; 2019). participating in book bistro is one way for them to learn these valuable teaching practices. this article describes a collaborative book bistro between my pre-service teachers and kim’s middle school students. first, we will describe how this strategy aligns with scholarship supporting adolescent readers and pre-service teachers. we will then share the logistics and results of our event as well as suggestions for others interested in using this strategy. background building independent readers teachers face several challenges in regards to reading instruction. one challenge is when adolescent learners view reading as a chore rather than an opportunity to authentically connect with characters, concepts, and themes. one way of fostering students’ interest is through independent reading. by allocating time to read, providing books relevant to their readers, and allowing students to select their own texts, teachers can “build habitual readers with conscious reading identities” (shaffer, et al., 2019). this notion of a “reading identity” is essential. when adolescent learners assume this identity, they view themselves as competent readers (kasten & wilfong, 2005) and develop individual reading interests, such as discovering favorite topics, genres, or authors (springer, harris, & dole, 2017). possessing this identity is important in order for students’ reading lives to extend outside of the classroom. being a reader should not be limited to teacher-selected texts and teacher-led tasks. instead, independent readers are those who choose their own books, make time to read, and engage in ongoing learning. teachers can offer page 3 of 57 support by determining their students’ interests and connecting them to texts that represent the varied cultures, languages, genders, races, histories, etc. within their school and the wider community (gere, martinez, homan, lillge, neiderhiser, parsons, spooner, swafford, & uzogara, 2012; international literacy association [ila], 2019; ila, 2018; shaffer et al., 2019; springer, et al., 2017; wilfong, 2007). independent reading not only allows students to find their identity; it can lead to increased volume of reading (allington, 2014; schaffer et al., 2019). that is, the more students read, the more they are exposed to new words and concepts. the more they read, the more experiences they have making meaning and selfcorrecting errors, thus increasing their reading fluency (allington, 2014). not all students may have an inherent desire to read independently, whether this act takes place inside or outside the classroom. teachers may have to build students’ interest. one recommendation is the use of situational interest, which “...occurs when teachers create a classroom climate and instructional activities in which everyone is excited to participate” (springer, et al., 2017, p. 45). such activities might include partner conversations, performative readings (i.e., role-playing), and viewing/creating book trailers (adomat, 2010; gere et al., 2012; springer et al., 2017). book bistro embodies these key activities. various educators have had success with book bistro. kasten and wilfong (2005) conducted a study exploring the effects of this strategy on middle and high school students. the scholars partnered with two ela teachers (7th grade and 9th grade) from different schools, each of whom hosted a one-day book bistro. both teachers structured the event as follows: students brought to class the texts they had finished reading independently, and they presented brief “book talks” to peers in small groups. based on data collected (students’ survey responses and teacher interviews), book bistro positively impacted students’ attitudes toward reading and increased their classroom engagement. kasten and wilfong assert, “...this simple strategy can easily become a regular part of many classrooms...and enhance the vitally important independent reading portion of the literacy curriculum” (2005, p.663). in another setting, (hamilton, 2012), a high school librarian teamed up with a 10th grade ela teacher to create a book bistro. rather than holding the event in the classroom, the pair hosted the event in the school’s library. students took time “tasting” books pre-selected and completed a list of favorite texts. from there, the librarian and ela teacher placed students in inquiry circles to participate in collaborative reading, circle discussions, and individual responses. this bistro, then, served as a springboard for students to discover a topic to research and develop into a long-term inquiry project. both of these classroom examples demonstrate how this strategy can be adapted to fit various contexts and purposes. page 4 of 57 supporting pre-service literacy teachers book bistro can also support pre-service teachers’ professional development. wilfong & oberhauser (2012) explored using book bistro among middle school students and pre-service teachers. in this case, pre-service teachers enrolled in a literacy course were paired with urban middle school students as reading pen pals. throughout the semester, each pair read a book (at a distance) and engaged in “conversations” by exchanging reading notebooks. at the end of the semester, the pre-service teachers traveled to the school for a one-day book bistro. at this event, the pen pals met and gave book talks to their peers. based on participants’ responses, students reported having positive attitudes toward reading after being a part of this event; further, the pre-service teachers commented that this experience helped them better understand middle school students in general and urban students in particular (wilfong & oberhauser, 2012). in addition to the relational aspect of book bistro, this experience enables pre-service teachers to practice discussion-based pedagogy. according to scholars (applebee, langer, nystrand, & gamoran, 2003; gere et al., 2012), discussionbased approaches are highly effective for teaching reading comprehension to both lowand high-achieving adolescent learners. rather than teaching reading via lecture or worksheets, teachers are encouraged to model how to make meaning with complex texts, help students make text-to-text connections, and facilitate meaningful conversations (applebee et al., 2003; gere, et al., 2012). in order for pre-service teachers to become proficient with these approaches, they must receive professional learning and have opportunities to test them out in actual classrooms. professional organizations, such as ncte and ila, concur that “...prospective teachers increase their competence by applying content and pedagogical knowledge within authentic teaching contexts...including opportunities for one-to-one instruction (tutorial settings); and engagement with culturally and linguistically diverse students and families” (2017, p. 5). embedding a field-based book bistro experience within a methods course provides pre-service teachers the opportunity to interact with individual students and practice discussion-based pedagogy in a comfortable, inviting setting. our collaborative book bistro knowing that book bistro had the potential to pique the interest of kim’s students and provide professional learning to my pre-service teachers, we decided to hold a collaborative bistro all day in her classroom in early january. our purpose was twofold: 1) to introduce kim’s students to books they may want to choose for independent reading; and 2) to allow the pre-service teachers opportunities to practice discussion-based pedagogy. page 5 of 57 participants kim teaches at an urban middle school in georgia with approximately 490 students. over half of the school’s population is economically disadvantaged, with all students receiving free lunch. her class sizes range from 18-30 students, with five 55-minute class periods consisting of two advanced 8th grade classes and three traditional 7th grade classes. kim’s students were the “guests” at the bistro. the 12 pre-service teachers enrolled in my ya literature course hosted the event. all pre-service teachers were undergraduate students majoring in middle grades or secondary english education at a regional public university. their ya literature course was offered as part of a 3-week (abbreviated) january-term, and the bistro served as their capstone experience. prior to book bistro, they read multiple texts and each chose two ya novels to share with the middle school students. as part of our course activities, pre-service teachers practiced various discussion-based strategies they would use during the event, such as making predictions about a text from its cover art, selecting high-interest passages to read aloud, giving engaging book-talks, and using other tools (e.g., book trailers, reviews, and authors’ bios) to entice readers. the event to set the mood, we decorated kim’s room to resemble a quaint cafe. (see figure 1). during the event, two pre-service teachers were seated at each bistro table, along with copies of their novels. in small groups, kim’s students rotated from table to table as the pre-service teachers facilitated the book tastings. as the pre-service teachers and students discussed the novels, kim and i served our guests snacks (see figure 2). students were also provided with menus, on which they noted each novel’s title, author, and genre as well as their impressions. (see figure 3). we repeated this same structure for each of kim’s classes throughout the day. reactions and responses in order to gauge the bistro’s impact, we collected exit slip responses from the students and reflection essays from the pre-service teachers. the students were asked to write about their “biggest take-away” from the experience. the pre-service teachers were asked to describe what they learned about using this strategy and how they might use it (or adjust it) in their future classrooms. both groups reacted positively and offered the following insights. new books, renewed reading interest the majority of students and pre-service teachers agreed that this strategy is an effective way to introduce new books. several students made comments such as, “it was interesting talking about a lot of new books all at once,” “i got to see books page 6 of 57 i’ve never even heard of,” “i liked having so many book options to choose from,” and “...all the different books it was fun hearing that people have different opinions about what to read.” the students’ enthusiastic responses seemed to surprise the pre-service teachers. one reflected, i got a group of students, who all stated that they disliked reading. i was kind of nervous that they wouldn’t like my book, however i pitched it to them in the most interesting way possible...after all that, i wearily asked, “do you guys think you might want to read this novel?” to my pleasant surprise, all of the students said they would. i was elated! each of the pre-service teachers, in fact, expressed concern that their students would be disinterested in their book talks or complain about how much they hated reading. instead, they described instances in which students were engaged and excited. as one explained, i did not expect the students to react as positively as they did... although many of them were extremely hesitant to speak, you could see that they were engaged based solely on their eye contact. this made me even more enthusiastic about participating because many of the students told us that they didn’t like reading at all, but they would read our books. another pre-service teacher noted, “we got to see students that are not normally big on reading become excited and questioning why they do not read more.” based on the pre-service teachers’ reflections, exposing the students to new books through lively conversations appeared to have renewed their interest in reading. the middle school students affirmed the pre-service teachers’ observations. on their exit slips, many wrote, “i should read more,” “i want to read more often because there are a lot of great books,” “i want to explore new books,” and similar comments. in addition to expressing a desire to read, students described their enthusiasm for the event itself. one said, “book bistro is amazing! i want to read some of these books now.” some of her peers added, “i liked the activity,” “we were hyped,” and “it was fun, the books were lit.” this experience also impacted the pre-service teacher’s interest in reading. one admitted, “even though i don’t like reading much myself, this bistro made me want to start reading more.” similarly, her peer remarked, “i have been able to find the fun in reading again, and this makes me even more excited about helping my students to find books that excite them.” a third said, “it’s been so long since i read ya books. i forgot how great they are.” book bistro, then, allowed participants the opportunity to learn about new texts and become interested in reading. new friends in their exit slips and reflections, both the students and pre-service teachers also talked about how much they simply enjoyed engaging in conversations with each page 7 of 57 other. for instance, one student commented, “it was nice to take a break and get together and talk about what we like and what we wanna be.” “the college students were super nice,” another wrote, “and they were fun to talk to because we had some [of the] same opinions about sports and stuff.” several students mentioned conversations about topics not at all related to books or reading. instead, they seemed content being able to meet the pre-service teachers and spend time chatting with them. one young man expressed, “i loved everything and especially the time talking! it brought us together like friends.” spending time conversing with the students impacted the pre-service teachers as well. one described a student who “opened up” to her and made her feel special. “this young man was so quiet; he would just whisper to me. he talked about his favorite movies and video games and said he doesn’t have many friends, but he felt comfortable with me...he melted my heart.” later in her reflection she acknowledged that “...students are all different and unique and that is okay. my job is not to teach english, but to reach them.” her peer also said that her favorite part of book bistro was simply talking with the students. “this was a rare experience for me,” she wrote, “because during my other field placements i didn’t get to interact with students on such an intimate level and for such a lengthy amount of time.” thinking of her future classroom, she said, “i won’t always be able to be so intimate with my students due to time constraints, class sizes, etc. so, this being said, i learned that i liked teaching using class discussions. it’s an easy way to observe students’ prior knowledge, misconceptions, and growth without the quizzes or tests.” overall, the pre-service teachers noted the importance of including small-group and one-on-one discussions in their classrooms as a means for determining students’ reading interests, informally assessing their comprehension, and making personal relationships with them. classroom implications the purpose of this collaborative book bistro was to introduce kim’s students to new books and to allow my pre-service teachers the opportunity to engage in discussion-based pedagogy. this event stemmed from other studies confirming the strategy’s success in engaging student readers (hamilton, 2012; kasten & wilfong, 2005). according to responses from the students, the majority claimed to have enjoyed learning about new books and spending time talking with the pre-service teachers; they were also excited about reading. in fact, kim noticed that the next time she took her students to the library, books were “flying off the shelves.” they eagerly sought titles they had discussed at the book bistro. students’ reactions during and after the event indicated that they valued having choices as readers. the computerized literacy program kim’s school adopted, however, does not allow students to self-select texts. this program page 8 of 57 provides differentiated instruction and aims to increase student lexile reading levels by placing an emphasis on close reading and embedded writing. first, students complete an initial assessment that determines their lexile level, which represents a grade-level range. students are then assigned texts to read within their appropriate range. these texts are informational articles in the subjects of science, history, technology, or sports. since these articles are assigned based on students’ reading levels rather than their interests, there is no guarantee that the content of these texts will be engaging or relevant. scholars concur that text selection is a key component to literacy learning (ila, 2019). in addition to texts being at appropriate levels, they should also represent students’ varied cultures, languages, and perspectives (gere, et al., 2012; ila, 2019; ila, 2018; ila, 2017; shaffer et al., 2019; wilfong, 2007). as the international literacy association (2017) explains, “effective classrooms provide all students with a mirror in which they can see themselves. the books, topics, and issues they encounter foster insights into their own personal and cultural experiences” (p. 2). when teachers must adhere to a mandated curriculum, they may have difficulty providing varied reading options. pairing required reading with independent reading is one way to offer students choices, which can positively impact their engagement and literacy development (afflerbach & harrison, 2017; springer, et al., 2017). as confirmed by students’ responses and other studies (hamilton, 2012; kasten & wilfong, 2005), book bistro is one way teachers can assist students in self-selecting texts. in addition to exposing kim’s students to new books, a second goal for this event was to allow my pre-service teachers the opportunity to engage in discussionbased strategies (applebee et al., 2003; gere et al., 2012). book bistro promotes peer conversations as groups discuss cover art, make predictions, closely read passages, and share their impressions. although students viewed these interactions simply as fun activities, they were actually practicing skills related to the statemandated standardized test they would take later in the semester. this test requires students to read multiple texts and demonstrate their understanding by answering multiple choice questions and writing constructed responses to specific prompts. the computerized literacy program that kim’s school adopted mirrors the reading and writing tasks students will perform on the test. that is, students practice summarizing, comparing and contrasting, and citing evidence. since this program is online, students also practice keyboarding skills prior to taking the test, which is also online. since this program is individualized; however, students are not able to collaborate with their peers and engage in discussions. for teachers who are required to use similar programs, pairing individualized instruction with discussion-based strategies, such as book bistro, allows students to opportunities to respond to texts in multiple ways. for example, one of the pre-service teachers suggested, “i would use book bistro throughout the page 9 of 57 year. i would place students in small groups, with each group reading a different book. then, they could have group discussions and use book bistro to present their group’s book to the rest of the class.” another envisioned using this strategy to select texts that the class would read together. “i’d give the students a list of possible books or stories,” she explained, “and students would have to do research to see which ones they thought were the most interesting. we’d then incorporate book bistro so students could share what they learned.” another proposed using book bistro as an assessment. rather than requiring students to take a test or write an essay, “...students could give presentations to show that they understood the book.” these responses demonstrate that the pre-service teachers gained a “taste” for using discussion-based strategies and developed ideas for their future classrooms, thus confirming others’ findings that book bistro is a flexible and practical tool (hamilton, 2012; kasten & wilfong, 2005). in the future, book bistro could be used to provide a meaningful long-term, field-based experience for our pre-service teachers. due to the time constraints of my abbreviated course, we were only able to spend one day with the middle school students. based on the pre-service teachers’ reflections, this day was impactful as they were able to work intimately with the small groups, and through conversations make personal connections with students. pre-service teachers recommended offering this course as part of the traditional, 15-week semester. by doing so, we could pair them with small groups of students to form reading clubs. book bistro could be used as a “kick off” event for groups to choose their texts and a “finale” event for groups to share their reading experiences with peers. participating in an ongoing reading group would allow the pre-service teachers opportunities to form relationships with students and practice pedagogical strategies in a more intimate setting than whole-class instruction, a model recommended by professional organizations such as ncte and ila (2017, p. 5). though our one-day book bistro proved to be a success, it is clear that this strategy has the potential of being utilized in many more ways to support independent reading, discussion-based reading instruction, and teacher professional development. page 10 of 57 references adomat, d. s. (2010). dramatic interpretations: performative responses of young children to picture book read-alouds. children’s literature in education, 41(3), 207–221. afflerbach, p., & harrison, c. (2017). what is engagement, how is it different from motivation, and how can i promote it? journal of adolescent & adult literacy, 61(2), 217–220. alexander, k. (2014). the crossover. new york, ny: houghton mifflin harcourt. allington, r. l. (2014). how reading volume affects both reading fluency and reading achievement. international electronic journal of elementary education 7(1), 13-26. applebee, a.n., langer, j.a., nystrand, m., & gamoran, a. (2003). discussion based approaches to developing understanding: classroom instruction and student performance in middle and high school english. american educational research journal, 40(3), 685-730. gere, a.r., martinez, a.b, homan, e., lillge, d., neiderhiser, j., parsons, c., spooner, r.a., swafford, s. & uzogara, c. (2012). reading instruction for all students. urbana, il: ncte’s james r. squire office of policy research. retrieved from https://secure.ncte.org/library/nctefiles /resources/journals/cc/0221sep2012/chron0221policybrief.pdf gratz, a. (2016). projekt 1065. new york, ny: scholastic. hamilton, b. (2012). cultivating reading interest with book tasting. school library monthly 29(3), 17-19. international literacy association (2017). characteristics of culturally sustaining and academically rigorous classrooms [literacy leadership brief]. newark, de: author. international literacy association. (2018). expanding the canon: how diverse literature can transform literacy learning [literacy leadership brief]. newark, de: author. page 11 of 57 international literacy association. (2019). engagement and adolescent literacy [position statement and research brief]. newark, de: author. international literacy association and national council of teachers of english. (2017). literacy teacher preparation [research advisory]. newark, de; urbana, il: authors. kasten, w. c. & wilfong, l. g. (2005). encouraging independent reading with ambience: the book bistro in middle and secondary school classes. journal of adolescent & adult literacy 48(8), 656-664. liang, l. a. (2011). scaffolding middle school students’ com prehension and response to short stories. research in middle level education online, 34(8), 1-16. retrieved from http://www.nmsa.org/publications/ rmleonline/articles/vol34no8/tabid/2405/default.aspx. shaffer, r., cruser, b., lowery, r.m., & shults, l. (2019). statement on independent reading. national council of teachers of english. retrieved from https://ncte.org/statement/independent-reading/. springer, s. e., harris, s., & dole, j. a. (2017). from surviving to thriving: four research-based principles to build students’ reading interest. the reading teacher 71(1), 43-50. wilfong, l. g. (2007). a mirror, a window: assisting teachers in selecting appropriate multicultural young adult literature. international journal of multicultural education 9(1), 1-13. wilfong, l. g., & oberhauser, c. (2012). a pen pal project connects preservice teachers and urban youth. middle school journal 43(5), 40-5. page 12 of 57 appendix a figure 1. figure 2. figure 3. page 13 of 57 georgia journal of literacy volume 43, spring, 2020 a balanced approach to literacy instruction and support for diverse learners bonnie mondesir university of west georgia robert a. griffin university of west georgia abstact in this article, the authors explore various theories to inform educators and educational leaders who are looking for ways to better meet the literacy needs of all of their diverse students, including striving readers, culturally and linguistically diverse readers, and proficient and excelling readers. they call on educators to embrace a balanced approach that is informed by multiple bottom-up and top-down theories to better meet the needs of all their students. focus is first given to gough’s and laberge and samuels’ information processing models (bottom-up models) followed by the psycholinguistic, schema, and transactional reader response top-down theories. discussion of both the bottom-up and top-down theoretical approaches includes background information on notable theorists and explanations of specific theories that are instrumental in enriching the teaching of reading in a variety of classroom settings to a variety of students. literature relevant to these theories is reviewed, and practical classroom implications of implementing these theories are explored to provide educators with hands-on tools and suggestions they can use to improve and enrich literacy instruction for all their students. finally, a case is made for why educators should call upon multiple theories when making instructional decisions. keywords: literacy theory, balanced literacy, diverse learners, striving readers the purpose of this article is to explore various theories to inform educators and educational leaders who are looking for ways to better meet the literacy needs of their diverse students, including striving readers, culturally and linguistically diverse readers, and proficient and excelling readers. recent results from our national report card regarding lower achievement levels in reading raises alarm and points to the need for changes in the way we approach reading instruction in schools throughout the u.s. and our state specifically. looking specifically at results in georgia on the 2019 national assessment of educational progress (naep), only 32% of students in 4th and 8th grades performed at or above the proficient level in reading, a 2% decrease from 2017. even while statistics reveal a lack of improvement in reading, they also show an increase in the diversity of the student population, which calls for differentiated instructional practices to address the needs of students from a variety of cultural, page 30 of 68 georgia journal of literacy volume 43, spring, 2020 linguistic, and socioeconomic backgrounds. because literacy is a critical component in the academic and future success of students, selecting instructional strategies that will help to build and develop a literacy-rich environment that will contribute to literacy success for all students is challenging, but this challenge does not result from a lack of knowledge or focus on reading as an area of concern. literacy has been and continues to be a key initiative in many states, districts, and schools throughout the u.s. and specifically here in georgia with the new dyslexia legislation signed into law in 2019. considerable funding has been invested in numerous reading programs and research-based literacy incentives that promise impactful results, yet outcomes continue to show the need for more change, as our students continue to struggle to reach, much less surpass grade-level reading proficiency. improving literacy instruction does not rely on what is new or yet to be discovered; instead, we need to look back to the foundational theories and models that continue to provide guidance, methods, and strategies that contribute to a strategic, informed, intentional, and balanced approach to the teaching of literacy. helping teachers recognize how theories affect the way we think about life and learning will ultimately lead to a better understanding of how a variety of models and theories can lead to more effective and high-quality instruction for all students (tracey & morrow, 2017). moreover, educators should approach the teaching of literacy intentionally and strategically; one effective way of doing this is through the exploration, examination, and application of multiple foundational literacy theories. considering the diversity of their students and the different levels of their reading abilities, a one-sizefits-all approach will not be effective; teachers need to be familiar with a variety of theories so that they will be able to call upon multiple strategies to meet the diverse needs of their students. a balanced approach to literacy instruction requires knowledge of both bottom-up and top-down models. being proficient in various theoretical approaches also empowers teachers to be strategic and flexible in designing lessons that will engage all of their students, including less-motivated readers, striving readers, multilingual learners, and proficient or excelling readers (griffin, 2019). reading is a complex endeavor that integrates both lower and higher-order thinking, and both are required to achieve understanding of a text (afflerbach et al., 2015). as such, bottom-up approaches posit that the road to reading comprehension begins with processing lower-level information, like letter sounds and word meanings, which will then lead to higher-level information page 31 of 68 georgia journal of literacy volume 43, spring, 2020 processing, such as comprehending the overall meaning of the text (tracey & morrow, 2017). top-down approaches, conversely, begin with an overall understanding of the central idea of a text, and from there, readers then focus on the lower-level processes, such as the phrases and words that create the overall message (angosto et al., 2013). this paper is an exploration of bottom-up and top-down theoretical approaches and how they both contribute to an effective balanced approach to literacy instruction. first, focus will be given to two prominent bottom-up models, followed by a focus on three leading top-down theories. these five theories are included as a representative sample of prominent paradigms from both schools of thought. discussion of both theoretical approaches will consist of historical background information, notable theorists, and explanations that are instrumental in enriching the teaching of literacy in a variety of classroom settings. literature relevant to these theories will be reviewed and practical classroom implications of implementing these theories will be explored to provide educators with hands-on tools and suggestions they can utilize to improve and enrich literacy instruction. finally, a case will be made for why educators should consider multiple theories when making instructional decisions. bottom-up theoretical approach background to reach the top of a flight of stairs, one must begin at the bottom and climb each step one by one, each step providing the leverage and support needed to reach the next until one finally achieves the goal of reaching the top. much like climbing stairs, the bottom-up approach to literacy instruction posits that the reading process begins with mastering foundational lower-order skills that then provides access to the next set of skills, and this process continues in a step-by-step fashion to higher-order skills which eventually lead to the goal of overall reading comprehension. gough’s information processing model and laberge and samuels’ automatic information processing model are two models that have influenced and continue to influence literacy pedagogy and classroom practices. bottom-up theorists perceive reading as a process that begins with decoding. according to samuels (1988), decoding refers to the ability to connect the printed word to its corresponding sound. this process is critical in helping students to be successful in the next component of reading, comprehension (samuels, 1988). this bottom-up approach to reading reflects the ideas found in the cognitive-processing perspective, which focuses on examining the fundamental mental actions that take page 32 of 68 georgia journal of literacy volume 43, spring, 2020 place during reading. one model that reflects the bottom-up and cognitiveprocessing perspective is philip gough’s information processing model. gough described the stages the mind goes through to process, store, and receive information when interacting with texts during reading (tracey & morrow, 2017). initially proposed in 1972, gough’s information processing model was later renamed the simple view of reading (hoover & gough, 1990). around the same time as gough, david laberge and s. jay samuels presented another reading model that stemmed from the cognitive processing lens called the automatic information-processing model. like gough, laberge and samuels viewed reading as a stage-by-stage process (tracey & morrow, 2017). selected theories gough’s information processing model gough’s information processing model is text-driven where the reading process begins with the printed word on the page and proceeds in sequential order from a phonics-based approach to word recognition to the overall meaning of the text (lonigan et al., 2018). the process starts when the visual representation of the letter, the iconic image, is examined by the scanner and decoded and changed to the corresponding sound in the phonemic tape. at the next level, these letter sounds are brought together and attempts are made to connect them to word meanings—a stage referred to as the librarian. once meaning is attained, the next step involves combining the words into sentences in the primary memory, and the merlin stage, helps to give these sentences meaning; the sentences are then added to the knowledge system (lonigan et al., 2018; tracey & morrow, 2017). according to rumelhart (1994), gough’s model takes into account the various ways that different types of information interact to lead to understanding. the simple view, as this model was later coined, posits that decoding skills and language comprehension are the processes that lead to the higher-order skill of reading comprehension, which can be illustrated as the equation r = d x lc where r is reading comprehension, d is decoding, and lc is language comprehension (gough & tunmer, 1986; hoover & gough, 1990). automatic information processing model another notable model that is bottom-up in orientation is the automatic information processing model (aipm) developed by laberge and samuels (laberge & samuels, 1974). the aipm rests on two assumptions: (a) the human brain is capable of processing a small amount of information at one time, and (b) it page 33 of 68 georgia journal of literacy volume 43, spring, 2020 is necessary for someone to decode and understand words in a text in order to achieve understanding (samuels, 2004, 2006). as shown in figure 1, the aipm has five different parts that, like gough’s model, occur in a linear order (sadoski et al., 2012; tracey & morrow, 2017). first, readers use their visual memory (vm) to process the text and identify the visual input as letters. readers then move to the phonological memory (pm) where sounds are attached to images, then on to the episodic memory (em), where the reader now pays attention to the context surrounding the information they are viewing. this and other knowledge is stored in the semantic memory (sm). this follows to the final part of this process, attention (a), of which there are two types—external attention and internal attention (laberge & samuels, 1974; samuels, 2004). readers must be able to decode words accurately and automatically recognize them to achieve fluency; once they can do this, readers will have more working memory available to dedicate to understanding what they are reading (schrauben, 2010). figure 1 stages of the automatic information processing model a discussion of the aipm is incomplete without highlighting one of its core components, automaticity. more clearly, automaticity is the ability to perform a complex task effortlessly with little attention (samuels, 1988). emergent and striving readers often struggle with decoding, which leaves their mental faculties so taxed that they have little mental energy left to devote to comprehending the text they are struggling to decode. as such, emergent and striving readers need extensive practice with letter-sound recognition (phonemic awareness) and phonics, along with a vocabulary of high-frequency words, knowledge of morphological (word parts) and orthographic (spelling) patterns (rimes and phonographs), etc. for them to build skills in decoding so page 34 of 68 georgia journal of literacy volume 43, spring, 2020 that the mental task of decoding becomes more and more effortless and automatic, thus freeing their attention to devote to understanding or comprehending the text (laberge & samuels, 1974; samuels, 2004). selected research findings several studies have been conducted that investigate instructional strategies that emerge from gough’s simple view of reading and the aipm, both of which emphasize the linear progression from decoding to comprehension. to find ways to improve the decoding skills of students identified as poor readers, squires (2018) explored how working memory and cognitive load affected the decoding skills of elementary students. squires noted the negative effect when readers have to devote a significant amount of attention to cognitive tasks associated with decoding that then leave fewer resources for them to use for the job of comprehension. specifically, squires administered three different measures to a group of 2nd and 5thgrade students that required varying levels of cognitive demand for auditory-verbal and visual-spatial working memory, then assessed their level of decoding skills. findings revealed a relationship between auditory-verbal working memory and the students’ ability to perform decoding tasks, which suggests that reading programs that are languagerich would be beneficial in improving reading and academic performance. in a paper where he reflected on his career in reading education, samuels (2006) noted the positive results, specifically in fluency, associated with using the repeated reading strategy for the first time with a group of special education students in the late 1970s. over 30 years later, bennett et al. (2017) investigated the effect of repeated reading, combined with culturally relevant stories and technology, to improve the reading fluency of a small group (n = 7) of second-grade african american students in two inner-city elementary schools. results showed improvement in reading fluency and comprehension for six of the seven students who participated and the gains were greater when compared to some of their peers in the conduct group. in a similar study, redcay and preston (2016) used a control and experimental group of 20 secondgraders in each to determine the effect of teacher-guided repeated reading instruction delivered using an ipad app. the goal was to help students improve their ability to read automatically. though there were some limitations due to differences between the groups selected, both the fluency and comprehension scores of students in the experimental group were significantly higher than those in the control group, thus demonstrating the benefits of the page 35 of 68 georgia journal of literacy volume 43, spring, 2020 repeated reading strategy in improving automaticity in the reading process with the added benefit of meaningfully integrating technology in the process (redcay & preston, 2016). instructional implications bottom-up models like gough’s simple view of reading and aipm emphasize the importance of students mastering the skills needed for success in reading sequentially. this linear progression is significant as it relates to the classroom, not only in terms of daily decisions that teachers make about instruction but in decisions regarding helping striving readers. research-based practices in literacy instruction have the potential to influence historically lowerperforming groups, including students of color, students with exceptionalities, and multilingual learners. utilizing technology may also help to make instruction more engaging and accessible to students (redcay & preston, 2016). georgia’s standards of excellence, based heavily on the common core standards, emphasize higher-level, critical thinking, which has inadvertently prompted some teachers to drift away from spending time on foundational reading skills such as decoding and fluency, even when supporting striving readers in the upper elementary and secondary grades (hendrix & griffin, 2017). bottom-up models suggest that without helping students to master these early reading skills, they will not be able to acquire higher-level comprehension skills. implementing repeated reading activities in classes of striving readers and multilingual learners could lead to significant improvement and growth in their literacy skills (bennett et al., 2017; rasinski, 2017; redcay & preston, 2016; samuels, 2006). samuels (2006) found that incorporating a peer-lead repeated reading activity had a more significant effect on student performance than a teacher-led one. teachers can plan group activities where they can work with small groups of students, while other students read aloud to each other (rasinski, 2017). as shown in redcay and preston’s (2016) study, teachers can also use ipads or other forms of technology to incorporate repeated reading activities in the classroom with small groups or individually at home, thus increasing the ease and likelihood of differentiating instruction. in another study on scaffolding second language reading for multilingual learners, taguchi et al. (2016) introduced another way to incorporate technology in the learning process by using an audio recording to model reading the text, so students can hear the text being read aloud and practice reading it on their own. page 36 of 68 georgia journal of literacy volume 43, spring, 2020 bottom-up models are also useful for coming up with interventions for striving readers. students at all grade levels who are having trouble with comprehension or demonstrating higher-order reading skills need to be assessed for their knowledge of the lower-level skills. having students read aloud will help teachers recognize where in the reading process they require support and interventions (rasinski, 2017). free software programs, such as screencast-o-matic (screencast-omatic.com), allow teachers to record lessons that meet the needs of their students. in addition, free audio recording or video recording apps like flipgrid (flipgrid.com) enable students to practice and demonstrate their progress to their teachers, parents, and themselves. readers theater is another fun way for students of all ages to work on improving their fluency and mastery of lower-level reading skills (young et al., 2019). frequent formative assessments also need to be in place to monitor students’ progress so that instruction is aligned with their specific needs. the bottom-up approach continues to earn its place in the literacy classroom as it continues to be relevant for improving literacy instruction, especially for emergent and striving readers. top-down theoretical approach background before working on learning a new musical piece, a conductor will often allow the musicians to hear the entire composition, so that each member will have a clear understanding of how each part and instrument works together to produce the final performance. this whole-topart metaphor is similar to the thinking behind the top-down orientation toward the reading process, which focuses first on the role of the readers and their understanding of the overall text rather than the elements of the text itself (tracey & morrow, 2017). when students begin with a contextual understanding of the text, they may more easily master the individual skills and vocabulary that they need to grasp the meaning more fully. for example, a reader begins by trying to understand the message of an entire paragraph first before focusing on the words, phrases, and sentences that comprise the paragraph (angosto et al., 2013). this theory contrasts with the bottom-up approach to reading, which stresses the importance of first mastering the foundational skills, such as decoding, word recognition, and fluency before the reader can reach the higher-order thinking that is involved in grasping overall meaning (suraprajit, 2019). page 37 of 68 georgia journal of literacy volume 43, spring, 2020 top-down theories find their roots in constructivism with three primary factors underlying literacy acquisition: (a) not all learning can be seen by an outside viewer, as some learning processes occur internally within the reader’s mind; (b) some learning occurs as a result of successful educational guesswork on the part of the reader (e.g., using context clues); (c) readers sometimes attain meaning by inserting their background knowledge and making connections when there are gaps in their understanding of the text—a process called inferencing (tracey & morrow, 2017). noted educational or learning theorists that contributed to top-down theories include jean piaget and john dewey. piaget influenced the foundation of constructivist theory through his beliefs that humans learn using a process of continuous building of logical structures; dewey added the importance of learning to be grounded in experiential and inquiry learning. according to dewey, an effective learning environment is one where students have the opportunity to create hypotheses, test their hypotheses using data that they have collected, and reflect on the process they engaged in to arrive at their conclusions. these early thinkers influenced the later development of top-down theories that continue to play a significant role in literacy education, including psycholinguistic, schema, and transactional reader response theories. selected theories psycholinguistic theory one of the theoretical models of reading closely associated with the top-down processing approach is the psycholinguistic theory. artley (1980) described psycholinguistics as the joining of linguistics and cognitive psychology. this theory suggests that when readers engage in the process of reading, they use their prior knowledge of language and the world to make sense of what they are reading (goodman, 1971). as such, young children learning to read would be more impacted by the knowledge they obtain from the adults and the environment around them than from specific instructional materials (smith & goodman, 1971). according to this constructivist viewpoint, at the center of the learning process is the learner herself actively connecting old knowledge with new knowledge, formulating hypotheses to make sense of unknown information, and making inferences to help him understand what the text means. kenneth goodman (1967), one of the first theorists to apply psycholinguistics to the reading process, referred to this process of predicting the meaning of a text based on prior experiences and schemata as “a psycholinguistic guessing game” (p. 126). as shown in page 38 of 68 georgia journal of literacy volume 43, spring, 2020 figure 2, this theory posits that proficient readers use three central cueing systems: (a) graphic cues, referring to letters and words; (b) syntactic cues, referring to how words are arranged grammatically; and (c) semantic cues, referring to the reader’s perception of what words and phrases mean in the text (hayes, 1980). figure 2 cueing systems in psycholinguistic theory of reading schema theory another notable top-down or constructivist theory is the schema theory. the ideas surrounding schema theory and its connection to the reading process were first developed by psychologist sir frederic barlett (1932/1995), who used the term schema to describe one’s mental organization of events that occurred in the past. anderson and pearson (1984) applied schema theory to reading by suggesting that readers had schemata for content, text structures, and reading processes; they posited that a reader’s ability to comprehend text is directly related to how detailed their schemata are. according to anderson and pearson, existing structures of knowledge are always changing, and these changes involve three processes: (a) accretation occurs when readers acquire new information; (b) tuning is when a schema has to be changed to page 39 of 68 georgia journal of literacy volume 43, spring, 2020 integrate new information; and (c) restructuring occurs when the reader realizes that an old schema is no longer enough and a new one needs to be created. transactional reader response theory both the psycholinguistic and schema theories place heavy emphasis on readers’ prior knowledge and how they use schemata to engage in the reading process to construct meaning. in her development of the transactional reader response theory (trrt), louise rosenblatt (2013, 1994/1978) also gives credence to the significance of the reader’s schemata in extrapolating meaning from the text; however, she also adds another element to the reading process, the reader’s transaction with the text. rosenblatt (1994/1978) postulated that because schemata are acquired from life experiences, a reader’s response to the text is central to comprehension. stated differently, what readers take from a text is influenced by the knowledge that they bring to it. this exchange between reader and text is referred to as a transaction, as the way each affects the other is what contributes to the meaning (probst, 1987). this meeting between reader and text is further influenced by the type of response the reader has to the text: an efferent response refers to the factual information that a reader gathers from a text, while an aesthetic response refers to a more personal or emotional response (sebastian, 2014). in keeping with the constructivist view, the trrt emphasizes that the reader is an active participant in the reading process (woodruff & griffin, 2017). selected research findings instructional strategies that emerge from top-down literacy theories such as psycholinguistic theory, schema theory, and trrt have been shown to significantly and positively affect student literacy outcomes. in a meta-analysis of articles published between 2007 and 2017 on effective vocabulary instruction, moody et al. (2018) examined the theories that influenced word-learning strategies and found that recommendations for effective vocabulary instruction were greatly influenced by both schema and psycholinguistic theories. strategies based on these theories included comparing and contrasting word features using semantic groupings, utilizing a frayer model graphic organizer to learn new vocabulary words, incorporating the home languages of multilingual students in classroom discussions, and examining common semantic meanings and phonological features of words. the influence of both schema and psycholinguistic theories highlighted the importance of prior knowledge, word connections, and page 40 of 68 georgia journal of literacy volume 43, spring, 2020 mentally organizing words to maximize understanding. chilton and ehri (2015) demonstrated the central role schemata play in vocabulary acquisition and reading comprehension of elementary school children (n = 40). their research experiment examined the impact of connecting semantic scenarios to meanings for third graders who were learning the definitions of six new verbs (anticipate, attain, devise, restrain, wield, and persist). to observe the influence of schema and context on learning, chilton and ehri provided instruction for one group of students where the new words were used in sentences where events were all connected to a common scenario, like a birthday party, while another group of students was also provided with sentences with the new words, but without connections to everyday events or scenarios. results showed that students who were offered the opportunity to use their existing schemata of the common scenarios included in the sentences were better able to acquire and retain the meanings of the new words that they learned. this theory also demonstrates how students actively apply their schemata of content and reading processes to build knowledge and achieve reading comprehension (suraprajit, 2019). this focus on the reader being the central agent in the creation of meaning during the reading process is also evident in rosenblatt’s trrt (sebastian, 2014). meyer and schendel (2014) explored the use of the trrt with a small group (n = 10) of first-grade students who were identified as striving readers. this action research study examined the effect of the implementation of literature circles on student’s assessment outcomes and classroom behaviors. students were placed in literature circles and given specific roles, including artful artist, question asker, connector, and passage picker, to facilitate meaningful transactions with the text. students called upon their collective prior knowledge to discuss and write about their aesthetic and efferent responses to the high-interest texts they were reading collectively in literature circles. meyer and schendel cited high student engagement, enhanced comprehension, and attainment of new learning strategies and tools as just some of the benefits gained from their implementation of literature circles. instructional implications the discussion above of research studies highlights practical ways instructional strategies that emerge from psycholinguistic theory, schema theory, and trrt can positively influence student achievement in reading. these strategies include the use of graphic organizers to explore prior page 41 of 68 georgia journal of literacy volume 43, spring, 2020 knowledge and to make connections to the text and build new meaning, the use of existing schemata to acquire new vocabulary, and participation in literature circles to increase engagement and learning while reading a text. little and box (2011) suggested using semantic mapping as a useful instructional tool to help students who may not have enough of the background knowledge they need to comprehend the text they are reading. much like the example with common animals shown in figure 3 below, this strategy involves allowing students to create a visual representation of ideas connected to the concepts in the text they will read; this can be even more effective if, after allowing students to brainstorm on their own, the teacher leads the class in a collective sharing of ideas that helps all students build their knowledge of the concept using what they already know and what they are learning from their peers. figure 3 example of semantic map to build schemata related to common animals technology can also be integrated. venn diagrams and mapping tools are available via free online apps for students to use to explore their prior knowledge. literature circles may be conducted online using discussion boards so that students not only get to interact with the text but also communicate with their peers to discuss the books they are reading. in discussing the use of technology to facilitate reader response, clarke (2014) suggested several technological tools that could be used to engage students in strategies based on the trrt. these digital tools include wordle (wordle.net) to create a graphic representation of word connections, kami (kamiapp.com) to annotate text page 42 of 68 georgia journal of literacy volume 43, spring, 2020 online, voicethread (voicethread.com) to allow students to discuss text with their peers, and glogster (glogster.com), smore (smore.com), or prezi (prezi.com) to create engaging multimedia presentations. the top-down approach continues to play a significant role in the teaching of literacy; its premise that the learner is the most vital component in the reading process encourages teachers to keep students at the center of their instructional practices and learning activities. concluding thoughts viewing learning experiences from multiple theoretical perspectives, including from bottomup and top-down approaches as we have done, allows educators to consider different explanations and ways to analyze and meet the needs of diverse at all stages of the literacy acquisition continuum. when educators are aware of the theories they use to “see” and work through a phenomenon, theoretical background knowledge is even more effective. being conscious of and purposeful in the way we use and apply various theories allows us to analyze, think through, discuss, reuse, improve, or even dismiss them if needed; most importantly, this awareness will enable us to recognize when something is working, how it is working, and how to make it work better (tracey & morrow, 2017). in the context of literacy instruction, if teachers only choose to consider one theoretical orientation in their approach to teaching students how to read, they could miss the opportunity to help many students reach their potential, and may even cause some to fail in their attempts. considering multiple theoretical perspectives also improves our understanding of individual components that need to be considered when trying to solve a problem (tierney, 1994). when a teacher has a student who is struggling to read, utilizing all methods at her disposal to help that student to be successful is vital, and understanding that there are multiple ways to understand and work through literacy problems is equally essential (tracey & morrow, 2017). what was and what is, as it relates to learning and life, continue to be inextricably linked. ryan and dagostino (2017) pointed out that louise rosenblatt’s warning made 80 years ago that teachers were not doing a sufficient job developing their students’ interest in having a pleasurable and meaningful experience in reading is still relevant to today’s standardized testing driven school environments. this is not just a literacy problem; the way students relate to reading and writing correlates to their development as creative, problem-solving, productive members of a democratic society page 43 of 68 georgia journal of literacy volume 43, spring, 2020 (ryan & dagostino, 2017). increased knowledge of the strategies affiliated with various theoretical orientations, including bottom-up and top-down, can lead to immediate improvement in the way we help our students to read. there is no old way versus new way—all strategies should be considered in developing a balanced approach that meets the needs of all our students. references afflerbach, p., cho, b. y., & kim, j. y. 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(2019). improving reading comprehension with readers theater. journal of educational research, 112(5), 615–626. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220 671.2019.1649240 page 48 of 68 georgia journal of literacy volume 43, spring 2020 dyslexia and georgia senate bill 48 nora w. schlesinger kennesaw state university the interest in and understanding of dyslexia has become increasingly important in educational fields and the legislative process in the united states. this article provides information on what dyslexia is, the history of research on dyslexia, dyslexia laws across the us, and georgia’s dyslexia law: senate bill 48 and its impact on educational entities. keywords: dyslexia, laws, senate bill 48, dyslexia intervention in recent years there has been an expansion of disability legislation in the us, specifically dyslexia legislation. in fact, georgia has a new dyslexia law, senate bill (sb) 48, which was signed into law on may 2, 2019. this article is written to provide information on dyslexia, including past and present dyslexia research, as well as information about dyslexia legislation in the us. in addition, the article presents how sb 48 may impact colleges of education, local educational agencies, and classroom teachers. dyslexia defined the international dyslexia association (ida) and the national institute of neurological disorders and stroke (ninds) defines dyslexia as a neurobiological disorder. characteristics include difficulty with accurate and/or fluent word reading and poor spelling and decoding abilities. typically, difficulties result from deficits in the phonological component of language that are unexpected in relation to other cognitive abilities and unexpected in relation to the provisions of effective classroom instruction. this may cause concerns with reading comprehension and reduced reading experiences that impede vocabulary growth and background knowledge. individuals with dyslexia do not exhibit cognitive concerns (ida, 2019; ninds, 2019). the reading concerns are unexpected for the child’s age and other academic abilities (lyon et al, 2003; shaywitz et al., 2008). for example, the explanation for the reading concerns cannot be explained by sensory deficits, cognitive difficulties, poor motivation, or lack of reading instruction (lyon et al, 2003). neuroimaging studies imply that page 6 of 68 georgia journal of literacy volume 43, spring 2020 dyslexia is associated with differences in the neuro networking of brain regions associated with typical reading development (d’mello & gabrielli, 2018; shaywitz et al., 2008). dyslexia is a multidimensional learning difference. individuals with this disorder have difficulties with reading and other language skills. they often have difficulty with spelling, writing, and pronouncing words (ida, 2019; simon, 2000). dyslexia is a persistent chronic condition and is not transient in nature (berninger et al., 2008; berninger et al., 2009; ida basics, 2019; shaywitz, 1998). it is referred to as a learning disability because dyslexia makes it hard for students to succeed within the general educational classroom. depending on the severity of their deficit, many students with dyslexia qualify for special education, special accommodations, or extra support services (ida basic, 2019). however, like most disorders, the impact of dyslexia may present varying degrees of severity across timelines (shaywitz et al., 2008). for example, the impact of dyslexia may be profoundly felt in early elementary when learning to read. even with successful early intervention, the disorder may significantly impact learning again in middle school and high school, when more technical and sophisticated content vocabulary and discourse are introduced (kamil et al., 2008), as well as when trying to meet requirements for learning a foreign language (schneider & crombie, 2003; simon, 2000). past and present research on dyslexia dyslexia is the most common neurobehavioral disorder that affects children, with estimated prevalence rates ranging from 3 to 10 percent to upwards of 17percent (e.g., gabrieli, 2009; shaywitz, 1998; shaywitz et al., 1994; snowling & hulme, 2011). it affects about 80% of individuals identified as learning disabled (lerner, 1989). different theories have been proposed for the underlying causes of dyslexia. suggested causes include abnormalities with the visual system (stein, 2001), language system (liberman, 1973; liberman et al., 1974), working memory (berninger, et al., 2006; swanson & ashbaker, 2000; swanson & siegel, 2001), as well as other factors such as temporal processing of stimuli within these systems (neville et al., 1993; stein & walsh, 1997). however, the vast body of research suggests dyslexia is primarily a phonological processing disorder (e.g., berninger et al., 2006; ida, 2019; peterson & pennington, 2012, stanovich, 1988; wagner & torgesen, 1987). past research prior to the adoption of current technology, postmortem page 7 of 68 georgia journal of literacy volume 43, spring 2020 evaluations provided cerebral anatomy advances regarding dyslexia. paul broca, a french surgeon in the 1860s, noted individuals with trauma to the brain exhibited a specific type of aphasia, an inability to understand or express speech (carroll, 2008). these individuals often spoke in a halting manner primarily using nouns and verbs with omission of function words. however, they were able to demonstrate intact comprehension. post-mortem examinations revealed damage to frontal regions of the left hemisphere in these individuals. this region of the brain is now known as broca’s area (carroll, 2008; hallahan & mercer, 2007). shortly after broca’s discovery a german surgeon, carl wernicke, discovered a different form of aphasia in which patients exhibited fluent nonsensical speech but impaired comprehension. the left temporal lobe, near the auditory cortex, was damaged in these patients and is now known as wernicke’s area (carroll, 2008; hallahan & mercer, 2007), see figure 1. both physicians’ work has stood the test of time and added substantially to the scientific community’s knowledge of the left hemispheric dominance of language. descriptions of specific reading impairments both acquired and congenital began to emerge in the 1870s. in the mid-1890s, journal correspondences between john hinshelwood, a french physician, and w. pringle morgan, a british physician, shifted the understanding of acquired reading impairment from adults to children with congenital reading deficits (hallahan & mercer, 2007). samuel orton, a neurologist (henry, 1998) and a neuropathologist (orton et al., 1975; rawson, 1987) in the united states, began to study reading disabilities and noted, using newly designed intelligence quotient tests, many of the children he studied had average to above average intelligence (hallahan & mercer, 2007). orton also suggested familial tendency for reading disabilities. he was among the first to suggest a neurological basis for the reading disorder and to associate the disorder with speech and language (orton et al., 1975). dr. orton also addressed the comorbid nature of dyslexia with emotional and behavioral issues (henry, 1998). norman geschwind’s (1965) work in aphasia, apraxia, and hemispheric dominance continued the advancement of the neurobiological understandings of dyslexia. geschwind observed that a majority of non-impaired individuals had brain asymmetry with a larger left planum temporale than right in wernicke’s area (see figure 2). he hypothesized the larger planum temporale of the left side may explain the dominance of the left hemisphere for language (geschwind & levitsky, 1968). it was later found individuals with dyslexia did not show the same asymmetry in this area. together, geschwind and albert galaburda brought forth the idea that dyslexia page 8 of 68 georgia journal of literacy volume 43, spring 2020 may be a result of early developmental changes in the cerebrum (galaburda et al., 1985; springer, 1987). liberman’s seminal research in the 1970’s stressed the importance of phonological awareness in reading acquisition (liberman, 1973; liberman et al., 1974) and promoted the belief that there is an underlying core phonological deficit in dyslexia. a decade later bradley and bryant’s (1983) longitudinal study indicated that children’s awareness of rhyming and alliteration prior to formal education influenced later reading and spelling. in the late 1980s wagner and torgesen (1987) expanded the phonological processing concerns in dyslexia. present research the causes of any disorder are layered; they may have internal as well as environmental factors (cowan, 2010). in addition, it is important to bear in mind that the causes of developmental disabilities are multifaceted; there may not be one single cause, but rather several different causes (cowan, 2010). advances in the epidemiology of dyslexia from neurobiology, genetics, and cognitive influences have allowed practitioners to approach dyslexia within a traditional medical framework (e.g., alexander & slinger-constant, 2004; gabrieli, 2009; shaywitz, 1998). data from epidemiologic studies indicate dyslexia fits a dimensional model, such that individuals with dyslexia present the disorder along a continuum with varying degrees of severity. however, the etiological research supports the belief of a phonological core deficit in the disorder (stanovich, 1988; wagner & torgesen, 1987). this view is supported by the ida (2019) and the national institute of neurological disorders and stroke (ninds, 2019). in addition, recent research indicates dyslexia is a genetic disorder, and a number of genes have been identified that may predispose a person to dyslexia (ninds, 2019). today’s researchers have access to digital technology to study the working brain. doctors sally and bennett shaywitz from yale (2005) utilized the noninvasive imaging of functional magnetic resonance imaging (fmri) to analyze the brains of individuals with dyslexia and typical readers at work completing a set of hierarchical structured language tasks. the shaywitz team’s finding demonstrated individuals with dyslexia do in fact present different activation patterns while engaged in reading activities compared to unimpaired counterparts (shaywitz et al., 1998). the activities, in order of simplest to complex language demands, consisted of visual-spatial processing, orthographic processing, simple phonological analysis, complex phonological analysis, and lexicalsemantic decisions (shaywitz et al., page 9 of 68 georgia journal of literacy volume 43, spring 2020 1998). an evaluation of brain activation patterns across tasks resulted in significant findings of group-task interactions in four posterior regions. consistent with modern neuroimaging, posterior cortical regions have been postulated to be important to the reading process (geschwind, 1965). please refer to figure 2 for depiction of the posterior hemispheric region. wernicke’s area, the angular gyrus, and the striate cortex have been shown to be activated by typical readers when increasing orthographic and phonological demands were presented (shaywitz et al., 1998). however, under-activation of these areas was shown to be statistically significant in individuals with dyslexia (shaywitz et al., 1998). in addition to under-activation, individuals with dyslexia had overactivation in anterior regions of the brain compared to typical readers. the inferior frontal gyrus of individuals with dyslexia showed significantly greater activation in comparison to typical readers when presented with demands of increasing phonological difficulty (shaywitz et al., 1998). in addition to differences found in activation patterns in the left hemispheres, fmri images of typical readers and those with dyslexia have shown different right hemispheric activation (shaywitz et al., 1998). the readers without reading impairments showed greater activation in the left hemisphere for these areas, while individuals with dyslexia had greater activation in the right hemisphere. it is important to note these activation patterns were evident across all tasks (shaywitz et al., 1998). neuroimaging has provided a neuro-signature (gabrieli, 2009) for dyslexia and as a result there is general agreement within the scientific community that phonological deficits are at the heart of developmental dyslexia. currently, however, there is not consensus as to the neural and sensory causality of the deficit (goswami et al., 2011). as advances in medical technology continue, future research may be better able to synthesize the intricate complexities of the brain processes involved in developmental dyslexia. neuroimaging has also shown the positive impact on the brain when individuals with dyslexia receive proper intervention. imaging studies have shown the brain’s ability to increase activation, based on effective intervention, in regions associated with typical reading (e.g., alexander & slinger-constant, 2004; gabrieli, 2009). normalization for phonological processing has been shown in the left temporo-parietal and frontal regions upon receiving effective dyslexia intervention. in addition, increased right-hemisphere activation has been shown immediately after intervention (gabrieli, 2009). though typical readers have decreased right page 10 of 68 georgia journal of literacy volume 43, spring 2020 hemispheric activation, for individuals with dyslexia the increased right-hemisphere engagement may indicate a covenanted time where both the right and left hemispheres are activated to support reading (gabrieli, 2009). for a review of studies indicating significant brain physiological changes please see alexander and slinger-constant (2004) and d’mello and gabrieli (2018). hruby et al. (2011) point out current neuroscience studies of reading focus primarily on neuro structures and processes associated with decoding. this focus is not in tandem with the general scholarship found in reading and literacy education (hruby et al., 2011). therefore, it is important to keep in mind the complexities of reading and the very purpose of reading, to make meaning. critical components of reading and reading scholarship include comprehension and related strategies, motivation, text selection, multiple literacies, and sociocultural relevant pedagogy (e.g., allington, 2002, 2013; boardman et al., 2008; duke & pearson, 2011; guthrie, 2015; rueda, 2013). therefore, omission of these important reading components does not comprehensively represent the act of reading (hruby et al., 2011). dyslexia laws across the us in 2013 there were only 22 states with dyslexia legislation (youman & mather, 2018). during 2018 the us witnessed an expansion of dyslexia legislation. from january to march of 2018 there were 33 dyslexia related bills introduced (youman & mather, 2018). the increase of dyslexia related legislation is in part compelled by grassroots organizations, such as decoding dyslexia (youman & mather, 2018), and individuals who have been impacted by dyslexia (bhat et al., 2000; rose & zirkel, 2007), as is the case for sb 48. the growth in dyslexia legislation has continued into 2019. per the website, dyslegia (2019), there were 75 dyslexia bills with either pending legislation or legislation being acted upon. the focus of current laws includes a) dyslexia awareness, b) screenings and intervention pilots, c) educator training, d) dyslexia provisions for accommodations and interventions and, e) rights for individuals with dyslexia (youman & mather, 2018). dyslexia awareness the label of dyslexia as a neurobiological disorder, as defined by the ida (2019) and ninds (2019), has received increased focus. this is in contrast to reading related impairments categorized within the individuals with disabilities education improvement act (idea) as one type of specific learning disability (u.s. department of education, 2018) or the diagnostic page 11 of 68 georgia journal of literacy volume 43, spring 2020 and statistical manual of mental disorders-5 that uses an overarching terminology for a specific learning disorder with the addition of the specific academic area of concern (petretto & masala, 2017). for reading impairments the specifications for abilities of concern include word reading accuracy, reading rate or accuracy, and/or reading comprehension (petretto & masala, 2017). many states have begun to define dyslexia per the ida guidelines as a neurobiological disorder (youman & mather, 2018). georgia is one such state. the adoption of a precise definition for dyslexia has helped to establish a model of identification based on inclusionary criteria versus exclusionary criteria (adolf & hogan, 2018; odegard, 2019). another reason for the increase in dyslexia advocacy is that historically local education agencies (lea) prohibited, or at the very least discouraged, educators from using the terminology, dyslexia (macdonald, 2009; youman & mather, 2018). due to the pervasiveness of lea not using the word dyslexia, the executive director of the national center for learning disabilities in may of 2015 requested the federal office of special education and rehabilitative services to issue guidance to lea regarding the use of appropriate terms and provisions for accommodations (wendorf, 2015). the office of special education and rehabilitative services did in turn inform school districts in october 2015 of the unique educational needs of children with dyslexia, dyscalculia, and dysgraphia. the 2015 letter set forth that idea does not restrict the use of the terms, dyslexia, dyscalculia, and dysgraphia in evaluations, eligibility requirements, or individual education plans (youman & mather, 2018; yudin, 2015). screenings and intervention pilots per the center on response to intervention (rti) at american institutes for research (2019) a screener is used to predict students whose academic learning may be at risk. screeners are brief and all students of a specific grade level are assessed, then typically followed with additional testing or progress monitoring (center on rti at american institutes for research, 2019). research indicates dyslexia may be predicted and possibly prevented in young children (gabrieli, 2009; shaywitz et al., 2008). a diagnosis of dyslexia is commonly made, in the united states, around grade 2 when a child is 7 to 8 years of age (d'mello & gabrieli, 2018; gabrieli, 2009). the earlier the disorder is diagnosed and proper intervention is initiated, the length and intensity of intervention needed decreases (gabrieli, 2009; shaywitz et al., 2008; torgesen et al., 2001). early intervention is especially important for later fluency concerns page 12 of 68 georgia journal of literacy volume 43, spring 2020 (gabrieli, 2009; torgesen et al., 2001). therefore, recent legislation in the u.s. has included mandated universal screening and intervention (youman & mather, 2018) with the hopes of early prevention and intervention. some legislative action has specified universal screeners for all kindergarten students (georgia general assembly legislation, 2019) or when students are first enrolled in school as a kindergartener or first grader (youman & mather, 2018). screeners include: common processes correlated with dyslexia such as phonological awareness, rapid automatic naming, and letter to sound correspondence; and familial history of difficulty with literacy acquisition (youman & mather, 2018). some states have supplemented screeners by requiring progress monitoring (youman & mather, 2018). educator training though there has been an increase in legislation requiring universal screeners and appropriate intervention, often clarification on who will be responsible for implementing and monitoring screeners and outcomes is not adequately addressed (youman & mather, 2018). some states have hired individuals with specialized training in dyslexia (lonergan & duthie, 2018) and in some cases the dyslexia specialist is at the district level. the dyslexia specialist may serve both special and general education students, but also increase dyslexia awareness and provide training to educators to work with individuals with dyslexia (lonergan & duthie, 2018; youman & mather, 2018). in addition, some states have stipulated special education teachers or other educators attend professional certification programs for the diagnosis and remediation of literacy related difficulties (youman & mather, 2018). dyslexia provisions for accommodations and interventions legislative mandates for intervention have accentuated explicit instruction on essential components of reading (national reading panel [nrp], 2000). research shows reading instruction that addresses core phonological deficits, such as phonemic awareness and spelling, is essential to support reading acquisition for students with dyslexia (e.g., berninger & amtmann, 2003; gabrieli, 2009; graham, harris, & chorzempa, 2002; moats, 2006; schlesinger & gray, 2017, snowling & hulme, 2011). bolstered by decades of reading research, mandates for reading intervention for individuals with dyslexia stress explicit and systematic instruction in phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, and vocabulary and spelling (e.g., berninger, lee, abbott, & breznitz, 2013; bradley & bryant, page 13 of 68 georgia journal of literacy volume 43, spring 2020 1983; liberman et al., 1974; shaywitz et al., 2008). recent legislative actions are mandated and noncompliance may result in lea losing government funding and possibly be subjected to legal action from parents (youman & mather, 2018). rights for individuals with dyslexia individuals with dyslexia who do not receive adequate support and intervention are subjected to dire consequences (lonergan & duthie, 2018). the persistent nature of dyslexia has marked consequences on reading outcomes for early elementary to high school students. students who struggle with reading in grade 1 have a 90% prospect of reading poorly in grade 4 (gabrieli, 2009), furthermore struggling readers in grade 3 have a 75% probability of continued reading concerns in high school (francis et al., 1996; gabrieli, 2009). poor reading in early elementary grades has a negative impact on reading to learn in later educational years (gabrieli, 2009). therefore, legislation is necessary to mitigate the negative long-term effects of dyslexia (lonergan & duthie, 2018). in addition to schools and school districts, the new legislative action affects other areas such as the protocol for college entrance exams and protection in the work place. please see youman & mather (2018) for specific laws. georgia’s dyslexia law: senate bill 48 dyslexia awareness georgia was one state that passed significant dyslexia legislation in 2019. the state’s dyslexia law, senate bill (sb) 48, was signed into law in may 2019. the new law defines dyslexia as a neurobiologicalbased disorder and provides definitions and characteristics of dyslexia and disorders, as well as terminology associated with dyslexia and dyslexia intervention. [(georgia general assembly legislation, 2019: sb48. passed. reg. sess. 2019-2020. 20-2-159.6. sect. 1 (a)(1-8)]. the definitions and terminology provide common language for parents and the educational community and will hopefully prevent lea from not using the word dyslexia and other related terminology. the term structured literacy™ is referred to in sb 48 and is defined as in the ida structured literacy™ introductory guide (ida, 2019). the term indicates the principals of effective literacy instruction are followed and includes, (a) the modeling of instructional tasks, (b) explicit instruction is provided for foundational skills and higher-level literacy concepts, (c) prerequisite skills are taught before more advanced skills, (d) meaningful language interactions are embedded in lessons, (e) multiple practice opportunities are provided, (f) page 14 of 68 georgia journal of literacy volume 43, spring 2020 corrective feedback to student responses, (g) student effort is encouraged, (h) student engagement is monitored and scaffolded during teacher modeling (i) independent student work is monitored and facilitated, (h) students must meet lesson criterion before moving on to more advanced skills (ida, 2019). screenings and intervention pilots as in other states’ legislation, sb 48 stipulates universal screeners and pilot programs. under sb 48, no later than july 1, 2020 the state board of education must have procedures in place for referring students kindergarten through grades 3 for dyslexia screening who have been identified through the lea rti process as having concerns for dyslexia and/or other disorders. the state board of education is to provide a list of approved qualified dyslexia screening tools. screeners must include phonological and phonemic awareness, sound symbol recognition, alphabet knowledge, decoding and encoding skills, and rapid automatic naming, [(georgia general assembly legislation, 2019: sb48. passed. reg. sess. 2019-2020. 20-2-159.6. sect. 1 (b)(1)(2)(af)(3)]. educator training additional advocacy measures require the georgia department of education to issue a dyslexia informational handbook by december 1, 2019. the handbook will provide information and guidance to lea for the implementation of evidence based practices for educating students exhibiting characteristics of dyslexia. the handbook information pertains to kindergarten through grade 3 students who have been identified through the rti process as exhibiting concerns for dyslexia. the handbook will provide information regarding evidence based and targeted pedagogy designed specifically for dyslexia, guidance on the development of instructional plans for students exhibiting concerns, meaning-centered literacy utilizing best practices, curricula that is developmentally appropriate with engaging materials and pedagogy, structured multisensory approaches to language and reading skills, and suggested training programs to meet the needs of students with dyslexia concerns. [(georgia general assembly legislation, 2019: sb48. passed. reg. sess. 2019-2020. 20-2159.6. sect. 1 (c)(1-7)]. in addition, the georgia department of education (doe) in collaboration with the professional standards commission will be required to update professional development opportunities for training specifically related to dyslexia. the intent is to focus training and coaching on dyslexia and other disorders. the doe is to identify high-quality trainers to provide support to lea page 15 of 68 georgia journal of literacy volume 43, spring 2020 utilizing a coaching model to develop school level dyslexia experts [(georgia general assembly legislation, 2019: sb48. passed. reg. sess. 2019-2020. 20-2-159.6. sect. 1 (d) (1-2)]. furthermore, the doe is mandated to develop training modules for all instructional personnel regarding dyslexia, and to provide structured multisensory approaches to teach language and literacy as well as accommodations for students exhibiting dyslexia and related concerns. lastly, training is required to focus lea and school system policies and procedures as related to rti in addressing literacy, mathematics, and behavior with educators being notified annually of changes in policy, procedures, and specific instructional methodologies [(georgia general assembly legislation, 2019: sb48. passed. reg. sess. 2019-2020. 20-2-159.6. sect. 1 (d)(3-5))]. dyslexia provisions for accommodations and interventions starting in the academic year 2020-2021 a three year pilot program will be established to demonstrate and evaluate the effectiveness of early reading support for students with dyslexia concerns. three districts, at minimum, will be selected by the state school superintendent. preference is for an lea in an urban setting, suburban setting, and a rural setting. the superintendent will consult with recognized organizations that specialize in structured literacy™ for instructing students with concerns of dyslexia to establish and operate the pilot program [(georgia general assembly legislation, 2019: sb48. passed. reg. sess. 2019-2020. 20-2159.6. sect. 1 (e)(1)]. per sb 48, the application processes for lea interested in applying for the pilot program are to include: (a) a method for screening for low phonemic awareness, rapid automatic naming, and dyslexia characteristics, (b) provisions for students with dyslexia concerns to receive an ida approved reading program via a teacher trained in structured literacy™ per the ida’s knowledge and practice standards, and (c) a manner for evaluating the effects of the reading program on students with dyslexia concerns. [(georgia general assembly legislation, 2019: sb48. passed. reg. sess. 2019-2020. 20-2159.6. sect. 1 (e)(2)(a-c)]. rights for individuals with dyslexia once selected, the lea will be required to screen all kindergarten students for characteristics of dyslexia, and may screen for other disorders. in addition, students in grade 1 through 3 who have been identified via the lea’s rti as having concerns for dyslexia will be screened for dyslexia and may be screened for other disorders. the lea will provide appropriate reading intervention support for students page 16 of 68 georgia journal of literacy volume 43, spring 2020 identified for dyslexia concerns and ascertain if the intervention provided improves students’ language processing and reading skills. all lea participating in the pilot study will be mandated to comply with all applicable state and federal laws and require parents or guardians of students with dyslexia concerns to communicate in writing that they voluntarily and knowingly consent to their child’s participation in the pilot program for reading intervention services. in addition, the lea will provide the parents or guardians with information about dyslexia and recommended interventions. [(georgia general assembly legislation, 2019: sb48. passed. reg. sess. 2019-2020. 20-2-159.6. sect. 1 (e)(3-4)]. impact on education preparation providers it is important to systematically support struggling readers with dyslexia and provide educators with the necessary training to work with individuals with dyslexia. senate bill 48 will have an impact on education preparation providers (epp), the institutions that provide undergraduate teacher candidate instruction as well as instruction for candidates in graduate teaching programs. section 2 of sb 48 amends subpart 1 of part 6 of article 6 relating to certified professional personnel in elementary and secondary education. per the new code section, by december 30, 2019, the professional standards commission (psc) is mandated to create a dyslexia endorsement for teachers to be trained in recognizing and responding to students with concerns for dyslexia and languagebased disorders, for example expressive or receptive language concerns. the development of the gapsc rules were in association with the georgia department of education and a dyslexia task force. the task force included individuals from across the state of georgia with literacy expertise, including college and university literacy faculty, qualified practitioners (e.g., psychologists, speech language pathologists, dyslexia practioneers), and other community stakeholders (e.g., administrators). the requirements for the dyslexia endorsement may include training on the use of universal screeners for identification of students at risk for dyslexia, providing support and guidance to parents, and providing training/guidance to other educators and school personnel. lastly, the psc are to establish measures to assess fidelity of teacher training and implementation for teachers who receive a dyslexia endorsement [(georgia general assembly legislation, 2019: sb48. passed. reg. sess. 2019-2020. 20-2-208. sect. 2 (a-c)]. section 3 of sb 48 concerns certification of teachers in elementary and secondary education. section 3 page 17 of 68 georgia journal of literacy volume 43, spring 2020 adds a new code section, 20-2-208.1, which mandates standards for teacher preparation programs for elementary and secondary education to include instruction on the following: (a) the definition and characteristics of dyslexia and other disorders, (b) evidence based interventions and accommodations for students with characteristics of dyslexia and other disorders, and (c) core elements of a rti framework to address reading, writing, mathematics, and behavior. the rti framework should include universal screening, scientific, research-based interventions, progress monitoring of the effectiveness of interventions, and data-based decision-making procedures. the related data-based decision procedures are to include determining intervention effectiveness, determining if the intervention should continue, be altered, or discontinued, and if further evaluation of the student’s needs should be conducted. lastly, instruction should be provided on the application and implementation of rti and dyslexia instructional practices in the classroom [(georgia general assembly legislation, 2019: sb48. passed. reg. sess. 2019-2020. 20-2-208.1. sect. 3 (1-3)(a-d)(iii)(e)]. in addition, the gapsc rule 505-3-.14 elementary education (p5) program requirements, teaching of reading stipulates education preparation programs prepare education professionals to meet the standards for the reading endorsement per gapsc rule 5053-.01 (georgia professional standards commission, 2016: rule 505-3-.14 (2) 9). this rule stipulates graduates of epp elementary education programs in georgia who meet the required standards graduate with a reading endorsement. it is probable that individuals with reading endorsements will be called upon to implement the universal screeners called for in sb 48. therefore, education preparation programs will likely need to train teacher candidates to give screeners with fidelity and to interpret student data with reliability in their initial certification program of study. importantly, a theoretical understanding of the cause of learning disorders, assessment measures, and the required intervention lead to effective evidencebased intervention (snowling & hulme, 2012). therefore, it would be advantageous for an epp to provide instruction regarding the relationship among language, reading, and language impairments along a spectrum of reading disorders (see figure 3); (bishop & snowling, 2004; snowling & hulme, 2012). the figure depicts the spectrum of reading disorders within the relationships of language. at the top of the figure, individuals with intact phonology, but poor language often are poor comprehenders. however, typical readers are individuals with both intact phonology and language. the page 18 of 68 georgia journal of literacy volume 43, spring 2020 bottom half of the figure shows the dyslexia with comprehension issues as individuals with poor phonology and language. individuals with poor phonology, but have intact language are depicted as persons with dyslexia. the severity of reading disorders follows on a continuum depending how the deficits with phonology and/or language (bishop & snowling, 2004; snowling & hulme, 2012). impact on local education agencies early identification and intervention of educational concerns for dyslexia has been shown to play a crucial role in academic obtainment (snowling & hulme, 2012; shaywitz et al., 2008). in order to meet mandates set forth by sb 48, such as early elementary schools screeners, lea will need to start to plan now to ensure district curriculum and educator in-service are aligned to meet sb mandates. however, researchers and practioneers should take a critical eye when selecting commercially available programs for addressing the needs of individuals with dyslexia. snowling and hulme (2012) suggest a virtuous circle, where theory inform practice and vice versa. each lea will need to ensure individuals making decisions for effective programs have a solid understanding of principles of interventions, and which children are suitable for selected interventions (snowling & hulme, 2012). effective instruction for early signs of dyslexia, per snowling and hulme (2012), has more than one targeted component. for children who may have poorly developed language, instruction should target oral language. activities should focus on speaking, listening, and vocabulary instruction and training in oral narration. other targeted areas should include phonemic awareness (segmenting and blending), letter-sound knowledge, and reading from texts at the students’ appropriate level. please see snowling and hulme (2012) for program details. for older students with concerns for dyslexia it is recommended evidence based intervention pedagogy be explicit, systematic, well structured, multisensory, and incorporate direct teaching, learning, (e.g., berninger & amtmann, 2003; gabrieli, 2009; graham et al., 2002; moats, 2006; nrp, 2000; schlesinger & gray, 2017; snowling & hulme, 2011) and time (snowling & hulme, 2012) for students to consolidate what has been taught. in all situations, structured language concepts should be coupled with the practice of applying the concepts taught via authentic reading and writing (adams, 1990; pearson, 2004). furthermore, our struggling readers and writers should receive instruction from highly qualified practitioners (allington, 2013). to meet mandates, lea will need to prepare so that classrooms have quality authentic literature, and direct educators to available trainings or page 19 of 68 georgia journal of literacy volume 43, spring 2020 provide the trainings themselves from qualified individuals or organizations such as state colleges and universities of education. impact on teachers and classroom instruction typically it rests on the shoulders of general education teachers to notice and provide early intervention for reading concerns (otaiba, et al., 2019). as time goes on other educators, such as speech pathologists (lonergan & duthie, 2018), reading specialists or dyslexia specialists (otaiba et al., 2019), will be involved with addressing concerns for dyslexia. teachers will need to be well informed on the structure of the english language, for example understanding the progression of early reading skills from phonological awareness to alphabetic principle, from phonics to word study skills (otaiba et al., 2019). teachers will need to be able to interpret and address student needs based on universal screener’s results, provide differentiated instruction, implement scientifically-based literacy instruction for students with concerns for dyslexia, and understand and become involved in their district’s rti (otaiba et al., 2019; youman & mather, 2018). conclusion in conclusion, sb 48 has brought dyslexia and the teaching of reading to the forefront of education in georgia. reading is a complex process and extends beyond the act of teaching phonics (e.g., adams, 1990, nrp 2000, carlisle, 2000; carlisle et al., 2011; pearson, 2013). senate bill 48 aims to address components of reading that research has shown are essential for individuals with dyslexia (e.g., gabrieli, 2009; shaywitz et al., 2008; torgesen et al., 2001). the tenets of the bill are aligned with dyslexia advocacy that has occurred over the last few years in the u.s. the bill defines dyslexia as a neurobiological-based disorder and provides definitions to encourage the use of dyslexia and dyslexia related terminology. universal screening of kindergarten students, as well as kindergarten through grade three students who demonstrate concern for dyslexia based on lea rti is stipulated in the law. a three-year pilot study will be initiated in academic year 2020-2021, which will evaluate the effectiveness of early reading support for students with concerns for dyslexia. a component addressing professional learning opportunities is included in the dyslexia handbook that will be available december 1, 2019. in addition, the law sets forth the process for the psc to establish standards for a dyslexia endorsement. there is no doubt that sb 48 will have an impact on epp, lea, and teachers in the classroom. the result is hoped to have a positive influence on literacy gains for students in georgia with literacy page 20 of 68 georgia journal of literacy volume 43, spring 2020 concerns. references adams, m. 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(2015, october 23). u.s. department of education. retrieved from https://www2.ed.gov/policy/s peced/guid/idea/memosdcltrs /guidance-on-dyslexia-102015.pdf page 29 of 68 introduction year after year, students enter the classroom several grades below grade level yet are expected to perform as an on-grade level student. one of the major learning gaps, that is daunting to see in fourth grade, are students who are extremely below grade level in the area of reading. to an outsider, it may look as though it is only one subject. no big deal! unfortunately, reading is the foundation to all content areas. a student who is not successful in reading will most likely have difficulties in other areas of learning. reading provides the foundation of understanding and that foundation begins with reading fluency. researcher timothy rasinski, along with countless other researchers, such as kodan and akoyl, the national reading panel, and samuels and leberge, carry the belief that students who build a foundation of fluency through practice and increase that fluency will develop the ability to comprehend on higher levels (2003). without this foundation, the learning gap begins and continues to widen year after year. thus, showing the huge relationship between reading fluency and reading comprehension (rasinski, 2003). these below grade level readers need interventions that meet them where they are and push them forward to meet their learning goals enabling them to become better readers. the purpose of this study was to address the needs of below-level readers and to aid in the vertical alignment of research-based interventions and methods in grades 3-5. literature review the importance of reading fluency and reading comprehension reading fluency reading fluency provides students with the key foundational skills they need to cross the bridge to reading comprehension. there are many definitions of reading fluency. the national page 14 of 57 reading panel (nrp) defines reading fluency as having the ability to read not only with speed and accuracy, but also expression (2000). researchers leberge and samuels define reading fluency as having the ability to interpret letters to sound to words in an effortless manner (1974). kodan and akyol (2018) define fluency as "reading words correctly, fast, and automatically without additional effort" (p.161). each of these definitions puts a large emphasis on the speed of reading. rasinski warns that reading should not be taught or perceived as a race to win, but must include prosody, interpretive and meaningful reading (2000). these vast arrays of reading fluency definitions show the wide span that fluency covers and prove how it is seen as the foundation to reading. developing reading fluency in young students is a key factor in predicting the type of reader a student will become. a lack of a good reading foundation creates learning gaps, thus showing a strong relationship between fluency and comprehension (rasinski, 2003). therefore, it is extremely important to develop these skills. to develop fluency, students need to be given multiple opportunities to hear fluent reading, as well as opportunities to hear others use meaningful expression (griffith, l. & rasinski, t., 2004). the nrp stresses the importance of focusing on fluency for developing readers and having teachers regularly assess students’ fluency in order to follow student development. there are two main reasons for the importance of assessing: first, reading fluency is a major indicator of reading comprehension, and secondly, assessments allow teachers to dig deeper into the struggles the students are having in reading and develop a plan to address those issues and help the student grow in their ability to read (2000). through fluency instruction, students are given the opportunity to interact with a text in various ways (repeated readings, choral readings, partner readings) allowing them to gain the ability to process the text in an efficient manner. page 15 of 57 a fluent reader moves from the constant process of sounds to having comprehension as the purpose for their reading. they can read more rapidly, which opens their mental capacity for comprehending (rasinski, 2003). by opening a student’s mental capacity that was once taken up applying fluency strategies, students are then able to analyze the text they are reading and instantaneously apply appropriate strategies needed to comprehend. developing a student’s ability to read fluently and with little to no effort helps to establish the reading skills necessary to create an “on grade level” reader that can attain the ability to comprehend. studies on reading fluency several studies have been completed over the years to show the true effect that fluency has on readers years later in their educational journey. taleda (2007) sought to find the relationship between oral reading fluency and comprehension. during this study, secondand third-graders in a new york private school were studied in order to determine the relationship between fluency and comprehension in which the participants were assessed using the dynamic indicators of basic early skills (diebels) and the terranova basic multiple assessment by mcgraw-hill publishing company. upon the completion of the study and statistical analysis, it was found that students showed proof of a strong correlation between reading fluency and comprehension. the second-graders who participated showed a strong positive correlation once data was analyzed, while the third-grade participants indicated a very strong positive correlation between both components of reading. ultimately, researchers found that students who were able to read more quickly and comprehend more thoroughly. similar results were found in griffith and rasinski’s (2004) study that focused on the impact of incorporating fluency into the reading curriculum. this action research details how the implementation of fluency enhancing strategies enhanced students’ comprehension when utilized page 16 of 57 simultaneously within the reading curriculum. these students spent third and fourth grade with mrs. griffith where the study continued until the results were analyzed. the results of griffith’s action research showed a great impact on struggling readers who made gains in fluency and over all reading proficiency. the implementation of fluency and comprehension not only impacted the title 1 students: growth was seen in all the readers’ reading performance. griffith’s shift in making fluency an integral part of reading versus an intervention seemed to result in students’ reading levels soaring at fast rates as well as them gaining the ability to think more critically and meaningfully about what they were reading. ultimately, griffith found that fluency needs to be coached and practiced with this knowledge, so students will grow into readers that think critically about what they are reading and build up their comprehension abilities. reading comprehension comprehension has been shown as a direct product of the ability to read fluently. the nrp states that fluency provides the bridge between word recognition and reading comprehension (national reading panel, 2000). through fluency, students are given the opportunity to interact with a text in various ways (repeated readings, choral readings, partner readings) allowing them to gain the ability to process the text in an efficient manner. a fluent reader moves from the constant process of sounds to having comprehension as the purpose for their reading. they can read more rapidly, which opens their mental capacity for comprehending (talada, 2007). there is no longer a power struggle between word recognition and comprehension. comprehension is defined as reading with a purpose and having the ability to think actively by making connections and using schema (armbruster, 2001). this active process allows students to build new learning as they combine new information with their current page 17 of 57 knowledge, thus allowing the reader to make sense of the text and ultimately reach a level of comprehension in which the reader can now simultaneously identify written word, gain meaning from those words, and build understanding. with this understanding comes the ability to interpret, analyze, criticize, synthesize, connect, infer, and evaluate a text (kodan & akyol, 2018). the bridge built by foundational reading skills leading to comprehension gives readers the ability to make sense of a text and dig deeper into its meaning. by reaching the step of comprehension in the reading process, students can automatically carry out the basic strategies of reading. these strategies allow for the student to move towards the development of higher-level thinking. once this level of reading is achieved, students “are able to rely extensively upon the meaning of the passage” allowing the student to fully comprehend the text they are reading (talada, 2007). by opening a student’s mental capacity that was once taken up by applying fluency strategies, students are then able to analyze the text they are reading and instantaneously apply appropriate strategies needed to comprehend. this understanding of the text structure promotes application and comprehension (talada, 2007). this achievement allows the reader a more enjoyable experience as a reader. reading difficulties several factors can affect a reader’s ability to comprehend, leading to a learning gap that pushes the reader far below the level they should be. reading difficulties are defined as a reader having difficulty comprehending words and phrases while reading and analyzing sentence structure (kodan & akoyl, 2018). kodan and akyol (2018) note that difficulty in reading can be observed as lacking the ability to get meaning from a text as a reader must use their schema to make sense of and understand a text. factors such as speed, resolution, ability to summarize, metacognition, vocabulary, and reading interest have all been noted as key factors that inhibit the page 18 of 57 ability to comprehend. to tackle the reading needs of struggling readers, researchers agree that there is a large amount of support that suggests repeated readings as a key factor in fluency growth. through repeated readings, students are provided the support they need to grow in fluency and are able to familiarize themselves with tough vocabulary and the sequence of the text, thus producing effective readers with a strong ability to comprehend. studies have shown that readers who have difficulty reading in first grade will most likely still be below level readers in fourth grade. in 2003, data showed that only 32% of readers in fourth grade were considered proficient according to the national assessment of educational progress (menzies, mahdavi, & lewis, 2008). this struggle in the area of reading must be tackled and the only effective way to do so is creating effective reading instruction. menzies, mahdavi, and lewis state that, "effective reading instruction is predicted on educators skillfully negotiating the knowledge and management demands that "balanced" reading instruction requires. without an understanding of the components of effective reading instruction, teachers may not have the skills necessary to prevent reading failure for at risk students” (p. 27). this shows that educators must be equipped with the knowledge and resources to help prevent below level readers and to help grow those readers that have already fallen behind. this knowledge can simply be attained through peer collaboration by the building of a repertoire of interventions and strategies that have successfully been implemented within classrooms and have shown growth in reading proficiency. correlation between reading fluency and reading comprehension the correlation between reading fluency and reading comprehension is a well-carried belief among educational researchers. for students to become successful readers, establishing a page 19 of 57 mastery of basic foundational skills is key. rasinski (2000) tells of how students who build a foundation of fluency through practice will successfully develop the ability to comprehend on higher levels. sanchez (2010) elaborates on the correlation between reading comprehension and fluency and the vast amount of research that shows their relationship; "research consistently demonstrates an association between reading fluency and reading comprehension, such that greater fluency is associated with greater comprehension and poor fluency is associated with less comprehension" (p. 11). kodan and akyol (2018) refer to research completed by the national reading panel that "in order to achieve adequate levels of reading, individuals should gain fluent reading skills, which is one of the basic rudiments of reading" (p.160). the key to becoming a successful reader begins at the earliest stages of reading. the foundational skills that include fluency enable readers to gain the skills necessary to read to understand and comprehend. the lack of these skills, on the other hand, creates the beginning of below level readers and the gaps in learning that these readers often exhibit. conclusion many students enter the classroom lacking the foundation of reading. they are not fluent readers and therefore, cannot carry out the necessary process to understand and comprehend the text they are reading. this can cause frustration for the learner in various subjects, as comprehension is a key factor to carry out most content area tasks. there are many tried-and-true teaching and intervention methods to help move below grade level readers through the process of fluency and to the mastery of comprehension. as an educator, this can seem as a daunting task, as going through thousands of teaching methods and interventions can be overwhelming. this qualitative, interpretivist study will present learning methods that are research based by educators that have shown positive growth in bridging the gap between fluency and reading page 20 of 57 comprehension allowing students to advance their level of reading and move closer to the ongrade level status in reading. rationale for this study as teachers, our main goal is to help our students be successful. this entails closing the gaps that exists within our classroom through the utilization of methods and interventions that we have seen to prove themselves successful. many upper elementary schools see a significant learning gap in their student's ability to read on grade level. according to the national assessment of educational progress (naep), only 35% of fourth grade readers are considered on grade level (2019). this data is very concerning, as standardized assessments, such as the georgia milestones, are based on a reader's ability to read on grade level. naep data shows that the reading scores for fourth graders were 3% lower in 2019 than 2017 (2019). the question to be asked is, if our students are not reading on grade level and exhibit a learning gap in the area of reading, what are we, as teachers, doing to close the reading gap and get our students on track in terms of on grade level reading? this research seeks to determine what educators view as the most beneficial teaching methods and interventions that increase student reading fluency and comprehension leading them to on level reading growth. the following research questions will be addressed: • according to teachers, which teaching methods and interventions most enhance below grade level reader’s fluency? • according to teachers, which teaching methods and interventions most enhance below grade level reader’s comprehension? page 21 of 57 these questions may guide upper elementary teachers in a streamlined approach to develop reading fluency and comprehension in a way that is successful for both students and teachers while allowing a vertical alignment of practices to be developed across grade levels. the process of learning to read begins at an early age, but if the lack of foundational skills is not developed, it causes the reader to become more and more behind academically. therefore, it is of utmost importance that our educators are equipped with the skills and strategies they need to help all learners, especially those who have learning gaps specifically in reading as teachers play such a large role in creating successful readers. blair, rupley, and nichols (2007) agree with the impact effective teachers have in preparing readers for success as they state “… that teachers are knowledgeable about the research on the teaching of reading and make informed decisions based on this research data” (p.433). this implies that effective educators are well equipped with the knowledge to design interventions and methods needed to help below grade level readers progress in their reading journey. it is important that we take time to recognize these effective teachers and the interventions and methods they have deemed and seen firsthand as successful in helping students fill learning gaps in reading in order to progress towards on grade level reading. conceptual framework this research study will follow the interpretivism paradigm. this view assumes that we construct reality through meanings that we develop socially, and that we cannot separate ourselves from what we know. therefore, the researcher is highly involved not only in the collection of perceptions but also in the meanings being made throughout the data collection process. moreover, the participants’ understandings of the meanings behind their actions are negotiable, dynamic, and worthy of consideration. the goal of learning, in this view, is more in page 22 of 57 depth about methods and interventions that experienced educators feel enhance below grade level readers by bridging the gap between fluency and comprehension. the educator’s perceptions are viewed as valid, whether or not they mirror external, positivist “research-based methods” (robert wood johnson foundation, 2020). throughout this study, a repertoire of interventions and methods that have shown success in helping students advance in reading will be created based on informal teacher action research. the teacher surveys collected teachers’ “tried-and-true” interventions and methods that have successfully helped educators work towards closing the learning gap in reading fluency and comprehension. interpretive data will bring understanding into what research-based strategies have successfully helped upper elementary teachers develop their readers and increase student reading fluency and comprehension by conducting qualitative interpretive research. the use of the interpretive paradigm lends itself to the gaining of data that will represent multiple perspectives in the area of enhancing readers and closing the fluency gap (thanh, & thanh, 2015). this was carried out through the analysis of educator written research collected through surveys, as “accessing the perspectives of several members” of the educational world about this topic “can suggest some cultural patterns of thought and action” in terms of beneficial and successful methods of increasing student fluency and comprehension (glesne, 2016). the analysis of educator research will help articulate the progression towards developing on-grade level readers through teacher approved and researched based studies. to gain insight from educators about the best teaching methods and interventions that most enhance below grade level reader’s fluency and comprehension this study utilizes, an interpretivism approach. this “interpretive tradition” consists of the collection of data through participant observation and interviewing. the basis of this research is acquiring from teachers their tried and true methods of page 23 of 57 meeting below level reader’s and building them up. in essence, the description of educators’ views of best practices in reading comprehension and fluency on the elementary, grades 3-5, level. methodology data collection the data collection instrument for this research study was an anonymous survey completed through an email link. the survey focused on the educator’s views of effective fluency and comprehension strategies and interventions that they have seen firsthand make an impact on below-level readers. six grades 3-5 educators were interviewed at an elementary school located in northwest georgia. this school is a charter school system meaning they operate under terms set between the system and the georgia board of education. they are a separate entity from georgia public schools, as they have flexibility in terms of certain state mandates. this allows for this school system to meet the needs of their students academically in ways that they feel necessary to allow for growth in student achievement and success. this school was chosen due to the researcher currently teaching there and having the goal to search for a collection of the most efficient and beneficial ways to meet the needs of below level readers, as the chosen schools population of students is changing greatly year to year. the school is seeing many more below level readers come through than there has been in years past, therefore seeking out from fellow educators’ best practices in this area may be of benefit to the entire school and other educators. the six participants in this study participated through a volunteer response. the educators vary in race, age, experience, and the grade level they teach. these educators have been part of page 24 of 57 discussions of the changing demographics within the school and the drive to pinpoint effective strategies to meet the needs of each student within the school and close the learning gap in reading that exists. the researcher’s relationship has minimal effect on the survey process as the survey focuses solely on the views of the educators in terms of how they are moving below level readers and is completely anonymous without any traceable identification. data analysis the survey was analyzed through thematic content analysis. the researcher analyzed the survey answers to find common patterns of themes within the educators’ responses. anderson (2007) defines thematic content analysis “as a descriptive presentation of qualitative data… that takes the form of interview transcripts” (p.1). thematic content of the surveys were grouped and analyzed for commonalities. all anonymous response data was organized into a spreadsheet format and from there color coded based on the theme of these responses. the common themes were then further analyzed to truly depict the perception of the educators and their use of each intervention, method, and strategy to grow students in the area of reading. once these themes were coded, an overall theme was developed along with supporting subgroupings. the common themes presented from the data were then compiled to form a descriptive data analysis on the most utilized effective strategies for promoting growth in below level readers and how these educators are working to move students toward fluency and comprehension success based on the needs of the schools current demographics and academic needs. page 25 of 57 findings when struggling readers are lacking in the area of fluency what is your go to method to increase fluency? what other methods have you seen success with, in terms of increasing reading fluency? data provided by the teachers showed a varied assortment of answers in terms of increasing fluency as fluency is the first building block on the bridge to comprehension. ultimately, the common response was the importance of repeated readings within small groups and partnerships. as one teacher stated, “in terms of interventions, my go to interventions include repeated readings at the student’s instructional level… students need a great amount of practice reading a text whether it be small group, one-on-one, or partner instruction.” we also see the mention of modeling and scaffolding come to surface multiple times during this portion of the survey and several times during the remainder of the survey, thus prompting notation of this repetition and what it could mean for the study and thematic analysis. the strong unity in the power of repeated readings and fluency was followed by several other strategies including, phonics, word sorts, decoding, varied reading strategies: choral reading, partner reading, chunk reading, and building reading stamina. these outliers were analyzed for deeper meaning in terms of developing themes within the educator responses of the survey (see table 1). table 1: participant when struggling readers are lacking in the area of fluency what is your go to method to increase fluency? what other methods have you seen success with, in terms of increasing reading fluency? p3 word sorts, phonics p4 repeated readings, fluency pairs, read alouds, chunking, repetition, small groups, partners p5 modeling, repeated readings, reading aloud on a lower lexile page 26 of 57 p6 repeated readings, partner reading p7 repeated readingswhole group, small groups, partners, independently, continuous strategies and feedback, goal setting, progress monitoring p8 repeated readings in partners and within small groups, phonics and decoding strategies when students are lacking the ability to exhibit reading comprehension based on reading assessment data, what is your go to method to increase comprehension abilities of these students? what other methods have you been successful with for increasing students’ abilities to comprehend? once again data collected from the survey showed a wide variety of strategies in place to address struggling readers in the area of comprehension in response to reading assessment data. most educators agreed on the power in building vocabulary and utilizing vocabulary strategies in context, as well as the value in teaching reading strategies that will serve the student beyond the reading content standards. teachers mentioned the importance of having students gain the ability to interact with the text through application of the strategies and how to successfully recognize and apply ways of thinking to understand a text during whole group, small group, and partnered instruction. other methods mentioned for increasing reading comprehension included modeling/scaffolding (repeated readings, read aloud, partner reading), instructional software programs that differentiate learning based on data like mobymax, and the value of reading on-level texts (see table 2). table 2: participant when students are lacking the ability to exhibit reading comprehension based on reading assessment data, what is your go to method to increase comprehension abilities of these students? what other methods have you been successful with for increasing students’ abilities to comprehend? p3 modeling reading strategies, reading on-level independently, being read to above level page 27 of 57 p4 self-monitoring strategies being taught in small group, reading strategies: prediction, kwl, highlighting, jigsaw strategy, turn and talk p5 checking ability to comprehend passages read aloud during small group instruction, previewing vocabulary, repeated readings p6 small groups, reading strategies p7 comprehension strategies and application, daily practice p8 vocabulary strategies, prefix/suffix strategies, read alouds, peer readings what strategies do you implement daily to strengthen your below level readers, and do you prefer utilizing these strategies through read alouds, small group reading, or partner reading? the survey data collection showed that most teachers prefer all three methods for implementing reading strategies for struggling readers: small group, partners, and one-on-one. one contributor to the survey stated, “all students need to hear what strong reading and interaction with a text looks and sounds like, especially those who are struggling in reading” (p6, march 11, 2020). to develop the skills needed for below level reading in the various groupings, each teacher exhibited similar views on the strategies used including, reading daily with on level texts, multiple readings, reviewing/modeling comprehension strategies, and using the text to answer texts related questions (restate and answer). one educator elaborates on the strategies they use: “listen, read, and write each and every day! my readers listen to above grade level text and think alouds that model the use of strategies, vocabulary, and structure. they read texts within their level to practice those strategies. afterwards, they talk about what they’ve read. finally, they write about what they’ve read. every students journey through that process is unique and tailored to their abilities and needs. this routine page 28 of 57 happens at tier 2, not just those students who are below. the only thing that changes is the amount of scaffolding and supports needed to move them through.” this educator’s survey responses encompassed the majority of what the other educators described as effective implementation of reading strategies in many different ways to reach all readers individual needs (see table 3). table 3: participant what strategies do you implement daily to strengthen your below level readers, and do you prefer utilizing these strategies through read alouds, small group reading, or partner reading? p3 reading on level texts, small group reading p4 balanced literacy, writing and responding to reading, independent reading, guided reading, partner reading p5 reading every night for homework, repeated readings of passages (twice), using restate and answer for reading prompts and looking back in the text, underlining information to prove answers. prefers allread alouds: as it is important for readers to hear how fluent readers read, small group: comfort of being with readers at the same ability level, and partner reading: having someone to help them and encourage them p6 partner reading p7 listen, read, talk, and write every day, modeling strategies, vocabulary instruction, scaffolding to provide support, all three (read alouds, small group, and partner reading) are essential. p8 high/low partner reading (one slightly above, one slightly below), vocabulary strategies, prefers small group reading: allows for more 1-1 connection, but allows them to hear others read. when working in small groups and partners, do you have a preferred way to partner/group your below level readers? the overall commonality between the surveys was the use of high/low partners and groupings based on data to establish partnerships and small groups for reading. several teachers mentioned the use of the student reading inventory by scholastic which ranks page 29 of 57 students according to their lexile and the vanderbilt created peer assisted learning strategy (pals). through these data collection methods and strategies, educators discussed how they group students with partners slightly higher than the other, as well as, varied groupings to allow readers a chance to peer assist (pals) and see what on-level reading looks and sounds like. when it came to small groups, the educators commonly discussed same level groups in order to provide the needed reading strategies to support all students within the group. in response to pals it was elaborated on the specific protocol and method that the strategy provided a way to match students with each other and to the text they are working with. overall, the data supported the utilization of varying levels of readers for partners as educators saw fit, while keeping close leveled readers in small groups (see table 4). table 4: participant when working in small groups and partners, do you have a preferred way to partner/group your below level readers? p3 i partner them with an above level readerhigher/lower partner p4 i mix it uppair higher and lower, equal levels, free choice p5 list students highest to lowest, split the list in half, and match them (highest reader paired with middle reader). p6 no response given. p7 vanderbilt’s pal’s strategy-includes partner reading and specific protocol and method to matching readers with each other and to the text. p8 i look at reading inventory scores and partner with someone slightly above their level (high/low partners) is there a learning program or instructional software that you have found to be successful in aiding students with reading fluency and comprehension? the data collection in this portion of the survey showed several in agreement with the program raz-kids by learning a-z, as this is a school wide implemented program for assisting readers of all levels. other educators added their use of developmental reading page 30 of 57 assessments (dras), the reading mastery program by mcgraw/hill, and any high-level evidence-based reading programs that have been proven to work. several teachers elaborated on their desire to use a variety of reading resources to target student reading needs and to close gaps, while providing differentiation to meet individual student needs. overall, the desire for differentiation and evidence-based programs were the major focus for these educators (see table 5). table 5: participant is there a learning program or instructional software that you have found to be successful in aiding students with reading fluency and comprehension? p3 dras to test comprehension and fluency p4 raz kids/reading a-z, but i prefer an eclectic approach using lots of different things. p5 reading masterya great way to help young readers decode words to help them read more fluently. this program is differentiated, and the students work through levels to increase their lexile. p6 no response given. p7 there is so much available. i am not a fan of boxed programs, rather the highleverage and evidencebased practices that have been proven to work p8 raz kids when educators were asked how they enhance below grade level readers fluency and comprehension, it is clear that there were many different strategies, methods, and interventions to achieve the goal of closing the reading gap that exists in the education world. however, results of this study has indicated a common theme amongst all the educators who participated in this study, which was that modeling and scaffolding learning are key when seeking to reach below level readers and help them enhance their fluency and comprehension skills. no matter the route the educators reported they used in their classroom, the ultimate theme continuously repeated was strategies, methods, or skills to be modeled and scaffolded page 31 of 57 daily for reading fluency and comprehension growth. the findings indicated that exposing students to reading on a daily basis is a key factor for reading growth that allows for varying opportunities to see, hear, and practice reading whether it be a read aloud, partners, or a small group. the main goal was to provide a grand experience with reading through modeling and scaffolding of learning allowing students to gain understanding of the reading strategies necessary to be successful readers. sprinkled throughout each survey answer the educators who participated in the study continuously reiterated the use of groupings in order to reach below level readers and enhance their fluency and comprehension skills. these groupings include whole group, small group, and partners. during whole group instruction students are given the opportunity to see and hear a fluent reader interact with a text and exhibit good reading skills through think alouds where the reader essentially thinks aloud while reading to illustrate to students what good reading sounds like and the thinking process that goes into reading thus modeling the use of reading strategies and fluent reading. through this process the beginnings of scaffolding takes place as readers are able to take away what they have seen and imitate what good reading sounds and looks like whether it be in small group or partners. the educators described the use of small groups allowing them to delve deep into the reading and fluency strategies that students need in order to grow and develop as readers. as p4 stated, “this is when teaching self-monitoring, metacognition, and fix-up strategies for use during reading takes place.” several participants described remediation or “fix-up” strategies as a balanced literacy approach in which blending and segmenting words, word work, and fluency practice that can be tailored to the specific group and the individual student needs takes place. the use of instructional level texts being read aloud in a small group allows for page 32 of 57 the use of an approach to fluency and comprehension instruction that initiates immediate feedback and strategies to improve fluency and comprehension. through this feedback and tailored strategies educators responded how the utilization of choral reading, repeated readings, and turn and talk, where students are prompted to share with peers as modeled during whole group and small group instruction, allows for immediate data collection that can then be a source for partnering students and continue the scaffolding of reading to the next step. partner reading allows readers to work with a classmate to practice and develop reading skills learned in whole and small group. on participant stated, “there is so much research that supports the use of partner reading. if done correctly with a clear protocol, it can be very effective for struggling readers—and all readers!” this protocol is referred to by several teachers as the pals approach and by others as high/low partners. another participant described high/low partners as “i have my students in a list from highest readers to lowest readers. i split the list in half, then match them with the same number partner. for instance, if i have 24 students, i will have two lists 1-12. the second number one is the middle of my class, so my highest reader would be paired with that student and so on.” responses also revealed that the use of on-level or slightly below level texts within partnerships have shown growth for below-level readers according to individual teacher action research. during the reading of these texts the majority of the teachers commented on the use of repeated readings to allow for peers to give feedback and demonstrate good reading strategies and allow for practice of the reading and vocabulary strategies taught in whole group and small group. one teacher described repeated reading and fluency pairs in which “the students read a passage with a partner multiple times and then with the teacher to track growth.” page 33 of 57 summary the outcome of this study showed that teachers value the results they have seen from modeling and scaffolding student learning on a daily basis. there is no set strategy or method to best enhance below level readers, as each reader requires tailored instruction. no two readers are the same. as one participant stated in her survey, “we must sharpen and refine a student’s ability to interact with text. this can take place in whole group, small group, or one on-one, depending on the students’ level and need”. through the utilization of whole group, small group, and partnered instruction these educators have shown that the interventions and methods used within the classroom to meet the students where they are as readers and raise their understanding based on data and evidence-based learning strategies can vary as long as the data is there to show positive student growth. implications and limitations this study is relevant to students, educators, administrators, school superintendents, and georgia school officials (gadoe). by promoting student achievement in comprehension, the academic progress of the school system will show growth in terms of state achievement assessments. according to the georgia department of education, “students advancing through the grades are expected to meet each year’s grade-specific standards, to retain or further develop skills and understandings mastered in previous grades, and to work steadily toward meeting the more general expectations described by the standards” (georgiastandards.org, 2019). according to the gadoe, students have the expectation to meet grade level standards, but without the appropriate grade level foundations, this is an impossible feat; therefore, it is important to target the methods and interventions that will enable students to grow in fluency and comprehension at a high rate allowing them to advance through each grade level by meeting page 34 of 57 the grade specific standards of that grade. by increasing reading fluency, changes will be seen not only in students’ reading ability, but in other subjects as well (akbash, sahin, and yaykiran, 2016). this achievement has the possibility to lead to better student grades, graduation rates, and college entrance and will in turn better the quality of the educational status among the as the participants of this study were volunteers at one school, it can be noted that a larger number of participants and a broader context complete the survey will allow for a deeper view of the methods and interventions utilized for enhancing fluency and comprehension. all the participants were women, so a varying population in terms of gender would enhance the outcome of the study as well. the lack of gender representation and participation response can possibly be related to the current events at the time of this study in which educators were overwhelmed with the implementation of distance learning on such short notice; therefore, volunteering for this study may have been overseen and would perhaps have a large, varied population of participants if current events had cooperated. conclusion and further research as a small school system serving students of all different demographics and academic levels, it is of great importance that educators have a vertically aligned and common practice for reaching below grade level readers. there needs to be a plan in place to remediate these students’ learning and help them rise above their struggles and come out on the winning side. although this study has shown that many educators within the grades 3-5 elementary school share the same methods and interventions to do so, it is still in question as to the methods and interventions being utilized at the other schools--pre-kindergarten, primary school, middle school, and high school. it would be of great benefit to further extend this research study to create not just a school wide vertical alignment and bank of resources to help meet student needs page 35 of 57 in the content area of reading, but also to create that alignment between each school so that students are continually receiving the same valuable instruction that is pushing them to grow and be successful learners. page 36 of 57 references akabashi, s, sahin, m, & yaykiran, z, (2016). the effect of reading comprehension on the performance in science and mathematics. journal of education and practice, 7(16). 108121. armbruster, b. (2001). put reading first: the research building blocks for teaching children to read. national institute for literacy. washington, dc. anderson, r. (2007). thematic content analysis: descriptive presentation of qualitative data using microsoft word. sofia university. blair, t., rupley, w., nichols, w. (2007). the effective teacher of reading: considering the “what” and “how” of instruction. reading teacher, 60(5). 432-438. collins, t. (2013). teacher perceptions of effective reading strategies for below level first grade readers. proquest dissertation publishing. (umi 3565733). georgia department of education. (2019). english language arts georgia standards of excellence (gse) k-5. https://www.gadoe.org/pages/home.aspx glesne, c. (2016). becoming qualitative researchers: an introduction. boston, ma: pearson. griffith, l. & rasinski, t. (2004). a foucs on fluency: how one teacher incorporated fluency with her reading curriculum. the reading teacher, 58(2), 126-127. kodan, h., & akyol, h. (2018) effects of choral, repeated and assisted reading strategies on page 37 of 57 reading and reading comprehension skills of poor readers. education and science. 43(193), 159-179. leberge, d. &. (1974). toward a theory of automatic information processing in reading. cognitive psychology, 59(4), 340-350. menzies, h., mahdavi, j., lewis, j. (2008). early intervention to reading: from research to practice. remedial and special education. 29(2). 67-77. national assessment of educational practices. (2019). naep report card: reading. https://www.nationsreportcard.gov/reading/nation/scores/?grade=4. national reading panel. (2000). report of the national reading panel. national institute of child health and human development: https://www.nichd.nih.gov/publications/pubs/nrp/method. rasinski, t. (2000). speed does matter in reading. the reading teacher, 52, 146-151. rasinski, t. (2003). the fluency reader. danbury: scholastic library publishing. robert wood johnson foundation. (2020, november) the interpretivist paradigm. http://www.qualres.org/homeinte-3516.html sanchez, v. (2010). the reading comprehension puzzle: reading comprehension and assessment in a response in intervention. proquest dissertations publishing. (3412806). talada, j. (2007). the relationship between oral reading fluency and comprehension. ann arbor: proquestion information learning company. page 38 of 57 https://www.nichd.nih.gov/publications/pubs/nrp/method thanh, n., & thanh, t. (2015). the interconnection between interpretivist paradigm and qualitative methods in education. american journal of educational sciences, 1 (2), 24 27. page 39 of 57 georgia journal of literacy volume 43, spring 2020 what’s next for literacy education in georgia? an interview with dr. caitlin dooley, deputy superintendent, georgia department of education shannon tovey howrey kennesaw state university tovey: caitlin, thank you so much for agreeing to do this interview for the georgia journal of literacy. our editorial board has participated in brainstorming questions and topics that we believe will help our journal to become more relevant and focused in the scholarly work that may inform literacy education policy and practice in georgia. dooley: hi shannon. thanks so much for asking for input. we have such a strong state, and our students are showing tremendous strength academically. and at the same time, so much is changing in education as we adapt to a digital society, address the state’s high poverty level, and we learn more from research about learning. the scholars in our state can help us all better serve georgia’s children. tovey: first, what do you see as top areas of scholarly research right now in georgia? for example, what specific research is needed regarding high school striving readers and what specific research might be needed regarding multilingual learners regarding english reading and literacy skills? dooley: some of the questions i get most often from educators around the state involve the following: 1. i have middle/high school students who are still struggling to read. i can get them the skills through remediation programs, but these programs are not very interesting and have problems of their own. the remediation programs sometimes even make the students not want to read once they learn how. i need help getting older students interested and excited about reading and writing without giving them materials and activities for younger kids. what can i use? 2. our school population just changed, seemingly overnight (or over a summer). we now have more english learners, lowincome families, etc. than we have ever had before. what do we do to make sure our teachers provide high-quality instruction? 3. my school is very rural—we have one stoplight and a piggly wiggly and lots of fields. what can i do if my students are coming from families that are suffering from poverty? i know it’s affecting the students’ learning. where do i even begin? 4. the elementary school that my child goes to is a new “community school.” what does page 2 of 68 georgia journal of literacy volume 43, spring 2020 that mean? will it help with literacy? 5. we know that over 60% of students in georgia’s public schools are growing up in impoverished communities. what does this mean for literacy learning? how can we ensure high quality instruction and all of the other supports for learning are in place? 6. dyslexia. can i “diagnose” it? what’s the role of the general classroom teacher in ensuring that students get the services they need? who else needs to be involved (think sst)? 7. how should writing be taught in kindergarten and first grade? i get these questions regularly. these are excellent opportunities for “researchpractitioner partnerships”. some questions can be answered with extant literature. others would require a deeper look at local context and implementation. tovey: you have stated concerns that rural areas carry challenges for literacy that go beyond the school system, including women and infant health issues and other challenges that affect brain development. how might we, as research professionals and literacy advocates, address these challenges in our research or through other efforts? dooley: according to kids count, georgia suffers from one of the highest poverty rate among children. we see this in our public schools where over 60% are “economically disadvantaged” (ga dept. of ed., 2019). this is not to suggest that poverty dictates education outomes; in fact, georgia was recently ranked 13th in the nation for k12 academic achievement by ed week’s quality counts. this is evidence that children, their families, and their educators are striving to overcome the effects of poverty in spite of regressive policies and practices that limit children and families’ access to health care, housing, food, internet service, libraries, and texts. tovey: what can research and literacy professionals do? 1. too often, issues related to poverty are constructed as “partisan issues”; but they aren’t. there are advocates for children in all political parties. enter the conversation respectful of differences and try to find where convergences exist. respect is key. listen. voices for children is nonpartisan and has some helpful resources. 2. make the evidence clear and share the data. these data are available on georgiainsights.com. 3. consider statistical models that can shed light on the systems relating literacy to the effects of poverty such as structural pathway analyses, structural equations, hlm, and other research methods. we need to map the logic between seemingly disparate entities. this not only helps shed light on the connections, but we may also discover new ways to innovatively move in on the effects of poverty in ways that benefit literacy learning. 4. tell the success stories. we have many georgia citizens who have grown up in poverty and have “made it” with literacy learning. tell their stories. pay attention to the changemakers in their lives who made learning possible. those stories will inspire others. page 3 of 68 georgia journal of literacy volume 43, spring 2020 5. study systems. no one learns in a vacuum. literacy is especially a social act. therefore, study how literacy takes shape in the context of a family, a school, or a community. these systems studies help us understand how to navigate complexities. 6. stop fighting with other literacy researchers. the literacy wars need to end—there’s no teacher worth his or her salt who thinks “oh, we should never teach phonics” or “oh, i would never focus on language development.” arguments about the “science of reading” seems to polarize our literacy community; i prefer the term “evidence-based” because it requires us not only to look at extant research but also to investigate the efficacy of our practices. the every student succeeds act uses the language of “evidence” to drive these two objectives as well. accept that we have many studies and lots of research and we need to move forward. take the next step to make a difference by teaching someone to read and write and/or studying how others learn to read and write in local communities. tovey: how do you envision the dyslexia legislation recently passed affecting georgia teacher preparation and the overall teaching of literacy in elementary, middle, and high schools throughout the state? what kinds of research might be needed? dooley: we need to do a better job as literacy professionals in understanding what makes someone have difficulty learning to read. according to the us department of education’s national center for education statistics, about 80% of american adults (ages 16-65) can read and write sufficiently enough to complete tasks, paraphrase, compare and contrast, and make low-level inferences. while not sufficiently admirable for a nation as rich and promising as the u.s. is, this literacy rate far outpaces many countries. yet, we are faced with a large segment of students in the us, about 20%, who never master literacy even at this basic level. that’s a lot of people! the national institutes of health estimates that 10% of the total population suffers from dyslexia. i think that we are starting to take this statistic seriously in georgia. we would never be satisfied with an 80% “land” rate by delta airlines; why should we be satisfied with an 80% reading rate? in teacher education programs, we need to shore up understandings about reading difficulties, including dyslexia. we have experts right here in georgia’s university system who can help. i suggest researchers study how we change our own work in light of these stats. what can we do better to prepare educators to serve all literacy learners. tovey: is there anything else you would you like to add? dooley: georgia’s state plan for the every student succeeds act is centered around the whole child. that policy statement helps us situate all that we do so that it benefits a child—we literally ask ourselves: how will this effect a child? developing that focus— that “why”—is essential to georgia’s continued improvement. in my own education at the university of virginia, i learned to think about children’s physical, cognitive, social, emotional, and academic growth as inter-related. as i study the statewide system, keeping the child at the center—knowing that any child is learning page 4 of 68 georgia journal of literacy volume 43, spring 2020 within this dynamic developmental trajectory—helps me situate literacy policies and practices. tovey: thank you so much for your time, caitlin. you’ve given us information that will help to strengthen the partnership between gala/the gjl and the georgia department of education as we work toward the common goal of world-class literacy education in the state of georgia. about dr. dooley: caitlin mcmunn dooley, ph.d., is deputy superintendent for teaching and learning at the georgia department of education and a professor of education at georgia state university. her research investigates digital literacies, emergent comprehension, literacy instruction and testing in elementary grades, and teacher development. with over 50 publications, her research has been published in national and international refereed journals and chapters published by the literacy research association, the international reading association, and the national council of teachers of english, among others. dooley has led and evaluated funded research totaling more than $250 million from the national science foundation, us department of education, us department of health and human services the us corporation for national and community service, and various foundations. she served as co-editor for the national council of teachers of english premier journal language arts (2011-2016). a former fulbright scholar, dooley’s awards include “2020 jimmy stokes service award” from the georgia association of education leaders; “2012 spirit of partnership award” from the professional development school network; “2008 jerry johns promising researcher award” from the association of literacy educators and researchers; “2006 outstanding dissertation—distinguished finalist,” from the international reading association, “2005 outstanding dissertation” from the georgia association of teacher educators, “1998 eisenhower teacher leader” from the school university research network and william and mary college. in addition to having taught preschool and elementary grades, dooley has served as a consultant to the texas educational agency student assessment division, the national non-profit children’s literacy initiative, as well as several urban schools and districts. dooley received her doctorate from the university of texas at austin and her undergraduate and master’s degrees from the university of virginia. page 5 of 68 georgia journal of reading 6 volume 41, number 1 2018 abstract students who do not show growth from whole class (tier 1) and small group (tier 2) reading fluency interventions, may require one-on-one interventions that are designed to support the development of fluent oral reading. the authors of this article reintroduce the neurological impress method (nim) and provide a research-based protocol and practical recommendations for implementation. existing research on the nim provides evidence for giving it another chance for one-on-one reading fluency interventions. sophia is a fifth-grade student who is below grade level in reading. her teacher, mrs. smith, is concerned because sophia is very disfluent in her oral reading and often labors through text when reading aloud. mrs. smith asks students to read aloud a grade level passage with a partner, as a part of the core literacy instruction. she notices that sophia is stumbling over words and appears visibly upset. sophia begins to turn red and reads with a shaky voice. fearful that sophia is on the verge of crying, mrs. smith has a private conference with her to find out what is wrong. sophia tells mrs. smith that she hates reading aloud in class because she thinks she ‘sounds like a baby’. sophia feels like everyone in the class is staring at her when she reads because she does not read smoothly. mrs. smith knows grade level text is too difficult for sophia, so she provides lower level passages to practice oral reading fluency. she is baffled because sophia’s oral reading fluency is improving when she reads text at a lower level, but when sophia reads grade level text she struggles. in addition to tier 1 support, sophia is receiving tier 2 structured reading interventions, but mrs. smith doesn’t know how to further support her oral reading development when reading grade level material in class. many teachers may find that they are in the same position as mrs. smith, unable to support struggling students with reading aloud grade level texts. the scenario described above was based on personal experiences, as described by the teacher in that fifthgrade classroom. sophia is pseudonym of a student participating in the nim in the present study. these reading challenges may impact students receiving support through response to intervention (rti) as well as students identified with disabilities, especially when they have prolonged documented deficiencies in oral reading fluency. the report of the national reading panel (nrp )(2000) defined fluency as the ability “to read orally with speed, accuracy, and proper expression” (p. 193). students struggling with fluency need guided instruction using oral reading techniques. the purpose of this article is to reintroduce the give the neurological impress method another chance for one-to-one fluency interventions by melissa m. mitchell and dr. vassiliki zygouris-coe georgia journal of reading 7 volume 41, number 1 2018 neurological impress method (nim) as a viable strategy to support guided practice of oral reading as a one-to-one intervention for students struggling with fluency. this article also includes a description of the nim in action in a fifth-grade classroom. this easy to implement strategy is appropriate for disfluent readers who, like sophia, have failed to make progress in developing oral reading fluency after receiving tier 1 and 2 interventions, as one part of a structured intensive intervention or in addition to a structured reading intervention. struggling readers in an era of new educational policies the context surrounding struggling readers, relating to educational policy, has a vital impact on the implementation of any instructional practice or intervention. the 2004 reauthorization of individuals with disabilities education improvement act (ideia) brought forth many changes in literacy instruction. prior to implementation, poor readers were often identified as having a “specific learning disability” (sld) through an iq test. this widely implemented practice failed to predict how well a child would respond to intervention, even though research showed a positive response to early effective intervention (johnston, 2011). one transformation that developed from ideia was a response to intervention (rti) framework, bringing a critical change in how educators respond to struggling readers (hawkins, marsicano, schmitt, mccallum, & musti-rao, 2015; yell, 2006). educators are now required to provide intensive interventions supported with scientific evidence, with regular progress monitoring to ensure effectiveness of instructional practices, while also ensuring instructional practices align to weak areas in reading proficiency. educators may find this task to be even more challenging as expectations for student achievement increase. the most recent change to educational policy came from the implementation of the common core state standards (ccss) initiative (national governors association center for best practices, council of chief state school officers [nga & ccsso], 2010). demands for student achievement in literacy have increased drastically. according to the ccss for english language arts and literacy standard 10 (i.e., range, quality, & complexity), students are expected to have regular practice with complex text and academic language. schools have been making ccss-related instructional shifts to prepare students for the increased demands of complex text and the need for them to develop deep levels of comprehension that go beyond literal and inferential understanding. main shifts resulting from new educational standards include (a) regular practice with complex texts and academic language; (b) reading, writing, and speaking grounded in evidence from texts, both literary and informational; and, (c) building knowledge through content-rich nonfiction. in the midst of all of these shifts and in states’ efforts to best prepare students for new assessments, reading fluency seems to have taken a back seat. keeping up with ever-changing educational policies could make it challenging to identify and implement best practices in literacy instruction and intervention (papola-ellis, 2014). why fluency? reading fluency enables the reader to invest energy in meaning-making instead of on decoding (rasinski, 2006). the nrp (2000) found that students struggling with disfluent reading were at higher risk for reading comprehension difficulties. according to the 2015 report from national assessment of educational progress (naep), 36% of students scored proficient or above on the 4th grade reading assessment, while 34% of eighth grade students scored proficient or above, showing that many students tested in the nation cannot read at a proficient level. in their study, valencia and buly (2004) found fluency to be a contributing factor to students’ lack of proficiency on state standardized reading assessments. there are several schools of thought on the relationship between fluency and comprehension. according to young et al. (2015), the relationship between disfluent reading and low standardized assessment scores can be explained by laberge’s and samuel’s (1974) theory of automatic processing. as the theory suggests, when students decode wordby-word lacking automaticity, or the ability to quickly recognize words without effort, they may lack the cognitive ability to focus attention on the processes needed for comprehension. automaticity may not be the only factor in fluency’s impact on reading comprehension as prosodic reading is also necessary. educators can relate prosody to a reader’s variation in loudness and pitch as well as duration and pauses in oral reading (benjamin, & schwanenflugel, 2010; kuhn, schwanenflugel, & meisinger, 2010). some think of prosody as a byproduct of oral reading, but studies suggest readers hear an inner voice while reading and use expression to aid in comprehension (rasinski & young, 2014). development of prosodic, fluent reading is vital for students to master comprehension skills needed to be successful on ccss (nga & ccsso, 2010). how is fluency developed? most researchers agree fluent reading is developed through practice of oral reading techniques (anderson, 1981). however, there is some disagreement regarding the most effective methods for the development georgia journal of reading 8 volume 41, number 1 2018 of fluency (nrp, 2000). several popular methods are echo reading, assisted reading, choral reading, repeated reading, and wide reading. in echo reading, the student echoes or repeats a portion of text read aloud by the teacher. another popular method is choral reading, students and the teacher read text in unison, usually in a whole group or small group setting. in assisted reading, the child and adult read aloud portions of text together, either in an echo format or in a choral reading (anderson, 1981). research has shown the practice of repeated reading, using a range of texts with classroom practice, increases oral reading fluency for disfluent readers (boulay, goodson, frye, blocklin, price, & national center for education evaluation and regional assistance, 2015). in repeated reading, a student will reread a text either a predetermined number of times or until fluency is achieved, with regular corrective feedback from the teacher (samuels, 1979). allington (2014) makes the argument that wide reading, reading large volumes of texts across topics and genres, increases all areas in reading proficiency, including fluency. these techniques have a long history, but are they sufficiently assisting students who struggle with fluency in building the foundational skills needed to master current educational standards? reading interventions what about students who continue to struggle with fluent reading despite receiving support in tier 1 instruction? the first step in helping these students is through early identification of reading difficulties. effective practices begin with core instruction that is explicit and systematic, using evidence-based instructional strategies and techniques (boulay et al., 2015) and include universal screening to identify students at risk for reading difficulties (connor, alberto, compton, o’connor & national center for special, education research, 2014). identified students need access to targeted instruction outside of core curriculum with regular progress monitoring, typically administered in a small group setting (tier 2). if students still aren’t progressing, they may need additional support through one-to-one (tier 3) interventions. educators target specific reading skills and monitor the student’s response to the intervention. the resulting data should be used in the decisionmaking process, including possible identification for services in exceptional education (wanzek at al., 2013). disfluent readers need targeted practices addressing oral reading fluency. with the correlation between fluency and reading proficiency, these questions remain: are educators doing enough to assist disfluent readers in development of fluent oral reading? what other strategies could assist educators in meeting the needs of students who are struggling with fluent oral reading and are not benefiting from existing tier 1 and tier 2 interventions? neurological impress method (nim): a forgotten intervention heckelman’s (1966) underutilized assisted reading strategy, the nim, is a promising intervention for students struggling with disfluent reading. the nim (heckelman, 1966) has a research base going back decades; however, it is not widely practiced in classrooms because few educators are aware of the technique (young et al., 2015). in this intervention, the teacher and student sit side-by-side reading a passage of text aloud together, in a form of assisted reading. the teacher reads slightly ahead, into the left ear of the student using texts that are approximately two levels above the student’s instructional reading level. the student reads aloud with the teacher and will mimic the teacher’s prosodic, fluent reading. heckelman is not the creator of the nim, but found that methods used in speech and language therapy to address stuttering could be applied to help with oral reading difficulties (heckelman, 1966; young et al., 2015). in an early study, heckelman (1969) reported an average gain in reading proficiency of two grade levels, for 24 disfluent readers receiving the nim treatment over a period of six weeks. very few studies examining the nim have been conducted over the past decade. flood et al. (2005), tested the effectiveness of the nim in their version of the intervention, titled the neurological impress method plus (nim plus), with researchers including a comprehension component. this study included 20 participants reading below grade level in grades threesix. each student was paired with a student teacher, trained in nim plus, and was given this intervention over a period of five weeks. the intervention was delivered four days a week with each session lasting 10 minutes. researchers reported a significant increase in oral reading fluency and reading comprehension for all students (flood et al., 2005). the nim intervention was also implemented with two third-grade students struggling with oral reading fluency for a period of 10 weeks, with researchers reporting over a year’s growth in reading proficiency (mohr, dixon, & young, 2012). young et al. (2015) reintroduced this very promising intervention and called it, reading together, a combination of the nim and repeated reading. in this quasi-experimental study, the sample included 52 students in grades three-five, who had failed the state’s standardized assessment in the previous year. from this sample, 29 students were selected for treatment and compared against a control group, receiving instruction as usual. the treatment consisted of the one-to-one nim intervention using volunteer georgia journal of reading 9 volume 41, number 1 2018 tutors for 30 minutes a day for a period of one month. researchers reported statistically significant increases in oral reading fluency and reading comprehension. addressing potential difficulties with implementation of the nim although research surfaced in 1980s regarding the nim, it is a largely forgotten intervention in all educational circles. one possible reason is that the nim requires a one-to-one ratio between teacher and student. it is also possible that educators simply aren’t aware of the benefits of this type of reading intervention although three common strategies are thought to have evolved from the nim: assisted reading, listenwhile-reading, and paired reading (anderson, 1981; rasinski & young, 2014). although nim is relatively easy to learn and inexpensive since it does not require specific tools, technology, or additional instructional materials, still, one-to-one interventions can be difficult to implement. however, studies show people other than teachers can be trained to provide this intervention. young et al. (2015), reported success using volunteer tutors to deliver this intervention. flood et al. (2005), discussed the possibility of training proficient students as peer tutors. it may be possible, through the use of software or podcasts, to use technology to provide struggling students with this type of assisted reading strategy (rasinski & young, 2014). nim in action recently, author one implemented nim in a fifthgrade classroom in an effort to explore the following question: what are the experiences of tutors and classroom teachers providing the nim intervention in a fifth-grade classroom for a period of five weeks? the first author of this paper, a former elementary school teacher, now a doctoral student, consulted with a fifthgrade teacher, referred to above by the pseudonym of mrs. smith. mrs. smith had concerns about students struggling with oral reading fluency. we studied the implementation of nim using a qualitative approach that employed a phenomenological research design (cresswell, 2009); our purpose was to explore the potential of nim, as experienced through the lived experiences of the participating teacher and volunteer tutors. for the purpose of this qualitative research study, students scoring below the district’s grade level benchmark in oral reading fluency rate were considered disfluent. oral reading fluency rate was measured as wcpm and collected by the classroom teacher using curriculum-based assessments. the teacher selected six disfluent students, three female and three male, to receive the nim intervention. all students were identified as performing below grade level through district created base-line assessments and were receiving tier two interventions, addressing primarily reading comprehension. the author provided training on the nim to three tutors who were currently tutoring in the teacher’s classroom. the tutors consisted of a former reading coach, a former teacher, and a retired business owner who was once enrolled in teacher education courses but did not finish the program. all tutors had experience volunteering in the teacher’s classroom for at least two years, mainly assisting in reading assessment and data collection. for example, tutors often assessed and recorded weekly oral reading fluency rates. one tutor also worked with a small group of students in a weekly book club. the training included a description of the nim, the purpose of the intervention, explanations, and intervention demonstration using the step-by-step guidelines provided in table 1. each tutor took turns demonstrating the intervention during the training and received feedback from the first author. for a period of five weeks, the tutors implemented the nim during the core reading block; they used leveled readers, approximately two levels above the students’ instructional level. the leveled readers were selected by the first author using instructional reading levels provided by the teacher. tutors worked oneon-one with the students using the nim, with each session lasting about fifteen minutes. the sessions took place at a teacher table positioned in the side of the classroom while the teacher continued with whole group instruction. during the five weeks of the nim intervention, the first author met with two of the tutors and the classroom teacher on two occasions. they were asked to share overall impressions of the experience through an informal interview with the first author. they were also asked to share any concerns. the meetings took place in the classroom while students were out of the room. the tutors and the classroom teacher reported that the intervention was easy to learn and implement within the classroom without interrupting regular instruction. in the beginning of the five-week period, each tutor came in one day a week and worked with each of the six students, providing the intervention for about fifteen minutes per student. after about three weeks, the six students worked with only two of the tutors. the first author observed two of the tutors and provided feedback as needed using the step-bystep guidelines in table 1. in addition, the first author attempted to observe the third tutor, however the tutor was not available due to illness. the tutors reported some organizational challenges. georgia journal of reading 10 volume 41, number 1 2018 since each student worked with different tutors, the tutors did not always know where to start in the text at the beginning of each session. the first author and classroom teacher created a chart that allowed tutors to record the students’ placement in the text at the end of each session. there was still some confusion, but the tutors found that students generally remembered where to begin at each session. this specific challenge could be minimized by assigning each student to a specific tutor. the other challenge reported occurred around the holidays, with tutors unable to come in consistently and other changes in class schedule. the classroom teacher reported that according to curriculum-based weekly fluency assessments, students improved in oral reading fluency rate measured as wcpm. the teacher and tutors reported an observable improvement in prosody, with students mimicking the tutors’ phrasing and expression during the intervention. the most notable change was the improvement in the students’ self-confidence in their oral reading ability during the intervention, possibly resulting from reduction in anxiety related to oral reading. in the beginning, some tutors stated that several students were reluctant to read aloud and appeared very anxious. at the end of the five weeks, the classroom teacher reported that students were visibly less anxious when reading aloud. the tutors and the teacher stated that students found it easier to read aloud after participating in the intervention. limitations to this exploratory study include a lack of systematic data collection, self-reports, small sample size, and duration of intervention. although there are several methodological limitations associated with this study on nim in action, this example of the nim use highlights how easy it is to implement in a classroom setting, as well as the potential of nim for supporting the development of students’ oral reading fluency. table 1 step by step protocol for implementation: neurological impress method (adapted from flood et al., 2005; young et al., 2015; young et al., 2016) 1the teacher selects a text approximately two levels above the student’s instructional level. if the text seems too easy or too challenging, the teacher may adjust the reading level of the text. 2 the teacher and student sit side by side to enable the teacher to read the text into the student’s left ear. 3 both the teacher and student track print as they read, either from identical copies of the same text or from one copy of the text. if reading from the same copy, the student’s finger should be placed on the teacher’s finger as they track print. 4 both the teacher and student should move their finger as they read to ensure tracking of print. 5 the teacher reads slightly ahead of the student. the teacher will need to adjust his or her pace to match the student’s pace throughout each reading. 6 the teacher models fluent reading, using expressive phrasing, chunking of text, and stopping at punctuation, while the student reads along. 7 the student, independently, rereads the text aloud once, in a repeated reading format. 8 at the end of each session, the student retells or summarizes the reading to the teacher. conclusion teachers need access to high impact instruction in foundational literacy or struggling students may find it difficult to comprehend texts at a critical level. when students begin to struggle with foundational reading skills, educators need to find the best interventions to support struggling readers. when a child does not master content, it is ineffective to repeat the same practices in an effort to provide an intervention (anderson, 1981). students struggling with disfluent oral reading, who have not made sufficient progress through small group targeted instruction, could benefit from the one-to-one oral fluency intervention, the nim. fluency deserves more attention. students are struggling and as the 2015 naep results showed, the majority of 4th and 8th grade students are not reading at a proficient level. students struggling to achieve fluent oral reading may be at risk for poor reading comprehension, (nrp, 2000; valencia & buly, 2004) as fluency is a contributing factor in poor reading achievement. fluency isn’t all that is needed to create good reading comprehension, but it is an essential piece of the puzzle (rasinski, 2016). non-proficient readers need effective interventions to support the level of improvement needed to master ccss (shanahan, 2012; rasinski, 2016). educators are urged to examine current practices to ensure students are receiving evidence-based, targeted instruction. our situated implementation of the nim provided us with positive results, although our georgia journal of reading 11 volume 41, number 1 2018 implementation had several methodological limitations that prevent us from making any generalizations to other contexts. at the same time, we are excited about the nim method. existing research on the nim has also shown the potential of the method for developing students’ prosody (rasinski & young, 2014). although the nim is not a quick fix for all students’ reading fluency challenges, it is a promising method for facilitating fluency development with struggling readers. while struggling readers should still receive comprehensive interventions, the nim has the potential to provide additional support to students struggling with disfluent reading. the nim is extremely easy to learn, does not require specific equipment or materials, and can be implemented by classroom and exceptional education teachers, reading interventionists, paraprofessionals, volunteer tutors, as well as parents who can be easily trained in this method (anderson, 1981; rasinski & young, 2014; young et al., 2016). in the last decade, there have been very few studies exploring the effect of the nim on students’ oral reading fluency and reading comprehension. there is a need for more current research to determine the impact of this intervention on disfluent readers. several questions remain regarding the nim as a one-to-one reading fluency intervention. for example, could the nim effectively increase students’ oral reading fluency if implemented in a small group of three students as opposed to the one-to-one format? this could create a greater impact as many students face similar reading struggles similar to those described in the case of sophia. also, given the recent attention to critical literacy and close reading, could a more effective approach to the use of nim include a comprehension component such as flood et al., (2005) describe in the intervention, the nim plus? further research is needed on the role of the nim in facilitating students’ reading fluency. in our view, existing research on the nim provides some evidence for giving it another chance for one-on-one reading fluency interventions. references allington, r. l. (2014). how reading volume affects both reading fluency and reading achievement. international electronic journal of elementary education, 7(1), 13-26. anderson, b. (1981). the missing ingredient: fluent oral reading. elementary school journal, 81(3), 173-77. benjamin, r., & schwanenflugel, p. (2010). text complexity and oral reading prosody in young readers. reading research quarterly, 45(4), 388404. boulay, b., goodson, b., frye, m., blocklin, m., price, c., & national center for education evaluation and regional assistance. (2015). summary of research generated by striving readers on the effectiveness of interventions for struggling adolescent readers. ncee 2016-4001.national center for education evaluation and regional assistance. connor, c. m., alberto, p. a., compton, d. l., o’connor, r. e., & national center for special, education research. (2014). improving reading outcomes for students with or at risk for reading disabilities: a synthesis of the contributions from the institute of education sciences research centers. ncser 2014-3000. national center for special education research. creswell, j. w. (2009). research design: qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches (3rd edition). los angeles, ca: sage publications. flood, j., lapp, d., & fisher, d. (2005). neurological impress method plus. reading psychology: an international quarterly, 26(2), 147-160. hawkins, r. o., marsicano, r., schmitt, a. j., mccallum, e., & musti-rao, s. (2015). comparing the efficiency of repeated reading and listening-whilereading to improve fluency and comprehension. education and treatment of children, 38(1), 49-70. heckelman, r. g. (1966). using the neurological impress remedial reading method. academic therapy, 1, 235–239. heckelman, r. g. (1969). a neurological-impress method of remedial-reading instruction. academic therapy, 4, 277–282. johnston, p. h. (2011). response to intervention in literacy: problems and possibilities. elementary school journal, 111(4), 511-534. kuhn, m. r., schwanenflugel, p. j., & meisinger, e. b. (2010). aligning theory and assessment of reading fluency: automaticity, prosody, and definitions of fluency. reading research quarterly, 45(2), 230– 251. laberge, d., & samuels, s. j. (1974). toward a theory of automatic information processing in reading. cognitive psychology, 6(2), 293-323. mohr, k.a.j., dixon, k., young, c.j. (2012). effective and efficient: maximizing literacy assessment and instruction. in ortlieb, e.t., 8c cheek, jr., e.h. (eds.), literacy research, practice, and evaluation: georgia journal of reading 12 volume 41, number 1 2018 vol. 1. using informative assessments for effective literacy practices. bingley, uk: emerald group. national assessment of educational progress (2015). the nation’s report card: trial urban district assessment reading 2015. u.s. department of education, institute of education sciences, national center for education statistics. washington, dc: government printing office. retrieved from http:// nces.ed.gov. national governors association center for best practices and the council of chief state school officers. (2010). common core state standards initiative. washington, dc: author. national reading panel. (2000). report of the national reading panel: teaching children to read. report of the subgroups. washington, dc: u.s. department of health and human services, national institutes of health. papola-ellis, a. (2014). teaching under policy cascades: common core and literacy instruction. journal of language and literacy education, 10(1), 166-187. rasinski, t. (2006). reading fluency instruction: moving beyond accuracy, automaticity, and prosody. the reading teacher, 59(7), 704–706. rasinski, t. (2016) is what’s hot in reading what should be important for reading instruction? literacy research and instruction, 55:2, 134-137, doi:10.1 080/19388071.2016.1135391. rasinski, t., & young, c. (2014). assisted reading-a bridge from fluency to comprehension. new england reading association journal, 50(1), 1-4, 84-85. samuels, s. j. (1979) the method of repeated readings. reading teacher, 32,403-408. shanahan, t. (2012). the common core ate my baby and other urban legends. educational leadership, 70(4), 10-16. valencia, s. w., & buly, m. r. (2004). behind test scores: what struggling readers really need. reading teacher, 57(6), 520-531. yell, m. l. (2006). individuals with disabilities education improvement act of 2004 and idea regulations of 2006: implications for educators, administrators, and teacher trainers. focus on exceptional children, 39(1), 1-24. young, c., mohr, k. a. j., & rasinski, t. (2015). reading together: a successful reading fluency intervention. literacy research and instruction, 54(1), 67-81. young, c., rasinski, t., & mohr, k. a. j. (2016). read two impress. reading teacher, 69(6), 633-636. doi:10.1002/trtr.1391. wanzek, j., vaughn, s., scammacca, n. k., metz, k. l., murray, c. s., roberts, g., & danielson, l. (2013). extensive reading interventions for older struggling readers: implications from research. review of educational research, 83(2), 163– 195. doi:3102/0034654313477212. http://eric. ed.gov/?q= ej1001658. gra membership application fill out the form below and mail it with a check for $20 ($10 for students and retirees), payable to georgia reading association (gra). do not send cash. send form to: loretta vail, 335 cypress lane, stockbridge, georgia 30281 q new membership q renew gra number ______________ date ______________ name ____________________________________________________________________ e-mail ___________________________________________________________________ city, state, zip ____________________________________________________________ circle one (if applicable): retiree member student member are you an ira member? q yes q no ira number ___________________________ home phone _________________________ work phone __________________________ georgia journal of reading 25 volume 38, number 1 2015 author 2: what do you think most teenagers think about reading? nicole: (pause) i don't know—there are just so many people who love to read. and there are so many people who don't like to read. author 2: so think about the kids who love to read. how do they explain their opinion of loving to read? nicole: um, they like usually don't talk about it or really, care about what other people think. author 2: so do these people that love to read talk about reading at all? nicole: yes they do. i have some friends like, lindsay, nora, julie, santina, who love to read a lot of books. and like usually after the crct [criterion referenced competency test] and stuff we were like the only thing we talked about was the books that we were reading. it was pretty fun. author 2: what did the people around you think of when they watched you talking about reading? nicole: that we're bookworms and we're weird. (laughs) author 2: (laughs) why would they think you are weird? nicole: (laughs) because they don't like to read. but that's what makes them weird. author 2: uh, how does what you see other people reading influence what you read? nicole: if i see one of my friends who has a good book, i'll pick the book up and say "hey, what's this book about?" and they will tell me what they've read so far. and i'll say, "when you're finished i would like to try it out." reading, motivation, and the power of social relationships: learning from middle school students in a title i reading classroom by trevor thomas stewart, ph.d. and emily pendergrass, ph.d. abstract adolescent students’ social relationships have myriad influences on their lives. therefore, it is important to ascertain how students’ social relationships can inform teachers’ efforts to create authentic learning experiences and increase student motivation to develop life-long reading habits. this paper examines middle school students’ perceptions of reading and the connections between social relationships and reading. drawing on a series of semi-structured interviews with eighth grades students, this paper discusses the role of social relationships in students’ motivation to read. the authors explore the students’ perceptions and some share some insight into how social relationships might increase students’ motivation to read. georgia journal of reading 26 volume 38, number 1 2015 nicole (all names are pseudonyms) has recently become an enthusiastic reader. we believe that a significant part of her newfound enthusiasm for reading may be related to some of her friends’ positive perceptions of reading and the excitement that is generated by an enthusiastic recommendation for a book. nicole’s experience is similar to one that so many of us have had so many times in the past: excitedly waiting for a friend to finish a book, so we can borrow it—or not being able to wait and impulsively downloading a friend’s recommendation to an ereader. talking with nicole encouraged us to explore the connections between social relationships and the reading habits of adolescent students who have been labeled struggling readers (because of their standardized tests scores) and placed in an eighth grade title i reading class. this paper describes our work with eight students in a title i reading class at harmony middle school (pseudonym) in georgia. our stance we approached this inquiry and analysis from a social constructionist model (charmaz, 2006), where learning is a dynamic interchange between students and teachers. our intent was to examine the ideals constructed by adolescents in a georgia middle school to learn about their perceptions of themselves as readers. we believe that language and its usage are inherently social. this belief is grounded in the theories of mikhail bakhtin (1981), who argued that words are given their meaning by the “social atmosphere of the world” (p. 276). the words teachers and students use in classrooms every day are deeply influenced by social contexts (bakhtin). as people communicate with one another, the words they choose are colored by the contexts that surround them. for example, a student from the mountains of north georgia is likely to conjure images of jack’s river falls when he or she hears the word river. in contrast, a student from savannah is likely to image a slowly moving tidal river when asked to imagine a river scene. the influences of context and experience extend far beyond the level of individual words. a student who grew up walking the banks of jack’s river hunting with her grandfather may be much more likely to be interested in reading a book like where the red fern grows (rawls, 1974) than a student who grew up in urban atlanta and has little to no experience hunting and fishing. there is little doubt that a skilled teacher can find ways to engage both of these imagined students in this text. however, careful attention to students’ cultural contexts, specifically their social relationships, can make it easier for teachers to position reading as a social experience. as ivey (1999) argued, students are significantly more motivated when reading tasks are connected to learning things that are important to them. exploring what motivates students to develop a love of learning and reading is not a new research topic in literacy studies (guthrie et al., 1996; klauda & guthrie, 2014; strommen & mates, 2004). it is, however, a topic that teachers and researchers must continue to explore as cultural contexts shift, technology advances, and curricular demands place increasing importance upon students’ abilities to read independently. logan, medford, and smith’s (2011) study of the connections between intrinsic motivation and reading comprehension highlighted the importance of understanding the role of motivation in students’ abilities, particularly the abilities of struggling readers, to read proficiently and succeed on standardized reading comprehension tests. clearly, the goal of reading instruction is to prepare students for more than success on high stakes tests, but the influences of these tests on classroom instruction and culture cannot be ignored. as high stakes tests and standardized curricula continue to dominate instruction, too many middle and secondary english classrooms have become places where, for many students, reading is simply a formulaic endeavor akin to completing a scavenger hunt (applebee, 1996; author 1, 2012; fecho & botzakis, 2007). standardized instruction that ignores intrinsic motivation and individual difference does little to engage students and motivate them to learn for personal reasons (author 1, 2010). this does not have to be the case. we argue that it is possible to engage students in effective, authentic instruction in the language arts classroom, which can still meet the ever-increasing demands of policy initiatives aimed at producing college and career-ready students like the common core georgia performance standards (ccgps). the ccgps text complexity rubric (georgia department of education, 2011) includes a focus on matching students and texts. as teachers navigate the complicated task of evaluating each aspect of text complexity (qualitative, quantitative, and read/task match), it can be helpful for to have specific areas of focus to consider. students’ social relationships can be an excellent focus area in this process. our study was designed to explore the perceptions of reading held by middle school students who fit the “struggling reader” category, and develop insight into their experiences related to the influences of social relationships on reading and motivation in order to make recommendations for improving classroom instruction. context harmony middle school (pseudonym) is situated in a small town that is rapidly changing into an upscale georgia journal of reading 27 volume 38, number 1 2015 georgia metropolitan suburb. in the last ten years, the school has seen drastic changes in demographics— shifting from a rural school with students from farming backgrounds to a semi-suburban school with an influx of upper middle class students moving into newlybuilt million dollar homes. the student population at harmony middle has become more diverse in recent years and the number of students receiving free or reduced lunch has declined. participants we recruited participants from author 2’s eighth grade title i reading class. after hearing a brief description of the project, eight students elected to participate (with parental permission). the research project consisted of a series of three semi-structured interviews. for this project, we engaged in what maxwell (2005) calls “purposeful selection” (p. 89). first, we chose to recruit students from this class because their membership in this “remedial” reading class has given them the label “struggling readers” based on their academic histories and teacher recommendations. second, the students in this class represented an interesting cross-section of the school population. there were both male and female students from varying social groups that represent a cross-section of the student population in the class. all participants are native english speakers, and they each have a school history of struggling with reading. data generation, and analytic approach we utilized semi-structured interviews, which created opportunities for both the researchers and the participants to “jointly construct narrative and meaning” (riessman, 2008, p. 23). since we engaged in dialogue with the participants, we must recognize that we are “an active presence in the text” that comprises the interview situation (riessman, p.105). therefore, we argue that the interview process is “unavoidably collaborative” (holstein & gubrium, 1995, p. 4). in our view, interviewing is a process that is influenced by the mutual shaping that occurs as knowledge is socially constructed through dialogue. each of the interview sessions we conducted relied on open-ended questions designed to draw the students into dialogue about their perceptions of reading, their perceptions of themselves as readers, and their social relationships. we conducted our interviews with the goal of being attentive to each participant’s interpretations and experiences. therefore, our approach to data analysis was largely concerned with identifying themes that illustrated the participants’ experiences and perceptions. in order to remain consistent with our social constructionist theoretical framework, we have chosen to situate our data analysis methods within charmaz’s (2006) constructivist grounded theory and elements of phenomenological analysis (laverty, 2003), specifically kvale’s (1996) meaning interpretation. charmaz’s constructivist grounded theory provides a means of reducing data into manageable chunks. by reducing our data into chunks, we have been able to focus on tacit themes and issues in the data. through the use of memos and theoretical sampling (charmaz, 2006), we interrogated the interrelationships between those explicit and implicit themes and issues. for example, as author 1 was transcribing his first interview with barney, he identified “topics of interest/ choice” as a possible category that might be significant. through the process of writing memos related to this interview, author 1 was able to identify a category that had the potential to be weak. as charmaz notes, “theoretical sampling [aided by memo writing] prompts you to predict [emphasis in original] where and how you can find needed data to fill gaps and to saturate categories” (p. 103). by sharing memos with each other during the data collection and initial analysis phases of the project, we were able to ensure that we asked questions in subsequent interviews with each of the participants that would help us explore the relationships between the categories. the follow-up questions we asked during later interviews with each participant allowed us to elicit more robust data. additionally, we read and reread the interview transcripts from each of the eight participants carefully to ensure that the themes and categories that we identified were present in the data generated through our conversations with all eight participants. blending charmaz’s (2006) approach of data reduction with kvale’s (1996) method of meaning interpretation allowed the data to be considered in multiple contexts. the themes and categories we identified during the coding process allowed us to dialogue with the implicit meanings we identified in the data that might have gone unnoticed. however, we needed a data analysis method that would allow us to ensure that we did not decontextualize the data by limiting our analysis of the data to a dialogue between themes and categories. bakhtin (1981) reminds us “each word tastes of the context and contexts in which it has lived its socially charged life; all words and forms are populated by intentions” (p. 293). meaning interpretation provided us with a method for ensuring that we attended to each of those contexts that influenced the meanings we constructed in the data. we believe that the data we have selected to present in this article accurately represent the themes we generated in our analysis of the interviews with all eight students who participated in the study. in order georgia journal of reading 28 volume 38, number 1 2015 to provide the richest possible descriptions of the participants’ and their perceptions and experiences in this article, we have chosen to present the data from four participants: barney, big ron, felicia, and nicole. in an effort to ensure that these students can be seen as unique individuals, instead of simply data points, we have constructed portraits of each of them using what we learned about them from the profiles they completed during the consent process, the ways they self-identified during the interviews, and the time we spent with them during the course of the school year in author 2’s classroom. barney. barney is a 14-year-old athlete. he stays busy playing football, basketball, and baseball. he attends church every sunday. one of his favorite things to do is to be outside playing whether in the woods with a .22 rifle or in the creeks with a four-wheeler. big ron. big ron is a 15-year-old gamer. he enjoys playing all kinds of computer games with his older brother and his friends. he is repeating the eighth grade and in contrast to barney’s plaid shirts and jeans, big ron prefers to wear baggy, black jeans and spiky collars and bracelets. felicia. felicia is a 14-year-old “country girl”. she would rather be outside doing anything then inside. she loves to squirrel hunt. she and her mom live with their extended family, as there are many cousins that love to spend time together. nicole. nicole is a 14-year-old “drama queen”. she is oftentimes wrapped up in the middle school drama of an adolescent girl’s life. she loves to read books that are full of excitement around dating, difficult choices, and gossip. we have chosen to highlight these four students as they come from different social groups and each talk very specifically about how their social relationships affect their reading practices. while the data is consistent across all participants these four students are the most vocal about their social relationships and reading practices. discussion adolescence is the time in a child’s life when peer groups become one of the most significant elements in the construction of self-concept (allen et al., 2005; lease, musgrove, & axelrod, 2002; wentzel, 1998). franzak (2006) positioned reading as a socially situated activity instead of “a stand-alone practice” that occurs in isolation (p. 221). this idea dovetails nicely with wentzel’s (1997) work, which found “significant relations” between students’ academic efforts and their social relationships with peers and teachers; students with friends and caring teachers tend to perform better in school. the role of social relationships our work with nicole and her classmates represents an effort to learn more about individual students’ perceptions of reading and experiences related to the influences of social relationships on reading and motivation. our intent is to contribute to the development of authentic models of learning, which may increase opportunities for the development of curricula based on knowledge-in-action instead of knowledge-out-ofcontext (applebee, 1996). essentially, we believe it is important to consider how students’ social contexts can inform the choices teachers make as they strive to foster a love of reading and learning in the english classroom. our discussions with the participants demonstrated that social relationships can have both positive and negative influences on the reading habits of students who have been labeled struggling readers. if students engage in discussions of their interests, or participate in activities that involve their interests such as baseball game conversations, they are part of what gee (2002) labeled an “affinity group” (p. 105). to be a part of an affinity group, one must share an “allegiance to, access to, and participation in specific practices” (p. 105). many of these group discussions occur outside of classrooms, where students can observe, argue, and contribute in ways that are often not allowed in school. when teachers attend to students’ social relationships—or membership in affinity groups— they can find ways to bring those relationships into dialogue with the curriculum by creating opportunities for discussion within these groups. these discussions can be face-to-face or virtual with social media facilitating them and contributing to the building of affinity groups. instagram, for example, can be a useful tool to facilitate connections between students’ interests, social relationships, and skills included in the ccgps. teachers can create assignments where students might create profiles related to characters and use instagram to tag photos and create “a following” among the members of an affinity group. for a recent example of teacher at pearl cohn high school in georgia who has integrated the practice of tapping into an online, affinity group related to john green’s (2012) novel the fault in our stars, explore the hashtag “#firebirdsfeelalive” on instagram. felicia and nicole both shared a keen interest in stephanie meyer’s (2005) novel twilight. author 2 could have capitalized on this affinity group in her class to craft activities like this and help these students connect their interest in twilight with curricular goals related to characterization. throughout the interviews, these students routinely discussed the power their friends georgia journal of reading 29 volume 38, number 1 2015 had in terms of piquing their interests in texts. barney, a participant who is, by his own admission, disinterested in most types of reading, stated, “if they’re [his friends] reading a book and it’s something i’m interested in. then, i want to read it. if they say it was a good book.” barney’s friends can motivate him to read if the topic is of interest to him. bakhtin (1981) argued that each word lives “on the boundary between its own context and another, alien, context (p. 284). this concept can be connected with the boundaries between students’ social groups, individual interests, and the tasks required of students in schools. barney, who does not self-identify as a reader, was influenced by friends whose interest in reading certain texts helped him see that he could, indeed, find things to identify with and engage in within a text. teachers can draw upon the knowledge they gain about students’ affinity groups to increase students’ motivation to read and help them generate positive perceptions of reading. big ron also discussed the influence of social relationships on his perceptions of reading and his reading habits. when asked if his friends influenced his reading habits, he said, “sometimes. i just. they read way better than me an’ i just want to get up to their level.” for big ron, his peer group represented a positive image of reading—a reason to actually struggle, do the work, and improve his reading ability. again, we can see a student looking across a boundary and finding a bridge to that alien context. big ron and barney helped us see bakhtin’s (1981) concept of heteroglossia at work in their views of reading. as they engage in dialogue with their classmates, their words are always surrounded by a social atmosphere, which “makes the facets of the image sparkle” (p. 277). the choruses of voices that comprise their social circles influences their views of reading and motivate them to reimagine what it means to be a reader. if he can read the more complex texts he has been struggling with, he will have more in common with his peer group. powerful motivation, indeed. it would be irresponsible, however, to claim that social relationships represent a silver bullet that will solve the problem of motivating adolescents to read. barney serves as a powerful example of how social relationships can also have, at best, a neutral influence and, at worst, a negative influence on students’ motivation to read. in spite of his admission that his friends, sometimes, encourage him to read by their interest in a text, barney pointed out, “you have some people like right across the hallway [the gifted reading class] that would do anything to read. then you got me and some of friends that would rather be doing something else besides reading.” barney’s response indicates that some social groups value reading, which may have a positive influence on the reading habits of the members of that group. however, his response also indicates that if reading is not valued within a social group, the members of that group will seek out alternatives to reading whenever possible. it is important to remember that no instructional tool or strategy is perfect. despite barney’s perceptions that some members of his class rarely value reading, it is clear that social or affinity groups where reading is valued exist outside of the gifted english class. author 2’s discussion with barney’s classmate nicole demonstrates that within her social group reading is valued. in fact, nicole and her peers spend time talking about the books they are reading and that other groups probably consider them to be “bookworms.” nicole stated that her friends “who love to read a lot of books” would do just about anything to read and do not “care about what other what other people think.” felicia’s decisions to read (or not read) books were also swayed by seeing what her friends were reading. she claimed that if her friends “can’t put it (a book) down, it is probably very interesting. so, i want to find out what happens”. this idea of watching others to find out what is being read is critical for struggling readers as they want to read and be seen reading what their friends are reading. nicole’s response does correspond with barney’s line of thought and reinforces the notion that peer groups can have power over students’ perceptions, habits, and reading choices regardless of the ability level of the members of those groups. peers have the ability to persuade students and help them see things that they did not initially imagine were possible. bakhtin (1981) argued that “when someone else’s ideological discourse is internally persuasive for us and acknowledge by us, entirely different possibilities open up (p. 345). our work with barney, felecia, big ron, and nicole demonstrates the possibilities that are present when members of students’ social groups share positive perceptions of texts. implications for teaching there are no easy answers to the question of how to help students who struggle with reading. this is a difficult task because individual children “are all different and they differ on myriad dimensions” (compton-lilly, 2008, p. 671). students are complex beings whose lives and interests are constantly being influenced by their experiences. they are, in many ways, similar to words in that they are constantly being influenced by the context and contexts of their socially charged lives (bakhtin, 1981). while the experiences of felecia, barney, big ron, and nicole offer only a small view of the complexities of the influence of social relationships on students’ motivation to read, georgia journal of reading 30 volume 38, number 1 2015 they do serve as clear reminders that relationships matter. the music model of academic motivation (jones, 2009) attends to the key role empowerment plays in engaging students in academic tasks. jones highlighted the importance of providing opportunities for students to express and share their opinions. when students’ social relationships are viewed as instructional tools that can enhance learning, many possibilities exist for engaging students in authentic instruction. social networking tools like goodreads (or biblionasium for middle school), instagram, and twitter offer opportunities for teachers to empower students and make social relationships a central element of instruction. these tools are a natural way to make connections between the ccgps and students’ social relationships. for example, ccgps standard elac8r10 requires students to read and comprehend various types of literature and elac8rl2 asks students to provide a theme, follow its development, and provide an objective summary. both of these standards can be effectively addressed by capitalizing on the social aspect of reading. for instance, students can connect with plot, characters, and setting through the use of instagram. they can read a text like where the red fern grows (rawls, 1974), take a picture, write a succinct summary, tag the photo with a hashtag, and then follow the development of the theme as it winds its through the plot by following the hashtag and/or friends’ posts. the key, then, is to make the dynamic nature of language and social relationships a central focus when thinking about how to address curricular demands in ways that will be responsive to students’ individual needs. coda as avid readers, the word reading often brings to mind an image of curling up alone with a good book. but reading—even for avid readers—is not simply a solitary activity. it is inherently social. we talk about our favorite books with colleagues, make connections between protagonists and people we have met on the streets, and give books as christmas presents to our loved ones. it can, however, be easy to overlook the important role social connections play in our reading habits when we think about our roles reading teachers and teacher educators. the reading process is complex and myriad factors influence each person’s reading interests, habits, and abilities. with so many factors to attend to and the increasing demands on instructional time that accompany high-stakes testing, it’s important for us to slow down and take stock of the things that can help us engage students in the tasks of learning to read and developing a life-long love of reading. the ccgps require reading teachers in georgia to ensure students read a variety of literature, and social networks and affinity groups of all types can help teachers meet georgia department of education mandates while also meeting what is, perhaps, the most important mandate—helping students find ways to fall in love with books. references allen, j.p., porter, m.r., mcfarland, c. marsh, p., & boykin-mcelhaney, k. (2005). the two faces of adolescents’ success with peers: adolescent popularity, social adaptation, and deviant behavior. child development, 76(3), 747–760. applebee, a. n. (1996). curriculum as conversation: transforming traditions of teaching and learning. chicago: university of chicago press. bakhtin, m. m. (1981). discourse in the novel. in the dialogic imagination: four essays by m. m. bakhtin (pp. 259-422). (m holquist, ed) (c. emerson & m holquist, trans.). austin, tx: university of texas press. charmaz, k. (2006). constructing grounded theory: a practical guide through qualitative analysis. thousand oaks, ca: sage. common core georgia performance standards text complexity rubric. retrieved from georgia department of education https://www. georgiastandards.org/common-core/pages/ textcomplexityrubrics.aspx compton-lilly, c. (2008). teaching struggling readers: capitalizing on diversity for effective learning. the reading teacher, 61(8), 668-672. fecho, b., & botzakis, s. (2007). feasts of becoming: imagining a literacy classroom based on dialogic beliefs. journal of adolescent and adult literacy, 50(7), 548-558. franzak, j. k. (2006). zoom: a review of the literature on marginalized adolescent readers, literacy theory, and policy implications. [zoom: a review of the literature on marginalized adolescent readers, literacy theory, and policy implications]. review of educational reserach, 76(2), 209-248. gee. j.p. (2002). identity as an analytic lens for research in education. in w. g. secada (ed.). review of research in education, (vol. 25, pp. 99-125). washington, dc: american education research association. guthrie j.t., van meter, p., mccann, a. d., wigfield, a., bennett, l., & poundstone, c. (1996). growth georgia journal of reading 31 volume 38, number 1 2015 of literacy engagement: changes in motivations and strategies during concept. reading research quarterly, 31(3), 306-332. holstein, j. & gubrium, j. (1997). active interviewing. thousand oaks, ca: sage. ivey, g. (1999). a multicase study n the middle school: complexities among young adolescent readers. reading research quarterly, 34(2), 172-192. jones, b. (2009). motivating students to engage in learning: the music model of academic motivation. international journal of teaching and learning in higher education, 21(2), 272-285. klauda, s. l., & guthrie, j. t. (2014). comparing relations of motivation, engagement, and achievement among struggling and advanced adolescent readers. reading and writing, 1-31. doi 10.1007/s11145-014-9523-2 kvale, s. (1996). interviews: learning the craft of qualitative research interviewing. thousand oaks, ca: sage. laverty, s.m. (2003). hermeneutic phenomenology and phenomenology: a comparison of historical and methodological considerations. international journal of qualitative methods, (2)3, 1-26. lease, a. m., musgrove, k., & axelrod j. (2002). dimensions of social status in preadolescent peer groups: likability, perceived popularity, and social dominance. social development, 11(4), 508–533. logan, s., medford, e., & hughes, n. (2011). the importance of intrinsic motivation for high and low ability readers’ reading comprehension performance. learning and individual differences, 21, 124-128. maxwell, j. a. (2005). qualitative research design: an interactive approach. 2nd ed. thousand oaks, ca: sage. newkirk, t. (2002). misreading masculinity: boys, literacy, and popular culture. portsmouth, nh: heinemann. riessman, c. k. (2008) narrative methods for the human sciences. thousand oaks, ca: sage. stewart, t. t. (2010). a dialogic pedagogy: looking to mikhail bakhtin for alternatives to standards era teaching practices. critical education, 1(6), 1-20. stewart, t. t. (2012). english teachers, administrators, and dialogue: transcending the asymmetry of power in the discourse of educational policy. english education, 44(4), 375-393. strommen, l. t. & mates, b. f. (2004). learning to love reading: interviews with older children and teens. journal of adolescent and adult literacy, 48(3), 188-200. wentzel, k. (1997). student motivation in middle school: the role of perceived pedagogical caring. journal of educational psychology, 89(3), 411-419. wentzel, k. (1998). social relationships and motivation in middle school: the role of parents, teachers, and peers. journal of educational psychology, 90(2), 202-209. adolescent literature cited green, j. (2012). the fault in our stars. new york, ny: dutton books. meyer, s. (2005). twilight. new york, ny: little, brown, and company. rawls, w. (1974). where the red fern grows. new york, ny: bantam books. n empower members of the gra and local councils to become effective leaders in the field of literacy. n provide quality reading education services to all georgia educators. n recognize exemplary individuals, local, and state literacy efforts. n achieve maximum involvement of members at the local, state, and international levels to receive maximum benefits. n promote the goals and objectives of the international reading association of georgia. georgia reading association goals georgia journal of literacy 2023, vol. 45(1), pp. 77–89 https://doi.org/10.56887/galiteracy.24 issn: 2833-7611 teaching tips article contact dr. kathleen m. crawford, assistant professor of elementary literacy, department of elementary and special education, georgia southern university, statesboro, ga; email kcrawford@georgiasouthern.edu. heather m. huling, clinical instructor, department of elementary and special education, georgia southern university, statesboro, ga; email hhuling@georgiasouthern.edu. out with the old, in with the new: digital interactive journals in an elementary language arts methods course kathleen m. crawford georgia southern university, statesboro, ga heather m. huling georgia southern university, statesboro, ga abstract in this article, two elementary literacy teacher educators provide elementary language arts content and methods through the implementation of digital interactive journals in a face to face classroom setting. the authors present how this practice evolved from traditional interactive journals pre-covid to an innovative and engaging learning experience post-covid. interactive journals provide students with opportunities to explore and apply content and methods, while also learning a teaching strategy that pre-service teachers can implement in their own elementary classrooms. the authors describe the design and development of digital interactive journals along with student work samples and instructional steps to transfer and implement this strategy across disciplines. keywords digital interactive journals; instructional technology; student engagement; preservice teachers; elementary literacy ne of my students recently commented: “i’m so proud of my journal and how much i’ve learned in language arts this semester. i never knew how creative i could be with technology (thank you, google slides!). my journal is something i will keep forever and will go back to when i get my own classroom.” when i (kathleen) first began teaching my undergraduate elementary language arts methods class in fall 2019 at a mid-sized university in the southeastern united states, there was not a laptop in sight. rather, there were “old school” composition books, markers, scissors, glue, and pieces of colored paper scattered across tables. pre-service teachers, mostly 19–24-year-old females, were actively engaged with the materials as they made sense of new literacy content and methodologies through various writing activities, many of these in the form of “functional writing” utilizing lists and graphic organizers (fountas & pinnell, 2017), to use with elementary aged students, as illustrated in figures 1-5. students were, in essence, “writing to learn” in order to enhance their own understanding and retention of course materials (doğan & i̇lhan, 2016; pinar & yildiz, 2020). writing to learn was a staple in my class, and my use of “old school” interactive journals was a way for students to document and capture their learning in one place. i successfully taught college level content in ways that mirrored the best practices of elementary teachers, and the feedback i received from students was overwhelmingly positive. i knew it would be critical to maintain this effective practice of writing o mailto:kcrawford@georgiasouthern.edu mailto:hhuling@georgiasouthern.edu 78 georgia journal of literacy 45(1) to learn with my students, and i was determined to find a way to mimic this practice in a virtual setting. figure 1: composition journal entry matching genres to texts figure 2: composition journal entry notes on genres of writing crawford & huling 79 figure 3: composition journal entry sequencing steps of an interactive read aloud figure 4: composition journal entry making connection to elements of language arts 80 georgia journal of literacy 45(1) figure 5: composition journal entry matching t-chart comparing “what’s hot and what’s not” with interactive read alouds the evolution of digital interactive journals then covid-19 struck 2020 and changed everything my students and i knew as “normal” teaching in face-to-face classroom settings. this was quite the paradox, and just like k-12 teachers had no choice but to change their teaching modalities to best support the whole child (chamberlain et al., 2020), teacher educators had to change as well in order to best support the whole teacher (crawford, 2016). this incited the reimagination of “old school” journals and the evolution of digital interactive journals. i began to wonder about the ways i could adjust our class sessions and daily interactive journals in a fully digital world while maintaining some semblance of normalcy in an anything but normal world. i selected google slides as a substitute for the traditional handwritten interactive journals as the platform because all students have access to google workspace through the university, its commenting feature allows for dialogue between student and instructor, and can be accessed on any device through google drive. over a two-year period, my classes slowly transitioned from traditional face to face classes to fully virtual classes to a hybrid of face to face classes and virtual learning and, finally, to the return to fully face to face classes (figure 6). even though my students and i found ourselves learning in a fully face-to-face setting once again, i quickly realized there was no going back to the “old school journals”; digital interactive journals were a welcomed change and were here to stay. crawford & huling 81 figure 6: timeline of the evolution of digital interactive journals digital interactive journals in practice digital interactive journals have become the heart of our classroom on campus. journal entries each day consist of a wide array of activities. students often critically research and hyperlink teaching ideas related to content covered (figure 7), jump into a class jamboard for collaborative work and brainstorming (figures 8 & 9), complete google forms to showcase class data sets of school experiences, read and reflect on articles (figure 10), blogs, and videos (figure 11), and embed their own videos, images, and gifs to make blank slides, their empty canvas, in their journals come alive. in essence, their journal entries look more like an artistic scrapbook of learning and learning to teach, as opposed to more traditional college projects and papers. while the majority of journal entries are digital, i have been able to preserve some of the traditional practices of interactive journals where students are able to cut, glue, draw or color, and hand write reflections. upon completing these in-class hands-on activities, students use their devices to take photographs of the products they create and upload the images into their interactive journals (figures 12 & 13) or create a combination of these more traditional practices digitally (figure 14). it is also important to note that while the students’ writing is more condensed and presented in more of a nontraditional manner, i have seen growth in the depth of their written reflections and in their writing skills (clark et al., 2020). the students are incredibly proud of their journals and often tell me how much creating them has helped them grow as teachers. they are elated when they are able to teach their peers and even their own cooperating teacher in their field placement new “tricks” and shortcuts to use. so, not only are they learning essential methods to teach language arts, they are also learning essential digital tools that are enhancing their own teaching skill set and the skill sets of others. 82 georgia journal of literacy 45(1) figure 7: student journal entry in slides: hyperlinking phonological awareness activities figure 8: class jamboard: pictures, images, and clipart that start with /s/ crawford & huling 83 figure 9: class jamboard: sticky notes representing what students learned in class figure 10: student journal entry in slides: 3-2-1 reflection over assigned text to read 84 georgia journal of literacy 45(1) figure 11: student journal entry in slides: text messages to a friend after watching a ted talk figure 12: student journal entry in slides: uploaded images of assessing writing three ways crawford & huling 85 figure 13: student journal entry in slides: uploaded images of planning for an interactive read aloud figure 14: student journal entry in slides: uploaded image of graphic organizer and bulleted reflection 86 georgia journal of literacy 45(1) launching digital interactive journals each semester i have modified the way in which i introduce the digital interactive journal. upon initial implementation, i mistakenly made too many assumptions about my students’ familiarity with google slides and all of its functions. therefore, i have learned the importance of beginning the first week of classes with in-class activities that involve the basics of google slides, including selecting a template for their journal using websites such as slidesgo.com and slidesmania.com. my favorite introductory activity in class has been a “scavenger hunt” where the students complete tasks, after i model them, such as using the drawing tool, inserting images and embedding videos, hyperlinking websites to images and text, adding animation, changing the background and slide layout, and, their favorite, inserting their personalized bitmojis. each of the activities in the scavenger hunt involve getting to know you prompts, such as:  insert an image of your favorite food and hyperlink a recipe to the image  insert a shape of your choice and fill in the shape with your favorite color. in the shape tell me about your best friend or pet. now, make the shape spin.  make a bulleted list of your favorite restaurants. now, right click the top bullet, select “more bullets” and change the bullet points to a food emoji of your choice.  copy and paste slide 23 from my slideshow into your journal. change the font size, type, and color. now, add in an image of a famous person you’d like to meet. want to remove the background of the famous person? go to remove.bg it’s magical!  using a combination of images, gifs, memes, and videos, create a digital collage of your go to netflix, hulu, disney+, and hbo max shows.  go outside and take a selfie at your favorite place on campus. now, insert the picture and a textbox to describe why it's your favorite place. not only are students able to learn how to easily navigate slides on their own, i am also able to spend this time getting to know my students and building our classroom community in order to give them a greater sense of belonging in a college classroom (kirby & thomas, 2021). once students are able to easily and quickly operate the basic functions of google slides with minimal support, class sessions run smoothly, and students are able to place their focus on the content of the course rather than “stressing out” about not being able to figure out the technological tools and feeling behind or rushed during class. through the implementation of digital interactive journals, i have learned how to effectively blend traditional hands-on practices with digital tools to maximize student learning and engagement and to capture the growth of my pre-service teachers’ understanding of best literacy practices with in-class activities and prompts such as the ones presented in the above figures and the additional examples listed below:  insert a venn diagram in your journal to compare and contrast interactive read alouds with shared reading.  jump into this jamboard and insert an image that has /ă/ as the medial sound. now, copy/paste that same image into your journal and insert an additional picture.  as you watch this writers workshop video, create a bulleted list of key ideas and/or questions you have in your journal. be ready to discuss. crawford & huling 87  complete this planning for guided reading graphic organizer (hard copy). when you’re finished, take a picture and insert it into your journal. add the title of your selected book at the top of the slide and insert a picture of the book cover.  reflect on your experiences with spelling. what do you remember? were your experiences positive or negative? insert an image to match. as students submit their interactive journals throughout the semester, i am able to use the comment feature to provide immediate feedback that students can easily access in live time. the comment feature allows me to praise quality work, clarify any misconceptions, quickly answer questions students pose, provide additional resources through hyperlinks. i am also able to insert a variety of emojis to personalize my comments and make the feedback feel more like cognitive coaching (costa & garmston, 2002) and a conversation, rather than a “yes/no, right/wrong, here’s your grade” (figure 15). figure 15: personalized instructor feedback in digital interactive journal as a reflective practitioner, i consistently seek feedback from my teacher candidates when teaching or trying new strategies. i collected feedback through google forms, and my teacher candidates had very positive statements about the digital interactive journals. many indicated that the digital journals provided them with a resource that will be useful in their future classrooms. “i like that i will always be able to refer back to these when i'm creating lessons and even when i have my own classroom i'll be able to use this as a resource because of how accessible it is.” students also enjoyed the personalization aspect of the digital journals and preparation to utilize technology to enhance learning. “i can make it my way! it also has prepared me so much technology wise.” given the positive feedback i received from my students, i have shared this 88 georgia journal of literacy 45(1) teaching strategy with other colleagues, and we have since embedded this practice in other undergraduate and graduate courses. author 2 and i collaboratively plan and use digital interactive journals in multiple literacy courses within our teacher education program. in table 1, we outline general steps to begin using digital interactive journals in other content areas and contexts. table 1: getting started with digital interactive journals step 1 familiarize yourself with the fundamentals of google slides, and avoid asking your students to try different functionalities without first having tried them yourself. for more information about the basic of google slides, you can access the following website: bit.ly/3xmwirc step 2 baby steps. start slowly and have patience; remember, the students are not only showing their understanding and acquisition of content, but they are also learning the fundamentals and functionalities of technology, even as digital natives. step 3 ensure students have equitable access to technological devices and connectivity. step 4 use the digital interactive journals each class session. for two sample class sessions, access the following links: bit.ly/3s4rohp, bit.ly/3yngyz9 step 5 let students give peer technical support; they often have new and different ways of completing activities that they can share with other students. step 6 maintain your focus when assessing the journals and providing feedback. remember that you are assessing the content of their journal entries and their learning, not their technological capabilities or aesthetic appeal. step 7 when providing feedback using the commenting tool, make it conversational, rather than corrective, to help build and sustain relationships with your students. some sample comment stems are as follows:  i like how you _____.  have you considered _____?  i remember you saying this in class – what other connections can you make?  this reminds me of _____.  yes! for more information, check out this link: _____.  lol – so true. we’re going to talk more about this in class next week!  try it out! open one of your student’s assignments, and see where you could easily embed comments such as the ones above. step 8 insert hyperlinks or additional resources to build on or clarify student content knowledge when providing feedback. step 9 let students be creative they will surprise you when given the opportunity to derail from the norm of paper and pencil in-class activities and assessments. step 10 reflect. what is working? what should be adjusted? not sure? go to the direct source. ask your students for some feedback! final thoughts and lessons learned digital interactive journals have been a game changer in my elementary language arts class, and i am confident that these practices could easily be adapted by teachers across grade levels and https://bit.ly/3xmwirc https://bit.ly/3s4rohp https://bit.ly/3yngyz9 crawford & huling 89 content areas to keep students engaged (gebre et al., 2014) and to ensure they are writing to learn throughout the semester. as with all teaching practices, it is important to remember to stop, reflect, and adjust when starting this strategy; digital interactive journals will not go perfectly at first, but the end result, their treasured digital keepsakes, is well worth the effort for both students and teachers. this classroom practice can be best summarized with one teacher candidate saying, “thank you, author 1, for introducing these journals to us. i’ve never done anything like this in a college class, and i feel like i’ve learned more in your class than any other. the journal has helped me stay organized, let me be creative (yay slides.go and bitmojis!), and taught me soooo much about google slides. i’ll hold on to this forever, and i can’t wait to try this with students of my own!” references chamberlain, l., lacina, j., bintz, w. p., jimerson, j. b., payne, k., & zingale, r. (2020). literacy in lockdown: learning and teaching during covid‐19 school closures. the reading teacher, 74(3), 243–253. https://doi.org/10.1002/trtr.1961 clark, c., picton, i., & lant, f. (2020). “more time on my hands”: children and young people’s writing during the covid‐19 lockdown in 2020. national literacy trust. costa, a. l., & garmston, r. (2002). cognitive coaching: a foundation for renaissance schools. christopher gordon publishers. crawford, k. m. (2016). developing the whole teacher: a phenomenological case study of student teachers’ emotions in one teacher education program (doctoral dissertation). http://digitalcommons.georgiasouthern.edu/curr_etd/ doğan, y. & i̇lhan, n. (2016). prospective teachers’ views related to using writing to learn activities in a “science and technology teaching” course. adıyaman university journal of educational sciences, 6(1), 1–22. fountas, i. c., & pinnell, g. s. (2017). the fountas & pinnell literacy continuum: a tool for assessment, planning, and teaching. heinemann. gebre, e., saroyan, a., & bracewell, r. (2014), students’ engagement in technology rich classrooms. british journal of educational technology, 45(1), 83–96. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjet.12001 kirby, l. a., & thomas, c. l. (2021). high-impact teaching practices foster a greater sense of belonging in the college classroom. journal of further and higher education, 46(3), 368– 381. https://doi.org/10.1080/0309877x.2021.1950659 pinar, e., & yildiz, a. (2020). the effect of journal writing, one of the “writing to learn” activities on achievement and science attitude in the fourth-grade science course. journal of current researches on social sciences, 10(1), 179–196. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ ed605813.pdf received: september 2, 2022 | accepted: september 9, 2022 | published: april 3, 2023 http://digitalcommons.georgiasouthern.edu/curr_etd/ https://doi.org/10.1111/bjet.12001 https://doi.org/10.1080/0309877x.2021.1950659 https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ed605813.pdf https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ed605813.pdf figure 1: composition journal entry matching genres to texts figure 2: composition journal entry notes on genres of writing figure 3: composition journal entry sequencing steps of an interactive read aloud figure 4: composition journal entry making connection to elements of language arts figure 5: composition journal entry matching t-chart comparing “what’s hot and what’s not” with interactive read alouds the evolution of digital interactive journals figure 6: timeline of the evolution of digital interactive journals digital interactive journals in practice figure 7: student journal entry in slides: hyperlinking phonological awareness activities figure 8: class jamboard: pictures, images, and clipart that start with /s/ figure 9: class jamboard: sticky notes representing what students learned in class figure 10: student journal entry in slides: 3-2-1 reflection over assigned text to read figure 11: student journal entry in slides: text messages to a friend after watching a ted talk figure 12: student journal entry in slides: uploaded images of assessing writing three ways figure 13: student journal entry in slides: uploaded images of planning for an interactive read aloud figure 14: student journal entry in slides: uploaded image of graphic organizer and bulleted reflection launching digital interactive journals figure 15: personalized instructor feedback in digital interactive journal table 1: getting started with digital interactive journals final thoughts and lessons learned references georgia journal of reading 22 volume 41, number 1 2018 children’s literature to develop awareness and advocacy for social justice abstract children’s literature can enhance readers’ understandings of themselves and others in an increasingly diverse world. this article examines the need for inclusion and discussion of diverse literature in the classroom. specifically, the authors describe a partnership between fifth graders and preservice teachers to digitally discuss the book, a long walk to water (park, 2010) using a student-friendly blog. both groups broadened their worldview and the need for social justice through the reading and blogging about the selected literature. the authors share classroom implications and extensions to advocate for social action. projects such as the one described in this article remind teachers and children that common bonds of humanity can build empathy, unite us all, and inspire us to take action for social justice. children’s literature enhances students’ understanding of inequities that persist at the national and global by dr. katie kelly and dr. lindsay yearta level and can foster advocacy for social justice (martin & smolen, 2010). literature opens the door to the outside world as it has the power to “put a human face on sociopolitical circumstances” (botelho & rudman, 2009, p. 262). from resettling syrian refugees to the fight to stop the dakota pipeline, opportunities for students to engage in social justice issues are plentiful. however, awareness of issues is a prerequisite to engaging students in these discussions. this article describes a blogging partnership between fifth graders and preservice teachers to discuss the book, a long walk to water, by linda sue park (2010). both katie’s preservice teachers and lindsay’s fifth graders increased their awareness of social issues related to access to clean water, education, and war. this moving novel was selected as shared literature for several reasons. as a high-interest dual narrative based on a true story, it fostered rich discussions between the elementary students and preservice georgia journal of reading 23 volume 41, number 1 2018 teachers involved in the project. the book shares the compelling stories of two individuals in south sudan whose lives later intertwine in an inspiring way. the novel is based on the true story of salva dut, a sudanese lost boy who was forced to leave his home and family during the civil war. salva traveled by foot across several countries to find refuge and safety from his war-torn country. the fictional story of nya tells about the young village girl who spends most of her day walking to seek and provide water for her family. this story of hope for two determined survivors brings awareness to modern-day conflict around the world including the scarcity of water, which can so easily be taken for granted. the need for diverse literature as our world continues to flatten (friedman, 2007) and we become more connected, the need to learn about other cultures and ways of being is a prerequisite for becoming informed, participatory global citizens. one way to enhance students’ views of themselves and the world around them is with use of literature (brinson, 2012). children’s literature can have powerful effects on young children’s self-concepts and worldviews (hughes-hassell, barkley & koehler, 2009; jackson & boutte, 2009; sims, 1982). specifically, literature can act as a window, allowing students to get a peek into another culture’s way of being or as a mirror, allowing student access to deeper reflection of his or her own culture (bishop, 1990; brinson, 2012). when diverse literature is used as a window, it can shine a light on underrepresented groups to become more visible and in doing so, enable readers to develop empathy and challenge existing stereotypes. unfortunately, a small percentage of published books are written by or about cultures beyond that of dominant groups. according to the cooperative children’s book center (ccbc) at the university of wisconsin, of the 3,700 books published in 2017, 462 were written by or about african/african americans and 332 by or about latinos/latinas. souto-manning (2013) notes that characters in books remain predominantly white, english speaking and represent heteronormative families. furthermore, koss (2015) analyzed 455 books and determined that only 36 depicted culturally specific characters as having a central role in the story. with inadequate representation of diversity in children’s literature, there is an implicit assumption that the dominant culture is more valued and represents status quo (rasinski & padak, 1990). therefore, it is essential that more diverse children’s literature is incorporated into the classroom to avoid a narrow, one-dimensional view of the world (anaya, 1992). literature that represents different ways of being can develop students’ awareness and appreciation for diverse populations and encourages children to live harmoniously in an increasingly pluralistic society (nilsson, 2005). “stories (both fictional and factual) help humans to organize experiences, to make sense of them, and to learn from them” (lehman, freeman, & scharer, 2010, p. 19). they connect us as humans by deepening our understanding of others and exploring our commonalities. therefore, it is essential that teachers seek out and incorporate quality children’s literature that includes diverse characters and situations to in order to help all children feel valued (koss, 2015, p. 39). there are numerous sources available to help teachers find more diverse literature. with a social media campaign known as #weneeddiversebooks, teachers can easily find online discussions and book suggestions related to diversity. we need diverse books™ is a grassroots organization that advocates for the production and promotion of children’s literature that reflects and respects the lives of all individuals. furthermore, several book awards including the coretta scott king award, the pura belpré award, and the arab-american book award, offer educators lists of recommended children’s books to infuse diversity in the classroom setting. integrating diverse literature in the classroom is a crucial first step in providing students with a foundational understanding of global diversity. another powerful approach to fostering deeper understanding of text and the world around us is through connecting with a wider audience through digital discussion. digital discussion of diverse literature to move beyond exposure to diversity in children’s literature and provide more opportunities for literature to act as a conduit for learning about ourselves and others, teachers can facilitate discussion and provide guidance to deepen students’ understanding of the world. discussion of diversity can be promoted through multicultural literature as children identify with their own culture as well as the cultures of others (colby & lyon, 2004; koss, 2015). while it is important to engage students in discussions about diversity using literature as a springboard, learning is invariably enhanced when students are able to interact with and hold conversations with students of other cultures and backgrounds. in fact, international society for technology in education (iste) standards for students (2016) suggest the need for students to be global collaborators. the use of digital tools connects learners from different backgrounds and cultures and to explore local and global issues and explore possible solutions (iste standards, 2016). georgia journal of reading 24 volume 41, number 1 2018 blogging is one type of digital platform that allows students to communicate with an authentic audience beyond the four walls of the classroom (merchant, 2005; stover & yearta, 2017; yearta, stover, & sease, 2015). blogs can be used for literary purposes as students discuss and synthesize literature, share resources, and communicate with a wider audience (zawilinski, 2009). additionally, students can use blogs in content areas, to compose reflections, to respond to literature, to journal about mathematical processes, as well as many other possibilities (stover, yearta & harris, 2016). digital discussion of a long walk to water this section describes the blogging partnership between fifth graders and college students enrolled in a teacher education program to discuss the novel, a long walk to water (park, 2010). the fifth-grade students were part of an inclusion class in a suburban school located in the southeastern potion of the united states. of the 21 fifth-grade participants, nine were male and twelve were female. nine students were white, eleven were african american, and one student was hispanic. the nine, white, female preservice teachers were enrolled in a literacy methods course in a small, private liberal arts university in the southeastern portion of the united states. two to three fifth graders were paired with one of the preservice teachers to communicate about the literature through a minimum of eight blog posts and responses. the preservice teachers elicited online dialogue through probing and open-ended questions to increase student engagement and comprehension of the text in an individualized manner. kidblog (www.kidblog.org) was used as the blogging platform for the fifth graders and the preservice teachers although the ideas presented here can be used with any student-friendly blogging site. both sets of participants began by creating an “all about me” post to familiarize themselves with the blogging features. allowing students to begin with a post as a means of introduction provided them with an opportunity to gain experience with aspects of the blog including how to select a font and background, embed links, images, and videos, and comment to classmates (yearta, stover, & sease, 2015). additionally, this initial post provided the reading buddies with a way to break the ice and gain comfort with communicating with someone new before delving into the content of the book. using the blog as a discussion platform had several benefits. first, the fifth graders were accustomed to this type of technology. they had used the blog since the beginning of the year and were familiar with its features. the fifth grade teacher maintained a blog as well, providing the students with a safe space to ask questions or comment on posts in class or from home. before the blogging exchange began, the fifth graders blogged to share about books being read independently. their posts varied from indepth and regular to surface-level and infrequent. with communication between fifth graders and the preservice teachers as reading buddies, lindsay began to notice that the posts became more focused, detailed, and dialogic in nature. while there were noted benefits for the elementary students (see the article, “fifth graders blog with preservice teachers” published in reading horizons), the next section focuses on the lessons learned by the preservice teachers as blogging partners. lessons learned prior to reading a long walk to water and blogging with fifth graders, the preservice teachers indicated that they valued diversity but only demonstrated a surface-level understanding. they referenced holidays around the world as a ‘cute’ classroom activity and the need for understanding diversity for the purpose of travel. many discussed their lack of knowledge and confidence about how to foster learning about diversity and social justice in the classroom. with limited previous experience, the preservice teachers desired to deepen their learning yet acknowledged that “attending to diversity and cultures is a challenge.” although viewed as a challenge, the preservice teachers examined ways to use children’s literature as a springboard to explore diversity in the classroom in more meaningful ways. preservice teachers discussed how literature can create a safe space to explore the uncomfortable and the importance of students seeing themselves in the books they read. by participating in the blogging partnership to discuss the book a long walk to water, preservice teachers observed how literature enhanced understanding of diversity and issues of inequality for themselves and the fifth graders with whom they blogged. literature with a focus on diversity acts as a catalyst to develop readers’ awareness of social issues such as inequality. in particular, a long walk to water was “eye-opening” for many of the preservice teachers as they learned about the limited access to education and clean water in south sudan. reading this book increased participants’ awareness of their privilege and acted as a springboard for further conversation, research, and understanding about issues of inequality around the world. the preservice teachers learned the value in careful selection of literature that fifth graders can relate to. while the events in the story such as fleeing a war-torn country and walking to obtain clean georgia journal of reading 25 volume 41, number 1 2018 drinking water are strikingly different than the lives the fifth graders lead, the preservice teachers reflected that since the characters in the book were of similar age, it made it easier for the students to relate. after reading and blogging about the book, a long walk to water with fifth graders, the preservice teachers moved beyond their surface level view of diversity as a study of holidays around the world and for the purpose of travel. they realized the important role classroom teachers play in fostering awareness of injustice and inequality with students. one preservice teacher explained that “as teachers, it is our job to make sure that our students grow up to be responsible citizens... this includes being globally aware and having the desire to want to change the world for the better.” these preservice teachers now hold a broader perspective on diversity as an essential underpinning in the classroom to develop acceptance of others, build awareness of social inequities, and to foster action for social justice. the preservice teachers learned about the value of using literature as a tool to develop understanding and to foster empathy and passion for social equality. one preservice teacher described the book as “a wonderful resource for teachers to expose their students to different cultures, societies, ideas, and economic disparities.” they discussed the importance of learning about other parts of the world so students can develop respect and an appreciation for global perspectives and cultures. in the words of one preservice teacher, “it is important that students see other groups and cultures and diversity so they can learn to cooperate and interact.” acknowledgement of the importance of accepting others to coexist in a more peaceful world in connection with the book’s message of respecting and loving one another regardless of our differences was highlighted. one preservice teacher shared that “reading [the book] allows us... to move beyond the words hung from the pages and further into the depths of humanity. through an increased awareness as global citizens, children can build empathy, understanding, and inspiration to help.” the book was a catalyst for potential change as noted in the following preservice teachers’ comments: “the theme and story based on salva dut’s real life is inspirational and should urge people of any age to be more aware of the world they live in and push them to possibly even get involved with the hopes of providing clean water or education for villages of sudan.” “[the book] leads us to a realization that our world is bigger than where we live, and there are many different kinds of people... it motivates us to help these people, so that others around the world have privileges and opportunities that we get.” the use of literature allowed both sets of readers to develop global awareness to move beyond their narrow views of life through their own perspectives and privilege. specifically, readers were shocked and saddened to learn about the current struggles for freedom and the lack of daily necessities such as clean drinking water in south sudan. one preservice teacher explained, “even in this modern world today, human beings don’t have an easy means of acquiring clean water.” reading the book and engaging in conversations was instrumental in allowing the preservice teachers to see more clearly through the fog of their privilege. as one preservice teacher noted, “there are still places in the world struggling to get the basic necessities while we live in a country of opportunity and excess.” she continued, “[i] think the way i view education and [the book] has definitely allowed me to see how lucky i am to be living in a country where clean water is readily available.” while the blogging partnership to discuss the book, a long walk to water occurred prior to the water crisis in flint, michigan and the protest against the dakota pipeline, these events speak to the increasing importance of raising awareness of social justice issues for our students both abroad as well as in the united states and the possibility of using literature as a catalyst to begin important conversations about equality and access to water, a basic human need. the next section explores extensions to conversations about water as a human rights issue. extending conversations about water as a human rights issue water is a basic human right. water is a necessity for life. yet, millions of people, in villages around the world, including many in south sudan, lack access to clean, safe water. according to the charity water organization, 663 million people worldwide live without clean water. often, girls, like the fictional character of nya in a long walk to water and african born supermodel georgie badiel featured in the book, the water princess (verde, 2016) bear the burden of walking miles to gather water, water that is dirty and full of disease, at the expense of attending school. access to clean water leads to greater growth of crops for food, overall health and well-being, and ability to obtain an education especially for women and children. access to clean water is not only a problem in developing countries. here in the united states, the people of flint, michigan as well as members of the sioux tribe in standing rock, north dakota continue to struggle for their right to water. in 2014, flint, michigan, a city with a high poverty rate, changed its georgia journal of reading 26 volume 41, number 1 2018 water supply from lake huron to the flint river in an effort to save money. however, this new water source was contaminated with lead which created a public health crisis. the polluted water with its yellowish color and foul taste contains high levels of lead, affecting people, pets, and plants. many children have tested positive for lead in their blood which can lead to possible developmental delays, learning disabilities, and behavioral problems. president obama declared a federal emergency and efforts to mitigate the effects have been underway. these efforts include providing water bottles and filters to residents as well as educating parents about healthy diets for children in order to counter the effects of the lead poisoning. however, the need for long term solutions remains as residents are still unable drink tap water without the use of a filter. over 1,000 miles away, concerns about pollution of air, water, and land as a result of the dakota access oil pipeline has led to protests at the construction site. the standing rock sioux tribe aims to prevent the 1,100-mile-long pipeline that will carry half a million barrels of oil across four states daily from being built near their reservation in north dakota. they are concerned about the contamination of their water supply and the threat to destroy sacred land and ancient burial sites. in order to protest actions and protect their land, a camp was established at the construction site. with the project nearly halfway finished, the federal government ordered a temporary cease to construction of the section north of standing rock. however, with the shifting power of a newly elected president, the future of the pipeline and the sacred land is again unknown. while political shifts are inevitable in a democratic country, students and teachers do not have to remain uninformed and powerless. to raise awareness and encourage discussion and action, teachers can incorporate multiple text types including images, interviews, the novel a long walk to water, the picture book water princess, and dave matthews’ “song for billijo” (see youtube) to raise awareness and increase interest in the water crises around the world. lyrics (see appendix) from the dave matthews’ song depict the freezing temperatures at the camp in north dakota as well as standing rock’s threatened water sources. through examination of different types of nonfiction and fiction texts, students can engage in multiple discussions about the importance of access to clean water and begin to research ways to get involved to advocate for social justice. as students conduct research, they are encouraged to triangulate and synthesize sources and engage in ongoing class discussions as new understandings develop. the next step is for students to get involved by writing for social justice. students may have an outlet in mind before they begin to research, or the recipient may become clear as the students read and learn about the selected topic. students can write letters or emails, or create infographics or videos. in fact, the options are endless. classroom implications while the blogging experience focused solely on discussions of the book, a long walk to water (park, 2012), triangulation of sources to examine issues related to water could span across the curriculum and deepen students’ understanding of how this human rights issue not only affected the lives of salva and nya in south sudan, but also people living right here in their home country of the united states. in this article, we share how preservice teachers developed a broader worldview as a result of the selected literature and the dialogic conversations via blogging. although many of the preservice teachers had limited notions of diversity or experiences beyond family travel, they developed an appreciation for the role children’s literature can play in enhancing their own understandings as well as the perspectives of their students. although teachers may feel trepidation towards their own experiences or a lack of comfort with addressing issues of inequity with their students, exposure to children’s literature can help both the teachers’ and consequently students’ understanding and views continue to evolve. educators should not allow their lack of experience with or knowledge of others to prevent them from engaging students in thoughtful, reflective conversations to examine privilege and issues of social justice. reading and discussion of quality literature is critical in helping readers of all ages develop a worldview and greater understanding for and appreciation of diversity which leads to greater empathy and desire to take action to help humankind. with a greater awareness of global diversity, students can then move towards action for social justice. specifically, students can become involved in service learning experiences in numerous ways. for instance, in this project, one of the fifth graders did some self-initiated research on the internet to discover information about salva’s organization, water for south sudan. she found the website: http://www. waterforsouthsudan.org/salvas-story/ and learned more about salva’s work to build wells in south sudan in an effort to bring fresh water to the community. this led to engaging classroom discussions to brainstorm ways to get involved such as making donations, sponsoring the construction of a well, and informing others as a way to advocate for the cause. separated by diverse cultural norms and experiences, as well as geographic distance great or small, projects such as georgia journal of reading 27 volume 41, number 1 2018 this help to flatten the world and inspire children to learn how common bonds of humanity can bring us together. as students develop their sense of agency and become more engaged in social justice action, the possibilities are truly endless. in addition to researching salva’s organization, students can engage in a myriad of other research related projects. for example, they could research and bring awareness to the dakota pipeline protest, the water crisis in flint, michigan, or any number of social justice issues. to engage in meaningful writing experiences for real audiences, students could write lawmakers or create infographics to advertise for fundraisers for a number of causes. projects can be ongoing and fluid as students develop interest in various topics and causes. intentional selection of literature to be more inclusive of diverse cultures and issues of social justice helps readers of all ages deepen their understanding of the larger world around them. as bishop (1990) and brinson (2012) reminds us, literature can serve as windows into other lived experiences. with increased reading of more diverse texts and multiple text types, students can enhance their understanding of others and their own privilege and ultimately develop increased empathy, tolerance, and an awareness of social injustices around the world. reading and working with diverse literature in the classroom allows students to have a better understanding for other lived experiences and perspectives (templeton & gehsmann, 2014). moving beyond awareness to action through research to foster change and action for social justice will help young students make this world a better place to live for all humankind. conclusion as educators, we are constantly pondering ways to enhance learning opportunities for our students. in this blogging project, the preservice teachers read and discussed a long walk to water (park, 2012) with a group of fifth grade students. by providing the preservice teachers with an opportunity to read global literature and communicate with elementary students via the blog, both sets of participants developed new understandings. the preservice teachers began to develop global awareness and consequently realized the importance of incorporating diverse literature in the elementary classroom. specifically, preservice teachers learned that purposefully selected literature can serve as a catalyst to help elementary students engage in conversations about diversity and equity. moving beyond the classroom, preservice teachers also learned that literature can help elementary students think beyond their own experiences to develop a deeper understanding of global awareness. literature is powerful, and “as technology advances and opportunities for global communication expand, the value and importance of international children’s books will continue to grow” (lehman, freeman, & scharer, 2010, p. 19). we agree with linda sue park (2015) who stated from the tedtalk she gave that while a book cannot save the world, “the young people who read them can.” reading provides a window into a variety of lived experiences and important social justice topics. when preservice teachers expand their repertoire of children’s literature beyond the traditional canon to include more diverse books and learn about ways to engage students in meaningful discussion of literature including digitally mediated approaches, they will be better prepared for meeting the needs of today’s diverse student population in an increasingly pluralistic world. the result may be that readers of all ages learn to embrace the common bonds of humanity and leverage empathy to take action for social justice. appendix: “song for billijo” by dave matthews a cold wind blows over north dakota billijo says, “this is my fire” “come warm yourself by my fire” she said, “come, my friend, warm your soul” the river flows in north dakota billijo says, “oh, this is my water” ”come quench your thirst in my river” billijo said, “come, my friend, warm your soul” she said, “you are not alone, not in north dakota” billijo says, “this is my home” she said, “come warm yourself by my fire” billijo said, “come drink your fill of this water” references anaya, r. 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��å��æy�çåè�éy¡�åp���y¤æé���y¡¡�på���yéè£��æ�ê£ ëlxn���ì���í�îqpp��ì��ï��ðñòòóô����n�nrrnusp�qr�õtxz�loy��lpsq�lzo��qo�xnz�oloy�lo��lpsq����ö××a;]>�789:;<;ø]�d@ecf8a89ed�eù��h��ih(���m!1�,������"���//��������&�''')��%�-/� �3�!-.�� .�0�-�/�$ �0�0�1�!21��/�� 3�/5� �̂/o/��4���2 �0�����-+� /��-+!-.��-+�-���j�/��0�0� ,�$� ���6���̀8ba:=a�8b�c>bc=<;8:=a�d@ecf8a89ed�ge�����i���� georgia journal of reading 32 volume 38, number 1 2015 how can teachers motivate by dr. maggie lehman abstract motivating students to read is an important aspect of being an elementary reading teacher. five second graders and their teacher were involved in the original work that this article is based on. through classroom observations and one-on-one interviews, this research showed the importance of motivating reluctant readers. this article focuses on one student (ben) in particular and his struggles with reading motivation. through this lens of motivating reluctant readers, this article proceeds to share ideas of how classroom teachers can motivate reluctant readers in the classroom setting. teachers can do a variety of things to motivate their students to read. one of the first things teachers need to do is get to know their students. teachers also need to utilize a variety of motivating reading experiences to help motivate students as well as create an engaging and open literacy environment. a final way teachers can motivate their students to read is to implement motivating and relevant classroom activities. utilizing these ideas to motivate readers will hopefully work to create lifelong learners. it is reading center time in miss beckham’s second grade classroom and her second grade students move from center to center at the sound of the timer. on this particular april morning, students are engrossed in activities revolving around their current author study of the nonfiction children’s author steve jenks. since miss beckham loves steve jenks’ books, she has created an environment full of enthusiasm about this author study for a couple of months, which, in turn, created a very motivational environment. the twentyseven students in this classroom eagerly read these books in various formats from partner reading to readaloud to a small group scavenger hunt for information from a particular book. during this time, the students identified as struggling and requiring extra assistance in the form of small group reading instruction with the title i teacher were even able to decode difficult words. for instance, scully was so motivated to read these books that he was easily able to read the word ‘threatened’ without any outside assistance while reading one of these highly engaging books. on a similar morning about five weeks later, the students are participating in the four daily centers. they read a story from the reading book, listen to a chapter book read by a parent volunteer, participate in a word work station that is largely based on the weekly spelling words, and choose between taking accelerated reader (ar) quizzes and reading a book of choice. on this particular morning, ben is displaying his lack of motivation by making choices to avoid reading. at the ar/free read station, he sits at the computer and seemingly pretends to take an ar quiz for more than 15 minutes instead of reading a book of his choice. about an hour later ben makes a similar choice after completing a word game paper at the word work center. he chooses to talk to his friends rather than the expected scenario of reading a book. this situation occurred after he was lectured by his classroom teacher about the importance of reading reluctant readers? georgia journal of reading 33 volume 38, number 1 2015 during the appropriate time of the day rather than talking to others and wandering the classroom. these two scenarios point to the importance of the literacy environment, and student attitude and motivation to read in the reading classroom. a student’s attitude toward reading as well as motivation to read often decide whether he/she chooses to read or do other activities instead, even if the child is a fluent reader (lazarus & callahan, 2000; mckenna, kear, & ellsworth, 1995). reading attitude and motivation are also essential to the development and use of lifelong reading skills (lazarus, & callahan, 2000). reading attitude and motivation may also impact a child’s eventual ability due to motivation, engagement and practice factors (mckenna, kear, & ellsworth, 1995). what does the research say? motivation theory and motivation motivation theory works to explain why some readers are more likely to choose to read than others. winnie and marx (1989) explain how motivation theories account for three aspects of behavior. the first involves what a student chooses to do in a certain interaction or situation, such as choosing to raise his/her hand or avoiding eye contact during a class discussion. the next aspect of behavior is the “temperament of a person’s behavior” (p. 224), such as being able to ignore distractions and the care taken in completing assignments. the final aspect of behavior mentioned by winnie and marx is persistence. this concept is related to the time allowed to complete a task versus the amount of time spent completing it. for instance, some students may spend a lot of time creating a word web or concept map while others spend as little time as possible. since motivation is such an important aspect of engaged, successful reading, these behavioral concepts need to be taken into consideration. consistent with the above explanation, guthrie and wigfield (2000) suggest that “reading motivation is the individual’s personal goals, values, and beliefs with regard to the topics, processes, and outcomes of reading” (p. 405). guthrie and wigfield explain some key motivations for reading, including having learning or performance goals, intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, self-efficacy, and social motivations. learning or performance goals include the reasons why a person chooses to read, such as the desire to learn more about a particular topic or wanting to outperform others. intrinsic and extrinsic motivations are key to the desire to read. intrinsic motivation is an inward need to read for the sake of reading or learning more about a topic. extrinsic motivation is the desire to read in order to receive an external reward, such as recognition or a trinket of some kind. students with a high self-efficacy towards reading “see difficult reading tasks as challenging and work diligently to master them, using their cognitive strategies productively” (guthrie & wigfield, 2000, p. 408). poor self-efficacy towards reading results in a lack of motivation to read. this is especially present in students who may have struggled in learning how to read and still think of themselves as poor readers even though they are reading on a much higher level and seem to enjoy reading some books. social motivations for reading make children want to read in order to interact with their peers about the book. all of these motivational constructs help to explain why some readers are more motivated to read than others. guthrie and wigfield (2000) also point out that attitude is different from motivation. attitude refers to whether or not a student likes to perform a particular task, such as reading for recreational reasons and reading for academic reasons. motivation involves the reader’s goals and desires to read. a highly motivated reader will choose to read at any given time. a student’s motivation to read and self-efficacy towards reading are enhanced when they are given the tools to complete the task successfully (guthrie et al., 2004; lutz, guthrie, & davis, 2006). strategy instruction, such as teaching students comprehension strategies, helps students gain confidence in their ability to read and comprehend the text. for example, teaching students to ask questions while reading encourages students to stop once in a while to check and make sure that they are understanding what they have read, which gives them more confidence in what they are doing and learning. guthrie et al. (2004) shared some important aspects of classrooms that supported intrinsic motivation to read, including “a) content goals for instruction, b) choice and autonomy support, c) interesting texts, and d) collaboration for learning” (p. 404). these relatively simple classroom practices have a great impact on students’ motivation to read and to continue reading. cole (2012), shared some similar classroom practices that aid in the development of students’ intrinsic motivation mechanisms: n teacher modeling interest n sincere praise n collaborative learning n student success n teacher caring n using students’ interests n giving choices n decreasing rewards n meaningful work n allowing autonomy n appropriate challenge n informative, not judgmental, feedback (p. 71) georgia journal of reading 34 volume 38, number 1 2015 by utilizing these mechanisms, teachers are able to motivate students to want to read and hopefully become lifelong readers. perhaps one of the most striking things to note about motivation theory is the fact that this essential part of the reading process was not included as one of the pillars detailed by the national reading panel (2000). motivation is what drives students to read for pleasure and enjoyment and basically become a lifelong reader, but it was not noteworthy enough to be considered by the panel as part of these essential aspects of good reading instruction. literacy environment according to cambourne (2000), a literacy environment is a complicated concept, which primarily includes the aspects of the physical set-up of the classroom, the human behaviors, and the programs available in the classroom setting. these aspects work together to create an engaging environment that promotes positive attitudes toward reading as well as a desire or motivation to read. the principal aspect of the physical environment is that it should be motivationally print-rich in both the relevance of the print adorning the walls as well as the materials provided to the children. this print should have a function within the classroom setting rather than simply serving as decorations. this print can include materials that guide daily activities, such as directions for completing the morning routine, and teacher-made charts, such as a list of ideas for how to start a new writing project. another important idea for a good literacy environment is to provide children with plenty of literature from a variety of genres, including fiction, nonfiction, fantasy, and traditional literature, and types, including picture books, chapter books, graphic novels, and magazines on a range of ability levels. this variety of literature is an essential part of the literacy environment (allington & johnston, 2002; cambourne, 2000; morrow, tracey & del noro, 201l) and encourages the intrinsic motivation discussed above, including providing books related to students’ interests and allowing students the opportunity to choose their own books to read. the environment should also include areas for large group reading, such as a large rug, where the teacher and students could meet as a class for instruction and large-group readaloud. this area is an essential part of a motivating classroom. during the large group time, the teacher is able to promote motivation by sharing her interest in reading as well as introducing students to new and challenging books. interactions, teacher behaviors and verbal explanations also impact the literacy environment and student motivation. allington (2002) explained that the classrooms he considered exemplary “encouraged, modeled, and supported lots of talk across the school day” (p. 755). allowing students to talk and interact with each other in positive ways revolving around reading and writing helps the students see the value in reading and writing while learning to value the opinions of others in a supportive environment. capitalizing on teachable moments throughout a lesson is a valuable way to promote literacy and language development (cambourne, 2000; morrow, tracey, woo & pressley, 1999; wharton-mcdonald, pressley & hampston, 1998). positive interactions between the teacher and students are also an important part of the literacy environment. this includes the kind of feedback that students receive, which “should focus on what the student did correctly, as well as what needs to be done to improve future performance” (konold, miller & konold, 2005, p. 66). as mentioned by cole (2012), receiving informative feedback that is not judgmental is an intrinsically motivating mechanism that helps students want to continue reading to “get it right.” questioning is also a notable aspect of the human behavior feature of a positive literacy environment. asking open-ended and higher order questions helps students to develop better literacy skills and achieve at higher levels (cambourne, 2000; morrow, tracey, woo & pressley, 1999; wharton-mcdonald, pressley & hampston, 1998). the final aspect of the classroom literacy environment that cambourne (2000) mentioned includes the literacy programs and routines that are implemented in the classroom setting. implementing explicit and systematic instruction in literacy is an important aspect of the literacy environment (cambourne, 2000; morrow, tracey, woo & pressley, 1999; whartonmcdonald et al., 1997; wharton-mcdonald, pressley & hampston, 1998). experiencing reading in a variety of formats, including whole group (read aloud and comprehension strategy instruction), small group (guided reading, skills groups, and/or continuation of strategy instruction), and one-on-one (with teacher and individual reading) is also an important aspect of the routines that should be implemented into the classroom structure. planning motivating activities is another important aspect of the literacy environment. these activities engage students in the classroom literacy environment, and help them to want to learn to read and write. attitude lazarus and callahan (2000) explained the importance of reading attitude, asserting that, “reading attitude fulfills a pivotal role in the development and use of lifelong reading skills” (p. 217). throughout the last few decades, researchers have explored aspects georgia journal of reading 35 volume 38, number 1 2015 of reading. in their comprehensive study of reading attitude, mckenna, kear, and ellsworth (1995) studied a national sample of over 18,000 students from 229 schools in 95 districts across 38 states. they found a decline in attitude toward both academic and recreational reading from grades one through six. the researchers also found a relationship between negative recreational reading attitude and reading ability. students who struggled with reading shared a worse attitude toward reading than students who were successful readers. in contrast, lazarus and callahan (2000) found that students identified with a learning disability who received instruction in a resource room did not fully share in this negative trend. these researchers found a declining attitude toward recreational reading across grade levels, but attitudes toward academic reading remained steady from the primary to intermediate grades. williams and hall’s (2010) study reiterated some key concepts about reading attitude and the motivation to read independently. through the use of simple interviews, these researchers found support for the importance of allowing students time to read independently. this assertion comes from the fact that students reported that they learned more and became better readers by reading independently rather than being read to by their teacher or another adult. students also indicated an understanding of reading being important to school success, as well as to later success in life. reading as a source of entertainment was one indication of these students’ attitudes toward reading. more than half of the participants shared that they read after school indicating their positive attitudes toward reading and a strong motivation to read independently. interestingly enough, the national reading panel also did not include the importance of promoting independent reading or reading at home. williams and hall (2010) also indicated the importance of teachers explaining to students the purpose of a teacher read aloud. teachers can model comprehension strategies through a think aloud, but students need to understand why that is happening. teachers should explicitly explain to students that listening to fluent reading can help them become better readers. reading aloud is more than just a time filler so students need to understand the purpose behind this essential reading activity. this explanation and eventual understanding will lead to students feeling motivated and wanting to try the comprehension strategy during their own independent reading. sainsbury and schagen (2004) found an interesting phenomenon when comparing data from 1998 to that obtained in 2003 in the united kingdom. they studied students who were in years four and six in school, and discovered that students reported having more confidence in reading and needing less support in 2003 than in 1998. however, these students were also less likely to enjoy reading in 2003 as compared to 1998. these results were confirmed by the fact that new literacy legislation changed instruction delivery following the 1998 survey. these survey results indicate that students are losing their motivation to read because of literacy legislation and classroom instruction changes. as cole (2012) explained, “a focus on tests and test preparation can push aside classroom events that support student interests, self-selected reading, and significant time to read” (p. 71). instead of creating literate, life-long readers, we are creating alliterate students who only read when they “have” to. teachers need to find ways to motivate all students in the classroom setting despite the challenges of current legislation and testing requirements. the research setting this research occurred in a major midwestern city. the researcher observed five focal students who were struggling readers for eight weeks in the spring of their second grade year. the data sources included observational field notes of the five struggling readers during class sessions as well as interviews with both the students and the teacher. attitude toward reading: self-reported and observational for the purpose of this article, i will focus on one focal student in particular. ben (self-chosen pseudonym) showed a bit of a mismatch between his stated feelings toward reading and his actions in the classroom setting. during our first interview, ben explained to me that he feels good about reading and likes to read a lot as well as explaining, “i like to read because you never know what’s going to happen next in a story and if you read and read and read then you know everything” (interview data, 4-29-11). in contrast to this apparent liking of reading, ben was often observed avoiding reading. these avoidance behaviors included talking after finishing his work on 5 occasions, going to the bathroom/getting a drink when he was supposed to be working or reading on five occasions, and having a book out without actively reading on 3 occasions. ben’s thoughts on the importance of reading were also a bit concerning. ben shared that he feels that reading is important “because you need to know to read to go in grades and finish grades and just go up into another grade” (interview data, 4-29-11). this view of reading shows his view of its importance in the school setting, but this view will likely not lead to ben being a lifelong reader. at this stage he was not seeing the importance of reading for enjoyment. georgia journal of reading 36 volume 38, number 1 2015 on two occasions miss beckham intervened to help ben choose books of interest. on the first occasion, miss beckham talked to ben about the importance of reading books all the way to the end in order to become a better reader. miss beckham helped ben choose a magic tree house book to read that he seemed to enjoy reading for the next few days (field notes, 4-1311). the problem was that once ben finished reading a book he had trouble choosing a new book on his own. by the end of my time in the classroom, miss beckham was working with ben again to try and figure out a book to read. during a conversation about ben’s avoidance of reading one monday afternoon in the middle of may, miss beckham discovered that some of ben’s issues stem from the fact that his mother “made” him read in the evenings and he found it to be boring. miss beckham discussed with him the kinds of books that he likes to read and ben shared that he liked reading books about boys being silly. miss beckham found some books on the bookshelf and ben chose to start reading the big nate series by lincoln pierce (field notes, 5-18-11). miss beckham’s actions helped ben become a more active and motivated reader over the last couple of weeks of my time in their classroom. this actually leads to a major issue facing teachers. how can teachers help students become more engaged readers in an effort to improve their attitudes toward reading and motivation to read? the next section will examine what teachers can do to help students improve in both attitude and action. what can teachers do? get to know your students getting to know your students involves much more than just knowing their names. teachers need to learn about their students’ attitudes toward reading, motivation to read, likes and dislikes, family background, academics, and literacy goals. in order to help a child grow and develop as a reader a teacher should learn about how a student feels about reading and him/herself as a reader (strickland & walker, 2004). this can be done through a written survey, or a simple interview where the teacher sits down and has a conversation with the student. elementary reading attitude survey. mckenna and keer’s (1990) reading attitude survey is a validated and reliable way to learn more about how students feel about both academic and recreational aspects of reading. this survey helps teachers develop an understanding of students’ views on books, reading, and reading-related activities that occur both during school and at other times. motivation to read profile-revised. the motivation to read profile-revised (mrp-r) (malloy, marinak, gambrell, & mazzoni, 2014) gives teachers insights into what drives their students to choose to read. this profile was originally created in 1996, but it has been revised to reflect recent changes in the literacy landscape, including linguistic and cultural changes. the mrp-r includes a survey portion that can be administered to the whole class and includes ten questions designed to measure how students value reading and ten questions that measure a student’s self-concept of him/herself as a reader. this tool also includes an open-ended conversational interview that can be accessed in a digital form for easier recording. personal interest inventory. teachers can ask both students and parents to share more information about the student and their family background in the form of a written survey. a simple survey completed by students allows teachers to learn more about what their students like and don’t like. a survey completed by parents during an open house night allows teachers to learn more about a child’s family life and background experiences. the information obtained from these sorts of surveys helps the teacher choose materials of interest to be shared with students as read-alouds, placed on the bookshelf and used in instruction that are also appropriate to use with the child/children. the information gathered through these methods also helps teachers plan for instruction. developing a knowledge and understanding of a student’s family background and home situation is also a central aspect of getting to know your students. this background knowledge allows a teacher a better understanding and helps him/her to plan accordingly. utilize a variety of motivating reading experiences the simple fact that reading helps students learn to read is often overlooked in classrooms. students need a large variety of reading experiences when they are acquiring the difficult task of learning how to read and start developing their individual self-concept about reading. miss beckham worked hard to provide her second graders with a variety of reading opportunities each week, including small group reading, buddy reading, independent reading, and teacher readaloud. guided reading. guided reading and other forms of small group reading allow the teacher to focus on specific skills while working with a smaller groups of students. it is essential that teachers work to find materials for guided reading that will interest the students and make reading seem relevant. teachers also need to choose a variety of books to read with students. georgia journal of reading 37 volume 38, number 1 2015 buddy reading. during buddy reading, two students are reading together. this can occur side-by-side, knee-to-knee or any other format that the teacher deems appropriate. this sort of reading experience allows more students to read a limited number of books, such as during an author study, in addition to allowing the children to reread a selection in a different format with the help of a peer. independent reading. independent reading is an essential aspect of a child’s reading development. the opportunity to read a book of choice for an extended period of time can be invaluable to a reader at any stage of development. during this time, teachers can take the opportunity to help students choose texts that are appropriate for both the child’s ability as well as interest level. student choice is an essential aspect in helping students become engaged and motivated to read (edmunds & bauserman, 2006; senn, 2012; williams, & hall, 2010). students need to have the opportunity to choose books as well as read them on a regular basis during the school day. one way to help students choose a variety of books is to give them a self-discovery bookmark that lists a variety of genres so students can keep track of the different genres they have read and enjoyed. this bookmark promotes the concept of choice while encouraging children to read a variety of books (edmunds & bauserman, 2006). teacher read-aloud. a well-chosen read aloud book can greatly help students to become excited about the topic at hand as well as improve their comprehension skills, build vocabulary, develop an understanding of what fluent reading sounds like, and simply enjoy reading for the pleasure of reading (cecil, 2011). when choosing these read-aloud books, teachers also need to consider what will appeal to all students, especially the boys. teachers have a tendency to choose books that they, as the teacher and usually female, enjoy. teachers need to work to share a large variety of books, including non-fiction, graphic novels, magazines, and other materials that appeal to boys more. because teachers usually do not share graphic novels, web sites, newspapers and magazines, boys tend to believe they are not appropriate reading options (senn, 2012). create an engaging and open literacy environment the environment and expectations created within a classroom will also affect a child’s attitude toward reading, ideas about reading, and desire to participate in the act of reading. what a teacher does to create her/his classroom literacy environment is essential to the development of all readers in that classroom. access to a large variety of books. children need to have access to all kinds of books, including a variety of genres and formats. fiction books should include all types of genres, such as traditional literature, fantasy, poetry, mystery, realistic fiction, historic fiction, and multicultural books. nonfiction books should include biography books and informational books about a large variety of topics in both the science and social studies areas. teachers and librarians need to be openminded about the kinds of books that are “appropriate” for reading. in order to promote reading among boys, teachers, parents, and librarians need to help boys understand that graphic novels, newspapers, magazines, and web sites are all appropriate forms of reading. senn (2012) explained that boys “enjoy texts that can be collected (books in a series, baseball cards, etc.), have visual interest (graphic novels, websites), are succinct (newspaper or magazine articles), relate to their own lives, and are funny or rebellious (comics)” (p. 217). some examples of these kinds of books include: the captain underpants series, jeff smith has authored many graphic novels students may enjoy, time for kids, and national geographic kids are two magazines appropriate for all students, and jack ganto has written many books that boys can relate to, and marvel comics offer digital versions and a limited number of print versions of their comics at http://marvel.com/comics. create a “guys read” area. this suggestion is based on the work of jon scieszka. on his web site, guysread. com, he explains the importance of embracing the idea that boys are different and have different needs when it comes to reading. he suggests including informational books by seymour simon, funny books by david pilkey, books by jack ganto, some graphic novels, magazines, and newspapers. the guys read web site includes numerous suggestions of books that can be shared with reluctant readers. supportive teacher actions. supporting all readers as they work to develop their skills is another way to create a literate environment. students need to feel that they can take risks in order to grow and develop their reading skills. in this vain, praise and encouragement need to be specific and direct. simply telling a child that she/he did a “good job” while reading does not help the child grow and learn as much as telling the child that he/she did a good job of self-correcting his/ her mistake or using the surrounding words to figure out the unknown words. children need to know what they are doing right to continue to experiment and try new things in their reading development. implement motivating and relevant classroom activities the activities that occur in the classroom setting, both planned and unplanned, can have a huge impact on georgia journal of reading 38 volume 38, number 1 2015 a child’s literacy development. it is important to make reading and literacy a motivating experience for all students. some ways to do this include showing boys that men read too, making reading relevant to their lives and interests, being accepting of boys’ unique taste in books and reading materials, involving others in the efforts to reach boys, and explicitly teaching important literacy strategies. boys need male role models. finding ways to motivate reluctant boy readers can be difficult for female teachers. senn (2012) and mcfann (2004) both reiterate the importance of the male role model in helping to motivate boys to read. one way to help motivate the boys is to start a guest reader program where male role models are invited to read a favorite book of their choice to the class. these guest readers can be parents, athletes from local universities or high schools, or other men who can help boys see the importance of reading. the bottom line is that the boys need to see the value of reading so that they will read. make reading relevant. students need to understand the purpose for the work they are asked to complete in the classroom setting. boys are more engaged in reading a text if they may learn something from it or if after reading the book they will write a book review for their classmates. allowing boys to read about topics relevant to their lives and interests is essential to their motivation. be accepting and perceptive. as i mentioned earlier, boys learn and develop as readers differently than girls. teachers may need to re-evaluate what they consider to be appropriate. boys need to read books involving action, adventure and possibly violence (as long as it is age appropriate) and teachers need to allow boys these sorts of reading experiences. involve others. parents can be a teacher’s greatest allies, but parents also need help and support in knowing and fully understanding what their role is in supporting their child’s education. teachers can support parents in their role by sharing information with them. this can include encouraging fathers to read to their children as much as mothers do. teachers can also support the literacy of families by sending home literacy bags that contain books and writing materials based on a theme. strategy instruction. many students, especially struggling and reluctant readers, need teachers to explicitly teach them reading strategies. this explicit teaching requires authentic text and proven decoding and comprehension strategies without the need for a worksheet. in conjunction with this explicit teaching, students need to be involved in motivating activities that make them want to participate and learn from what they are doing in the classroom setting. asking open-ended questions that require higher-order thinking skills is another way to help keep students motivated and wanting to read and learn more in the classroom setting. these questions also help to promote close reading that requires deeper thinking. the easiest thing that teachers can do to utilize classroom happenings to promote better reading attitudes is to take advantage of teachable moments. this requires teachers to stay in the moment with their students so that they can take advantage of the little things that students do that can be used to help them learn more about reading and the things that they are doing correctly in the reading context. concluding thoughts as described in the opening scenarios, classroom activities can serve as a way to both encourage and stifle student motivation to read. ben became engaged and motivated to read when he was able to find something of interest. he benefited from his teacher taking the time to learn more about him as a reader and helping him to find a book of interest. his experiences illustrate the importance of teachers helping children find books of interest as well as a positive literacy environment. children who have a good attitude toward reading and are motivated to read will spend more time reading, which leads to higher achievement. the hope is that these readers will also become lifelong readers (edmunds & bauserman, 2006). working to engage all learners will help to lead to the ultimate goal of promoting lifelong learners. references allington, r. l. (2002). what i’ve learned about effective reading instruction from a decade of studying exemplary elementary classroom teachers. the phi delta kappan, 83, 740-747. allington, r. l., & johnston, p. h. (2002). reading to learn: lessons from exemplary fourth-grade classrooms. new york, ny: the guilford press. cambourne, b. (2000). conditions for literacy learning: observing literacy learning in elementary classrooms: nine years of classroom anthropology, the reading teacher, 53, 512-515. cecil, n. l. (2011). stricking a balance: best practices for early literacy (4th ed.). scottsdale, az: holcomb hathaway, publishers. cole, j. (2012). motivating student to read using constructivist strategies. in j. cole (ed.), teaching georgia journal of reading 39 volume 38, number 1 2015 the way students learn: practical applications for putting theories into action (69-91). lanham, md: r& l education. edmunds, k. m., & bauswerman, k. l. (2006). what teachers can learn about reading motivation through conversations with children. the reading teacher, 59, 414-424. guthrie, j., & wigfield, a. (2000). engagement and motivation in reading. in m.l. kamil, p. b. & mosenthal, p. d. pearson, & r. barr (eds.) reading research handbook (vol. iii, pp. 403-424). mahwah, nj: erlbaum. guthrie, j. t., wigfield, a., barbosa, p., perencevich, k. c., taboada, a., davis, m. h., scafiddi, n. t., & tonks, s. (2004). increasing reading comprehension and engagement through concept-oriented reading instruction. journal of educational psychology, 96, 403-423. konold, k. e., miller, s. p., & konold, k. b. (2004). using teacher feedback to enhance student learning, teaching exceptional children, 36, 64-69. lazarus, b. d., & callahan, t. (2000). attitudes towards reading expressed by elementary students diagnosed with learning disabilities. reading psychology, 21, 271-282. lutz, s. l., guthrie, j. t., & davis, m. h. (2006). scaffolding for engagement in elementary school reading instruction. the journal of educational research, 100, 3-20. lynch-brown, c., tomlinson, c. m., & short, k. g. (2011). essentials of children’s literature (7th ed.). boston, ma: pearson. malloy, j. a., marinak, b. a., gambrell, l. b., & mazzani, s. a. (2013). assessing motivation to read: the motivation to read profile – revised. the reading teacher, 67, 273-282. mcfann, j., (2004, august). boys and books. reading today, 22(1), 20-21. mckenna, m. c., kear, d. j., & ellsworth, r. a. (1995). children’s attitudes towards reading: a national survey. reading research quarterly, 30, 934-956. morrow, l. m., tracey, d. h., & del nero, j. r. (2011). best practices in early literacy development: preschool, kindergarten, and first grade. l. m. morrow & l. b. gambrell (eds.) best practices in literacy instruction (4th ed., 67-95). new york: the guilford press. morrow, l. m., tracey, d. h., woo, d. g., & pressley, m. (1999). characteristics of exemplary first grade literacy instruction. the reading teacher, 52, 462476. sainsbury, m., & schagen, i. (2004). attitudes to reading at ages nine and eleven. journal of research in reading, 27, 373-386. senn, n. (2012). effective approaches to motivate and engage reluctant boys in literacy. the reading teacher, 66, 211-220. strickland, k., & walker, a. (2004). “re-valuing” reading: assessing attitude and providing appropriate reading support. reading and writing quarterly, 20, 401-418. wharton-mcdonald, r., pressley, m., & mistretta, j. (1998). literacy instruction in nine first-grade classrooms: teacher characteristics and student achievement. the elementary school journal, 99, 101-128. wharton-mcdonald, r., pressley, j., rankin, j., mistretta, j., yokoi, l., & ettenberger, s. (1997). effective primary-grades literacy instruction equals balanced literacy instruction. the reading teacher, 50, 518-521. williams, l., & hall, k. (2010). exploring students’ reading attitudes. journal of reading education, 35, 35-41. winne, p. h., & marx, r. w. (1989). a cognitiveprocessing analysis of motivation within classroom tasks. in c. ames & r. ames (eds.) research on motivation in education (vol. iii, pp. 223-257). san diego, ca: academic press, inc. georgia journal of reading 11 volume 41, number 2 2018 reimagining the traditional pedagogy of literacy by virginie jackson and kinsey shrewsbury abstract this case study examined the perceptions of a preservice teacher during the implementation of critical literacy with the integration of digital technology into a kindergarten classroom setting. a formative experiment (bradley & reinking, 2010) model was used to understand the perceptions of the pre-service teacher better while implementing critical literacy in a kindergarten classroom setting. the teacher-centered, continuous mentorship focused on critical literacy, and technology integration served as the intervention. this case study showed how teachers could fit critical literacy through technology integration into the literacy block by engaging students in shared or interactive reading activities with predetermined critical literacy questions as discussion points throughout the story. the results of this study also indicated that teaching critical literacy appeared to affect elementary grade students positively. the pedagogical goal is for teachers to modify mandated curriculum so that they build learning experiences about students’ lives in engaging multiple, multimodal, and multifaceted ways. critical literacy is the “new basic,” a necessary life skill. our youngest learners are able to start thinking critically at an early age. despite popular belief, literacy, is not taught in isolation-it involves social and political acts that can be used to influence people and can lead to social change (comber & simpson, 2001). readers and consumers are bombarded with text daily that usually include underlying messages, and stereotypes. this is especially true with technological communication in which electronic media often carries no accountability, and many texts are unedited, heavily biased and are not attributed to any named or even credible author(s). because of this, teachers should be aware of the text that they are using to teach students literacy skills and they should teach students to critique texts instead of merely accepting them, as early as elementary age. critical reading as a manifestation of critical thinking has become significant in living a more competitive life in the 21st century and beyond. critical thinking involves higher order thinking skills and more complex cognitive processes necessary in the 21st century to achieve success in life (greiff, niepel, & wustenberg, 2015). this form of reading develops the student’s georgia journal of reading 12 volume 41, number 2 2018 ability for “problem find” and becoming better observers which enables the scales to fall off their eyes. what is critical thinking? critical thinking, as defined by fisher (2001), is a reaction to something we have seen or read and which results in examination, intellection, and reflection. through reflection, the reader will decide whether to accept or to reject the text as a course of action. furthermore, rejection can then lead to pursuit for a greater dissemination of additional information at the classroom level through discussion and debates. this provides students with opportunities to question and scrutinize many meanings and insights. mcinulty (2013) states that of paramount importance, however, is that, if teachers want to develop their students’ critical knowledge they must then provide texts from which students can extrapolate meaning then expound and challenge attitudes and suppositions. what is critical literacy? all forms of communication are social and political acts that can be used to influence people and can lead to social change (comber & simpson, 2001). critical literacy occurs when readers inspect the social, political and cultural purposes and values of a text. it encourages readers to question, explore, or challenge the power relationships that exist between authors and readers and promotes reflection, transformative change and action. it is important to understand that critical literacy is not the same as critical thinking. the approach that a reader takes on when interacting with a text is what differentiates critical thinking from critical literacy. when a reader approaches a text with a number of biases and strives to apprehend the meaning of the text by abandoning his or her prejudice, that reader is involved in critical thinking. a reader who, on the other hand, starts with the assumption that all varieties of text, from print to multimedia, have a goal of transmitting knowledge and power are engaged in critical literacy practices. critical literacy aligns with the social critical theory, as it characterized by the reader asking the following questions while interacting with the text: who wrote the text? why and for what consumers was it written? is there any distortion or falsification or even missing voices within the text? evolution of 21st century education the united states is becoming more diverse. in 2015, enrollment in public elementary and secondary schools was 66.8% white, 15.3% black, 25.1% hispanic, 4.5% asian/pacific islander, and 1.1% american indian/alaska native (national center for education statistics, 2015). despite this diversity among the student body, the teaching profession remains largely homogeneous with 83.1% of public school teachers were white (national center for education statistics, 2015). accordingly, it is important that teachers are prepared to teach children from cultural backgrounds different from their own. by applying critical literacy in the classroom setting, children and teachers can explore and begin to understand and appreciate the similarities and differences that they have and share these with each other (clarke & whitney, 2009). our research has shown that even kindergarten students are ready to examine multiple perspectives, writers’ motivations, and how a text compares to their own reality. since the early 1990s, schools, districts, and the federal government have invested heavily in instructional technology. teacher and student access to technology in schools has improved dramatically. today, all public schools are connected to the internet, with 97% connected via high-speed connection. the studentto-computer ratio dropped from 4.4 in 2003 to 3.8 in 2005 (wells & lewis, 2006), and hundreds of schools and districts are experimenting with or have put in place one-to-one laptop programs that provide each student with their own laptop. today, many students are able to type at least 60 wpm in 2nd grade. there are students using twitter, facebook, instagram, and text messaging instead of emails. these students are managing networks of hundreds of people, publishing creative work, and even earning a salary in their spare time online. additionally, critical literacy explores media texts, such as advertisements. in the world that we are living in today, these kinds of texts flood readers and consumers daily and usually include underlying messages, prejudices, and stereotypes. this is due to the fact that electronic media does not carry accountability, is heavily biased, and is not attributed to any named or even credible author(s). because of this, teaching students to critique texts and not merely accept them uncritically as early as elementary age is paramount. since education is about adapting to a changing world, how and what we teach has to change as well. today’s pen and paper has changed and will continue to change. therefore, we must keep pace and stay relevant to keep students engaged. 21st century education must be student centered and personalized. these educational experiences must provide students with opportunities to apply knowledge. 21st century students will use a multitude of technology to access content, demonstrate mastery, publish their work, maintain a portfolio of their skills and interact with the world. while there is a great deal of research on the positive georgia journal of reading 13 volume 41, number 2 2018 effects of implementing critical literacy in the classroom setting with secondary education students, there is not a lot of research available on the impact of using this strategy in elementary grades and the perception of teachers while using this practice with younger grade students. furthermore, there is very little research on the effects of using technology to enhance the critical literacy skills of elementary age students in order to prepare them for the 21st century. this study will add to the body of research in the context of the implementation of critical literacy through technology integration in the elementary setting, by encouraging teachers to modify mandated curriculum so that they build learning experiences about students’ lives in engaging multiple, multimodal, and multifaceted ways. the 21st-century literacies the international literacy association (ila, 2017) and the national council of teachers of english (ncte, 2009) published position statements on new and 21stcentury literacies that provided a foundation for our work. the ncte defined 21st-century literacies as the following abilities for teachers and students: 1. develop proficiency and fluency with the tools of technology. 2. build intentional cross-cultural connections and relationships with others to pose and solve problems collaboratively and strengthen independent thought. 3. design and share information for global communities to meet a variety of purposes. 4. manage, analyze, and synthesize multiple streams of simultaneous information. 5. create, critique, analyze, and evaluate multimedia texts. 6. attend to the ethical responsibilities required by these complex environments ila’s (2017) position statement complements this definition by focusing on paradigmatic shifts in pedagogy and curriculum development to help understand the following: 1. digital tool use requires new social practices, skills, strategies, and dispositions for the tools’ effective use. 2. new literacies are rapidly changing as defining technologies change. 3. new literacies are multiple, multimodal, and multifaceted; thus, they benefit from multiple lenses seeking to understand how to support our students in a digital age better. furthermore, this position supports research on connecting pedagogical practices to meaningful life experiences (hammond, 2014). research shows a correlation between connecting students’ lives and cultural norms to classroom learning and achievement (hammond, 2014). contrary to the research that supports the need for meaningful connections, schools continue to use the traditional one size fits all pedagogical approach to teaching and learning. historically, learners from different cultural backgrounds and experiences have not been acknowledged in the schooling process and resulted in differential outcomes (banks, 1987, 2001; delpit, 1993; sleeter, 1987). this resulted in the disconnect and disengagement experienced by these students (gay, 2010), which is why culturally responsive teaching is necessary. critical literacy is culturally responsive teaching and is characterized as a pedagogical approach that builds on what students already know while encouraging them to embrace their culture and develop a love of learning. this pedagogical approach helps students to understand that there is more than one way of knowing. it is an approach that empowers students, intellectually, socially, emotionally, and politically by using cultural referents to impact knowledge, skills, and attitudes. there are a variety of terms used for teaching that connects students’ lives and experiences with curricular materials and daily instructional practices, some of which are culturally sustaining (paris, 2011), culturally relevant (ladson-billings, 1995), culturally responsive (gay, 2002), critical literacy (freire & macedo, 1987), and social justice (lipman, 2004). these approaches are common due to the critical paradigm that they operate in order to support student achievement, affirmation, and success through the utilization of children’s backgrounds and experiences. the increasing diversity in schools and national changes in the demographic makeup of citizens dictate that teachers develop a better understanding of critical literacy practices in order to be culturally responsive in the classroom setting. it is important that teachers engage in explicit preparation that emphasizes the importance of honoring children’s culture and critically examining their own positionality in order to increase student learning opportunities (emdin, 2016). the research on culturally responsive teaching, while limited to mostly small case studies, shows promise for increased academic outcomes for children (paris & alim, 2017). lipman’s (2004) framework for social justice is a useful heuristic for teachers to reflect on ideologies that undergird the school curriculum, question how decisions are made and who benefits, and attend to factors that lead to systemic inequities in schools. lipman’s model frames social justice as the pursuit of equity, agency, cultural relevance, and critical literacy. the publication of a nation at risk (1983) has prompted national movements towards modifying georgia journal of reading 14 volume 41, number 2 2018 and heightening expectations for student learning that are more aligned with college and career readiness because of concerns about united states school system’s global competency. these changes are the root of rethinking the delivery of instruction and the utilization of technology in classrooms as a way to meet those rising expectations and standards. “digital literacy” is now essential to the success of students in the global economy and falls into at least three areas (bussert-webb & henry 2016)-basic, intermediate, and advanced levels. students on a basic digital literacy level is characterized as possessing keyboard skills and is able to navigate different apps and software on the computer. students on the intermediate skill level is proficient at conducting digital searches on-line in order to obtain information or complete research assignments assigned by the teacher, and even for leisure. students on an advance digital literacy level are able to evaluate the information obtained through a critical lens for biases and accuracy. historically, the role of technology and its impact on student learning has changed and will continue to change. in the past, technology was used to improve work productivity and promoted lower level learning through flashcards, drills, and visual presentations. the function of computers in schools have shifted gradually in order to help students develop higher level cognitive based skills (delgado, wardlow, o’malley, & mcknight, 2015). jonassen (1995) argues that a technology supported learning should be used not only as productivity software, but also as tools to construct knowledge. a recent technology plan released by the federal government (u.s. department of education, 2016) states: technology can be a powerful tool for transforming learning. it can help to form and advance relationships between educators and students, reinvent our approaches to learning and collaboration, shrink long-standing equity and accessibility gaps and adapt learning experiences to meet the needs of all learners (p.1). developing a curriculum that builds on students’ funds of knowledge (moll, amanti, neff, & gonzález, 1992), provides access to digital tools, explores social issues, and creates a platform for sharing information with others reflects how we merged this theory into practice. “funds of knowledge” is defined as the skills and knowledge that have been historically and culturally developed to enable an individual or household to function within a given culture (moll, amanti, neff, gonzalez, 1992). this theoretical framework, along with ncte’s (2009) and ila’s (2017) position statements, support the researcher’s commitment toward providing preservice teachers with professional development and mentorship for reimagining the traditional pedagogy of literacy. the pre-service teacher explored how to integrate topics such as social justice and diversity within the state curriculum while incorporating digital technologies such as x-ray goggles in order to provide a learning environment that promotes critical thinking, problem solving, and collaboration while navigating through literature. the pre-service teacher’s case could provide insight into how a 21stcentury literacies perspective could support literacy practices in elementary classrooms while attending to elements of social justice through the integration of technology. purpose the purpose of this case study was to gain a better understanding of the perceptions of a pre-service teacher as she implements critical literacy practices into kindergarten classroom settings. the researcher would like to add to the literature base on the benefits and challenges pre-service teachers encounter when planning and implementing critical literacy through the integration of digital technology. the following are the research questions: 1. what do pre-service teachers anticipate they would encounter when implementing critical literacy through the incorporation of technology in their current and future classrooms? 2. what are the perceptions of pre-service teachers on how teaching critical literacy appears to be affecting their students? 3. what are the benefits and challenges of implementing critical literacy practices with the incorporation of technology in a classroom? 4. how do teachers integrate critical literacy piece into school curricula? the anticipated findings would be that the preservice teacher reports how she integrates critical literacy and technology into the elementary school curriculum and the projects she was able to implement. methodology the researcher used a formative experiment model (bradley & reinking, 2010) to understand the perceptions of a pre-service teacher better as she implements critical literacy in a kindergarten classroom setting. for this study, the teacher-centered, continuous mentorship focused on critical literacy, and technology integration served as the intervention. the pedagogical goal was for teachers to modify mandated curriculum so that they build learning experiences about students’ lives in engaging ways (i.e., multiple, multimodal, and multifaceted). this study took place in a school district located in northeast georgia. the participant of the study was a pre-service teacher who is currently placed in a georgia journal of reading 15 volume 41, number 2 2018 kindergarten classroom for her year-long clinical experience. as part of this project, the researcher mentored the pre-service teacher as she implemented critical literacy read-alouds to her kindergarten students and implemented a digital technology project with them. for the digital technology project, the preservice teacher was trained by the researcher to use the x-ray goggles computer application. x-ray goggles is a computer coding application provided by mozilla firefox. it allows users to see the building blocks that websites on-line are made of. once downloaded onto the computer, this application can be activated to inspect the coding behind webpages and affords users the opportunity to code in alternate versions of the webpage. for this research study, the pre-service teacher used the x-ray goggles as part of her critical literacy lessons by engaging students in the process of computer coding of online fairy tale stories in order to provide alternate viewpoints or missing perspectives. the researcher, currently serving as a literacy faculty member at the university the pre-service teacher attends, provided the pre-service teacher with an online pre-questionnaire about her own perceptions of teaching critical literacy through the integration of technology to kindergarten students. during the beginning of the semester and throughout the implementation of this study, the researcher mentored, provided resources, and observed the pre-service teacher implement the new strategies learned during the literacy block of the day with her kindergarten students. at the end of each lesson, the pre-service teacher would meet with the researcher to answer some reflective questions regarding the lessons implemented. one of the lessons implement by the pre-service teacher was through a read-aloud of a book titled, freedom summer, by wiles (2005). this story is about two boys who are friends, one white and one african american, and live in mississippi during the 1960s. during this era, segregation laws were prevalent, keeping them from being able to play together in the public pool because african americans were not allowed. the story ends with the boys being excited on the day the civil rights act is enacted because they are now able to go to the public pool together and dive for nickels. in order to build the students’ background knowledge on fair versus unfair, the pre-service teacher engaged her students in making personal connections using a smartboard. the preservice teacher asked students to come sit on the rug with her. while they were all facing the smartboard, she explained that there is an important decision they must make today. she showed them a column labeled red and the column labeled blue on the smartboard with each student’s name underneath the t-chart. the students were told to come up and move their individual names to the column that was labeled with the color they liked more, red or blue. when the students were finished, the pre-service teacher told them that the blue side was going to get extra recess because that was her favorite color. she also told the class that the red column would not get any extra recess. in the beginning of the lesson, she asked the students to make some observations about the illustration on the front cover. they, then, discussed who the author and illustrator are. when the pre-service teacher began to read, she made observations about how the first couple of pages were making her feel. she also thought aloud about who was talking in the pages of the book. then, as she continued reading, the preservice teacher asked the students the following questions: 1. “who is not talking?” 2. “how would you tell the story?” 3. “how does this book make you feel?” 4. “if you could change the ending, how would you change it?” at the end of this lesson, she engaged her students in a writing activity focused on something they would change in the story. another critical literacy lesson implemented through the integration of technology by the pre-service teacher happened during a read-aloud of the true story of the three little pigs by scieszka (1989) (see appendix a). this is the story of the three little pigs told from the perspective of the wolf. the beginning of the story starts with the wolf baking a cake for his grandmother’s birthday and runs out of sugar. he decides to go to his neighbors to ask for some sugar. while at each of their doors, he sneezes because of a cold that he has and accidentally blows down the first two houses. at the end of the story, the wolf is arrested when he arrives at the third little pig’s house sneezing because of what the community perceives him to be, and his grandmother does not get a birthday cake. to activate students’ prior knowledge of common stories, the pre-service teacher asked how many students georgia journal of reading 16 volume 41, number 2 2018 had read the story the three little pigs. she, then, discussed the summary of the story and key elements of the story, including all of the key elements of the story. the students were scaffolded to think about whose perspective is missing in that classic and what that character may say or think about during the events in the story. this led into introducing the book titled, the true story of the three little pigs. as the pre-service teacher read the true story of the three little pigs to students, she stopped to question them throughout the story. she asked them the following questions: 1. “how are you feeling about the wolf right now?” 2. “does he seem to be mean and scary?” 3. “what are some words and descriptions they have used to describe the wolf?” 4. “what about the pigs?” 5. “how does this story make you think about what has happened compared to the three little pigs?” there were other applicable questions that required students to think of the story critically. to summarize their discussion about different perspectives, the pre-service teacher leads a whole-group x-ray goggles activity, the computer application that allows users to see the building blocks that make up websites on the internet and inspect the code behind any webpage. in this lesson, it was used to code and remix the text and pictures on the story rapunzel to offer a different perspective. the preservice teacher had a fairytale summary of rapunzel pulled up on the smartboard. the students and the pre-service teacher, then, worked together to identify another character in the story whose voice was missing and, then, rewrote the story from the different character’s perspective by coding through x-ray goggles. at the end of the study, a post questionnaire was completed by the pre-service teacher. the researcher collected information from a preand post questionnaire (see appendix b and c), collected and observed the pre-service teacher implement lesson plans, and conducted individual coaching interviews about her experiences. results the results in the preand post questionnaire completed by the pre-service teacher indicated that, upon beginning the study, she anticipated that the students would react very well to critical literacy through the incorporation of technology in her current classroom. the pre-service teacher had been exposed to critical literacy theory and methods in a literacy course taken a few semesters before the implementation of this study. she practiced utilizing this strategy with the students she tutored during the field experience component of the literacy course. during this research study, she received mentorship along with additional resources from the researcher, in order to implement critical literacy through the integration of technology with her kindergarten students. prior to the study, the pre-service teacher felt very confident in her ability to incorporate technology into critical literacy lessons because of her level of proficiency with the utilization of technology. it was not until she began implementing this strategy that she also realized that technology incorporation would be a difficult process. the pre-service teacher stated, i thought it might be difficult because i was unsure of how to incorporate technology in new and effective ways. but, i encountered success in engaging students with the technology. although the x-ray goggles worked while i was practicing, but not during the lesson, the students still thought they were awesome and they were encouraged to participate. when asked in the pre-questionnaire if there were any topics she thought were inappropriate to discuss with her students, she responded, “yes, of course.” her response after the study changed to the following: students are in no way too young to have critical conversations. i used to think that critical literacy had to be intense and overwhelming and sometimes sad. but, i know now that it doesn’t always have to be that. it can be more light-hearted conversations about perspective. overall, i learned that it is necessary and totally doable! i think my background certainly used to affect my book selections and classroom discussions because it’s easy and comforting to read the same books you were read and discuss what you’ve heard and seen all your life. but now, i feel that i can better represent other backgrounds through discussions and books, and even challenge myself to think critically in the process. one of the lessons implemented by the pre-service teacher was through a read-aloud of a book titled, freedom summer, by wiles (2005) through the incorporation of smartboard technology which was used to build student’s background knowledge of fair versus unfair. the pre-service teacher engaged the students in a discussion of the difference between fair and unfair by displaying a t-chart and on the smart board (see appendix a), and questions that promoted critical literacy development while reading the story aloud to the students. at the end of this lesson, she engaged her students in a writing activity focused on something they would georgia journal of reading 17 volume 41, number 2 2018 change in the story. the students were instructed to write about an event to change, who is talking that could change, and so forth. the following are some of the writing responses shared by her students (all pseudonyms): ava: “this is a picture of me helping my friend; she had a scratch, but it was bleeding.” laura: “we were swimming in the pool. they were playing marco polo, and they were splashing, and then they went home.” landon: “they went to get ice cream together.” emma: “they were both going to dive in the pool. and the nickel’s right there.” at the end of the lesson, the pre-service teacher reflected and completed a one-on-one interview about her observations. the following are some themes that were pulled from reflections and interviews. her observations on her kindergarten students’ ability to have critical conversations: “they were able to talk about how unfair it was and explain a different ending better than i anticipated. they were reacting intently while i was reading, more than expected. that was really encouraging because they were reacting to what was going on, even if i wasn’t asking a question. so, that ensured me that they really grasped the unfairness.” book choice: “this book was introduced to me at a multicultural literature conference that i attended, and i loved it. i can make it developmentally appropriate and have them grapple with those ideas.” what went well or what she would change related to the incorporation of technology: “i think the students did really well with this lesson. they were attentive during the story and engaged while writing and drawing an alternate ending. the activating activity, using the smart board really made them think and made them sad. so, i think it was an appropriate activity before reading the book. i should have thought of a better way to have the students move their name because that got very chaotic. i loved hearing them share what they wrote and drew. it was so sweet!” advantages for implementing digital technology into her critical literacy lessons: “it’s more engaging for students. it shows them that it can be used for other things other than watching tv and playing.” another critical literacy lesson implemented through the integration of technology by the pre-service teacher happened during a read-aloud of the true story of the three little pigs by scieszka (1989). to activate students’ prior knowledge of common stories, the pre-service teacher engaged the students in a discussion about the three little pigs. the students were scaffolded to think about whose perspective is missing in that classic and what that character may say or think about during the events in the story which led into introducing the book titled, the true story of the three little pigs. as the pre-eservice teacher read the true story of the three little pigs to students, she stopped to question them throughout the story. she asked them critical literacy questions about the wolf’s feelings, the wolf’s appearance and whether he seemed mean and scary, adjectives and descriptors commonly used to describe the wolf. to summarize their discussion about different perspectives, the pre-service teacher leads a wholegroup x-ray goggles activity which is a computer application that allows users to see the building blocks that make up websites on the internet and inspect the code behind any webpage. in this lesson, it was used to code and remix the text and pictures on the fairytale rapunzel. the pre-service teacher had a fairytale summary of rapunzel pulled up on the smartboard. the students and the pre-service teacher, then, worked together to identify another character in the story whose voice was missing and, then, rewrote the story from the different character’s perspective by coding through x-ray goggles. at the end of the lesson, she reflected and completed a one-on-one interview with the researcher about her observations. the following are some themes that were pulled from reflections and interviews. her reflection was, this lesson seemed to be very engaging and effective for the students! although they were hyper and excited for break, they were responding during both the book and the x-ray goggle discussion. they understood and discussed why the wolf maybe wasn’t the bad guy and that it just mattered who was telling the story. then, they applied this to the witch in the rapunzel story, even though georgia journal of reading 18 volume 41, number 2 2018 the goggles weren’t working correctly. student’s response to questions explicitly addressing critical social issues outside the context of the stories, “they didn’t want to believe it at first. they thought that i was trying to confuse them. they didn’t understand the concept of perspective until we got into the story.” student’s response based on lesson topic: “once i began reading the story and asking them questions about what was happening, they started to understand that maybe the wolf wasn’t the bad guy and maybe that they hadn’t thought about how the wolf felt or what he was doing although some of them still thought the wolf was big and bad.” book choice: “this book was recommended to me by one of the researchers and i love the book and it is developmentally appropriate.” student’s ability to have critical conversations: “students are not really their yet, but could be if this was a common occurrence. since the concept of critical literacy was just introduced, there was a lot of support and scaffolding necessary. however, they were able to think critically when asked important questions about the book and perspectives.” technology choice for this lesson: “i’ve used it in previous lessons and really enjoyed it. it was really effective.” what went well or what she would change related to the incorporation of technology? “i think the story itself and the conversations during the story well. the x-ray goggles didn’t go well because they began to glitch, but the conversations did.” barriers for implementing digital technology into her critical literacy lesson: “the x-ray goggles worked right before the lesson, but didn’t work during. also, having every student use the smart board at the same time requires a well thought out plan of action.” discussion this case study examined the perceptions of a preservice teacher during the implementation of critical literacy with the integration of digital technology into a kindergarten classroom setting. a formative experiment (bradley & reinking, 2010) model was used to understand the perceptions of the pre-service teacher better while implementing critical literacy through the integration of digital technology. during the course of this study, the researcher provided mentorship and resources to the pre-service teacher. this teacher-centered continuous mentorship focused on critical literacy, and technology integration, served as the intervention. once the pre-service teacher was well versed in the meaningful context and pedagogical goals of critical literacy, she implemented the critical literacy through the integration of technology with her kindergarten students. the lessons were planned with guidance from the researcher; they were also observed by the researcher. the researcher and the pre-service teacher found that students, even as young as kindergartners, are able to think and speak critically. the kindergarten students also enjoy using technology, especially in a meaningful context. the pre-service teacher found that critical literacy does not have to be another addon to the daily schedule; it can easily be integrated into the literacy block and can be implemented with high quality children’s literature. although the preservice teacher had her doubts about squeezing yet another thing into her instruction, she found that implementing critical literacy was an enlightening way to engage students in meaningful literacy experiences through questioning and critical conversations. the researcher and pre-service teacher also found that kindergarten students were positively interacting with the website during the x-ray goggles activity, learning that everything that is on the internet doesn’t have to be taken as an absolute. this revealed that the technology integration provided a very broad and meaningful experience for students, as predicted. these findings should, certainly, give educators insight into teaching students to think, read, and discuss critically. educators should be encouraged to empower their students; to help them realize that they are more than just face value consumers of text and media, but active participants in it. thinking and reading critically should not be left for the post-secondary students, it should begin as soon as students can see, hear, and interact with the text they are exposed to. a limitation of this study is that one class was studied, rather than a multitude of differing classes. having multiple grade levels, socio-economic statuses, and teaching styles, would allow the researcher to compare and analyze the results of each, observing whether the findings would reign true for each group. however, this provides an opportunity for future research studies utilizing the same research model and methods. conclusion our knowledge of the world is constructed through the lens of our individual life experiences. in this sense, every classroom is multicultural, and the life stories of georgia journal of reading 19 volume 41, number 2 2018 our students are all different. children feel emotionally secure when they find themselves and those they love positively represented in curriculum materials. when teachers are culturally responsive, they create learning environments that reflect each child’s home culture respectfully while inviting children to accept and explore cultures that are unfamiliar to them. by teaching critical literacy through the integration of technology with the use of high-quality, multicultural literacy materials as part of regular classroom activities during the reading block, teachers model interest in and acceptance of differences. technology is a valuable educational tool that should be used as a way to create new and meaningful connections to lesson content, expand students’ understanding of lived experiences of others, and help to promote the development critical literacy skills that will create an inclusive learning environment. the results of this study indicated that teaching critical literacy appeared to affect students positively. the students were able to engage in the critical thought processes necessary to analyze character perspectives, make connections, and draw from their own experiences while engaging in critical literacy activities. although some challenges were presented while implementing technology into the critical literacy lessons, the students were extremely engaged and had an avenue to express higher level of understanding by creating products that identified and solved the critical issues presented in the text that they were engaged in by going against the status quo or by giving a voice to a character whose perspective was not included. this case study showed how teachers could fit critical literacy through technology integration into the literacy block by engaging students in shared or interactive reading activities with predetermined, critical literacy questions as discussion points throughout the story. students could use the technology as a way to respond to the discussion points discussed throughout the critical literacy lesson and as an avenue for becoming change agents. an example is how the students in this study were able to rewrite a story that their teacher read in the perspective of a different character by using a computer-coding application (i.e., x-ray goggles). this research study seeks to add to the literature base on the benefits and challenges pre-service teachers encounter when planning and implementing critical literacy through the integration of digital technology during the literacy block. this case study provides insight into how a 21st-century literacies perspective could support literacy practices in elementary classrooms while attending to elements of social justice through the integration of technology. references banks, j. a. (1987). educating citizens in a multicultural society. new york, ny: teachers college press. banks, j. a. (2001). educating citizens in a multicultural society (2nd ed.). new york, ny: teachers college press. bradley, a. b., & reinking, d. (2010). enhancing research and practice in early childhood through formative and design experiments. early child development and care, 175, 1-15. bussert-webb, k., & henry, l. (2016). latino/a children’s digital literacy access and online reading skills. journal of literacy and technology, 17(3) 2-40. retrieved from http://www.literacyandtechnology. org/uploads/1/3/6/8/136889/jlt_v16_3_webb_henry. pdf clark, l., & whitney, e. (2009). walking in their shoes: using multiple-perspective texts as a bridge to critical literacy. the reading teacher, 62(6), 530-534. delpit, l. (1993). the silenced dialogue: power and pedagogy in educating other people’s children in beyond silenced voices: class, race, and gender in united states schools. harvard education review, 58, 280-298. emdin, c. (2016). for white folks who teach in the hood . . . and the rest of y’all too: reality pedagogy and urban education. boston, ma: beacon press. freire, p., & macedo, d. (1987). literacy: reading the word and the world. south hadley, ma: bergin & garvey. gay, g. (2002). preparing for culturally responsive teaching. journal of teacher education, 53(2), 106116. gay, g. (2010). culturally responsive teaching: theory, research, and practice (multicultural education series, no. 8). new york, ny: teachers college press. greiff, s., niepel, c., & wustenberg, c. (2015). 21st century skill: international advancements and recent developments. thinking skills and creativity, 18, 1– 3. doi:10.1016/j.tsc.2015.04.007 hammond, z. (2014). culturally responsive teaching and the brain: promoting authentic engagement and rigor among culturally and linguistically diverse learners. thousand oaks, ca: corwin press. georgia journal of reading 20 volume 41, number 2 2018 international literacy association. (2017). position statements. retrieved from h t t p s : / / w w w . literacyworldwide.org/get-resources/positionstatements jonassen, d.h. (1995). computers as cognitive tools: learning with technology, not from technology. journal of computing in higher education, 6(2), 40-73. ladson-billings, g. (1995). toward a theory of culturally relevant pedagogy. american educational research journal, 32, 465-491. lipman, p. (2004). high stakes education: inequality, globalization, and urban school reform. new york, ny: routledge/falmer. moll, l. c., amanti, c., neff, d., & gonzález, n. (1992). funds of knowledge for teaching: using a qualitative approach to connect homes and classrooms. theory into practice, 31, 132-141. national council of teachers of english. (2009). position statement. retrieved from http://www2.ncte.org/ statement/2009legisplatform national center for education statistics. (2015) https://nces.ed.gov/programs/edge/tableviewer/ acsprofile/2015 national commision on excellence in education. (1983). a nation at risk: the imperatige for educational reform: a report to the nation and the secretary of education, united states department of education. washington, dc: the commision: (supt. of docs., u.s. g.p.o. distributor). paris, d. (2011). culturally sustaining pedagogy: a needed change in stance, terminology, and practice. educational researcher, 41(3), 93-97. paris, d., & alim, h. (2017). culturally sustaining pedagogies. new york, ny: teachers college press. sciezka, j. (1989). the true story of the three little pigs. new york, ny: viking kestrel. appendix a sample lesson plan teacher candidate: ______________ student(s): whole group session date:___________________ grade level: kindergarten ● standard(s): elagseksl1: participate in collaborative conversations with diverse partners about kindergarten topics and texts with peers and adults in small and larger groups. elagseksl6: speak audibly and express thoughts, feelings, and ideas clearly. ● objectives/goals: the students will identify and discuss different perspectives that can be examined in common stories. ● assessment(s): students’ verbal responses during reading and hacking online fairytale to change perspective. activation: to activate students’ prior knowledge of common stories, the teacher will ask how many students have read the three little pigs. the teacher will then discuss with students what the story is about and who it is written by. the teacher will scaffold students to think about whose perspective is missing, and what that character may say or think about the events in the story. this will lead into introducing the true story of the three little pigs. teach: the teacher will read the true story of the three little pigs to students, stopping to question them throughout. the teacher will ask them “how are you feeling about the wolf right now?”, “does he seem to be mean and scary?”, “what are some words and descriptions they have used to describe the wolf?”, “what about the pigs?”, “how does this story make you think about what has happened compared to the three little pigs?”, and other applicable questions that require students to think of the story critically. georgia journal of reading 21 volume 41, number 2 2018 appendix b pre-questionnaire question what do you anticipate that you will encounter when implementing critical literacy through the incorporation of technology in your current and future classroom? are there any topics you think are inappropriate to talk about with young students? how do you feel about young students questioning their world? what is your role in helping students work towards changing their world? what strategy would you use to teach multiculturalism, diversity, or social issues to young children? how do you think that your background, race, gender, class, culture affect book selections and classroom discussions? how do you think the incorporation of digital technology will affect student engagement and learning in the context of critical literacy? what would you like to see happen as a result of your participation in this study? answer i anticipate that students will react very well to it and that it will be effective! i also anticipate a strong learning curve for me, as the implementer. there are topics that are inappropriate to talk about with young students. i love when students question their world because it makes them critical thinkers and encourages them to rise above standards they don’t agree with. my role is to teach them to question respectfully and to help them not only question but also analyze and interpret answers/ findings. i would use a variety of resources that students can analyze and interpret on their own. i would scaffold their thinking and encourage them to form their own opinions based on the knowledge they are acquiring. i think that it can definitely sway book selections and classroom discussions to reflect my own background. it is very important that it doesn’t reflect my background though, and that they reflect each students’ (and some of their backgrounds may be very similar to mine). students love technology and are more technologically fluent than ever. so, it certainly engages students more than more traditional instruction i believe. using technology in literacy is not only engaging, but also practical, considering the amount of literacy that is in the form of blogs, articles, e-mails, and so forth. i would love to see critical literacy effectively used in the classroom. and, of course i want to be able to use technology to effectively implement critical literacy! sleeter, c. (1987). an analysis of multicultural education in the united states. harvard educational review, 57, 421-444. u.s. department of education, institute of education sciences, what works clearinghouse. (2016, november). adolescent literacy intervention report: read 180 retrieved from http://whatworks.ed.gov wells, j., & lewis, l. (2006). internet access in u.s. public schools and classrooms: 1994–2005 (nces 2007-020). u.s. department of education. washington, dc: national center for education statistics. retrieved from http://nces.ed.gov/ pubs2007/2007020.pdf wiles, d. (2005). freedom summer. new york, ny: aladdin paperbacks. wilson, k. (2016). critical reading, critical thinking: delicate scaffolding in english for academic purposes. thinking skills and creativity, 22, 256– 265. doi:10.1016/j.tsc.2016.10.002 georgia journal of reading 22 volume 41, number 2 2018 appendix c post-questionnaire questions what did you encounter when implementing critical literacy through the incorporation of technology in your current classroom? what do you think about literacy as being a social practice for teaching young students? how do you feel about young students questioning their world? what is your role in helping students work towards changing their world? what strategy would you use to teach multiculturalism, diversity, or social issues to young children? how do you think that your background, race, gender, class, culture affect book selections and classroom discussions? did the incorporation of digital technology affect student engagement and learning in the context of critical literacy? if so, how? what would your read-alouds look like without the use of critical literacy? how will your participation in this study influence your literacy practices in the classroom setting? how has your knowledge of critical literacy evolved from the beginning of this study? answers incorporating technology was at first difficult. this was because i was unsure of how to incorporate it in new and effective ways. but, i also encountered success in engaging students with the technology. although the x-ray goggles worked while i was practicing, but not during the lesson, the students still thought they were awesome and they were encouraged to participate. i think it can and is extremely effective and is a great way to teach social justice. i believe it is great that students learn to question their world and change perspective. it shapes them into critical thinkers and good citizens. my role is to expose them to differing perspectives and social issues, and guide their thinking and questioning. this will then promote the critical thinking they will need to change the world. i would certainly use critical literacy to teach these issues because stories are something they enjoy and can get a lot from. it’s also a great way to transition into having them respond to the issues through speech and writing. i think my background certainly used to affect my book selections and classroom discussions because it’s easy and comforting to read the same books you were read and discuss what you’ve heard and seen all your life. but now i feel that i can better represent other backgrounds through discussions and books, and even challenge myself to think critically in the process. yes, i certainly think so. in my first lesson students were excited to come move their name on the smart board. in the second lesson, the x-ray goggles got students excited to change the story. they would most likely just be seasonal books or books related to a current letter of the week or standard. this study has certainly encouraged me to broaden my book selections and classroom discussions. it has taught me that students are in no way too young to have critical conversations. i used to think that critical literacy had to be intense and overwhelming and sometimes sad. but, i know now that it doesn’t always have to be that. it can be more light-hearted conversations about perspective. overall, i learned that it is necessary and totally doable! running head: culturally relevant teaching for the 21st century 1 culturally relevant teaching for the 21st century: the success and challenges of pre-service teachers when using technology in critical ways virginie jackson kennesaw state university stacy delacruz kennesaw state university dominique harry kennesaw state university abstract this case study examined pre-service teachers' use of technology as they implemented culturally relevant literacy lessons while tutoring elementary students in their field placement sites. as we enter a new decade, we want our students to be future-ready with technology skills. here, we present an examination of how pre-service teachers integrated culturally relevant teaching with technology along with a discussion of the tools and devices their students used. findings provided evidence that as pre-service teachers experienced authentic and engaging learning experiences within a supportive space, they emerged equipped to teach in culturally responsive ways that supported student learning and deeper levels of engagement. the implication for practice is for community-engaged teacher preparation models to focus on shaping prospective teachers' orientation toward culturally relevant teaching so that they build learning experiences around students' lives in engaging multiple, multimodal, and multifaceted ways. keywords: literacy, reading, technology integration, cultural relevant teaching, pre-service teachers, crt introduction new 21st century literacies were published by the international literacy association (ila, 2017) focusing on shifts in curriculum development and teaching practices by stating the following: • digital tool use requires new social practices, skills, strategies, and dispositions for the tools' effective use. • new literacies are rapidly changing as defining technologies change. • new literacies are multiple, multimodal, and multifaceted; thus, they benefit from various lenses seeking to understand how to support our students in a digital age better. (ila, 2016) covid-19 has pushed technology to the forefront of instruction, and while studies abound on technology that can be applied to online teaching, one factor in effective instruction is sometimes left out of the conversation: that of culturally responsive teaching. the purpose of this research was to bridge this gap by viewing technology applications through a culturally responsive lens. the following research questions guided our research: 41 running head: culturally relevant teaching for the 21st century 2 1. how do pre-service teachers integrate culturally relevant instruction and technology within literacy lessons? 2. what technology devices and tools are being used by pre-service teachers in their literacy lessons? culturally relevant pedagogy was described by gloria ladson billings (1995) as a theoretical model that addresses student achievement and helps them to affirm their cultural identity while developing critical perspectives that challenge inequities that schools (and other institutions) perpetuate. chuang (2016) further explains this model by stating how culturally relevant teaching is based on the notion that student success and engagement is encouraged when “teaching draws on each of their individual cultural experiences and language abilities.” teachers can implement this pedagogical practice to encourage students to connect course content to each students' cultural context. culturally relevant teaching (crt) is characterized by using students' cultural knowledge, interests, prior experiences, and learning styles to effectively teach (gay, 2010; ladson-billings, 2014). the use of culturally relevant literacy instruction can also be accomplished through the use of multicultural and diverse children's literature, discussions about student interests, values, and lived experiences that affirm the home culture and language of the students when planning literacy lessons (au, 2011; bennett, gunn, & leung, 2016). rather than recognizing cultural differences as a hinderance to student learning, culturally relevant teaching views those differences as areas of opportunity for learning (chuang, 2016). a significant amount of research mainly focused on the perceptions of in-service teachers when integrating technology during literacy instruction (christ, arya, & liu, 2019). examples of topics explored were potential problems, and challenges and success of technology integration (hutchison & rinking, 2011; sadaf, newby, & ertmer, 2016). a few studies focus on technology integration in literacy lessons (zoch, belcher, & myers, 2014), while others focused on teachers’ perceptions of integrating technology in science, and social studies (blackwell, lauricella, and wartella, 2014). teachers' perceptions related to integrating technology in literacy instruction were explicitly focused on by only a few research studies (honan, 2008; isrealson, 2014). as a result of these studies and their main focus on the perceptions of in-service teachers, this current study seeks to expand upon the limited research on pre-service teachers' perceptions (successes and challenges) when integrating technology through crt in literacy lessons. theoretical framework ladson-billings (1995) defined culturally relevant pedagogy as: …a pedagogy of oppression similar to critical pedagogy, but committed explicitly to the collective, not merely individual empowerment. culturally relevant pedagogy rests on three criteria or propositions: (a) the need for students to experience academic success; (b) the need for students to develop and maintain cultural competence, and (c) the need for students to develop a critical consciousness through which they challenge the current status quo of the social order (p. 42 running head: culturally relevant teaching for the 21st century 3 160). culturally relevant pedagogy empowers students and provides them with a curriculum that builds on their prior knowledge and cultural experiences. this contrasts from traditional pedagogy that required for students to assimilate to the dominant schooling culture, and instead asks that current schooling culture takes different student experiences into account. as liu (2020) explained, crt is a competitive tool to have a strong understanding of diversity given the globalization of many aspects of society today. technology can also be used as a tool to incorporate culturally relevant pedagogy to strengthen this valuable skill in students. one way that technology integration within the classroom has been discussed is with the technology acceptance model (tam) postulated by venkatesh & davis (2000). the way in which this model explains technology use is by its ease of use and general usefulness to a user (ranellucci, rosenberg, & poitras, 2020). the model provides a context through which preservice teachers can gauge their comfortability of utilizing technology within the classroom as well as its effectiveness. the complete breakdown of the framework involves several concepts including: “external variables, perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, attitude towards using, behavioral intention to use and actual system use” (joo, park, & lim, 2018). specific to preservice teachers, this model assists in describing how well a teacher can integrate technology into their classroom based on their own individual understandings of the ease of use as well as the general usefulness of it. tam is useful in investigating whether or not technology is being successfully integrated into a classroom, and also describes factors that can hinder or assist in technology integration. the combination of both of the above frameworks served as the foundation and guide for this research. literature review culturally relevant pedagogy recognizes the importance of including students’ personal, cultural, and community assets in learning. the incorporation of technology enhances instructional design and practice to facilitate a culturally responsive learning environment centered around the lives of students. therefore, technology can also be used as a tool to incorporate culturally relevant pedagogy in literacy instruction to meet the needs of all students. culturally relevant pedagogy in teaching literacy notably, culturally relevant instruction has been recognized as a logical method for guiding students of diverse cultural and linguistic backgrounds to higher levels of literacy learning (au, 2007). it mainly supports tremendous success among culturally and linguistically diverse students (ladson-billings, 2014). when teachers understand their students' cultural patterns and create learning environments that recognize and legitimize these patterns, student involvement increases (alderman, 2013). research conducted in hawaiian charter schools discovered that three categories emerged as other teachers look to implement culturally relevant pedagogy into literacy teaching. these categories included outward orientation, connections to the community, and curriculum content in collaborative projects to elevate their community (kana'iaupuni, ledwar & malone, 2017). these collaborations could involve musical performances, art exhibits, or other ways to contribute to the well-being of students' families and communities. 43 running head: culturally relevant teaching for the 21st century 4 what is digital literacy? the publication of "a nation at risk” (1983) has prompted national movements towards modifying and having expectations for student learning that are more aligned with college and career readiness because of concerns about the united states school system's global competency. these changes along with being in the times of the covid-19 pandemic are the root of rethinking the delivery of instruction and the utilization of technology in classrooms as a way to meet those rising expectations and standards. "digital literacy" is now essential to the success of students in the global economy and falls into at least three areas, including; basic, intermediate, and advanced (bussert-webb & henry, 2016). students on a basic digital literacy level are characterized as possessing keyboard skills and can navigate different apps and software on the computer. students on the intermediate skill level are proficient at conducting digital searches online to obtain information or complete research assignments assigned by the teacher, and even for leisure. students on an advanced digital literacy level can evaluate the information obtained through a critical lens for biases and accuracy (bussert-webb & henry, 2016). as explained, digital literacy does not cease at a student’s ability to utilize technology but goes further into being able to interpret what information technology presents to them in the appropriate manner. watulak (2016) explains that digital literacy “includes an understanding of the social and cultural norms around technology use, and the valued practices within those norms.” when considering how this translates to current classrooms, it demonstrates how students would benefit greatly from explicit teaching on how to interpret the information made available to them digitally. by having students foster the skills necessary to recognize these aspects of the digital lens, they can understand how “all authored texts...situate them as readers, writers, and viewers within particular cultural and historical contexts” (alvermann, 2004). while it is common knowledge that information available through technology is not unbiased or always completely accurate, students may have a more difficult time identifying such circumstances. integrating technology to support learning historically, the role of technology and its impact on student learning have changed. in the past, technology was used to improve work productivity and promoted lower-level learning through flashcards, drills, and visual presentations. the function of computers in schools has shifted gradually to help students develop higher-level cognitive-based skills (delgado, wardlow, o'malley, & mcknight, 2015). primarily, morossan, dawson, and whalen (2017) posit that technology-supported learning should be used not only as productivity software, but also as tools to construct knowledge. a new technology plan released by the federal government states that technology is a dynamic tool for transforming learning (u.s. department of education, 2016). technology can help to reinvent our pedagogical approaches and collaboration, decrease equity and accessibility gaps, and modify learning experiences to meet the needs of all learners. additionally, chuang, shih and cheng (2020) explained that the integration of technology in learning has “been demonstrated to be among the best practices for teaching multicultural classrooms due to...differences in ethnically diverse student populations.” the use of technology to scaffold general learning not only provides an innovative way to support students, but can also assist with crt. chuang (2016) describes a method of integrating technology to support learning through “computer-supported collaborative learning (cscl). this method of teaching involves utilizing 44 running head: culturally relevant teaching for the 21st century 5 technology as a medium to complete group work and engage in collaborative learning. it is described to encourage critical thinking, student success and student satisfaction (chuang, 2016). educators would be able to use technology in a way that facilitates group collaboration, fosters more effective learning through crt, and builds digital literacy skills simultaneous. moreover, chuang (2016) mentioned the importance to ensuring that collaboration among students can successfully occur when considering individual communication styles in instituting such a technique. consequently, developing a curriculum that builds on students' funds of knowledge, provides access to digital tools, explores social issues, and creates a platform for sharing information with others is paramount (moll, amanti, neff, & gonzález, 1992). this also reflects how we merge this theory into practice. "funds of knowledge" is defined as the skills and knowledge that have been developed to enable an individual to function within a given culture (moll et al.,1992). considering this, heinrich and molenda (1996) designed the instructional method assure to provide a model that allowed for the effective integration of technology into lessons based on the needs and interests of students. "assure" is an acronym that stands for the various steps: (a) analyze learners (b) state standards and objectives (c) select strategies, technology, media, and materials (d) utilize technology, media, and materials (e)require learner participation (f) evaluate and revise. it is an instructional design that has the goal of producing more effective teaching and learning through a systematic process that focuses on choosing the best technological tool for students to actively engage with to achieve instructional goals (chen & chung, 2011). while the above studies demonstrate how technology can support literacy instruction, some studies discuss the barriers in doing so. one such study conducted by pittman and gaines (2015) found that, out of a sample of third, fourth, and fifth-grade teachers, less than 20 percent of them found themselves to be high-level technology integrators. potential barriers that inhibited them from embedding higher levels of technology into the classroom included a lack of devices and a lack of time to create and execute lesson plans that incorporated technology (pittman & gaines, 2015, p. 248). purpose of the study the purpose of this study was to examine the teaching practices of pre-service teachers' use of computer technology in culturally responsive literacy instruction and to identify the strengths and obstacles they overcame in the process. based on the limited studies available, further research is needed to identify pre-service teachers' perceptions (successes and challenges) when integrating technology in culturally responsive literacy lessons. this research is critical to inform how to improve teacher preparation programs to prepare pre-service teachers better to build learning experiences around students' lives in engaging multimodal ways. the following research questions guided our research: 3. how do pre-service teachers integrate culturally relevant instruction and technology within literacy lessons? 4. what technology devices and tools are being used by pre-service teachers in their literacy lessons? 45 running head: culturally relevant teaching for the 21st century 6 methodology this case study utilized yin's (2002) approach for implementation in which multiple methods were used to carry out this research according to the research questions; it took place in an elementary literacy methods course in a university setting in southeastern united states. twenty pre-service teachers received direct instruction on implementing culturally relevant strategies while teaching reading comprehension through the integration of technology for 15 weeks through hands-on experiences. key definition of terms for this study: culturally relevant teaching (crt) is characterized as lessons that integrate and embed students' personal, cultural, and community assets throughout in appropriate and meaningful ways. culturally relevant technology-integrated lesson is a lesson that is studentcentered and culturally relevant with frequent opportunities for students to interact with technology to develop higher-order cognitive-based skills. convenience sampling was used to select the participants as they were all a part of one of the researcher's/author’s elementary literacy methods class. during each class meeting, the preservice teachers learned about a specific comprehension strategy and how to integrate culturally relevant practices into their teaching. examples of discussions and activities related to crt included discussing and reviewing peer-reviewed articles centered around the topic, learning to think about students' cultural, community, and personal assets, engaging in activities for communicating about students from an asset-based perspective, evaluating children's literature and discussing the importance of utilizing materials that reflect students' interests and assets in a respectful way so that all students feel included. the pre-service teachers also received training and explored a technology application or tool and then created a product using the previously learned comprehension strategy. shagoury and power (2012) served as guides to determine which of the data sources would be relevant in the dissemination of our findings. data sources included lesson plans along with student artifacts, journal reflections, and pre/post-questionnaires. a total of three lesson plans along with student artifacts, three journal reflections, a pre and post questionnaire were collected from each pre-service teacher during the study. the lesson plans, along with student artifacts, were reviewed and scored through the use of the culturally relevant technology integrated rubric (figure 2), which was provided to the pre-service teachers as guides for planning their lessons. the lessons were all charted, organized, and analyzed according to the pre-service teachers' use of culturally responsive teaching and the types of technology used. the information compiled from the kinds of strategies used for culturally responsive teaching was further categorized into different themes-interest, culture, and community. if the pre-service teacher discussed utilizing the student's interest to support student learning, the lesson would be placed in the category labeled interest. if the culture of the student were used to support student learning, that lesson would be placed in the category labeled culture. lessons that used the community as a support for learning were placed in the community category. this information was analyzed to determine in what ways the pre-service teachers integrated crt into their 46 running head: culturally relevant teaching for the 21st century 7 literacy lessons after receiving authentic and engaging learning experiences within a supportive space. the technology portion of each lesson plan was also extracted and listed in a table into categories according to the type of technology application (the type of device is indicated for each) the teachers received training on during the study-nearpod (ipad), kahoot (ipad), quizlet (ipad), sock puppet (ipad), speak pic (ipad), popplet (laptop), powtoon (laptop), youtube (smartboard), and other apps (smartboard) (table 1 and table 2). this information was tallied for each type of technology application integrated to determine which technology application tools and devices are being used in literacy lessons by pre-service teachers to support student learning. the pre and post questionnaires were used to determine themes that arose around the experiences of pre-service teachers while they implemented crt through technology integration into their literacy lessons. table 1 contains descriptions of each of the technology tools the pre-service teachers explored and received training on during the literacy course. there was a field experience component to this course where the pre-service teachers also created and implemented three, one-on-one literacy lessons to students in the elementary school setting during the literacy block and wrote a reflection on each of the lessons. the rubric in table 2 is a part of the departmentwide lesson plan rubric that served as a guide for pre-service teachers as they created their crt and technology integrated literacy lessons during this study. table 1. technology apps and tools explored technology tool description nearpod nearpod is a cross-platform, device agnostic, tool used to engage students with interactive activities, connect them through collaborative discussions, and gain instant insight into student learning through formative assessments. students can access nearpod from their personal tablets, desktops or laptops. kahoot kahoot is a game-based learning platfom. its learning games, “kahoots”, are multiplechoice quizzes that allow user generation and can be accessed via a web browser or the kahoot app. the teacher creates a learning game or trivia on any topic. the teacher then hosts a game with the question on large screen or projector to engage students. the students are to join the game with a pin provided by the teacher and answer questions from their own devices. quizlet quizlet is a mobile and web-based study application that allows students to study information via learning tools and games. 47 running head: culturally relevant teaching for the 21st century 8 sock puppet sock puppet is a storytelling app that allows users to create puppet shows in seconds. students can use this tool to present ideas via digital storytelling elements. speak pic speak pic is an app that allows users to transform any portrait photo into a moving 3d avatar that repeats every word recorded. students can type or record any text, adding and giving life to a photo of a friend or someone famous. it will say everything they want. it can be used as a tool to teach literacy. popplet popplet is an app used as a mind-map that helps students think and learn visually. students can capture facts, thoughts, and images and learn to create relationships between them. powtoon powtoon is an animated video and presentation platform that allows students to share information with their audiences in an engaging way. youtube youtube is a website where videos and music viewed, original content can be uploaded, and shared with friends, family, and the world. smartboard smartboard is an interactive whiteboard with a large display that is typically used in educational settings. it is a combination of a projector and whiteboard that also has internet capabilities. laptop laptop is a portable desktop computer that can be used to access the internet for various purposes. in schools, it is used for researching on the internet, writing papers and other educational purposes. ipad an ipad is a touchscreen tablet, which is a portable computer, made by apple. it is used in the same way that a laptop or desktop computer would be used. table 2. crt and technology integration rubric element theme/thre ad unacceptable (level i) approaching (level ii) minimally proficient (level iii) desired outcome (level iv) 48 running head: culturally relevant teaching for the 21st century 9 inclusive learning environments culturally relevant teaching little or no evidence of connections to the content standard(s) and personal, cultural and/or community assets within the lesson. or deficit thinking may be evident. connections are loosely tied to the standard(s) and content of the lesson. and integrates personal, cultural, and/or community assets within the lesson. connections are clearly tied to the standard(s) and content of the lesson. and integrates personal, cultural, and community assets throughout the lesson. connections are clearly tied to the standard(s) and content of the lesson. and integrates and embed personal, cultural, and community assets throughout the lesson in clear, appropriate and meaningful ways. technology teachercentered with no opportunities for student interaction with technology teacher-centered with few opportunities for student interaction with technology student-centered with frequent opportunities for students to interreact with technology and purposefully used to support learning student-centered with frequent opportunities for students to interact with technology; purposefully used to support learning and justifies its use to create differentiated learning experiences results the results of this research uncovered several interesting strategies for technology implementation used by the pre-service teachers during the execution of their culturally relevant literacy lessons. first, the process pre-service teachers used to be culturally relevant when teaching literacy lessons emerged. second, pre-service teachers used technologies in ways that allowed for innovative informal literacy assessment opportunities. finally, the pre-service teachers found great value and had meaningful experiences of using culturally relevant practices and integrating technology to enhance their student's literacy learning and achievement. figures 1, 2, and 3 show the amount of technology implemented for each of the three lessons taught by the pre-service teachers. of all of the technology implemented during literacy lessons, the pre-service teachers implemented other applications through the smartboard (52%) the most across all of the lessons. during lesson one, eight pre-service teachers implemented youtube 49 running head: culturally relevant teaching for the 21st century 10 and other applications on the smartboard technology; during lesson two, eleven pre-service teachers implemented other applications on the smartboard technology; during lesson three, twelve pre-service teachers implemented youtube and other applications on the smartboard technology into their culturally relevant literacy lessons. the technology that was least used was the powtoon on the laptop (1%) technology with zero implementation during lessons one and three, and one implementation for lesson two. nearpod on the ipad (13%) was the next mostly implemented technology. during the execution of all three literacy lessons, lessons one and three consisted of two pre-service teachers who chose not to implement technology into their culturally responsive literacy lessons. figure 1 figure 2 50 running head: culturally relevant teaching for the 21st century 11 figure 3 how do pre-service teachers integrate culturally relevant instruction and technology within literacy lessons? pre-service teachers fit cultural relevance and technology into literacy lessons by thinking about their students' interests. the pre-service teachers were able to choose materials to help their students reach their learning objectives based on interest (65%) and cultural assets (15%). many of the pre-service teachers provided opportunities for their students to choose their own books for the reading lessons. the technology was integrated into the middle and end of the majority of the lessons to assess students' level of understanding engagingly. 51 running head: culturally relevant teaching for the 21st century 12 some examples of technology that were integrated included nearpod (figure 4), powtoon (figure 5), popplet (figure 6), and sock puppet (figure 7). another example is how one preservice teacher candidate's literacy lessons were centered around her student's funds of knowledge. her student enjoyed reading graphic novels, so during one of her reading lessons, she and her student read the book, "big nate on a roll" by lincoln pierce. the story is culturally meaningful and relevant because it pertains to her student's personal interests. her student stated that he enjoys reading books by author lincoln peirce. because the pre-service teachersupported culturally relevant practices through the use of technology in literacy lessons, she engaged her student in writing a personal narrative using the speakpic app (figure 8). pre-service teacher voices on crt and technology integrated practices preservice teacher 5: culturally relevant teaching when the student completed the interest survey, she commented on how she would like to read more biographies “so they can know more”. when possible, i’d like to incorporate the use of biographies to enhance and support this students’ learning. in order to create a connection with the student involving her hispanic heritage, i selected a biography about frida khalo. this is particularly relevant considering the school just concluded its hispanic heritage month learning opportunities school-wide. using the student’s funds of knowledge, when she comes across an unfamiliar term, and is able to successfully use context clues to develop an understanding of the new vocabulary, i’ll ask her to make a connection from the word to the world, more specifically her community. by creating these connections to new words, it will help strengthen my student’s retention of the word long-term, but also give her an opportunity to demonstrate further comprehension if she’s able to make strong connections. culturally relevant technology integration the student will use www.popplet.com to create a popplet with frida khalo being the central focus and the web stems extending out from her being the events in frida’s life. preservice teacher 9: culturally relevant teaching my student enjoys creativity based off his interviews. he likes coming up with new ideas and tries to make things interesting. i will give him a list of writing prompts to choose from so he can be creative in finding one that he feels like he can add the most detail to. the student has expressed how being kind is important to him and how his mom says he has a kind heart. in class he is always helpful and kind to all students. some of the writing prompts presented to him will allow for him to use this about himself to make his writing more interesting. the student lives in a community where there is a library. he will be able to read and remember a lot of the books he has read there to make his writing more interesting. culturally relevant technology integration the student also has technology for him to used supplied by the school so this could be used to create a popplet or look up any information he needs. the student loves using the computer, so 52 running head: culturally relevant teaching for the 21st century 13 this will engage him. the youtube video about supporting details was used to explain important concepts about writing narrative essays with important details. preservice teacher 10: culturally relevant teaching my student has a strong interest in camping. he goes camping with his boy scout troop and he goes camping with his family frequently. i plan on using his love of camping to connect with him on an academic level. i will use a book about camping to teach reading comprehension. it is a tradition for the student and his family to go camping for every major holiday. i will be able to help the students make connections between his real-life camping and the camping that he is reading about in the story. according to the student, his boy scout camping place is close to the school. since this is the story, we will be using during the lesson, i will have him use the knowledge that he has learned from the book the next time that he goes camping. this will activate his comprehension skills because he will have to remember and understand what he read enough to put it to use in the real world. 53 running head: culturally relevant teaching for the 21st century 14 culturally relevant technology integration the student will complete the graphic organizer on an ipad. the student has shown interest in using the ipad as much as possible, so this will give him an opportunity to use technology while he is learning. i will use the ipad to show the student the anchor charts as well as to assist the student while he is completing the graphic organizer. preservice teacher 11: culturally relevant teaching my student is very interested in sports, and he loves to read. i learned that he enjoys reading in his free time outside of class and is always excited and ready to read when it is time to read in class. he explained to me that he loves starting new fiction books in class during novel studies. my student also has an older sister, whom he says he likes to hang out with a lot. he considers her one of his best friends and loves when she comes to watch his baseball games. lastly, when asking my student what he was most excited to read this year he explained to me that he could not wait to read the book wonder by r.j. palacio. this is a book that miss rosa’s class started reading at the beginning of october. because of this, and the connections that he can make to the book’s main character in regard to his relationship with his sister, i plan on using the book, wonder, to support my student’s learning to improve his reading comprehension. the content in my lesson is connected to my student’s personal assets in many ways. one way is that my lesson allows for my student to have choice about what he writes about. he is not being told what to write or what details he has to include. because my student has a choice in what he does in the lesson, he will be further engaged and more excited about learning. culturally relevant technology integration i will use technology to explore powtoon to prepare to teach the student how to use it. the student will use powtoon to present a final draft of his narrative piece of writing. preservice teacher 12: culturally relevant teaching my student loves spending time with her family. she enjoys roller coasters and going to six flags regularly. she is involved in her community by playing with her neighborhood friends. they play outside together and she enjoys going to church with them. she loves animals and enjoys playing games. my student explained because of her culture, she helps her mother make dinner every night. her culture is a big reason for her strong family values. she stressed the importance of how “proud she is to be black”. i will find activities that integrate games and the outdoors. i, also, will also provide books that have african american protagonists and definitely can integrate technology into my lessons. culturally relevant technology integration the student will use the teacher-created quizlet.com flash cards to randomly generate blends for the scavenger hunt before reading the story last stop on market street by matt de la pena. after reading the story, the student will type a writing piece summarizing the story. 54 running head: culturally relevant teaching for the 21st century 15 preservice teacher 15: culturally relevant teaching my student is motivated to read because she understands the importance of reading. she has favorite books and has many opportunities to read at school and her public library. she likes to read graphic novels and fairy tale type stories. i will use a text on her instructional level that connects to her preference of fairy tale stories by selecting the book rapunzel for us to read. to connect the student’s family culture to the lesson, we will discuss how my student’s family structure is different to that of rapunzel. i will connect the lesson to the student’s community by having her practice the strategy from the lesson when reading a book of her choice at her public library. culturally relevant technology integration after explicit demonstration and to help facilitate this lesson, the student will use the sock puppet app to retell the story. my student likes action books and monsters, so i chose a book that relates to his interests. i will also link his prior academic knowledge about concepts of print and sequence into the lesson through the sequencing train game from room recess: https://www.roomrecess.com/ . preservice teacher 18: culturally relevant teaching my student told me about a memory she has of going with her grandmother to a local church to play bingo. her grandmother likes to get out of the house and do activities that they can both participate in. i decided to include this fond memory my student has of her grandmother into my lesson. that is how i came up with the bingo scenario. this is a personal connection to my student because it is based on an activity she shares with her grandmother. this is a connection to community because my student and her grandmother likes to do activities together around their local community (bingo at church). this is a cultural connection because my student’s grandmother is from el salvador and most el salvadorians attend catholic churches. culturally relevant technology integration i will have my student create a chatterpix (speak pic) of a scenario of the book we are reading to show her understanding of character point of view. she will need to create or extend on a dialogue from one of the events in the story. preservice teacher 20: culturally relevant teaching my student’s family is from mexico. she has rich cultural experiences that i can use in the lesson to keep her interested. i can use books that highlight her culture or ask her to talk about ways that she sees her family doing things in the lesson to help her to connect to ideas of reading and literacy that she may not know that she already has. my student loves poetry, mysteries, and 55 https://www.roomrecess.com/ running head: culturally relevant teaching for the 21st century 16 reading about animals, so i will make sure to bring in texts and activities that highlight her points of interest. in this lesson specifically, i will be using a mystery book to engage my student. i will ask my student to talk about places that she sees people asking questions in her community as an extension. culturally relevant technology integration i will use technology to create the nearpod lesson to show the vocabulary and the video as well as instructions throughout the lesson. my student will also use technology to create the graphic organizer. the student will use technology by going through the nearpod activity. she will also use the nearpod to create her questions as sticky notes on the nearpod collaboration activity pages as well as using the sock puppet app to show her comprehension of the story by using the questioning strategy to retell. figure 4. nearpod: the big halloween scare (spongebob squarepants), by nickelodeon publishing figure 5. powtoon: student used powtoon to present the final draft of his narrative writing piece. 56 running head: culturally relevant teaching for the 21st century 17 figure 6. popplet: frida kahlo: mexican painter, by kristen woronoff the student used www.popplet.com to create a popplet with frida being the central focus and the web stems extending out from her being the events in frida’s life. figure 7. sock puppet: there are monsters everywhere, by mercer mayer the student used the sock puppet app to retell the story in order to demonstrate her level of comprehension. 57 http://www.popplet.com/ running head: culturally relevant teaching for the 21st century 18 figure 8. speak pic app and chatter pix app the student used speak pic app to record a voice over of his personal narrative piece. what technology devices and tools are being used by pre-service teachers in their literacy lessons? fifty-two percent of pre-service teachers integrated the smartboard into their literacy lessons. thirty-six percent used i-pads and five percent used laptops to integrate technology into their literacy lessons. technology applications that were integrated by pre-service teacher 58 running head: culturally relevant teaching for the 21st century 19 candidates into literacy lessons were nearpod (13%), other applications on smartboard, kahoot (6%), sock puppet (7%), and youtube at (7%). the reason why the use of smartboard technology device was chosen over all of the others was because of availability. many of the preservice teachers stated that it was difficult to gain access to ipads and tablets for student use in the classroom. additionally, seven percent of the pre-service teachers' candidates decided not to use technology in their literacy lesson. these teachers reported that they did not use technology because there was a lack of access to technology devices or the technology they used with the student malfunctioned. preservice teacher 3: my student could have created a graphic organizer on popplet. we ended up doing it on paper because of technology malfunctions. three percent of pre-service teacher candidates used popplet in their literacy lessons. only a few pre-service teachers used powtoon (2%) and quizlet (2%). all of the technology being integrated had similar characteristicsthey were student-driven and kept the students engaged in higher-level learning and allowed the students to be creative while showing their understanding. implications for practice the implication for practice is for community-engaged teacher preparation models to focus on shaping prospective teachers' orientation toward crt so that they build learning experiences around students' lives in engaging multiple, multimodal, and multifaceted ways. the significance of this research lies in the critical ways the pre-service teachers create learning opportunities that are culturally responsive and engaging for their students after receiving direct instruction on implementing crt while enrolled in a literacy methods course. learning experiences provided around literacy and technology integration not only enhances student engagement but improves learning and acquisition. this finding was observed in both the preservice teachers while taking the literacy methods course and the students they implemented their newly learned approach to teaching and learning. when classrooms consistently send engaging messages about the importance of learning, shared community, and a valuing of the students' voices, student abilities are enhanced. this research identified that technology integration into crt is not a matter of simply choosing a selection of strategies. instead, it is a pedagogical commitment to aligning student learning experiences with their culture, beliefs, interests, experiences, and background knowledge through asset-based lenses. conclusion this case study of 20 pre-service teachers examined how candidates contextualized their understanding of crt through technology integration after classroom instruction. findings provide evidence that as candidates experience authentic, engaging, learning experiences within a supportive space, they emerge equipped to teach in culturally responsive ways that support student learning and level of engagement. pre-service teachers integrated culturally relevant instruction and technology within literacy lessons by thinking about their students' interests. students' interests were used to choose books and technology tools when teaching literacy lessons. 59 running head: culturally relevant teaching for the 21st century 20 a variety of technology tools and devices were used by the pre-service teachers in this study. teachers who wish to implement both crt and technology when teaching literacy should consider the availability of technology devices they have in their classrooms. if the implementation involves more than one device, is it possible to check out a cart of tablets or laptops for students to work with? is there a computer lab on-site, and is it available for the lesson? they should also consider the amount of comfort they have in using web 2.0 tools and apps. teachers can seek out professional development in their district or search iste online for an up-to-date list of the latest technology tools and apps to use in the classroom. 60 running head: culturally relevant teaching for the 21st century 21 references alderman, m. k. 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(2014). beyond access: the challenges of implementing technology in the english/language arts classroom. paper presented at the annual conference of the literacy research association, marco island, fl. 66 georgia journal of literacy 2023, vol. 45(1), pp. 68–76 https://doi.org/10.56887/galiteracy.69 issn: 2833-7611 teaching tips article contact dr. kathleen m. crawford, assistant professor of elementary literacy, department of elementary and special education, georgia southern university, statesboro, ga; email kcrawford@georgiasouthern.edu. heather m. huling, clinical instructor, department of elementary and special education, georgia southern university, statesboro, ga; email hhuling@georgiasouthern.edu. building classroom community in elementary literacy methods courses kathleen m. crawford georgia southern university, statesboro, ga heather m. huling georgia southern university, statesboro, ga abstract in this article, two elementary teacher educators provide a novel approach to building relationships and classroom community in their face to face elementary literacy methods courses. the authors present their classroom practice entitled “tell me time” (tmt), mirroring morning meetings in k–12 settings, as the staple of building classroom community in their courses. they describe how tmt has been used to build student relationships with each other and with instructors through providing unique, personalized opportunities to socialize and connect through listening, speaking, reading, and writing. threaded throughout, the authors detail specific feedback from students and highlight how tmt has helped students find common ground with one another and made them feel comfortable, cared for, and respected by their instructors. the authors describe the reasons behind implementing tmt, outline specific tmt activities and examples that have been most effective with their students, provide insight into how to integrate technology with tmt, delineate specific steps for successfully implementing tmt, and describe lessons learned from the implementation of tmt. keywords classroom community; building relationships; elementary literacy methods; morning meetings; teacher education; teaching with technology ell me time is by far my favorite part of this class. thank you for getting to know us as individuals and not just a number and for allowing us to get to know one another in such fun and creative ways. i can’t wait to do this with my own students when i get my own classroom! several years ago, we were in conversation with a colleague of ours who shared a simple strategy that she uses at the start of her class sessions. she said at the beginning of each of her classes, she starts off with “tell me something good” and has a few students share ideas. who knew that this brief conversation would inspire an idea for us that has become the heart of our classes that binds our students and us together? in our language arts methods and creative arts and children’s literature across the curriculum classes, we begin each class session with what we call “tell me time” (tmt). during these 5–7 minutes, we conduct short, literacy-based activities in which we build classroom community, get to know one another, and simply take a much needed brain break. while this concept as a whole is not new, it takes the form of activities such as “morning meetings” in k–12 classrooms (northeast foundation for children, 2009), and we have evolved it to fit our literacy methods courses in teacher education. starting our class sessions with tmt allows us to t mailto:kcrawford@georgiasouthern.edu mailto:hhuling@georgiasouthern.edu crawford & huling 69 begin class sessions in a positive manner, and the feedback we received from the students is overwhelmingly positive. after seeking anonymous feedback on tmt through a google form, a recent student stated, “i think it’s something unique and i have never had a teacher or professor do something like this ever.” frisby and munoz (2021) stated, “for the well-being of both students and faculty it is important to have positive and healthy rapport” (p. 142). our students agree and have shared, “i also enjoy tell me time because it gives us time to debrief and decompress from other classes that might be stressing us out” and “i think it is a great idea, and i really enjoy it. i think this should be in all classes to make students feel like they are being heard!” tmt has become a well-known part of these two courses we teach, and students look forward to it each session as we merge social and academic learning (northeast foundation for children, 2009). in this article, we will begin by delineating the research that supports the ways in which we build relationships and classroom community through tmt. we will provide samples of personalized feedback for tmt journal responses, as well as samples of how we use technology to enhance tmt through our students’ digital interactive journals. next, we outline specific steps to successfully get started and implement tmt. the article concludes with lessons we have learned and final thoughts. building relationships to create classroom community shields-lysiak et al. (2020) stated, “in a supportive classroom community, the teacher models how to show care, and encourages students to care for each other” (p. 43). tmt has provided us with the perfect opportunity to model how to create a caring classroom community where students feel comfortable sharing their thoughts and experiences with each other and with us. noddings (2005) urges the public to take responsibility for raising “healthy, competent, and happy children” (p. 14), and she argues that academic achievement in schools is unobtainable when children are not provided with a caring environment. we take this stance and argue the importance of translating this belief and practice into our college courses; it is critical that we take care of our pre-service teachers before we can take care of our curricular goals and objectives. our ultimate goal when implementing tmt is for students to begin to feel a sense of ease and joy when entering and learning in our courses, while simultaneously learning more about one another. while students are completing the tmt activity/prompt of the day, we walk around the room observing and informally commenting in order to make one-on-one connections to build and sustain relationships with our students. once everyone has completed their tmt activity/response, we open the floor for volunteer share time as a whole class. this is where we truly build classroom community by modeling how to listen, connect, and build relationships through teacher-student interactions and student-student interactions. one student provided feedback on tmt and stated, “i love how much y’all try to get to know us!! it makes this class more enjoyable, and it makes me know how much y’all care about us!!” it is clear that students feel cared for and supported through the planned tmt interactions, responses, and discussions with their peers and instructors. when we asked for feedback on tmt, one student stated, “the best part of it is getting to know my peers because in college it can be hard to connect with others.” when students are able to share their ideas and personal experiences with others, they often find out they have more in common with their peers than they originally thought, and this makes students feel included, rather than alone. tmt allows students to begin to build relationships with their peers in non-intimidating ways and results in connections with new classmates or new connections with current friends. another student echoed this, saying, “it helps me to feel comfortable around my peers and get to know them a little better.” this comfortableness described allows us to create a safe space, where 70 georgia journal of literacy 45(1) students share not only personal characteristics, but also previous academic experiences related to literacy. it has become critical to us, as instructors, to create these safe spaces for our students in order to provide a model of how teachers serve as facilitators and mentors, rather than authoritarian figures; hearing and respecting the voices of all of our students is central to our work during tmt. “in a learning community, the teacher is not all-knowing, all-powerful; students may and can contribute safely to the stock of classroom knowledge from their own experiences” (cooper, 2003, pp. 87–88). when students have the opportunity to share with one another, they are able to apply their own listening and speaking skills to communicate in pairs, small groups, and whole group settings. when appropriate, we intentionally plan literacy focused tmt activities to relate to the content of the class session. during the share time, students contribute to the overall knowledge in the classroom through discussions of their literacy experiences from their own elementary days, as well as their current field placements. alongside the stories told by our students, we as professors contribute our own classroom experiences through storytelling to deepen students’ understanding and perspectives. kromka and goodboy (2019) state, “while not specifically focused on narratives, recent research on effective teaching behaviors (e.g., self-disclosure, content relevance, humor) implies the potential benefits of using narratives as an effective teaching behavior” (p. 21). this practice serves as a model for the pre-service teachers to bridge these critical literacy skills that are sometimes underutilized in p–5 settings. our ultimate goal is for our students to transfer this same student-directed, classroom community building practice into their own classrooms in order to personally connect with their students. another way we make meaningful connections with our students is through the feedback we provide on our students’ tmt entries in their daily digital interactive journal by using the commenting tool (figure 1). this allows us to get to know our students on a deeper level, and we are able to make meaningful connections that are tailored to each individual student. “feeling important and getting personalized feedback (that sounds more like text messages with my bestie!) in my interactive journal,” was cited by one student as one of their favorite parts of tmt. google slides, the platform our students use for their digital interactive journals, allows us to give feedback in real-time and allows us to make comments and pose questions to deepen our relationships. this also functions to give us insight and the ability to address any concerns or issues we may read in student entries; when concerns do arise, we are able to immediately reach out to students to conduct check-ins. figure 1: tmt sample personalized feedback student digital journal tmt entries sample feedback to students crawford & huling 71 72 georgia journal of literacy 45(1) technology and tell me time in our classes, tmts are often captured in our students’ digital interactive journals, which are used daily and, as stated above, completed in google slides. students have the opportunity to digitally respond to prompts in writing and in images such as bitmojis, clipart, photographs, and gifs (figure 2). the prompts of these tmts often align with the content of our literacy classes, but, more often, are completely unrelated and allow us to simply make personal connections with our students and for our students to make personal connections with one another. it is easy for students to write their journal entries in their interactive journals and turn their laptop screens or tablets around to share their ideas and images with one another before sharing with the whole group. in addition to our students completing their tmt entries individually, students are also able to collaborate as a whole class or in small groups using tools such as jamboard and google forms to respond to tmt prompts and activities. figure 2: tell me time instructor prompts and sample student journal entries instructor tell me time prompt student journal entry crawford & huling 73 74 georgia journal of literacy 45(1) tell me time: steps to success our practices reflect the responsive classroom model, as outlined in sample morning meetings in a responsive classroom (2009). each class session includes the following three components, slightly adapted and combined, in order to establish respectful learning and a trusting climate, motivate our students and fulfill our students’ need for a sense of belonging in the classroom.  greeting: as students enter the classroom, we greet one another before the class session begins.  activity and sharing: we post and describe the tell me time prompt or activity in our google slides presentation. the students and us engage with one another in the prompt/activity and share ideas, thoughts, and feelings.  morning message: we provide a brief overview of the class session’s content and structure and provide time for students to ask questions before we begin. table 1 below outlines the steps to success for getting started with the implementation of tmt. table 1: getting started with tell me time step 1 on the first day of class explain expectations and the purpose for tmt, and let students create class norms for the implementation and participation in tmt to ensure active, positive student engagement. step 2 select an activity or prompt to be used for tmt (the content focus of the class session connection or click the following link for other tmt ideas for ways to connect with students personally) at the start of each class session. see this website for an example: bit.ly/3zleaj3 step 3 at the start of class, explain the tmt activity/prompt, and allow students 5-7 minutes in order to process, complete, and discuss the activity/prompt. https://bit.ly/3zleaj3 crawford & huling 75 step 4 once students have completed their tmt activity/prompt, allow time for students to share in pairs or small groups then open the floor for student volunteers to share with the whole group. step 5 actively participate and share your personal responses to the tmt activity/prompt. during the sharing time, facilitate connections among students based on your responses and the responses of volunteers to create classroom community. step 6 during the current (and future!) class sessions, make personal connections in your content delivery and class activities to your students’ ideas and experiences shared during tmt. step 7 make explicit connections to how tmt can be transferred to your students’ own classroom experiences in field placements and future classrooms. step 8 add personalized feedback to your students’ responses/activities that answers questions, makes personal or educational connections, or simply validates and values their responses. if you see a concern from a student’s entry or response, reach out to the student and conduct a check-in. step 9 to ensure student engagement, vary the format of your tmts. students can simply turn and talk, reflect in writing or drawing (digitally or by hand), or use movement to express their thoughts, opinions, and experiences. step 10 reflect. how are your students responding? which tmt prompts or activities have students been most engaged with? not sure? survey your classes! with each tmt implementation, we are evolving our tmt activities to best meet the needs of our students and model how this can be utilized in their future classrooms. lessons learned our implementation of tmt is one that is constantly evolving based on our previous implementations, student feedback, and the ever-changing dynamics of the students in our courses. over the last few years, we have implemented a variety of tmt activities, and we have loved, tweaked, and eliminated some based on our experiences and the voices of our students. when reflecting on the tmt activities/prompts we have adjusted or deleted, we compiled a list of ideas that we would not recommend for tmt:  time-consuming activities/prompts  physical materials or space needed  controversial, heavy, or emotionally charged topics  topics unrelated to literacy content and/or students’ interests and personal experiences we have also found that students enjoy a mixed balance of tmt activities that reflect both the content of the literacy courses, as well as fun, whimsical activities that allow students to simply unwind and engage with one another to start the class session off in a positive manner. as one student indicated, “i like that we all get to share and connect before class. because we are all coming from different places, it is a good transition into opening class!” students also appreciate the variety of ways in which to respond to tmt prompts and activities. they enjoy writing responses in their interactive journals and adding their own personal touches with images, bitmojis, and gifs. students also appreciate and are engaged in times when they are able to get up and move around the classroom with “this or that” or “four corners” activities, or simply turning and talking with one another with their table groups. perhaps the biggest lesson we have learned is making 76 georgia journal of literacy 45(1) each tmt relevant and meaningful for our teacher candidates, so they, in turn, see the power of this practice and can implement this with students of their own. final thoughts the use of tmt has provided us with an effective way to get to know our students, connect our class content with their personal and literacy experiences, and start class in a lively, carefree manner. while at first a random, barely planned out idea, tmt has become a now much more methodically designed staple applied at the beginning of each of our classes. tmts have allowed us to help students see how to make meaningful connections, both personally and academically, to create a caring classroom community that our students can transfer to their own p–5 settings. bernstein-yamashiro and noam (2013) stated, “teacher-student relationships allow teachers to bring life to their curricula, to be effective teachers, to capitalize on their own strengths in the classroom, and to share the wisdom of their experiences” (p. 55). tmt has allowed us to do just this; students feel energized and invested in the learning of literacy content because of the teacherstudent and student-student relationships built through the activities and personalized feedback provided to students. give it a try—you and your students will not be disappointed! references bernstein-yamashiro, b., & noam, g. g. (2013). learning together: teaching, relationships, and teachers’ work. new directions for youth development, 2013(137), 45–56. https://doi.org/ 10.1002/yd.20047 cooper, k. (2003). from left field to safe at home-base: building community in the pre-service classroom and beyond. teacher education quarterly, 30(4), 83–94. frisby, b. n., & munoz, b. (2021). “love me, love my class”: instructor perceptions of rapport building with students across cultures. communication reports, 34(3), 137–150. https://doi.org/10.1080/08934215.2021.1931387 kromka, s. m., & goodboy, a. k. (2019). classroom storytelling: using instructor narratives to increase student recall, affect, and attention, communication education, 68(1), 20–43. https://doi.org/10.1080/03634523.2018.1529330 noddings, n. (2005). the challenge to care in schools: an alternative approach to education. teachers college press. northeast foundation for children, inc. (2009). responsive classroom® sample morning meetings in a responsive classroom. https://www.responsiveclassroom.org/sites/default/ files/pdf_files/smmbooklet.pdf shields-lysiak, l. k., boyd, m. p., iorio, j. p., & vasquez, c. r. (2020). classroom greetings: more than a simple hello. iranian journal of language teaching research, 8(3), 41–56. received: october 4, 2022 | accepted: december 22, 2022 | published: april 3, 2023 https://doi.org/10.1002/yd.20047 https://doi.org/10.1002/yd.20047 https://doi.org/10.1080/08934215.2021.1931387 https://doi.org/10.1080/03634523.2018.1529330 https://www.responsiveclassroom.org/sites/default/files/pdf_files/smmbooklet.pdf https://www.responsiveclassroom.org/sites/default/files/pdf_files/smmbooklet.pdf building relationships to create classroom community figure 1: tmt sample personalized feedback technology and tell me time figure 2: tell me time instructor prompts and sample student journal entries tell me time: steps to success table 1: getting started with tell me time lessons learned final thoughts references 00b8d142-63cc-45cb-9094-fd74bc38fc1d ���������� � ��������� � �� ��� ��� ������� ������������� ���������� 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%�b$�����#%�+#�6������%"&$���ck����"����d6%�"#�b$�#$̀#�#!"#�*�44�#$"+!��#�&$�#��#6�&�5�&$$e$%�a$�$"#!�#!$���%d"+$�4$b$4�6d�#!$�#$̀#�"�&�5$#�#6�<q-�:-0x�m-0/?/[�>u�<q-�0p<q>:r1�=>:,1s�����������6��6���6%$�)#"#$�)#"�&"%&�����#�"#�b$i������ i�{}��}��{}�����������������~��}�� ��|�~¡�|�����������~�¢�|������£����¡�~�}�£¤~}���|�~�����~¥�~������¥��������¡����|�~�¦§���~i�a"�!��5#6��� �m� "#�6�"4��6b$%�6%�����6+�"#�6���$�#$%�d6%��$�#�̈%"+#�+$��0/,�<q-�j>p/@?x�>u�jq?-u�w<0<-�w@q>>x�©u.@-:1s article 1 volume 44 | issue 1 | spring 2021 a structured literacy approach to support striving readers in secondary grades: meaningful transactions through morphological awareness and fluency building samantha bart-addison university of west georgia dr. robert a. griffin university of west georgia abstract a high school english teacher and a university literacy professor provide secondary teachers with structured literacy strategies to support striving readers in the middle and high school grades. the authors present strategies that can be utilized with diverse texts across learning contexts. as a structured literacy approach, morphological awareness and prosodic fluency are emphasized to foster deeper, more meaningful transactions between students and texts. an example of a full structured literacy lesson is also provided that includes multiple strategies and is based on a gradual release model with guided and independent reading cycles. applicable strategies for delivery of these skills for in-person, digital, or concurrent teaching are also discussed. keywords: striving readers, structured literacy, transactional theory of reading, morphological awareness, fluency, prosody, comprehension introduction teachers are responsible for addressing the learning needs of diverse students who possess a gamut of abilities, and teachers work to the best of their abilities to meet the needs of every learner. however, a sizable subset of students are falling behind their peers in reading achievement. students with documented learning disabilities make up 14% of students nationwide (hussar et al., 2020), a small percentage compared to the over 60% of students in grades 8 and 12 in 2019 who read below grade level (national center for education statistics, 2019). these statistics show most secondary students who are not reading on grade level are best identified as striving readers—students who need extra support and scaffolding within the general education setting. to compound the problem, curricular standards do not explicitly reference foundational literacy skills after elementary school, leaving strivers without opportunities to acquire or practice critical reading competencies needed for grade-proficient comprehension (t. rasinski, personal communication, september 27, 2020). moreover, high school teachers are also often at a loss when it comes to supporting striving readers, as many secondary educators, to include english language arts teachers, have not received explicit training in teaching foundational reading skills. recognizing students as strivers is not new. secondary educators have long worked to support these students through careful planning of skills-focused, highly engaging lessons. high school teachers know striving readers need targeted support, but such differentiation can prove challenging for even the most effective teachers (smale-jacobse et al., 2019; zehr, 2019). teacher burnout has been a cause for concern, but in the era of covid-19, teacher exhaustion is at an all-time high (el helou et al., 2016). teachers are 7 2 georgia journal of literacy volume 44 | issue 1 | spring 2021 now expected to utilize new and unfamiliar methods of teaching, including fully online, hybrid, and concurrent instruction. in effect, what was already more than a full-time job has become unsustainable, even for our most committed colleagues. when survival takes front stage, seeking out differentiation techniques is simply not a top priority, and effective implementation is more challenging than ever (singer, 2020). not unexpectedly, the students who were below grade level in reading before the pandemic are falling further behind (kuhfeld & tarasawa, 2020). targeted and intentional support is needed now more than ever. this paper, therefore, explores literacy best practices across learning contexts for secondary teachers, including how strategies can be adapted for online learning. as such, this paper highlights the importance of basic morphological knowledge and the impact of prosodic fluency on comprehension, which foster deeper, more meaningful transactions between students and texts. applicable strategies for delivery of these skills for in-person, digital, or concurrent teaching are also explored. collaborative context the authors, a high school english teacher and a university literacy professor and former high school english and esol teacher, embarked on this timely collaborative project for several reasons. first, both authors are keenly aware of the pressure classroom teachers face nationwide to ensure success for all their students, including those who enter secondary classrooms without the prerequisite reading skills necessary to succeed. one of us currently feels this pressure, while the other has felt this pressure himself and now works daily with pre-service and in-service teachers who feel this pressure. second, the first author was a student of the second author, and because she felt inspired by the strategies covered in several of the courses she took with him, she began to immediately implement the techniques in her classroom and to evaluate their impact on her students’ engagement and comprehension. the two courses, literacy theory development and practice and language and literacy assessment and intervention, were brimming with methods which readers could use to boost their independence. as a teacher, the transfer of course discussion to classroom implication was obvious. lastly, and most importantly, the current situation globally with the covid pandemic exacerbates the need for a collaborative support system among educators to support striving readers. growing inequalities and inequities, widening achievement gaps, and what has been described as the “covid-19 slide” (kuhfeld & tarasawa, 2020, p. 2) all underscore the importance of supporting teachers helping striving readers. creating support networks for striving teachers who are working to support striving students—what this piece attempts to do in some small way—is a matter of social justice and more urgent now than ever before (cochran-smith, 2020). starting with a theoretical foundation: transactional theory the strategies and tools presented here are all given with the ultimate goal of fostering meaningful transactions between striving readers and texts. therefore, the theory that ultimately frames this exploration is reader response theory, though in this article the name louise rosenblatt (1978, 1993) first applied to it is used: transactional theory. although rosenblatt studied the works of john dewey—perhaps the theorist who most influenced her thinking—she also incorporated her own knowledge of languages, anthropology, and 8 bart-addison & griffin 3 volume 44 | issue 1 | spring 2021 philosophy to develop the basis for her most notable concept of reader-text transactions (connell, 2005; rosenblatt, 1978, 1993). rosenblatt (1993) believed individuals’ perceptions drove their unique interpretations of literature, which meant accurate understanding of a text varied from person to person. she welcomed the probability people would hold such different opinions because her conviction in the uniqueness of literature was paramount to her reading beliefs (connell, 2005). put differently, textual interpretation is the product of a transaction, a give-and-take process, between the reader and the text. rosenblatt defined two types of reading for meaning: efferent and aesthetic (tracey & morrow, 2017). efferent reading is reserved for facts found in texts where correct answers could be definitively located. aesthetic reading, however, is not as clear-cut because literary interpretations are rooted in a reader’s beliefs, opinions, and feelings. rosenblatt (1993) stressed these two reading purposes do not exist in isolation of each other but rather are in fluctuation from one text to another (figure 1). figure 1 similarities and differences between aesthetic and efferent readings put differently, the act of reading elicits a transaction between a reader’s schema or background knowledge to the information presented in the text. rosenblatt (1993) acknowledged while basic transactions between reader and text may happen naturally, the teacher plays an integral role in promoting its growth. connell (2005) also maintained the transaction was merely the first step in true understanding and that a reading-guide—a teacher—was necessary. framing a pedagogical approach for structured literacy due to its emphasis on connecting meaningfully with texts, transactional theory in p–12 settings has largely been associated with whole language or constructivist approaches to literacy instruction (woodruff & griffin, 2017). however, the pendulum regarding what constitutes effective reading instruction has largely swung in the opposite direction; there is renewed focus on foundational reading skills, such as phonological awareness, phonics, fluency, morphological awareness, etc.—an approach that has recently come to be referred 9 4 georgia journal of literacy volume 44 | issue 1 | spring 2021 to as “the science of reading” (sor; shanahan, 2020, p. s235) or structured literacy (spearswerling, 2019). in secondary settings, most striving readers need explicit instruction in fluency and morphological awareness, as most enter these grades having already acquired phonological awareness and a basic understanding of phonics. of course, secondary teachers should be on the lookout for students who exhibit trouble with phonics; however, ongoing research with striving readers at the secondary level determines the key areas needing emphasis are morphological awareness and fluency building (james et al., 2020; lovett et al., 2020). this is where this article offers a unique contribution. instead of viewing morphological awareness, fluency, and student-to-text transactions as separate, isolated components, educators are encouraged to see how the three blend together; such a holistic approach that emphasizes both skills-based reading instruction and meaningful transactions can lead to stronger, more confident readers. morphological awareness many educators assume students at the middle and high school level have already mastered basic morphological awareness; breaking down words is often associated with younger grades when students are first learning to read (collins et al., 2020). because of this misguided assumption about student skill, educators do not recognize they should provide direct instruction in morphology. however, striving readers need reinforcement of wordlevel skills so they can apply word analysis skills to texts quickly and easily (catts & kamhi, 2004; hendrix & griffin, 2017). decoding is not enough. while many secondary students may be able to decode words, if they do not know how to break apart words and analyze word parts for meaning, comprehension is impeded (catts & kamhi, 2004). collins et al. (2020) found morphological practice strengthened reading skills overall for adolescents and therefore should be part of secondary instruction across content areas. morphological awareness and word analysis skills allow students to make sense of unknown words (james et al., 2020). by incorporating morphology instruction into everyday reading lessons, teachers can maximize the likelihood of their students understanding words in context (collins et al., 2020). along with decoding, easily recognizing the meanings of unfamiliar words leads to enhanced fluency. fluency building fluency is more than reading words accurately through speed reading or word calling (scholastic, 2014). true fluency is achieved with prosody—reading with contextual expression and purposeful inflection (rasinski, 2017). a prosodic read aloud sounds like a conversation among people or the ordinary flow of thoughts in one’s head. it is not theatre, so it is not meant to be overly pronounced or dramatic; rather, prosodic fluency is meant to be natural. prosodic reading demonstrates comprehension because the reader is fully connected with a text, so much so that the reader has the ability to determine the emotions of characters and the emphases of the author, enabling a read aloud with proper expression. in order to achieve this deep connection, striving readers may need to read through a text several times to achieve understanding. repeated reading is the best way to achieve this highest level of fluency (cypert & petro, 2019; rasinski, 2017). multiple readings allow for striving readers to overcome 10 bart-addison & griffin 5 volume 44 | issue 1 | spring 2021 obstacles to comprehension by paring down what draws their “internal attention” (tracey & morrow, 2017, p. 201). reading through a text only once forces the student to focus on pronunciation and unfamiliar word meanings. multiple readings allows for clarification of these difficulties, so instead of solely concentrating on decoding, students can focus on meaning through interpreting dialect, inflection, and rhythm of the text (paige et al., 2017). striving readers will find increased confidence and strengthened comprehension if these repeated readings are done aloud and together as a chorus (cypert & petro, 2019). choral reading reinforces the correct pronunciation and emphasis of the sentences in a safe environment where no single student’s voice is heard above others. after several readings, students will read independently with such fluency and begin to build the skill on their own. even though this practice is a group read aloud, the skill translates to increased comprehension during silent reading (cypert & petro, 2019; rasinski, 2014). prosodic fluency, therefore, bridges the divide between decoding and comprehension. moreover, prosody cultivates a reader’s “inner conversation” (harvey & goudvis, 2017, p. 88), through the necessary analysis and decision-making of how to speak the word. as such, prosodic fluency engenders meaningful transactions and connections with texts (cypert & petro, 2019). meaningful transactions readers approach texts with inimitable experiences, biases, and background knowledge, all of which influence their interactions with texts (tracey & morrow, 2017). teachers should encourage students to use that individuality when reading. asking dialogic questions to promote reflection on the text’s information based on a student’s experience will develop the desired reader-text relationship. feeling part of a text, as if immersed in its words, allows readers to gain a sense of fulfillment from the reading experience (beers & probst, 2017). however, an objection rosenblatt (1993) raised regarding classroom application of her philosophy involved educators placing so much emphasis on students’ actions that they lost a balanced focus on the role of the text and reading guide (i.e., teacher) in the informational exchange (connell, 2005). therefore, it is important that conversation and engagement also include what the text offers to the reader, not solely the reader’s reactions to it. teachers can model immersive reading by asking their students for efferent and aesthetic responses to texts. think alouds are also effective strategies for modeling how to connect with texts (warner et al., 2015). like with morphological study and fluency building, a reader response framework requires modeling and guidance from a teacher or reading guide to demonstrate how to call upon background knowledge to willingly extract new information from the text. as such, the teacher guides readers to recognize their inner dialogue and how to communicate that text-to-self conversation with others (warner et al. 2015). dialogic teaching is a natural expression of transactional theory as applied to classroom practice. as reading-guides, teachers should practice asking dialogic questions, which help students become more aware of their own ideas in conjunction with information presented in the text so they can become better critical thinkers (kim & wilkinson, 2019). moving from theoretical and pedagogical knowledge to practice recognizing the necessity for a multidimensional structured literacy pedagogical approach that emphasizes morphological study and fluency building as tools to elicit meaningful 11 6 georgia journal of literacy volume 44 | issue 1 | spring 2021 transactions with texts is only the first step toward independent reading success. teachers need practical strategies for applying this pedagogical knowledge in their classrooms to encourage and foster authentic student engagement with texts. the strategies that follow teach or review a single skill in only a few minutes. it is important, however, for students to see the connection of one skill to the next and how comprehension is dependent upon various skills working in lockstep. therefore, what follows in this section are suggestions for structured literacy strategies and an example of a full literacy lesson, all of which are easily implemented in order to make the most of instructional time. reiteration of skills through strategy-based minilessons and application of skills in tandem during full lessons can together help striving readers become thriving readers (harvey & ward, 2017). structured literacy strategies morphological awareness: anchor charts and word walls word parts anchor charts posted in the classroom can provide students with constant reminders of reviewed word parts and their definitions (hendrix & griffin, 2017). to reinforce this skill, challenge students to find morphemes in words they encounter in their day-to-day lives—from, for example, a billboard, television commercial, tweet, or instagram post. students can capture these words in their original context and add them to a word wall (hiebert, 2020). for digital classrooms, word walls can be maintained through padlet or google’s jamboard, which both allow live widgets on a classroom webpage, so students can add words at their leisure. for each word added, the contributing student will identify and define the morpheme, then define the word in the context of the example. the possibility for repetitiveness is one reason this strategy is so powerful. if students find the same morpheme multiple times, the instructional impact is only strengthened as the various applications of morphological awareness become more apparent. additionally, with this strategy, striving readers have autonomy over their learning while acquiring new vocabulary from authentic, real-life settings. fluency building: choral reading of poetry conversations with middle and high school english language arts (ela) teachers will reveal that many of these educators chose the secondary level because of an intrinsic love of literature and the desire to impart that love to their students. that passion for literacy easily blends with the fluency strategy of choral reading a poem a week (cypert & petro, 2019; rasinski, 2017). a prosody lesson in a secondary ela classroom might include exposing students to copious poems with a variety of themes from diverse authors; while students exercise general comprehension techniques, teachers share their favorite poems. beginning on monday, the class spends a minute reading through a poem, which should be projected on the screen and given to the students on paper in order to meet diverse visual learning needs (figure 2). teachers should allow students to read through silently so they feel prepared to read aloud expressively. as a class, the students read through the poem, only once. the teacher asks students for initial thoughts and reactions, including emotions, questions, or opinions. students are not expected to discuss or analyze, and the teacher should not ask any comprehension questions about the poem; all verbal discussion 12 https://padlet.com/ https://jamboard.google.com/ bart-addison & griffin 7 volume 44 | issue 1 | spring 2021 should be voluntary from students. before moving on, students should rate the poem on a linear scale in the corner of the poem. tuesday, wednesday, and thursday move through the same choral reading process, but instead of asking for student reactions, the teacher focuses on one literary element each day—analyzing a metaphor’s meaning and contribution to the theme, discussing the function of the speaker, understanding the necessity for the poem’s shift, etc. each day the students are practicing fluency and increasing comprehension, and they are able to focus on one deep-level literary analysis at a time; striving readers need to chunk this process in order to master the many skills required for higher thinking (cypert & petro, 2019). by friday, the students feel more confident in their reading, evidenced by their volume and articulation. as a culminating activity and to provide a sense of purpose and foster community, teachers should offer opportunities for small groups of students to embellish the poem’s recitation and “perform [for] classmates” (t. rasinski, personal communication, september 27, 2020). figure 2 choral reading daily lesson schedule monday tuesday wednesday thursday friday • choral reading of the poem • students ask questions or share thoughts • choral reading of the poem • analysis of one literary element (ex. metaphors) • choral reading of the poem • analysis of one literary element (ex. shift) • choral reading of the poem • analysis of one literary element (ex. role of the speaker) • students voluntarily perform poem for classmates many secondary teachers have lamented that their online students do not speak during class or do not turn on their cameras; this prosodic practice using poetry may help these students become more active participants in class as they join in with the others online or in person. for their friday performance, digital students can share instagram or tiktok videos or simply upload a video in google classroom. giving students freedom to express their interpretations will increase digital participation. teachers may be surprised by the active participation of their students; it does not require much coercion to have the students read aloud. of course, once a routine for choral reading has been established, students have no hesitation to read as one voice. when one of the authors implemented this strategy in her tenth-grade ela classroom, a student reported, “i read with more enthusiasm and not bland.” in fact, several reluctant readers in the class said they enjoyed reading poetry as a large group. one student responded, “my favorite class activity was when we found poems and presented them. i found it fun to read new poems.” another celebrated, “i feel more comfortable reading out loud, and i feel like i have more of an understanding of what i am reading.” happily, this exercise only takes a few minutes from each class period, but it can enhance fluency and overall comprehension. meaningful transactions: delayed discussion strategy students should be able to interact with a text in a variety of ways, and providing students opportunities to do so outside of typical classroom discussions may enhance student 13 https://www.instagram.com/ https://www.tiktok.com/en/ 8 georgia journal of literacy volume 44 | issue 1 | spring 2021 engagement (hardie, 2019). striving readers especially are more motivated when given the opportunity to move about during text discussion and analysis, and they respond with greater confidence when given time to reflect and refine their responses to analysis or synthesis questions (kamdideh & barjesteh, 2019; webster et al., 2015). considering these two facts, combining them into one activity will engage striving readers. the delayed discussion strategy poses a question without requiring an immediate answer. the teacher should capture one aesthetic question at a time on large chart paper and present it at the end of class; students ponder the question until they return the next day when they write their reasoning on a sticky note, all of the same color. after students have placed their responses on the chart paper, they can read and review the inferences and interpretations of their peers, either from their own class or a different class period. on another sticky note of a different color, they respond to one or two of the original notes with their support or refutation. below are examples of responses for two aesthetic questions about “the fall of the house of usher” by edgar allen poe (figure 3). students will come to class and see that they have a response and can, in turn, reply back once again. this discussion develops over the course of several days, but there is no time taken away from the lesson of the day. figure 3 examples of aesthetic responses about poe’s “the fall of the house of usher” delayed discussions can easily convert to online platforms, such as google classroom, where students asynchronously give an initial response before reviewing and replying to their peers. padlet or google’s jamboard would also work well as virtual question charts. because of the versatility offered in a digital classroom, students can also create delayed verbal discussions with tools such as voicethread. by giving striving readers the time to mull over the question and their answer, teachers increase students’ likelihood to participate with deeper insight and achieve greater equitability in assessing students’ comprehension (kamdideh & barjesteh, 2019). in 14 https://padlet.com/ https://jamboard.google.com/ https://voicethread.com/ bart-addison & griffin 9 volume 44 | issue 1 | spring 2021 addition, delayed discussions promote thoughtful communication and peer relationships from different class groups, all of which encourages student participation. after several days of students volleying responses on the question chart, the teacher reads students’ insights and contrasting viewpoints as a review for the text or to initiate a verbal classroom discussion. as a culminating activity, the teacher reiterates the skill of the question, corrects or reinforces student thinking, and provides positive feedback to students. structured literacy lesson strategy-based minilessons are an effective way to deliver instruction and reinforce skills in isolation; however, it is important for students to understand these skills are not independent of each other and to see how they work in conjunction with one another. a typical class lesson should incorporate several components of structured literacy instruction. striving readers are particularly positioned to benefit from pairing lessons like the one that follows with ongoing strategy-based minilessons. this lesson can be adapted to any text or genre in any content area, and it guarantees morphological review, prosody practice, and meaningful transactions with selected texts. short stories or informational articles may be chosen for this lesson. most text selections at the secondary level, however, are lengthy and may require an excerpt. when choosing a piece from a longer text, the teacher should focus on a passage that gives opportunity for deep analysis and contributes to the meaning of the text as a whole. using a gradual release model, what follows are detailed outlines of both the guided and independent reading cycles for this lesson. guided reading cycle before reading. before the lesson, teachers should proactively identify words which may pose a problem for striving readers (rasinski, 2014). pulling four or five words with affixes or roots simultaneously gives striving readers morphological review and builds their vocabulary without distracting students from the text’s purpose (collins et al., 2020). to preview the text, isolate the parts of these selected words and verbally analyze (i.e., think aloud) how they contribute to the meaning of the word in context. after the initial discussion, adding these roots and affixes to an anchor chart in the room will serve as a visual reference for the students throughout the year (hendrix & griffin, 2017). anchor charts are meant to be living documents and continuously revised; making additions to the chart with words from each class text will increase student buy-in and interaction with the information. because anchor charts are easily accessible and can be reviewed as needed, students are more likely to transfer their knowledge of word parts in one context to words in other reading contexts (bacchioni & kurstedt, 2019). there are some digital options for anchor charts. padlet offers live updates for information on sticky notes, and glogster provides visually engaging online posters. google classroom materials can be updated regularly as needed, and quizlet creates flashcards which can display meanings of morphemes on a loop. widgets displaying anchor charts can be embedded in common learning spaces within digital classrooms, as they would be displayed in a physical classroom. 15 https://padlet.com/ http://edu.glogster.com/ https://quizlet.com/ 10 georgia journal of literacy volume 44 | issue 1 | spring 2021 first reading: question the author. as the lesson moves from previewing to reading, the teacher should plan to demonstrate an oral reading through a read-aloud and think-aloud. the think-aloud process serves two important functions: (a) it models the transactions between reader and text, and (b) it gives the students a strong example of proper fluency because of the teacher’s prosodic reading (cypert & petro, 2019). the readaloud focuses on text transactions, such as personal background connections, interesting information, and confusing sentences or concepts (tracey & morrow, 2017; vacca et al., 2019). in a modified question-the-author strategy, after reading the selected text aloud, the teacher will think aloud about what she would be able to contribute to the author’s text (vacca et al., 2019). such contributions include editorial suggestions, such as how the author might be more concise by eliminating superfluous details or determining which claims and ideas need more clarifying commentary. suggesting these edits to the author maintains student-text engagement; using the ideas from this post-read strategy sets the stage for the next reading by giving a purpose for reading. second reading: choral reading and stop and jot. for the students’ initial oral reading, partners will read chorally and engage with the text through the stop-and-jot strategy (englert & mariage, 2020). using the teacher’s model as a guide for their own thought focus, they will jot on sticky notes about their own connections, interesting information, and confusing sentences or concepts and place the sticky notes directly on the text. they will end with sticky notes at the end of the selection with lingering questions and their editorial contributions to the author. third reading: choral reading and efferent questioning. at this point in the lesson, the students are seeing the text for the third time and reading chorally for the second time. this reading’s focus, while still encouraging prosody to enhance comprehension, is also focused on rosenblatt’s (1993, 2005) efferent questions. explicitly stated comprehension questions that ask for factual details which cannot be disputed guide the students through the text and reinforce comprehension (del nero, 2019). while monitoring students as they respond to efferent questions, teachers may informally assess striving readers’ fluency and comprehension. after this second round of choral reading and efferent questioning, the teacher brings the class together to review the answers and clarify misconceptions in the whole group setting. fourth reading: aesthetic questioning and discussion groups. the fourth and final reading offers students the deeper, discussion-level questions students typically enjoy most. they will connect with the text through aesthetic questions, which may be interpreted differently (del nero, 2017/2019). striving readers will find they are better able to verbalize their conclusions following the repeated choral readings (cypert & petro, 2019; paige et al., 2017). students can answer the aesthetic questions on paper and then post on the classroom walls for a gallery walk. in digital settings, this is simply having students share thoughts in any format that allows for public display, so any of the online tools previously mentioned could be used. verbal discussion is most engaging for students; students can discuss all of the questions in small groups of five or six, or questions can be posted around the room for 16 bart-addison & griffin 11 volume 44 | issue 1 | spring 2021 students to choose which question to discuss as they gather in a designated area. teachers can facilitate a four-corner debate (hopkins, 2017) or full or modified socratic seminars. for online classes, zoom breakout rooms work well for small group discussions, and sites such as seesaw allow opportunities for debate. responses to aesthetic questions can be done in a variety of ways; what is most important is that students understand there are multiple, diverse conclusions and takeaways from the same text (rosenblatt, 1993, 2005). independent reading cycle repeated readings. following the gradual release model, the students move independently through the entire instructional cycle using a new excerpt or text (webb et al., 2019). the teacher identifies four to five focus words, using the same affixes and roots introduced in the guided cycle. students have to refer to the anchor chart as they read in order to define the words in context. as in the first cycle, the students will choral read repeatedly with a partner, concentrating on a new focus with each reading. for the first reading, student partners define the selected words, use the stop and jot strategy, and suggest revisions to the author. during the second reading, efferent questions will be asked; the final reading engages students in discussion through aesthetic questions. while monitoring student progress, only informal assessments should be noted. formal assessments should only come after the repeated readings when striving readers will have the greatest ability to respond with full comprehension. student pairs. during the independent cycle, students will use a reciprocal reading strategy to assess one another’s comprehension (silver & strong, 2007). in order to ensure correct answers to efferent questions, the students will have the answers to their question set. in this fun and engaging reciprocal learning method, the student pairs essentially quiz each other on the passage. student a will have a set of efferent questions with answers so they can quiz student b, while student b will have a different set of questions and answers for student a. as instructed by their given question sets, each student will stop the choral reading at their designated places in the text and then ask the assigned questions. in this way, student pairs independently engage in a repeated choral reading at their own pace and feel confident in the accuracy of their comprehension without needing the supervision of the teacher. examples of questions for student pairs as they read the first paragraph from edgar allen poe’s “the fall of the house of usher” are included in figure 4 below. 17 https://support.zoom.us/hc/en-us/articles/206476313-managing-breakout-rooms https://web.seesaw.me/ 12 georgia journal of literacy volume 44 | issue 1 | spring 2021 figure 4 student-pairs efferent questions for the first paragraph of “the fall of the house of usher” the student pairs will discuss the aesthetic questions together before the teacher poses them to the whole class for open discussion. because the students know these questions are not meant to have one decidedly correct answer, they are at liberty to agree or disagree and even to amend their answers after hearing from their partner. in order to cultivate this exchange of ideas, these discussion questions are general and open-ended, though the students are expected to use text evidence to support their thinking and conclusions (harvey & ward, 2017). because students bring their backgrounds and biases to their interactions with the text, these aesthetic questions guarantee student exposure to novel ideas and opinions (beers & probst, 2017). this instructional cycle will add to the students’ vocabulary and give them the tools for independently increasing their comprehension for texts they will encounter in different classes or real-world situations. with the focused repeated readings, the striving students will have a safe environment to practice fluency. they will also build applicable morphological knowledge and maintain continuous engagement with the text. 18 bart-addison & griffin 13 volume 44 | issue 1 | spring 2021 online contexts. the independent cycle can be easily adapted to hybrid and concurrent teaching contexts. for online learning, the independent practice can be broken into sections, dividing the readings into two parts: stop-and-jot thinking and transactional questions. students can record themselves reading on a platform such as flipgird or read synchronously with their partners using video conferencing. padlet would work well as an online board for back-and-forth sticky notes. if the school uses a hybrid model, the transactional questions can be saved for the day when the students are in-person, but for all-online classes, using a zoom breakout room will still ensure the reciprocal reading happens in real time. for concurrent teachers, the students can participate in each step of the instructional cycle through zoom or the school’s preferred video classroom platform. students can move into breakout rooms and read aloud as requested. in concurrent classrooms, teachers can assign in-person students to breakout rooms with digital students so there is a blend of student learning environments, and the teacher can more easily listen to readings for informal formative assessments. mixing the students fosters a greater sense of community and encourages participation in the lessons (pinner, 2020). because of its versatility, this lesson framework can be applied to any text of any length; teachers can use short stories which can be read in one reading or whole works which take numerous days to complete. this instructional cycle also lends itself to literary nonfiction, further broadening the selections for teachers. the texts can change while the cycle stays the same, which means teachers do not have to consume themselves with creating new material in order to ensure quality instruction. most importantly, striving readers will develop a routine for engaging with and analyzing various texts, a skill which adolescents need beyond the classroom. call to action secondary teachers feel a sense of urgency regarding how best to support striving readers, especially during the ongoing covid pandemic. some teachers have never met their students in-person because of widespread online learning, creating unique challenges to establishing important teacher-student relationships. information and directives change day to day, and educators constantly speculate about the next month’s teaching environment. bombarded with such uncertainty during this extended covid pandemic, teachers are searching for trusted methods that are effective and efficient. supporting striving readers, even in this environment, does not require major adaptation. striving readers, even at the secondary level, need structured support with foundational literacy skills, such as morphological awareness and fluency building to foster comprehension and meaningful transactions with texts. without intentional instruction, striving readers will move forward into adulthood without the vital capabilities needed for life-long success. structured literacy approaches, like the one described in this article, can empower striving 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(2017). reader response in secondary settings: increasing comprehension through meaningful interactions with literary texts. texas journal of literacy education, 5(2), 108–116. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ej1162670.pdf zehr, m. a. (2019, february 22). ‘striving readers’ tough to measure. education week. https://www.edweek.org/policy-politics/striving-readers-tough-tomeasure/2009/10 23 https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ej1162670.pdf https://www.edweek.org/policy-politics/striving-readers-tough-to-measure/2009/10 https://www.edweek.org/policy-politics/striving-readers-tough-to-measure/2009/10 bb56db9b-9be7-43b7-b1e7-87f73d9ce773 ���������� � ��������� � �� ��� ��� ������� ������������� ��������� 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��#��8"l5̀abcd�efgdhfiifj�klmn�opqr�rlrslpn�qo�tul�vwx�yz{|}�~�����������������������~�������~�����������������������������������~���������������~�����~������������~������������~����������������������������~�������~����������������~�~���������~�����������������������~�������������������������������������������������~����������~�����������~���~������~��~����������������~���~�������~�������~�����������������������������������������������������~����������� ¡�¢�£¤¥�¦q§̈n��¥��©�ª«�¬­�¥�®̄°���±�¬­�¥�²³°�́�¥±µ�²³��¡��¶·¡��²³�� �̧������~������������������������������¹�º�����»�~�����¼�½¾¿à�á�â�����ã~�����¼����������ä�¾ååæ½�¼����~����ç������������� ��4 ��3�!��$�a!�a3������!��� �����"���m���3��a$7�����$�m!#�m$33��"5] $��!��$��_8$����4!� ��!l���� ���$��̂è ��4��l�"�m�$�l�����$�a �a6���#$��5���3!a�����a ������$�è���a����"����$m3��"$76!"����6��7�j�8�a3�$"5] $��!��$���a�$"#3������$!# ������$33̂è ��l����� $����$"l��4!� !"�j�8��4$335��l�33$��m!33��$�3�$�����m��$l�è ���$�������3j!"#��"�j�8��m�l5] $��!��$���!$"#3���4!� ��!l������� ���̂��7!�a�����7!������j�8�$"l���5���8�!a$3���!$"#3���l!"#��l!"#��l!"#����3!a�����7!éé$�4!� ��n��j� !"#êè ����$���� ��� $7������"��n��j4 ���ë����!$"#3�����a�$"#3���a!�a3����_8$��5gh�;%?�0%%-�,0%:*0;�c<*&*�;%?/ì*�=**(@í%?/00�:?&*0;�:**�1<*�:<'b*:�;%?/&*�>(î georgia journal of reading 13 volume 41, number 1 2018 by marisa gonzalez and dr. robert a. griffin, university of west georgia building comprehension through explicit and organic vocabulary instruction for english learners abstract this article closely examines the relationship between vocabulary acquisition and reading comprehension, specifically for english learners. the authors first set out to identify the relationship between vocabulary knowledge and comprehension. research-based instructional strategies are then described with discussion centering on how these strategies specifically benefit english learners. central to the thesis is that a reader must be able to decode words and assign meaning to those words with little to no effort to fully engage in and comprehend any type of text. due to the language barrier, some english learners have a particularly difficult time decoding and assigning meaning to words. the research presented here supports the integration of reading strategies that can be used to build english learners’ reading comprehension, both explicit vocabulary instruction combined with organic, student-centered language learning. some of the strategies discussed include daily interactive read aloud, audio recordings of students reading, whole group shared reading experiences, and direct and explicit vocabulary instruction. growing diversity throughout recent decades in american education has resulted in large populations of english learners (els) in contemporary classrooms. as a result, educators must ask themselves a critical burning question: what are the most pressing hurdles my els must overcome, and what best practices can be implemented in my classroom to help them comprehend grade-level texts? this question encapsulates a wide range of teaching and learning possibilities which are relevant to the success of these students, and many of these possibilities begin with the successful acquisition of english vocabulary, not only for speaking purposes, but ultimately for the total comprehension of a wide variety of englishlanguage texts. thus, the purpose of this article is to explore how vocabulary acquisition relates to reading comprehension for els and what best practices teachers can use to enhance the english vocabularies of language-minority students in order to boost their total reading comprehension. relevant theoretical grounding for this type of instruction is found within the constructs of automaticity and literacy processing, and various instructional practices such as explicit teaching of vocabulary, morphology instruction, and interactive read aloud will be discussed. the complex process of reading requires multiple processes to occur simultaneously: decoding, georgia journal of reading 14 volume 41, number 1 2018 assigning meaning to words, and comprehending the text. decoding and assigning meaning to words need to be done with little or no effort to enhance comprehension. assigning meaning to words is certainly part of the comprehension process, but the speed at which one assigns meaning is where comprehension can potentially break down for some english learners. for english learners, this automatic approach to reading is complicated. as students from non-english-speaking cultures, els often have personal experiences and background knowledge that differ from native english speakers. decoding unfamiliar vocabulary is a significant obstacle some english learners must overcome before they can focus on comprehension. the process of acquiring an additional language and becoming fluent english readers is a complex one for english learners. providing all students, specifically english learners, with a classroom environment that is print-rich and that fosters reading and vocabulary growth is crucial. educators should employ a combination of traditional and modern techniques to provide els with well-rounded literacy instruction, but explicit vocabulary instruction combined with organic, student-centered instruction remains crucial. organic vocabulary instruction involves utilizing teachable moments to bring to the class’s attention a word or term that, for example, a student asks about while reading or that one overhears on the intercom. although there has been a push away from authentic, unplanned, organic, or implicit vocabulary instruction in recent years, using both methods to provide maximum exposure to vocabulary should be a best practice for all language teachers. class time should be devoted to explicitly teaching decoding strategies and morphological derivations, but one should not neglect the unplanned, teachable moments that arise during the school day. interactive read aloud, partner reading, and audio recordings of books can be used to foster expressive reading and build vocabulary. theoretical frameworks understanding how vocabulary acquisition and reading comprehension are linked is crucial because english learners face unique obstacles in these areas (graves, juel, graves, & dewitz, 2011). theories of automaticity and literacy processing demonstrate the link between the ability of students to automatically decode and assign meaning to words and their reading comprehension, thus elucidating the critical issues els face as they overcome various hurdles toward acquiring vocabulary and improving their reading comprehension. automaticity laberge and samuel’s (1974) theory of automaticity essentially suggests that comprehension follows from automatically recognizing words as well as assigning meaning to words. this bottom-up theory posits that “learning to read progresses from learning parts of the language [letters] to understanding the whole text [meaning]” (reutzel & cooter, 2013, para. 1). reading involves many processes occurring simultaneously— recalling words, connecting meaning to words, building sentences and paragraphs, and drawing upon prior knowledge to make text connections. some of these processes must become automatic for readers to manage them all at once (laberge & samuels, 1974), and when students’ working memories are consumed with the challenges of basic decoding and other fundamental reading processes, less capacity remains for the purpose of comprehension (kaufman, 2010). the more often students need to pause, decode, and work to determine meaning while reading a text, the less likely they will be able to fully engage in the reading and comprehend the text. literacy processing while observing students interacting authentically with texts over the course of a school year, marie clay (1982) found that learning to read is a continuous process of change and will likely look different from child to child. she confirmed that students’ reading growth and learning as well as their ability to utilize more advanced literacy processes stemmed from ongoing exposure to increasingly complex texts over the course of their school careers (doyle, 2013). over time and through guided interactions with texts, children leave the emergent reading phase and enter the conventional reading phase. clay (1982) carefully considered the foundational processing and the cyclical process of reading to determine that “what on the surface looks like simple word-by-word reading . . . involves children in linking many things they know from different sources . . . to read a precise message” (doyle, 2013, p. 644). thus, to be a proficient reader, one must draw on a variety of strategies and knowledge to determine a text’s meaning. convergence of theories theories of automaticity and literacy processing converge to provide a relevant foundation for exploring the relationship between vocabulary acquisition and comprehension in els. consider an individual of any age who is learning english: performing all of the aforementioned mental processes are an overwhelming task until at least one or many become automatic. els are often less capable during the language acquisition period than native speakers of automatically recognizing and decoding unfamiliar vocabulary (lesaux, kieffer, kelley, & harris, 2014). thus, they are at a disadvantage in learning when georgia journal of reading 15 volume 41, number 1 2018 compared to their native-speaking peers because “they have yet to develop the rich and varied knowledge that many children internalize from growing up in a literate culture” (graves et al., 2011, p. 412). for students who have a strong literacy foundation in their native language, learning another language, typically english, is a much easier task. however, few els have an established literate culture in their own native language, so they essentially must begin anew when working toward english language acquisition. because many els are distanced from their native cultures and language at an early age, neither their native language nor the english language is well developed (bowman-perrott, herrera, & murry, 2010). native english speakers acquire large english vocabularies from conversations, books, television, and cultural experiences. when native speakers encounter words in a text, they often can automatically recognize and assign meaning to those words. due to the myriad of cognitive processes that must be mastered within second-language acquisition, els often cannot process information in their second languages at the same speed as in their native languages, thus slowing comprehension (burns & helman, 2009). selected review of literature a review of relevant literature details the relationship between vocabulary acquisition and comprehension, with specific focus given to how english learners best acquire vocabulary. factors inhibiting comprehension and research-based instructional techniques that can be utilized to build vocabulary acquisition and improve reading comprehension are also discussed. central to this discussion are the importance of vocabulary knowledge, morphology instruction, and repeated reading to improve reading comprehension. vocabulary and reading linked as founded extensively within relevant theoretical frameworks, learning to read is a complex endeavor. students spend much of their time in the primary grades learning basic phonics skills and strategies to decode words (graves et al., 2011). this work lays the foundation for text comprehension and paves the route for the comprehension of texts of increased complexity in the middle and upper grades (lewis, walpole, & mckenna, 2014). because vocabulary acquisition and background knowledge help provide meaning and depth to texts, students’ comprehension improves as they acquire new vocabulary and learn new concepts (graves et al., 2011; hastings, 2016; lewis et al., 2014). simply put, the more words readers understand when reading a text, the easier it will be for them to comprehend the text (lewis et al., 2014; nagy, 2005). as such, “vocabulary occupies an important middle ground in learning to read” (national reading panel, 2008, para. 5). limited vocabularies of english learners while it is well-established that reading achievement is built on vocabulary acquisition, often, english learners know far fewer english words than their monolingual peers. beck and mckeown (1991), for example, highlight the gap in vocabulary mastery, citing that native english speakers master approximately 5,000 words by the end of first grade and 50,000 words when they graduate from high school. on average, the english vocabularies of language-minority students are but a fraction of the working vocabularies of native english speakers (duncan & paradis, 2016; filippini, gerber, & leafstedt, 2012; lesaux et al., 2014). these gaps are particularly problematic when matthew effects in literacy—ideally, the notion of continually-widening knowledge gaps—are considered (stanovich, 1986). such are the bases for improved teaching and learning endeavors targeted specifically at improving the vocabularies of els. because their vocabularies may be limited, the process of learning to read in english proves to be quite challenging for els. many factors influence the vocabulary acquisition of english learners, including the prior knowledge they have gathered from personal experiences (richgels, 1982; sheridan, 1981), their access to english books at home, and the frequency of their exposure to written and oral english (graves et al., 2011; griffin, 2016). educators, therefore, should consider how best to deliver academic content to english learners to make vocabulary acquisition and reading more enjoyable (lesaux et al., 2014). focusing on designing curriculum and strategies to enhance the vocabulary development of english learners in an effort to bridge existing achievement gaps between english learners and native speakers is an excellent place to start (gibson, 2016). furthermore, developing the vocabularies of english learners in the primary grades to prepare them for the higher conceptual loads of the upper grades is crucial (hendrix & griffin, 2017; nagy, 2005; nagy, berninger, & abbott, 2006). rich and varied learning strategies— e.g., explicitly teaching word-learning techniques or building word consciousness—are necessary to effectively foster and enhance the vocabularies of english learners (hendrix & griffin, 2017; lesaux et al., 2014; pacheco & goodwin, 2013). rich, extensive vocabularies assist students in becoming successful long-term readers and writers by allowing them to determine meanings of words and phrases with ease and in using precise language in their own writing and reading. english learners, by nature of the languagegeorgia journal of reading 16 volume 41, number 1 2018 learning process, need additional targeted support in vocabulary acquisition (graves et al., 2011). teachers of english learners, therefore, should rely on a variety of researched-based strategies to develop the vocabularies of their language-minority students (gibson, 2016). when explicit teaching of vocabulary and vocabulary strategies are implemented in the instruction of els, it is critical to ensure that these explicitly-taught fundamentals of language usage be translated into authentic transfer through student support and guidance (hendrix & griffin, 2017). many websites and teacher manuals provide resources for traditional skill-and-drill practices with the hope that if words are heard and seen enough times, students will eventually commit them to memory. however, this type of explicit instruction does not lead to application in broader contexts; it must be ongoing and integrated with other literacy initiatives within the classroom (nagy, 2005). when explicit vocabulary instruction is combined with student-centered instruction, which has been shown to have a positive effect on many children’s learning (davis, 2010; roskos & neuman, 2014), students tend to be more engaged in the learning process as a whole (davis, 2010). combining student-centered approaches, such as interactive read aloud, with explicit instruction in vocabulary acquisition proves to be particularly useful for els (roskos & neuman, 2014). factors inhibiting text comprehension for els, multiple factors contribute to difficulty with text comprehension. some of these factors include, but are not limited to, lack of english vocabulary and gaps in fluency and prosody. the following sections will examine these inhibiting factors more closely. some els, especially those from home environments with little or no literacy in their first languages, sometimes struggle to comprehend text because of their limited vocabularies. automaticity is limited because they can only adequately attend to one task at a time (graves et al., 2011). word attack skills must be explicitly taught to make up for this deficiency (hendrix & griffin, 2017). graves et al. (2011) maintain that “having a small vocabulary is a very serious detriment to success in reading” (p. 254). lower vocabulary acquisition is a major hurdle to overcome for students whose native language is not english. recent research highlights how vocabulary acquisition influences comprehension and also points to inadequate morphology instruction as a contributing factor of poorer comprehension. kieffer and lesaux (2007) focused on upper elementary students’ morphological awareness. one of their key findings was that “morphological awareness predicts reading comprehension” in english learners (kieffer & lesaux, 2007, p. 783). students’ morphological awareness contributed to both their knowledge of individual words and their overall reading comprehension. not only do many english learners have limited vocabularies, but they also receive limited morphology instruction, making it difficult for them to determine word meanings on their own based on roots, prefixes, or suffixes. therefore, educators should recognize that teaching basic vocabulary should be in conjunction with providing consistent morphology instruction. kieffer and lesaux’s (2007) study should be extended to determine what conditions maximize this type of explicit vocabulary teaching and provide concrete evidence to determine specific morphological instructional techniques that yield positive results. morphological awareness is emphasized in the upper elementary grades, but it is a skill that should be gradually reinforced throughout students’ school years (hendrix & griffin, 2017; kieffer & lesaux, 2007). instructional techniques to build vocabulary vocabulary acquisition is critical in improving text comprehension (lesaux et al., 2014). researchbased instructional strategies to implement in the classroom are also important to consider when designing curriculum. some studies encourage explicit and systematic vocabulary instruction (filippini et al., 2012; lesaux et al., 2014), while others imply that enriching daily instruction with student-centered activities, such as poetry readings, repeated readings, and readers theater, helps foster vocabulary growth (tsou, 2011; young & nageldinger, 2014). providing students with only phonological awareness instruction in the primary grades is not sufficient. els make greater strides in reading when they are taught vocabulary in an explicit manner, consistently and with fidelity (hendrix & griffin, 2017; lesaux et al., 2014). filippini et al. (2012), in an empirical study employing repeated measures of literacy intervention treatment among several experimental groups composed of elementary students (including 66 students with limited english proficiency), concluded that direct, targeted interventions added to vocabulary instruction provided substantial literacy growth among the lowest-performing students. interventions included direct phonics instruction, semantic feature analysis among synonymous vocabulary, and direct morpheme instruction (filippini et al., 2012). additionally, as a result, 70% of students receiving interventions in the study showed larger gains in reading comprehension than their peers who did not receive explicit instruction (filippini et al., 2012). these interventions addressed the notion that els sometimes lack the same cultural georgia journal of reading 17 volume 41, number 1 2018 experiences as native english speakers, making the contextualization of vocabulary words challenging (filippini et al., 2012). explicit instruction of this sort in school is especially important for students who lack rich language experiences in english at home (griffin, 2016). while targeted vocabulary instruction results in growth for els, this growth neither negates nor replaces the growth that organic language experiences with native speakers provide. as previously stated, vocabulary interventions are powerful, but they must supplement authentic uses of language along the road to mastery. els make greater gains when they are exposed to organic language-learning experiences (lesaux et al., 2014), but these experiences may be scaffolded and created for els within the classroom setting. language-minority students learn a great deal about language through interactions with native-speaking peers. as student-centered instructional approaches, readers theater and poetry readings have been shown to improve reading and writing skills (tsou, 2011; young & nageldinger, 2014). tsou (2011) found that the vocabulary and writing skills of taiwanese fifth graders who received instruction through readers theater as opposed to traditional skill-anddrill exercises improved significantly. giving students opportunities to reread accessible texts multiple times and to kinesthetically interact with texts increases their ability to assign meaning to words through context clues. thus, interactions with language in authentic contexts leads els to greater synthesis of language as a whole. using a similar approach to instruction, a thirdgrade teacher used poetry to target automatic word recognition skills and comprehension with her english learners (wilfong, 2015). she found that giving english learners multiple opportunities to read poetry aloud to their peers, teachers, and family members helped strengthen their fluency and word recognition skills. once per week for 12 consecutive weeks, students worked with a trained professional from the poetry academy. the teacher modeled reading poems with fluency before the students independently conducted repeated readings among themselves and then read the poems to their family members at home. finally, they performed the poetry recitations for the class after a week of practice. similar to tsou (2011), wilfong (2015) found that students almost doubled their scores from preto post-tests regarding fluency and automatic word decoding. the short stanzas in poetry made reading manageable and achievable. laberge and samuels (1974) indicated that the first step to comprehension is being able to attack words. once readers master that skill, then they can focus on assigning meaning to those words (wilfong, 2015). the research on readers theater and poetry reveals that vocabulary growth naturally follows one’s growth in decoding and automatic word recognition (tsou, 2011; wilfong, 2015). while considering the best instructional approaches for english learners, teachers must first determine the factors that are contributing to their struggle to comprehend texts. from there, educators must rely on research-based practices to implement strategies in the classroom in order to support the diverse needs of english learners. the research discussed here posits that limited vocabulary is one of the predominant reasons english learners have difficulty comprehending texts. instructional implications the correlation between vocabulary knowledge, morphological instruction, and reading comprehension for english learners is clear. isolating concrete instructional strategies that yield academic growth is imperative. when addressing vocabulary and morphology instruction with young english learners, various methods can be employed in the classroom. simple read alouds to bolster english learners’ vocabulary and demonstrate fluent reading are appropriate, or technological tools can be utilized to build vocabulary and morphology awareness, such as using voice recordings and student support websites (griffin, martinez, & martin, 2014). teachers would be wise to incorporate daily read aloud, shared reading and writing, and word walls to maximize the rate at which students can recall words and their meanings. additionally, english learners would benefit from having a reading partner who is a native english speaker. this will give them additional opportunities to hear how books should be read fluently and with expression in the english language (graves et al., 2011). vocabulary flashcards preserving small group time for direct and explicit vocabulary instruction is a research proven method to reinforce language skills with els (filippini et al., 2012; lesaux et al., 2014). utilizing illustrated flashcards, providing synonyms and antonyms, and generating examples are necessary components of effective vocabulary instruction. as previously mentioned, strategies related to direct phonics instruction can be used in conjunction with read alouds and explicit modeling of decoding skills and phonological awareness to promote gains in reading comprehension. since many english learners have difficulty interpreting, visualizing, and making meaning, georgia journal of reading 18 volume 41, number 1 2018 it is helpful for them to be able to see and create concrete examples in a systematic manner, and in lessons that are implemented consistently (filippini et al., 2012). read alouds while a multitude of strategies exist to support englis learners’ vocabulary growth, traditional teacher-led read alouds are an effective way to teach vocabulary. while many english learners lack the experience and background knowledge necessary to fully engage in reading, providing them with an opportunity to hear fluent reading while developing vital listening comprehension and vocabulary development skills is beneficial (graves et al., 2011). an ever-widening gap between middle-class students’ vocabularies and the vocabularies of students in poverty exists. students who come from families where vocabulary-rich conversations are part of their everyday lives tend to perform better in reading (hart & risley, 1995). teachers can, to some extent, make up for the lack of language-rich home environments by facilitating meaningful discussions in the classroom. these discussions can be done through interactive oral reading. teachers select a text to read aloud to the whole class, demonstrating fluency and expression. the book is read once without any pauses or interruptions. then, the teacher reads the book again, this time stopping to direct students’ attention to seven or eight vocabulary words, providing a brief definition and adding to a vocabulary chart for students to reference. rereading the text a third and fourth time, after teaching vocabulary, helps students to absorb more information without being bogged down by unfamiliar text (graves et al., 2011; wilfong, 2015). the goal behind interactive read alouds and vocabulary development is that it will transfer into students’ ability to “build knowledge networks— connections between concepts that are meaningful and enduring in their longer-term memory and are primary in comprehension development” (roskos & neuman, 2014, p. 508). over time, automaticity will be fostered through repeated readings and exposure to new vocabulary words, thus building a solid foundation for comprehension. recorded readings all students, especially english learners, strongly benefit from the integration of audio recorders in the classroom. teachers can provide pre-recorded readings of books for students to listen to and follow along, allowing them exposure to fluent and expressive reading. english learners often spend such a significant amount of time decoding that they have limited mental energy left to find meaning in a text. modeling reading for them not only boosts vocabulary but also allows for the meaning-making process to occur more automatically. additionally, a teacher can have an audio recorder available at literacy stations for students to record themselves reading a book of their choice. when students are able to listen to themselves read, they can often catch their mistakes and self-correct, ideally reading more fluently and expressively during repeated readings (graves et al., 2011). recorded readings also offer students who may be more timid and less confident readers a chance to engage and participate in a more private and risk-free setting. with recorded readings, els do not have the added stress of reading in front of peers and the fear of making mistakes. image galleries an additional way to support english learners with vocabulary acquisition is to accompany new vocabulary words with images from the internet. having an ipad or computer handy in small groups, or a smart board for whole groups, provides students with an extra layer of support for unfamiliar words. google images, for example, is an excellent tool for showcasing various illustrations for a given vocabulary word (figure 1). when students can envision those new words, they can more fully engage in the reading process, and comprehending the text becomes more automatic without having to waste mental stamina on assigning meaning to unfamiliar words (graves et al., 2011). this is particularly useful—and, truly, imperative—for els in the middle and upper grades who are not only faced with automaticity and mastery of common vocabulary, but also the content-specific vocabulary that permeates most of their course loads and advanced nonfiction texts (lewis et al., 2014). figure 1. sample google images when conducting search for “geology.” in public domain. georgia journal of reading 19 volume 41, number 1 2018 document cameras finally, a handy technological tool teachers should take advantage of in their classrooms is a document camera. during interactive read-alouds, students do not necessarily need to see any text in order to participate. however, during a shared reading or writing lesson, a document camera can be used to display text on a larger screen for students to follow along. conclusion the central issue for english learners is evident: automaticity and reading comprehension cannot be achieved with a limited vocabulary. language-minority students will benefit if vocabulary development is targeted systematically in the primary grades in order to advance them before school content becomes much more intense and complex. a sense of urgency is appropriate for teachers to support their english learners in literacy instruction in order to promote vocabulary growth, thus leading to successful comprehension. in short, the development of a wide vocabulary and morphological knowledge promotes automaticity and thus comprehension and is essential for reading achievement in the upper grades. references beck, i. l., & mckeown, m. g. 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(1982). schema theory, linguistic theory, and representations of reading comprehension. journal of educational research, 76(1), 54–62. doi: 10.1080/00220671.1982.10885424 roskos, k., & neuman, s. b. (2014). best practices in reading: a 21st century skill update. the reading teacher, 67(7), 507–511. doi:10.1002/trtr.1248 sheridan, e. m. (1981). theories of reading and implications for teachers. reading horizons, 22(1), 66–71. retrieved from http://scholarworks.wmich. edu/reading_horizons/ tsou, w. (2011). the application of readers theater to fles reading and writing. foreign language annals, 44(4), 727–748. doi:10.1111/j.19449720.2011.01147.x veenendaal, n. j., groen, m. a., verhoeven, l. (2015). what oral text reading fluency can reveal about reading comprehension. journal of research in reading, 38(3), 213–225. doi:10.1111/12679817.12024 wilfong, l. g. (2015). ¡puedo hacerlo!–“i can do it!” using poetry to improve fluency, comprehension, word recognition and attitude toward reading in struggling english language learners. the nera journal, 51(1), 41–49. young, c., & nageldinger, j. (2014). considering the context and texts for fluency: performance, readers theater, and poetry. international electronic journal of elementary education, 7(1), 47–56. n empower members of the gra and local councils to become effective leaders in the field of literacy. n provide quality reading education services to all georgia educators. n recognize exemplary individuals, local, and state literacy efforts. n achieve maximum involvement of members at the local, state, and international levels to receive maximum benefits. n promote the goals and objectives of the international reading association of georgia. georgia reading association goals georgia journal of literacy 2023, vol. 45(2), pp. 4–14 https://doi.org/10.56887/galiteracy.107 issn: 2833-7611 literature review contact dr. megan devoss, part-time instructor, department of elementary through secondary education, university of west georgia, carrolton, ga; email mdevoss@westga.edu. models of instruction for multilingual learners: facets of the esol co-teacher role megan devoss university of west georgia, carrollton, ga abstract with nearly five million multilingual learners in u.s. schools, research is warranted for effective instruction that permits equal access to content standards through language diversification. multilingual learners (mls), students learning english who benefit from linguistic support to attain academic achievement, are served through models in u.s. schools that vary according to student needs and staffing capability, with english for speakers of other languages (esol) as the dominantly implemented format. esol is a federally and locally funded program that provides structured academic and linguistic support and accountability for mls across all grade levels. the purpose of this literature review is to compare the utility and effectiveness of the four program models approved by the u.s. department of education to effectively teach content and language to mls in public schools: (a) structured english immersion, (b) bilingual education, (c) dual language or two-way immersion programs, and (d) english for speakers of other languages (u.s. department of education & u.s. department of justice, 2015). furthermore, this article is intended to examine the overarching model of esol—the most employed model in the u.s.—and the prominent delivery format of co-teaching. each of the models mentioned above is discussed in this paper, followed by a delineation of state and federally-approved formats of esol: pull-out, push-in, resource labs, sheltered classes, innovative delivery models, and co-teaching. this article concludes with an examination of co-teaching, a subset of esol in which a general education educator and an esol teacher co-plan, co-instruct, and co-assess an integrated classroom of mls and non-mls. keywords multilingual learners; english learners; esol models; coteaching onstituting 10% of students in u.s. classrooms, multilingual learners embody a significant presence of culturally and linguistically diverse students who need appropriate, equitable education (u.s. department of education, n.d.). pertaining to school-aged individuals, an english learner (el) is an extension of a multilingual learner (ml), a student whose first language is not english and who requires assistance listening, speaking, reading, and/or writing english to achieve equal opportunity for academic success in a classroom with english instruction (ballantyne et al., 2008; u.s. department of education, 2015). the need for language assistance is measured by an initial test, which varies by model of instruction and will be discussed in subsequent sections. national data released by the u.s. department of education (n.d.) indicate that mls in u.s. schools speak over 400 languages, a statistic that generates inquiry about how to effectively educate students with such a broad spectrum of linguistic and cultural diversity. addressing this need, gottlieb (2006) admonishes that students “whose current english language proficiency preclude them from accessing, processing, and acquiring unmodified grade-level material in c mailto:mdevoss@westga.edu devoss 5 english without scaffolding and instructional support” require keen attention for holistic success (p. 4). this literature review aims to cross-examine models and formats of instruction for schoolaged multilingual learners. research, pragmatics, and student needs guide the result of this paper to focus on co-teaching, a format of the popularly employed model of esol, as described in the subsequent discussion. models of instruction for multilingual learners the u.s. department of education supports four program models to effectively teach content and language to mls in public schools: (a) structured english immersion, (b) bilingual education, (c) dual language or two-way immersion programs, and (d) english for speakers of other languages (u.s. department of education & u.s. department of justice, 2015). each model will be discussed, although this article focuses on a key aspect of the final format, co-teaching within esol. structured english immersion structured english immersion (sei) programs serve students newly arrived in the united states through adapted courses, the goals of which are to learn english, gain cultural competency of school norms, and develop academic readiness to transition into mainstream classes (lewis & gray, 2016; zacarian, 2011). sei instructors deliver both english language and adapted content instruction to students all day in an isolated setting, such as a specific wing of a school or a separate building (honigsfeld & dove, 2010). at the secondary level, this delivery model is often termed a newcomer program, or a program offered only to students in their first or second year in a u.s. school (short & boyson, 2004). the primary benefit of sei is an academic course load that is specifically adapted according to the language and academic needs of mls. an additional benefit of sei is the intentional outreach to families who, like the students, are new to the country and need assistance adapting through pragmatic means (freeman & freeman, 2002; short & boyson, 2004). since all the students served through sei are equally in need of transition assistance, less shame or fear impedes school-family relationships compared to other models that serve both newcomers and native english speakers (short & boyson, 2004). offered to immigrant students newly arrived in the u.s., sei involves a linguistically diverse student population (or a set of students with many different home languages), which often results in english-only instruction. this english-only format is a direct result of staffing practicality. the practical aspect of staffing an sei program considers how one english-speaking teacher can teach several students with different home languages through an english-only format. however, attempting a bilingual approach with such diverse languages would necessitate numerous instructors and, consequently, more funding. nonetheless, sei welcomes using the students’ primary language as practicable (zacarian, 2011). the limitations of sei reside in the isolation of social and cultural interaction from native english-speaking peers, which are encapsulated in honigsfeld and dove’s (2010) exclamation, “academic gains were reported at the expense of social integration” (p. 9). social identity development of school-aged children will be discussed in forthcoming sections; however, it is worth noting that students’ social and interpersonal facets, particularly adolescents, significantly impact their learning ability (ullman, 2010). therefore, the sei model has both benefits and disadvantages for mls. 6 georgia journal of literacy 45(2) bilingual education bilingual education programs provide classroom instruction in two target languages—english and a non-english language—to students with a homogeneous native language and with the goals of biliteracy and bilingualism (lewis & gray, 2016). the goals are achieved by tapering the amount of instruction in each language through either a 90/10 or a 50/50 format (honigsfeld & dove, 2010). in the 90/10 format, students initially receive instruction in their first language for 90% of the day and instruction in english for 10% of the day; with a gradual increase of english instruction time each year, the anticipated goal is 50% instruction in the first language and 50% in english during the third year of the bilingual program (zacarian, 2011). in the 50/50 model, instruction is provided for equal durations throughout each year in the bilingual program. for clarification, the percentages of time are quantified by how many courses are instructed in that language. for example, in the 90/10 model, one of the six content courses may be initially instructed in english, and by the third year, three classes are taught in english. this gradual increase in english instruction during the school day is intended to match students’ readiness for additional development in the language (honigsfeld & dove, 2010). large-scale, longitudinal research by collier and thomas (2017) in 36 school districts over 32 years supports outcomes of bilingual education more than all other formats of language instruction to close the achievement gap for mls, insofar as the students remain in the program for at least 5–6 years. earlier research by collier and thomas (2002) revealed over half of the student participants in a bilingual program met or exceeded state benchmarks in reading on standardized tests in english, exceeding the outcomes of participants of any other english instructional format. while research confirms the effectiveness of bilingual education, a prominent restraint of this model rests in the feasibility of staffing sufficient bilingual educators to maintain such programs sustainably. furthermore, the student body in bilingual programs must be homogenous, all speaking the same native language. in school districts with a diverse plethora of spoken languages, such as those in some u.s. urban centricities, the bilingual model is not realistic to serve all students equally. dual language immersion the dual language (or two-way immersion) design is a branch of bilingual education. in the dual language model, which exists in more than 70 georgia public schools, the student body contains students who are native english speakers as well as english learners; this linguistically heterogeneous student population aims to achieve bilingualism and biliteracy (georgia department of education, n.d., 2023; lewis & gray, 2016). the student population is the sole differentiating factor of dual language immersion from the abovementioned bilingual education format. ideally, the student body will contain a balance of homogeneous mls (students who share a native language that is not english) and students who are native english speakers (seeking to learn the home language of the mls). for example, all mls in a dual language immersion program may speak spanish as their native language. the native spanish-speaking mls aim to become bilingual in spanish and english; meanwhile, native english speakers in the program also seek bilingualism in english and spanish. common to the bilingual model, this instructional format faces the hindrance of feasibly staffing and sustaining dual language practices, especially as public schools are mandated to instruct students who speak many native languages. additionally, similar to bilingual education, the dual language immersion model requires a long-term commitment of 5–6 years from the students and families because the stable presence of language learners in the classroom benefits devoss 7 the model’s dynamic of language progression (collier & thomas, 2017; zacarian, 2011). data discussed by collier and thomas (2002, 2007, 2017) indicate that the dual language immersion model is less effective for closing achievement gaps than bilingual education. however, it yielded better results than students participating in english-only models. english for speakers of other languages the model most prevalent in u.s. public schools, and the model examined in this paper, is english for speakers of other languages (esol). esol is a state-funded instructional program for eligible english learners in grades k–12 (georgia school law code 1981, § 20-2-156, enacted in 1985). the esol program is a standards-based curriculum emphasizing academic and social language development (georgia department of education, 2018a). esol programming constitutes a variety of formats of implementation, including pull-out, push-in, sheltered instruction, co-taught classes, resource centers, and innovative delivery models (georgia department of education, 2020). esol is most suitable for the majority of u.s. schools, as it utilizes one language—english—to instruct a linguistically diverse student population (honigsfeld & dove, 2010; zacarian, 2011). representing the most popularly employed model for serving mls in the u.s., this article focuses on formats of esol, which the ensuing discussion will further examine. formats of esol in u.s. schools according to the u.s. department of education, 68% of high schools serving mls in the 2015– 16 school year employed formats of the esol model (lewis & gray, 2016). esol is a federally and locally funded program that serves qualifying students through linguistic and academic instruction by english language and content teachers for an entire or partial school day (honigsfeld & dove, 2010). thirty-nine states, including georgia, are members of the wida consortium, a corporation that sets forth the english language development (eld) standards, the qualification assessment (wida screener), the annual progress assessment (access for ells test), teacher training, and a wealth of resources and tools for the classroom (georgia department of education, 2018a; wida, 2023). unlike bilingual models, esol focuses on instruction in english only, thus qualifying as the most adaptable model for a linguistically diverse student and staff population. although english is the dominant language of instruction, it is worth noting here the georgia department of education’s (2018a) statement: “it is appropriate, when practicable, to use the english learner’s home language as a means of facilitating instruction” (para. 1). thus, students’ home languages may be utilized when “practicable,” not as prominent vehicles of instruction. when districts and schools consider how to serve mls within their student bodies, a wealth of factors come under consideration, including student characteristics and needs, students’ level of english proficiency, teacher capacity, state policies, number of mls in the school, least restrictive environments, research, and decision maker attitudes and goals (georgia department of education, 2020; sugarman, 2018). with significant linguistic diversity, including over 400 languages spoken in u.s. schools, most districts have greater capacity for meeting student needs through an englishonly format such as esol than through bilingual models (u.s. department of education, n.d.). esol offers a plethora of formats, including pull-out and push-in instruction, sheltered (or self-contained) classrooms, resource centers and labs, innovative delivery models, and co-teaching (georgia department of education, 2020; honigsfeld & dove, 2010). the pull-out model is frequently practiced at the elementary level and requires that mls are pulled out of a content class into a small group setting to focus on english language acquisition (sugarman, 2018). while the 8 georgia journal of literacy 45(2) pull-out lessons may be centered around linguistic elements of the classroom content, sometimes this model causes students to miss classroom content to receive language instruction. the push-in design is also prominently employed at the elementary level. a depiction of the push-in model would be students remaining in their core content classes (to not miss instruction); an esol teacher comes into the classroom to provide language instruction during content lessons (georgia department of education, 2020). the sheltered classroom is an english language course or a content course constituted solely of esol students. the sheltered format is frequently employed at the middle and high school levels. it effectively serves mls with lower english language proficiencies, such as students in their first or second year in u.s. schools (u.s. department of education & u.s. department of justice, 2015). a depiction of a sheltered high school class would be a geometry course containing 10 mls with beginning levels of english proficiency, in which the instructor simultaneously teaches content and language. resource centers and labs serve a dynamic group of mls (who may vary in their level of english proficiency) through multimedia materials (computer software, books, teacher interaction, etc.); such labs are fitting for itinerant esol teachers serving students from various schools and grade levels. innovative delivery models (idm) allow schools and districts to construct an effective means of serving mls with local staffing and funding availability. for example, the author of the article at hand is certified in secondary mathematics and esol; therefore, she currently teaches an idm algebra ii class that consists of 9 mls and 14 non-mls in a manner that advances students’ academic and linguistic progress without a co-teacher. finally, the co-teaching model is a format of esol commonly employed in the middle and high school settings in which an esol and a content teacher co-teach a content area course, such as english language arts, math, science, or social studies, to an integrated classroom of esol students and non-esol students (august & shanahan, 2008; lucas et al., 2008; sugarman, 2018). the term “push-in” is utilized in legal documents to refer to both the delineated (predominantly elementary) form of push-in outlined above as well as co-teaching, although the latter terminology (co-teaching) is more prominent among educational practitioners (georgia department of education, 2018b, 2020). co-teaching co-taught models emerged in popularity in response to national regulations promoting equitable education for students with exceptionalities. when the no child left behind act (2001) pushed for students with disabilities to be served in public schools through the least restrictive environment, co-teaching became a prominent means of instruction in special education departments. serving english learners has followed a similar approach, whereby mls with higher english proficiency receive content instruction and language assistance in co-taught classrooms. thus, while students learning english are not mentally deficient or considered to be students with disabilities, the dynamics in which this student population is served through federally funded public school operations share a similar framework to that of students receiving special education services (bauler & kang, 2020). the depiction of co-teaching involves two teachers (one specializing in content and the other specializing in student sub-group needs, such as esol or special education) collaboratively teaching a core content class (sugarman, 2018). furthermore, a greater expanse of research has been conducted to date on the effectiveness of special education delivery models than has yet to be investigated for the formats of esol instruction. ergo, the literature surrounding co-teaching in the special education classroom is an applicable platform for building this examination for serving mls through the co-teaching model. devoss 9 co-teaching involves two professionals collaboratively planning and delivering instruction to a group of students in the same classroom (bauler & kang, 2020; cook & friend, 1995; friend et al., 2010). hang and rabren (2009) expound on the definition of co-teaching to include: (a) two certified educators, usually one general education teacher and one special education teacher; (b) instruction delivery by both teachers; (c) a heterogeneous group of students (i.e., students with disabilities are taught with their peers without disabilities); and (d) a single classroom where students with disabilities are taught with their peers without disabilities. (p. 259) furthermore, the above-mentioned co-taught classroom may employ a variety of collaborative instructional models, including the six models presented in friend and cook’s (1992) seminal text on collaborative classrooms: one teaches, one observes (in which one observes the other teaching and gathers necessary data); one teaches, one assists (in which one teacher primarily teaches the content while the other circulates the room to assist struggling individuals); parallel teaching (in which each teacher presents the same content to one of two students groups); station teaching (in which students rotate through stations to receive instruction and practice the material); alternative teaching (in which one teacher works with a large group to provide instruction while the other teacher works with a select small group); and team teaching (or co-teaching, in which both teachers simultaneously practice equal roles in delivering instruction). all these formats may be employed in the same co-taught classroom setting throughout a school year, as content and student needs may necessitate changing instruction formats. while instructional formats may vary within a classroom, research supports that the qualities of effective co-teaching are consistent. in their book on collaboration and co-teaching, dove and honigsfeld (2018) delineate the significance of intentional and effective co-planning, co-teaching, and co-assessing in a teamtaught classroom. working together on all facets of instruction requires time and effort, and the quality of collaboration correlates with student achievement (bell & baecher, 2012; ronfeldt et al., 2015). in addition, the research of peercy et al. (2015) illuminates the effectiveness of coteaching not only on student success but also on teacher development. teachers working collaboratively to share expertise enhances both teachers’ skill sets. an integral element of effective collaboration is the negotiation of roles and responsibilities (hersi et al., 2016). coteachers must discuss and decide what is expected of each educator in the partner classroom experience. the role of the esol teacher is significant in contributing to the success of english learners in the content classroom. role of the esol co-teacher an esol collaborating teacher is certified in teaching english for speakers of other languages (esol) but is often not certified in the content area. consequently, the role of the esol co-teacher is to promote language acquisition throughout the class and ensure course materials and assessments are linguistically and culturally appropriate for mls (ballantyne et al., 2008). beyond ensuring student accommodations are met (such as small group testing, use of bilingual glossaries on assessments, extended time, etc.) and instructional strategies are incorporated that promote language learning through content material, esol teachers are advocates for their students. esol teachers advocate for mls by seeking to close barriers caused by socio-cultural, socioeconomic, linguistic, and academic background differences that affect equitable opportunity for academic achievement (evans, 2004; honigsfeld & dove, 2010; lachat, 2004; staehr fenner, 2014). 10 georgia journal of literacy 45(2) language acquisition. multilingual learners in the u.s. must acquire social and academic english to access and master content standards appropriately. hence, the esol teacher incorporates opportunities to develop social and academic language throughout each co-taught course. echevarría et al. (2013) recognize that “the foundation of school success is academic language and literacy in english. age-appropriate knowledge of the english language is a prerequisite for attaining content standards. we learn primarily through language, and use language to express our understanding” (p. 10). to address this need, the esol teacher creates language objectives to accompany each content objective, provides timely feedback for both language and content production, generates opportunities for student-student interaction that promotes academic discussion (and subsequently language development), pre-teaches and reviews academic vocabulary necessary for success in the content classroom (echevarría et al., 2018; fairbairn & jones-vo, 2010; staehr fenner, 2014). the esol teacher aims to ensure that course content and assessments incorporate comprehensible input. second language acquisition theorist stephen krashen (1977) spearheaded research on the significance of providing understandable language to promote deeper language acquisition. in this way, language used in the classroom must be within or just beyond a student’s linguistic comfort zone, as krashen (1977) terms i + 1, where i signifies currently mastered language and +1 represents target language one step beyond that is yet to be acquired. if academic content and assessments are conveyed within a student’s range of comprehensible input, then the student can understand, learn, and master the material. classroom strategies. the widely acclaimed sheltered instruction observation protocol (siop) model encompasses strategies for teachers of mls to employ to make content comprehensible for multilingual learners (echevarría et al., 2018). these strategies, viewable in table 1, promote content learning through accessible and appropriate language and classroom constructs. furthermore, the implementation of strategies to assist mls has been found to benefit non-mls as well (meltzer & hamann, 2005). table 1: siop strategies to promote comprehensible input design language and content objectives for lesson plans emphasize key vocabulary give appropriate, consistent feedback on language and content production provide adapted materials for content and language proficiencies build cultural background knowledge for students to access the material ensure directions, materials, and assessments are comprehensible, allowing sufficient wait time promote peer interaction through intentional groupings and class discussions use manipulatives to promote deeper understanding of concepts administer context-rich formative and summative assessments note. from making content comprehensible for secondary english learners: the siop model (3rd edition) by j. echevarría, m. vogt, & d. j. short. copyright 2018 by pearson. cultural adaptation. for multilingual learners, the learning experience is often compounded by the anxiety accompanying new environments (gabryś, 2013). anxiety for mls may arise from socio-cultural, socioeconomic, or academic background differences and affect learning (dove & honigsfeld, 2018). the esol and content co-teachers share responsibility for devoss 11 attentively diminishing mls’ “affective filter,” or a mental barrier caused by anxiety (krashen, 1982). according to freeman and freeman (2014), the effort put forth by teachers to provide comprehensible input and appropriate materials may be negated if a student’s affective filter causes them not to learn. efforts to diminish anxiety may include assisting students through the process of acculturation by providing an outlet for expression, support, and affirmation; welcoming students’ home cultures into the classroom activities and content discourse; offering multiple alternative pathways for success in the class for students who work to contribute to the family income and thus struggle to complete homework after school; providing information to students and families regarding community resources for healthcare, educational materials, translation assistance, and discount clothes or food (evans, 2004; honigsfeld & dove, 2010; lachat, 2004; staehr fenner, 2014). addressing students’ socio-cultural and economic needs dismantles the effects of significant barriers to student achievement (freeman & freeman, 2014; gass & selinker, 2008). a welcoming classroom dynamic with continually appropriate material and instruction can generate a sense of comfort and acceptance that will diminish students’ apprehension and thus permit readiness for effective learning. conclusions and recommendations while research demonstrates the effectiveness of linguistic models incorporating one’s home language, such as (a) structured english immersion, (b) bilingual education, and (c) dual language or two-way immersion programs, the practicality of each is not well suited for the majority of urban and suburban public schools. with over 400 spoken languages in u.s. schools, the englishonly format of esol is most employed nationwide (lewis & gray, 2016). this article explains why human resources (limited bilingual educators) and student needs (diverse home languages invite an english-only format) make esol the most prominently executed model for serving multilingual learners in u.s. public schools. furthermore, the role of an esol co-teacher within the latter model extends beyond the classroom content to develop the multilingual learner’s sociocultural identity. the esol teacher aims to diminish the anxiety experienced by mls in the classroom and serves to advocate for their equity in education. educators of mls may grapple with the plethora of responsibilities in addressing student needs—linguistic instruction, content differentiation, acculturation, and others detailed within the scope of this discussion. exploring the constructs of effective co-teaching and research-based collaboration may contribute to one’s sustainable practice of effectively serving mls. districts and building-level administrators may invest funds in professional development opportunities to empower co-teaching relationships and effectiveness. in such professional development, teachers may choose to examine the list of strategies outlined in table 1 to build a shared repertoire of tools to meet the needs of mls in their classroom(s). additional research is warranted on the efficacy of the co-teaching model and the outcomes it yields on student achievement academically and linguistically for mls. references august, d., & shanahan, t. 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(2011). transforming schools for english learners. corwin. received: march 14, 2023 | accepted: july 3, 2023 | published: november 13, 2023 https://www.jstor.org/stable/teaceducquar.42.4.33 https://doi.org/10.3102/0002831215585562 https://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ocr/letters/colleague-el-201501.pdf https://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ocr/letters/colleague-el-201501.pdf https://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/oela/english-learner-toolkit/eltoolkit.pdf https://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/oela/english-learner-toolkit/eltoolkit.pdf https://ed.gov/datastory/el-characteristics/index.html https://wida.wisc.edu/assess/choosing-assessment 3b055923-73f5-473e-bb00-63d3f9a2170a ���������� � ��������� � �� ��� ��� ������� ������������� ��������� !"� ���# �$##%�&�'��()# �#*���)�+�,��+��&("+� 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r%�'!)!'��_�(�_e"$'*a���(!+!�(!�*'a�(!e��%*,#*!(�&��&!,�'!)!'%��_�%!'_u!_e"#"a�#�(���*,��%�"�e�*�)#*����17�@045o�n7<>0@30=l��31;50<13�n27�n0@0�14;i21�17�;30�0m10@<4=�6@810@84�k7@�627738<i�977:3�50?7<31@4105�4<�0m10@<4=�=76;3�7k�67<1@7=�4<5�@0=805�7<�0m10@<4=�?718>4187<�k7@�@0458<io��1�83�8?j0@418>0�1241�104620@3�67<3850@�120�=7<if10@?�8?j=864187<3�7k�120�=0337<3�120l�10462�31;50<13�497;1�@0458<io��k�=8k0f=7<i�@0458<i�83�@04==l�4�i74=��104620@3�?;31�0t;8j�1208@�31;50<13�n812�120�3:8==3�4<5�?8<53013�1241�n8==�30@>0�120?�90l7<5�1208@�l04@3�8<�36277=ovwxwywz{w|�8ii0@3�� o�a������/0j10?90@bo�s20�4@i;?0<1�4i48<31��660=0@4105��0450@o�}~������~����~��������������������������s�a�b��q�fq�on7=0���o�o�a����f����� 060?90@f�4<;4@lb�c241�?718>4103�31;50<13�17�@045���7;@�=810@46l�j0@37<4=81803o������������������������asb�����f���o georgia journal of literacy 2023, vol. 45(2), pp. 57–65 https://doi.org/10.56887/galiteracy.122 issn: 2833-7611 practitioner article contact dr. laura szech, assistant professor, department of early childhood, elementary, middle, literacy, and special education, university of north carolina wilmington, wilmington, nc; email szechl@uncw.edu. culturally sustaining writer’s workshop for beginners laura szech university of north carolina – wilmington, wilmington, nc abstract this article presents the implementation of a writer’s workshop as a culturally sustaining practice, allowing students to exercise agency in their learning and writing. the workshop follows a structured flow of read-alouds, modeling, an invitation to write, and sharing. teachers choose specific writing skills or crafts to teach, incorporating culturally relevant literature that exemplifies those skills. students are encouraged to write in their own languages and explore diverse story structures while also learning dominant forms of writing. the article emphasizes the importance of linguistic diversity and challenges the notion that only dominant english should be taught. step-by-step guidance is provided to start a writer’s workshop, including book selection, modeling, and supporting students’ individual stories. the writer’s workshop aims to position students as active subjects in the instructional process, allowing them to express themselves while developing conventional writing skills. the article encourages teachers to begin with the suggested lessons and adapt them to meet the needs of their students to create a culturally sustaining classroom. keywords writer’s workshop; culturally sustaining pedagogy; linguistic diversity; mentor texts; agency in learning n a time of scripted curricula and packaged programs, the writer’s workshop continues to offer a space for students to be an agentive part of their classroom. in a writer’s workshop, students have choice and autonomy over their own learning and production. i am a university professor of language and literacy. i collaborated with two fourth, fifth, and sixth-grade language arts teachers to begin a culturally sustaining process of discussing, creating, thinking, writing, and sharing. this article is designed to share our process with others in hopes that more teachers can get started. getting started was very hard for these two teachers, as reflected by the sixth-grade teacher when she stated, “i kind of felt like i was jumping into stuff that i really wasn’t 100% sure of what i was doing, but i enjoy the process and value it.” the teachers were admittedly nervous about letting go of control and letting the children lead; however, when they did let go, the students and teachers ended up in a learning space they never expected. when paris (2012) set out to expand on the concept of culturally responsive pedagogy (ladson-billings, 2009) to the idea of being culturally sustaining, he described that teachers must “support young people in sustaining the cultural and linguistic competence of their communities while simultaneously offering access to dominant cultural competence” (p. 95). a writer’s workshop provides the space for students to use, practice, and play with their own stories, languages, and literacies while also learning more dominant forms of the written word in order to access the competence and power of which paris speaks. the teacher must model, teach, reinforce, and praise diverse cultural and linguistic stories and forms of writing to elevate them. i https://doi.org/10.56887/galiteracy.122 mailto:szechl@uncw.edu 58 georgia journal of literacy 45(2) too often, students are told by their teachers explicitly and implicitly that their stories and home languages do not belong in the classroom. the fourth and fifth-grade teacher shared, “i have learned so much more about them than in other spaces. for example, one student’s dad is in prison, and i knew that. but in his writing, he wrote about him, and he hadn’t talked about him before.” following that conversation, the teacher shared that they have a better relationship because of this writing. the text exchange (figure 1) shows how different their relationship is now. this article will share how writing is a perfect space to enhance (or even begin) your path toward being more culturally sustaining in your classroom practices. the following section includes three suggested ways to implement a more culturally sustaining workshop: through book choice, story structure, and linguistic diversity. the following section has concrete tips on how to get started with your workshop. being culturally sustaining inherently means that you know the community in which you teach and that you adapt based on your students for the year or even class period. this school was in the southeast united states in a majority black neighborhood. the neighborhood is predominantly low-income; however, the school enrolls students from all over the community. the students and families mainly speak african american language, and many have lived in this small neighborhood community for decades. all these cultural aspects matter to being culturally sustaining. readers of this article must consider their school’s communities and cultures and adapt accordingly. book choice students must see themselves reflected in the books they read (bishop, 2012) and by the authors they read to identify with them. choose books with stories your students might have experienced, with characters or plots they can relate to, and have ideas that connect to their beliefs (tables 1 and 2). table 1: writing from memories (based on a mini-lesson in jacobson, 2010) step time allotted details 1. set goal 1 minute “today, we will learn how to write a story from our own memories.” 2. mentor text 10 minutes read or have a student read aloud she come bringing me that little baby girl (1974) by eloise greenfield. 3. anchor chart (none) 4. model 2 minutes (think aloud) “now i have to think of my own memory. i don’t have a baby sibling, so i can’t relate to that one, but i do remember a time when my parents told me that my brother was moving out. i think i’ll write that story.” 5. invite 15 minutes “discuss a few memories with your neighbor; which one is a good story to tell that others might find interesting? what format do you want to tell it in? (graphic novel, poem, picture book?) get started on that story or finish what you were working on and write a figure 1: text message exchange szech 59 memory story later. add it to your topic list so you don’t forget, though!” table 2: choosing better words – adjectives step time allotted details 1. set goal 2 minutes “in your writing, you want to choose words that give your writing interest and strength. today, we are going to talk about adjectives.” 2. mentor text the undefeated (2019) by kwame alexander (read aloud at another time before teaching this lesson) 3. anchor chart 10 minutes prepare a chart with the word “adjective” and a kid-friendly definition (something we add to a noun to describe it better). define it for the students and ask them to listen while you read. after you read the undefeated, ask kids to suggest adjectives they heard. go through pages and discuss how kwame alexander leaves off the noun, but the adjectives speak loudly. 4. model 3 minutes “in my writing today, i am going to circle a few of my nouns and then figure out how to describe them better.” using teacher writing from the memory lesson, circle a few nouns and think aloud how to add adjectives to them. 5. invite 5 minutes of writing invite students to find a few nouns in their writing to add adjectives and then continue with their stories or start new ones. story structure many examples of culturally sustaining writing practices have been documented. delpit (2006) observed how there is no ending in arapaho storytelling. endings represent the end of life, which they do not believe in. the teachers in this community did not understand this initially and were correcting students who did not wrap up their stories with traditional endings. eventually, the teachers understood this cultural practice and adjusted their teaching. delpit (2006) also documented how many black students she observed told: “‘episodic’ narratives—stories that include shifting scenes and are typically longer” while the white students told “‘topic-centered’ narrativesstories that focused on one event” (p. 55). these examples show the importance of teaching writing organization in various ways. students deserve to learn a story’s “beginning/middle/end” structure to succeed on a standardized test. however, they must also have space to structure their stories in ways that sustain and celebrate the storytelling styles of their communities (tables 3, 4, and 5). ordoñez-jasis and flores (2011) showed how the latinx families they observed often engaged in oral storytelling and wordplay. as a result of understanding this cultural norm, teachers explicitly worked to change their classrooms by committing “themselves to centralize the songs, ghost and love stories, pretend play, and rhyme that families engaged in” (p. 133). table 3: story structure lesson 1 – thematic organization step time allotted details 1. set goal 2 minutes “sometimes writing is about a theme or topic instead of a beginning, middle, and end that flows from one event to another. we will read love, written by matt de la peña, and see if you can identify how he used theme to write his book.” 2. mentor text 10 minutes love (2018) by matt de la peña 60 georgia journal of literacy 45(2) 3. anchor chart 10 minutes put the word “love” in the middle of the chart, then identify all the ways that he shows and describes love in the book. do they need to be in one order or another? not necessarily. 4. model 3 minutes “in my writing today, i am going to think of a concept like love and see if i can describe it in many different ways. i’m going to write about my neighborhood. there’s no organization to the people, events, and feelings in my neighborhood; i am just going to describe them.” 5. invite 5 minutes of writing “today, i invite you to write a thematic story if you aren’t in the middle of something else. map it out, then get started.” table 4: story structure lesson 2 – beginning-middle-end organization (fletcher & portalupi, 2007) step time allotted details 1. set goal 2 minutes “today, we are going to try to spread out our story from beginning to middle, to end. let’s revisit the story, hair love, to see how the author did it.” 2. mentor text hair love (2019) by matthew cherry (read aloud at another time before teaching this lesson) 3. anchor chart 10 minutes as you revisit the story with students, map out hair love’s beginning, middle, and end across three pages (sketch pictures, add a few words, etc.). discuss how you want to stretch out the events to make a more detailed story. 4. model 3 minutes “in my writing today, i am going to tell a story across three pages.” write a simple story about something that happened with a clear beginning, middle, and end. 5. invite 15 minutes of writing pass out three pages labeled “beginning, middle, and end” and invite them to sketch and write their own story. table 5: story structure lesson 3 – circular organization step time allotted details 1. set goal 2 minutes “sometimes stories are not organized with a beginning, middle, and end. you have a choice to organize your story in different ways. one way is called the circular organization, where your story returns to the beginning at the end. poetry is often written this way; let’s examine this poem.” 2. mentor text poem to (f.s.) (1925) by langston hughes i loved my friend. he went away from me. there’s nothing more to say. the poem ends, soft as it began— i loved my friend. 3. anchor chart 10 minutes write the poem on the chart and ask students to comment on how it is “circular” and what makes it work to be circular (not all stories work this way). elicit ideas about topics that do not have to have a beginning, middle, or end. make the distinction between event stories and feelings topics to help them. 4. model 3 minutes “in my writing today, i will write about my mom. our relationship does not necessarily have a beginning or an end; things just change. i am going to write a poem like hughes.” szech 61 5. invite 15 minutes of writing “today, i encourage you to try this out if it works for your topic or if you want to start something new.” linguistic diversity teachers often think they must teach their students dominant english (sometimes called “correct” english, subliminally implying other languages are incorrect). as delpit (2006) described, teachers are responsible for teaching students dominant forms of speaking and writing to access the power structures that expect them (job interviews, apartment hunting, etc.). however, in a culturally sustaining classroom and our broader society, dominant english is just one way to speak and write. in a writer’s workshop, students craft their stories as their own; thus, all languages and literacies are welcome. teachers might choose to teach a mini-lesson on dialogue and instruct students to make their characters speak in ways that accurately reflect the person depicted, practicing writing in both dominant english as well as other languages and dialects (table 6). table 6: dialogue mini-lesson step time allotted details 1. set goal 2 minutes “today in your writing, i want you to consider how the narrator speaks and if it reflects how they might really sound in real life.” 2. mentor text chapter 1, the skin i’m in (1998) by sharon flake 3. anchor chart 10 minutes before the lesson, prepare three columns labeled teacher voice, maleeka’s voice, and john-john’s voice. as you read chapter one, write the dialogue in each column. after reading the entire chapter, in a different color marker, add notes about what you learn or can picture about the character from the way they talk (teacher is formal, “excuse me,” john-john teases a lot “ba-boom,” and maleeka is casual “that-a-way.”) 4. model 3 minutes “in my writing today, i am going to make sure that i include dialogue and that it sounds like my brother and me.” model adding two sentences to my memories story. 5. invite 15 minutes of writing “today, i would like you to think about how your characters would talk, what you want us to learn about them from their talking, then include a quote or two.” tip: an important distinction for teachers to recognize is the idea that a usage (spelling, convention, phrasing) must be shared amongst a group of its speakers to be a part of that culture or community. for example, spelling the word /ask/ as /aks/ is a very common, shared usage and, therefore, a correct way to spell and say that word in african american language. if a student is a spanish speaker at home and chooses to write in spanish or a mixture of spanish and english, that likely represents their community’s real usage and is correct. 62 georgia journal of literacy 45(2) steps to start each writer’s workshop lesson follows the same basic flow as shown in the examples above: read aloud, modeling, an invitation to write, writing, and then sharing out (fletcher & portalupi, 2001; jacobsen, 2010). first, teachers read a story or excerpt and point out the skill. next, they model putting it into their own writing. last, they invite students to try out that skill in their writing sometime soon and set them off to write. at the end, everyone comes back together, and a few students share and get feedback. first, pick the writing skill or craft you would like to teach. these can be big-picture writing concepts like how to choose a topic or organize a story all the way down to the nitty-gritty of word choice and comma placement. for example, in the book choice section above, the craft-type lesson is ‘writing from memories’ while the skill one is using adjectives. many teachers struggle to understand what to teach in a writer’s workshop because writing is sometimes conceptualized only as skills. for example, a common core fifth grade writing standard states, “link ideas within and across categories of information using words, phrases, and clauses.” this standard focuses on grammar. writing is a craft, an art form in a writer’s workshop. writing is taught as a means of expression along with the conventional skills that help the writer convey their thoughts to an audience. i highly recommend any beginner to writer’s workshop purchase craft lessons: teaching writing k–8 (fletcher & portalupi, 2007) for an abundance of mini-lessons and the book no more “i’m done”: fostering independent writers in the primary grades (jacobson, 2010) for an overview of the workshop along with management tips. however, to be culturally sustaining, you must adapt the lessons and ideas to have culturally relevant read alouds and to be more centered in your students’ cultural literacy practices. after you decide on the specific skill you want to teach, you need to find culturally relevant literature that clearly models that skill. you do not have to know a lot of books, and this is a time to use your local school librarians or media specialists, public libraries, and online sites like diverse book finder (diversebookfinder.org). you also do not need to purchase physical books; use free resources (e.g., netflix’s bookmarks or a plethora of read alouds on youtube). in the lesson plan below (table 7), i’ve included books that have worked well for me in this community. however, you will have to adapt these choices to fit your community’s needs and practices. once you have picked a book, you will read it aloud to your class, explicitly examining the skill the author exemplifies. this is a great time to create anchor charts that you will display as reminders of each mini-lesson. when the book or excerpt is complete, you will then model how you think about and apply this skill to your own writing. you will fully model this in front of the students. now, this does not mean you are writing a whole story in front of your class. perhaps you are working on picking a better start to your story. you could use a story you have previously written in front of them (save all your writing as well as theirs) and model trying out new beginnings until you pick the one you like best. after modeling, you will invite them to try out this new skill in their writing sometime soon. you do not make it mandatory because perhaps that skill does not fit with what they are tip: even with high schoolers, i predominantly use picture books and poems. when students are first starting, they are intimidated and modeling a skill in a novel subliminally sends the message they must write a novel. tip: consider withholding paper in the beginning until they decide on a topic to start. typically, students see the others starting to write and eventually want a paper to begin their own story. tip: when the students are finished simply say “great! start another one!” and walk away so they realize writing is a continuous cycle (jacobson, 2010). https://diversebookfinder.org/ szech 63 working on that day. suppose you are teaching about dialogue and using quotation marks, but a student is in the middle of writing a descriptive poem. in that case, that student will have to file away that knowledge for a later story (which you and the anchor charts will help them with when it comes to that time). because students are the producers of the work, workshop teachers do not expect students to work on specific timetables or checklists of skills. as students write, the teacher is either writing themselves or circulating to help students with their work. teachers are not endlessly hounding students to get started or providing them with a litany of ideas to write about. students must come up with their own stories on their own, which sometimes takes a few lessons, but it is essential that they find their voice. do not be surprised or frustrated with this process; i have yet to see a student not write anything. invite a few students to share their work in the last few minutes of every single writing period. when students share their writing, they reinforce the writing skill you were teaching by pointing it out or discussing it, celebrate their writing, and encourage reluctant writers to start because they also want this praise and attention. i recommend starting day 1 with a lesson on genre and format (table 7). table 7: genre and format step time allotted details 1. set goal 2 minutes tell students they are going to study authors and books in order to understand how to write better. 2. mentor text (prepare in advance) for this lesson, set out a range of potential culturally relevant books around their reading levels with different genres and formats along the whiteboard ledge. examples:  black boy (1945) by wright (autobiography, novel)  hair love (2019) by cherry (personal/family narrative, picture book)  punching the air (2020) by zoboi and salaam (personal narrative, novel in verse)  sulwe (2019) by nyong’o (fantasy/fairytale, picture book)  the black panther party: a graphic novel history (2021) by walker (historical non-fiction and graphic novel)  monster (1999) by myers (mystery, play) 3. anchor chart 10 minutes prepare the chart with the words “genre” and “format.” define the terms in kid-friendly language. ask the students to suggest genres and formats they may know and add them to the anchor chart (i.e., add a graphic novel to the format section and historical fiction to the genre section). when the students have exhausted their ideas, examine each anchor book to add that genre and format to the chart. 4. model 3 minutes briefly make your own genre and format chart of what you would like to try in your own writing. 5. invite 5 minutes of writing invite students to make their own genre and format chart of ideas they want to write someday. save this chart in their writing folders. discussion and conclusion because the students in a writer’s workshop generate their own stories in their own languages, they will inherently be of their own practices. the culturally sustaining teacher’s job is to embrace, celebrate, and expand on these practices while teaching dominant practices that lead to access to tip: writer’s workshop also includes individual conferencing. this is a very important piece to consider once your workshop is flowing. read further into this topic after getting started. 64 georgia journal of literacy 45(2) power. the fourth and fifth-grade teacher i worked with reflected, “i wanted them to see that they are the authors; this is not ‘read this book and tell me what the right answer is.’ in writing, they make the decisions.” her students were gaining agency in the classroom. in 2014, ladson-billings described the shift towards culturally sustaining pedagogy, explaining how it “layer[s] the multiple ways that this notion of pedagogy shifts, changes, adapts, recycles, and recreates instructional spaces to ensure that consistently marginalized students are repositioned into a place of normativity—that is, that they become subjects in the instructional process, not mere objects” (p. 76). in a writer’s workshop, your pedagogy shifts and adapts so students have that agency and are positioned in the center of instruction. i encourage you to start here and then read more to grow your workshop. as the teacher in the introduction reflected, starting is one of the hardest parts. i suggest you order a book or two on leading a workshop, such as no more i’m done: fostering independent writers in the primary grades (jacobson, 2010), and simply begin with the suggested lessons in this article. once you get started, it will be much easier to understand and adapt to best fit the needs of your students! references bishop, r.s. (2012). reflections on the development of african american children’s literature. journal of children’s literature, 38(2), 5–13. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ej984607 delpit, l. (2006). other people’s children: cultural conflict in the classroom. the new press. fletcher, r., & portalupi, j. (2007). craft lessons: teaching writing, k–8 (2nd ed). stenhouse. jacobsen, j. (2010). no more “i’m done”: fostering independent writers in the primary grades. stenhouse. ladson-billings, g. (2009). the dreamkeepers: successful teachers of african american children (2nd ed). john wiley & sons. ladson-billings, g. (2014). culturally relevant pedagogy 2.0: a.k.a. the remix. harvard educational review, 84(1), 74–84. https://doi.org/10.17763/haer.84.1.p2rj131485484751 ordoñez-jasis, r., & flores, s.y. (2011). descubriendo historias/uncovering stories: the literacy worlds of latino children and families. in c. compton-lilly, & s. greene (eds.), bedtime stories and book reports: connecting parent involvement and family literacy (pp. 124– 137). teachers college press. paris, d. (2012). culturally sustaining pedagogy: a needed change in stance, terminology, and practice. educational researcher, 41(3), 93–97. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189x1244 1244 mentor texts alexander, k. (2019). the undefeated. houghton mifflin harcourt. cherry, m. (2019). hair love. penguin random house. de la peña, m. (2018). love. g.p. putnam’s sons. flake, s. (1998). the skin i’m in. hyperion. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ej984607%20 https://doi.org/10.17763/haer.84.1.p2rj131485484751 https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189x12441244 https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189x12441244 szech 65 greenfield, e. (1974). she come bringing me that little baby girl. harper collins. hughes, l. (1925). “poem to (f.s.).” the crisis. myers, w. d. (1999). monster. harpercollins. nyong’o, l. (2019). sulwe. simon & schuster. walker, d. (2021). the black panther party: a graphic novel history. ten speed press. wright, r. (1945). black boy. harpercollins. zoboi, i., & salaam, y. (2020). punching the air. harpercollins. received: may 19, 2023 | accepted: july 7, 2023 | published: november 13, 2023 book choice table 1: writing from memories (based on a mini-lesson in jacobson, 2010) table 2: choosing better words – adjectives figure 1: text message exchange story structure table 3: story structure lesson 1 – thematic organization table 5: story structure lesson 3 – circular organization linguistic diversity table 6: dialogue mini-lesson steps to start table 7: genre and format discussion and conclusion references mentor texts georgia journal of literacy 2023, vol. 45(1), pp. 1–3 https://doi.org/10.56887/galiteracy.108 issn: 2833-7611 editorial article contact dr. bethany l. scullin, associate professor, department of literacy and special education, university of west georgia, carrollton, ga; email bscullin@westga.edu. dr. robert a. griffin, assistant professor, department of literacy and special education, university of west georgia, carrollton, ga; email rgriffin@westga.edu (https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3128-7687). expanding literacy horizons: inclusive, diverse, and innovative approaches bethany l. scullin university of west georgia, carrollton, ga robert a. griffin university of west georgia, carrollton, ga abstract the spring 2023 issue of the georgia journal of literacy, “expanding literacy horizons: inclusive, diverse, and innovative approaches,” aims to inspire and inform k–12 literacy educators, researchers, and stakeholders by offering valuable insights, research, and resources. the issue emphasizes collaboration, creativity, and critical reflection and is divided into sections by article type, including a literature review on inclusive literacy ideologies; practitioner articles exploring interdisciplinary approaches, reading aloud, and the use of cluster texts to celebrate diversity in education; and teaching tips offering guidance on organizing author visits, fostering classroom community, and transitioning to digital interactive journals. the issue encourages readers to reflect on how inclusive, diverse, and innovative approaches can be integrated into their practices to create more equitable, dynamic, and engaging learning environments. keywords literacy advocacy; editorial; diversity and inclusion; innovative approaches n an ever-changing landscape of literacy education, it is paramount for educators, researchers, and stakeholders to actively pursue and embrace approaches and strategies that embody our collective commitment to inclusivity, diversity, and innovation (banks & mcgee banks, 2020; grote-garcia & ortlieb, 2023). the spring 2023 issue of the georgia journal of literacy, aptly titled “expanding literacy horizons: inclusive, diverse, and innovative approaches,” endeavors to serve as a beacon of inspiration and knowledge for a wide array of literacy advocates. from k– 12 literacy teachers, teacher educators, and researchers to educational leaders and policymakers, this issue offers literacy advocates a wealth of valuable insights, timely research, and practical resources designed to empower and enrich literacy education across the spectrum. with an emphasis on collaboration, creativity, and critical reflection, the diverse contributions in this issue aim to ignite meaningful conversations and foster transformative learning experiences within and beyond the classroom. as we navigate the complexities and challenges of literacy education in georgia and throughout the nation, it is our hope that the ideas, practices, and perspectives presented in this issue will serve as a catalyst for cultivating more inclusive, diverse, and innovative approaches in literacy education, ultimately benefiting learners of all ages, backgrounds, and abilities. i mailto:bscullin@westga.edu mailto:rgriffin@westga.edu https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3128-7687 2 georgia journal of literacy 45(1) literature review: inclusive literacy and ideologies our issue begins with dr. alexandra lampp berglund’s literature review “diverging ideologies of disability: an examination of literature on inclusive literacy,” which delves into the concept of inclusive literacy and its implications for students with disabilities. through a comprehensive literature review grounded in critical disability studies, berglund highlights the need for continued research and advocacy in this area. readers can hope to gain an understanding of how disability ideologies are present in research on inclusive literacy practices, ultimately encouraging educators to consider more inclusive approaches to literacy education. practitioner articles: bridging diversity and innovative strategies this issue features three practitioner articles that skillfully bridge diversity and inclusion with innovative teaching strategies. in “a passion for fashion: studying fashion through children’s literature,” dr. sharryn larsen walker and maggie walker showcase a unique interdisciplinary approach to engage students' interests in the fashion industry. they expertly demonstrate how children’s literature can be utilized to build background knowledge, offering readers a wealth of literary resources and strategies that can be integrated into english language arts, career education, or arts courses. dr. william p. bintz’s insightful article, “reading aloud to children: a cautionary tale,” serves as a powerful reminder that reading aloud is an art form requiring skill, intentionality, and sensitivity. through this piece, readers will delve into the complexities of reading aloud, gaining a comprehensive understanding of research on the topic. the article equips educators with a variety of recommended texts and strategies to optimize the benefits of this practice while ensuring that it is inclusive and meaningful for all students. finally, in “beyond the single story: utilizing cluster texts to celebrate diversity,” dr. lisa parker and jenny malec emphasize the importance of representation and inclusivity in the texts shared with students. they expertly guide readers through the concepts of intertextuality and cluster texts, offering practical examples of how these resources can be employed to present a rich tapestry of stories and experiences that reflect the diverse world in which we live. teaching tips: practical approaches and innovative strategies the final subsection of the issue features three insightful teaching tips pieces that offer practical guidance for educators. in the first article in this section, “tips for planning a successful author visit,” drs. tiffany watson, nicole maxwell, and danielle hartsfield share their expertise on organizing and executing memorable author visits. these visits have the potential to inspire students’ love for reading and writing, and the authors outline the key steps involved in planning such events. readers can expect to learn not only how author visits can support learning outcomes but also how to foster an authentic connection with the world of literature through these unique experiences. additionally, the article delves into strategies for overcoming financial barriers by exploring various funding opportunities that can make these enriching author visits a reality for schools and campuses. dr. kathleen crawford and heather huling present two teaching tips articles. in “building classroom community in elementary literacy methods courses,” they introduce the practice of “tell me time” (tmt), an adaptation of morning meetings that fosters connection and communication among students. readers will discover specific examples of tmt activities and learn how to successfully implement this practice in their courses. crawford and huling’s second scullin & griffin 3 article, “out with the old, in with the new: digital interactive journals in an elementary language arts methods course,” explores the transition from traditional to digital interactive journals. readers can expect practical guidance on implementing this strategy in the classroom and learn how to integrate technology into literacy instruction. final reflections this issue of the georgia journal of literacy presents a diverse array of perspectives and insights on literacy education, with the overarching aim of inspiring readers to broaden their own horizons and foster meaningful learning experiences for all students. we are deeply grateful for the invaluable contributions of our authors, as we believe that their collective work will ignite meaningful change within the realm of literacy education. as you delve into the articles in this issue, we encourage you to contemplate the myriad ways in which inclusive, diverse, and innovative approaches can be seamlessly woven into your own practice. reflect on the strategies and resources our authors have thoughtfully presented, and ponder how they might be adapted or tailored to suit your unique context (cremin et al., 2022). by embracing the spirit of collaboration and the shared pursuit of knowledge, we can all contribute to the creation of more equitable, dynamic, and engaging learning environments for our students. it is our hope that “expanding literacy horizons: inclusive, diverse, and innovative approaches” will prompt you to challenge traditional assumptions, welcome novel ideas, and continually evolve as a literacy advocate. as we collectively strive for a more inclusive, diverse, and innovative future within literacy education, the georgia journal of literacy remains steadfast in its commitment to support you on this transformative journey. references banks, j. a., & mcgee banks, c. a. (2020). multicultural education: issues and perspectives (10th ed.). john wiley & sons. cremin, t., hendry, h., leon, l. r., & kucirkova, n. (eds.). (2022). reading teachers: nurturing reading for pleasure. taylor & francis. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003215615 grote-garcia, s., & ortlieb, e. (2023). what’s hot in literacy: the duality of explicit instruction & cultural and linguistic considerations. literacy research and instruction, 62(1), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1080/19388071.2023.2162207 published: april 3, 2023 https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003215615 https://doi.org/10.1080/19388071.2023.2162207 literature review: inclusive literacy and ideologies practitioner articles: bridging diversity and innovative strategies teaching tips: practical approaches and innovative strategies final reflections references e4fbfd7b-4ab2-4e75-bbb6-874e616a5db5 ���������� � ��������� � �� �� ��� ������� ������������� ��������� !"�������#�$%�!&�'!$()�'*��!+,��-�$!�����.!/, *01�23245�2640789:;<=>;?@ab�ab�c�decbbfggh�bifcijkl�i@ci�@jemb�i@j�binojpi�qjdghj�fjbmgpbaqej�rgf�i@jaf�gsp�ejcfpapktucvj�lgn�jvjf�qjjp�ap�c�decbbfggh�s@jfj�lgnf�wxyz[[\]̂[�y_̀a_yw�ẁbc�def]w�]w�wxzg]ah�iy�dj�aîkx�l̂im�`̂bxf]̂[�̀̂ bm̀ bc�jkn�aznoph�ef_w_�wx̀x_n_̂xwc�ǹ 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ú¾�̧½±à́º�þ�¹·¿�¹̧²́�à́º́�»¶·½¼ß�¹·¿�̧�à�¶½�°½»¶ºã̧¿°¶½�ä̧́º½́¼�ó·¿�¼°¼�½¶¿�̧½±à́º�̧�á·́±¿°¶½ø¾�̧½±à́º�þ�¹̧²́�»¶·½¼ù¾�̧½±à́º�þ�¹̧²́�»¶·½¼�à�½́à�°½»¶ºã̧¿°¶½ georgia journal of literacy 2023, vol. 45(1), pp. 4–19 https://doi.org/10.56887/galiteracy.103 issn: 2833-7611 literature review contact dr. alexandra lampp berglund, assistant professor of reading, literacy, and language; department of professional learning & innovation, georgia college & state university, milledgeville, ga; email alexandra.berglund @gcsu.edu. diverging ideologies of disability: a critique of literature on inclusive literacy alexandra lampp berglund georgia college & state university, milledgeville, ga abstract although the concept of literacy has continued to evolve through the work of innovative scholars and educators, conventional understandings of literacy still abound within published scholarship. pushing past these traditional notions of literacy, a small subset of scholars has advocated for a broadened conceptualization of literacy. labeled inclusive literacy, this relatively new approach to literacy draws from both socially and cultural situated literacy practices (street, 1984) and multimodal literacy practices (kress & vanleeuwen, 2001), as it takes into account diverse symbol systems and acknowledges literacy’s part in daily practices. further, inclusive literacy values all literacy experiences and works to include children with disabilities, a group that is so often overlooked in regard to literacy learning (flewitt et al., 2009). grounded in critical disability studies and language ideology theories, this literature review seeks to explore the diverging disability ideologies found in research published on inclusive literacy practices and the ways researchers position students with disabilities. specifically, this analysis examines the myriad ways scholars take up or fail to acknowledge the term disability as a means to understand the ways that language use is connected to disability ideologies (irvine & gal, 2000). keywords inclusive literacy; disability; critical disability studies; language ideology eu et al. (2013) wrote that literacy “becomes new every day of our lives” (p. 1150). however, despite literacy’s continual evolution, understandings of literacy defined by only written and print text persist (lawson et al., 2012). taking note of literacy’s transformation and children’s literacy engagement in different social contexts, new literacy studies (nls) theorists have advocated for a broadened conceptualization of literacy (lankshear & knobel, 2011; street, 1984). particularly, nls research has recognized the existence of multiple literacies and views literacy as the “socially recognized ways in which people generate, communicate, and negotiate meanings” (lankshear & knobel, 2011, p. 33). a small subset of scholars has worked to expand the socially situated and multifaceted understanding of literacy first promoted by nls. this expansion considers diverse symbol systems and the multiple modes involved in meaning making (lawson et al., 2012). labeling this approach inclusive literacy, these same scholars’ visions go further than those associated with nls, as they have advocated for pushing against traditional notions of literacy and sought to include children with disabilities by valuing all literacy experiences (flewitt et al., 2009). in this way, inclusive literacy promotes inclusivity in both the literacy practices and learners it supports. promoting inclusivity, much of the published scholarship on inclusive literacy has presented diverging ideological constructions of disability. the ideologies infused within this research align with different models of disability and derive from varying theoretical positions. l mailto:alexandra.berglund@gcsu.edu mailto:alexandra.berglund@gcsu.edu lampp berglund 5 these ideological differences have the potential to impact practicing educators’ understandings of inclusivity that ground these inclusive literacy practices. to uncover the array of ideologies of disability woven into research conducted on inclusive literacy, a critique of the literature is warranted. specifically, a critical exploration that considers how scholars employ the term disability is needed to understand ideologies of disability. this pairing of inclusive literacy and disability promotes the collective goals of the field of critical disability studies (cds). cds lies in ideological opposition to the “entrenched pseudoscientific foundations of special education” that dominate much of the available research on students with disabilities (connor et al., 2014, p. 6). highlighting research on inclusive literacy in the field of language and literacy education “provid[es] evidence” of cds “at work,” and “in action” (connor et al., 2014, p. 6). additionally, analyzing the use of the term disability within the literature allows us to understand the ways that language use is inherently and deeply connected to ideologies of disability. this critique also draws on the scholarship of irvine and gal (2000), cavanaugh (2020), and hasselbacher (2018) situated within the field of language ideology, to continually enforce the important connections between literacy, language use, and ideology. using a theoretical framework of cds and language and ideology, the following research question guides this critique: in what ways do authors of scholarship on inclusive literacy employ the term disability? however, before examining the extant published research, the theoretical, historical, and cultural conditions that have sparked the creation of the concept of inclusive literacy must be explored. the following sections serve to situate the literature firmly within these contexts. first, the prominent influences that have shaped and informed inclusive literacy are reviewed. additionally, this initial exploration of inclusive literacy is key in understanding inclusive literacy as a separate concept and how it differs from the influential tenets of nls. further, this explanation will help illuminate the ways that nls does not serve as a grounding theory for this critique. rather, nls serves as a reference and starting point for introducing the history of inclusive literacy. next, the theories that frame the review are discussed, as each section is guided by this theoretical alignment. within the theoretical framework section, an intertwined view of cds and language ideology is presented. before presenting the findings of this review, the specific methods used to carefully craft this review are included. finally, the findings reveal the multiple ways that disability both is and is not featured in the literature. further, the findings highlight how this language use is inherently tied to ideologies of disability. understanding these connections can have significant impacts on educators, and these implications are explored in the concluding section. what is inclusive literacy? the concept of inclusive literacy initially arose from educators’ quest to provide a quality education to students with disabilities, as “inclusive policies only find meaning in inclusive practices” (nutbrown & clough, 2009, p. 192). instead of excluding students from literacy activities that can position literacy solely “as a curricular goal” and “the development of skillsbased reading and writing competences” (flewitt et al., 2009, p. 212), educators have continually expanded the notion of literacy often promoted in their classrooms. aligning with this expansion, inclusive literacy does not view literacy simply as a “set of technical skills concerned with reading and writing” but as “embedded in social practice” (flewitt et al., 2009, p. 213). drawing from street’s (1984) socially and culturally situated literacy practices and kress and van leeuwen’s (2001) concept of multimodal literacy, inclusive literacy offers a way to consider meaning making that moves beyond talk and written text to include “multiple ‘modes’ of communication, such as 6 georgia journal of literacy 45(1) gesture, gaze, movement, body positioning, words, vocalizations, and alternative and augmentative communications systems, including sign, symbol, and formal programs” (flewitt et al., 2009, p. 214). through this broadened understanding of literacy, students can be provided with differentiated and inclusive instruction that meets the needs of all students, including those with disabilities (milton, 2017b). to expand on the foundational concepts that frame inclusive literacy and how inclusive literacy generatively builds upon these influences, street’s (1984) and kress and van leeuwen’s (2001) groundbreaking research is briefly reviewed. street (1984) presented an understanding of literacy as “a shorthand for the social practices and conceptions of reading and writing” (p. 1). through this lens, literacy, again, is viewed as multiple practices, rather than a static, singular entity. in street’s work, literacy encompasses practices that accomplish the same purposes of reading and writing but occur organically, both culturally and socially, as individuals communicate and make meaning in their daily lives. inclusive literacy draws from this notion that literacy can be varied and is unique, based on context, and that knowledge is co-constructed in social contexts (milton, 2017b). kress and van leeuwen (2001), too, brought forward a broadened conceptualization of literacy with their theory of multimodality and highlight the multiple modes that people can and do use to make meaning. building on street’s (1984) influential research that explores the social nature of meaning making, kress and van leeuwen (2001) explained that the different modes used by individuals to communicate are “forms within the various sign systems that carry the meanings that a social collective recognizes and understands” (albers & harste, 2007, p. 11). further, as jewitt et al. (2016) shared, multimodality “marks a departure from the traditional opposition of ‘verbal’ and ‘non-verbal’ communication” (p. 3). this view of literacy acknowledges the value that has been previously placed on verbal communication and upends the verbal/nonverbal binary. inclusive literacy is built on the foundation of this acknowledgement, as it includes multiple modes that move past the singular mode of verbal communication and considers the various means of communication that students with disabilities use, far beyond verbal utterances. inclusive literacy differs from street’s (1984) and kress and van leeuwen’s (2001) theory of multimodality and research in the way that it specifically advocates for individuals with disabilities right to literacy. further, inclusive literacy is grounded in the understanding that literacy is a human right, particularly for children as they grow, develop, and make meaning of the world around them in different and yet still powerful ways. proponents of inclusive literacy seek to ensure that all students are granted these rights, specifically through the continual reconsideration of literacy and the quest to understand literacy’s complexities and all that it can entail. the emphasis placed on acceptance creates the unique concept of inclusive literacy. educational stakeholders can foster inclusive literacy in a variety of ways. the consideration of multimodal literacy, first introduced by nls scholars, serves as the first step toward inclusion. however, more than simply considering multimodal literacy is needed, as stressed by flewitt et al., (2009). flewitt et al. (2009) highlights that creating an inclusive environment, practicing consistency in activities, holding high expectations of students’ development, and building relationships are all crucial elements in supporting inclusive literacy. while the influences of nls are notable in inclusive literacy, these additional critical behaviors set inclusive literacy apart from other scholarship within the field. lampp berglund 7 theoretical framework cds serves to uniquely frame this review of the literature on inclusive literacy, as cds offers a view of disability that is tied to societal, historical, and cultural conceptualizations. language ideology, or beliefs about language, connects language use and social organization (hasselbacher, 2018; piller, 2015; silverstein, 1979). cds then provides a means to interpret and analyze these social organizations through the lens of varying models of disability. to understand the points of convergence between these two complimentary theories, each is explored, as is its relevancy to inclusive literacy. critical disability studies (cds) disability studies, more broadly, draws from a range of disciplines, including psychology, education, sociology, and policy and cultural studies, and focuses on the phenomena of disability and ability in relation to political and social categorizations (goodley, 2014). within this larger field, cds is a response to the critical turn coupled with disability activism and seeks to include new paradigms to continually reconceptualize the disability experience. these influences can be traced to postconventionalist, poststructural, postcolonial, feminist, queer, and crip theories. similar to these schools of thought, cds challenges scholars of disability theory to rethink material constructions of the body within society (goodley et al., 2019; shildrick, 2012). in addition to the influence of these prominent theories, one can see how cds is infused with and informed by critical pedagogy, as the goal of cds is to promote education as a means to resist preconceived societal norms surrounding disability (goodley, 2014). the transformative understandings of embodiment within cds position disability as “part of a multiplicity of possibilities,” rather than a marked difference or deficit (shildrick, 2012, p. 31). as cds is a subfield within disability studies, the models within disability studies that have shaped disability into a complex and everchanging concept are important to consider. these differing models are represented in the literature on inclusive literacy included and serve as the basis for the subsequent analysis and organization of this critique. the medical model of disability, often viewed as the “normative” model of disability, employs medical discourse in which disability is read “solely through biological, genetic, hormonal, neurological, and physiological language” (goodley, 2014, p. 4). opposing this model, the social model of disability pushes against the concept of impairment constructed by the medicalization of disability. further, the social model of disability attempts to break down the social, economic, and cultural barriers that are created to prevent those with perceived impairments from participating in a variety of social activities (goodley, 2014). simply put, the concept of a disabling society is problematized, rather than disability itself. lastly, postconventional models of disability developed from postmodern and poststructural theory (shildrick, 2012). these models deconstruct the epistemological and discursive forces that shape the lived disability experience. as these models of disability are reviewed, it is imperative to note that their progression is not mean to be presented in a linear way. instead, as evidenced in the literature featured in this critique, these models all exist simultaneously and are taken up in a variety of settings. many scholars, activists, and individuals within the disability community both champion and discourage the use of different models. no one model can serve as “final answers” to questions surrounding disability, because, as shildrick (2012) asserted, “the work of critique is to keep alive the very process in which questions itself generates new potential” (p. 31). in this way, cds, including its many varying models, is a means to examine why individual ideologies may be used in a particular context and what factors may have informed and shaped these ideologies. 8 georgia journal of literacy 45(1) language ideologies language ideology is commonly defined as a set of language beliefs and is infused with numerous connotations. as woolard and schieffelin (1994) shared, the use of the term ideology acknowledges the cultural, historical, and social influences exerted upon language and the inherent power of these forces. moreover, following poststructural lines of inquiry, the term also reminds scholars that these same cultural, historical, and social forces are “partial, contestable and contested, and interest-laden” (woolard & schieffelin, 1994, p. 58). interested specifically in language, silverstein (1979) promoted that language ideologies are “sets of beliefs about language articulated by users as a rationalization or justification of perceived language structure and use” (p. 193). language ideologies help speakers understand the relationships between language and their use (cavanaugh, 2020). while language is the predominant focus of much of the field of language ideology, a small, yet emergent, community of scholars call for an examination of the ways that literacy, in addition to language use, shapes ideologies (bhattacharya & sterponi, 2020; hasselbacher, 2018; ochs et al., 2005; phuong, 2017; volk & angelova, 2007). these researchers have employed a critical approach that borrows features from discourse analysis to feature an understanding of literacy and language use that “is not limited to talk and text” (phuong, p. 51) and “refers to any number of semiotic systems . . . rather than an individual’s ability to use one in particular” (hasselbacher, 2018, p. 72). this expansion doesn’t attempt to conflate literacy with language. instead, these scholars hoped to emphasize the connection between language and literacy and the ways they generatively build upon and inform one another. further, the consideration of literacy within language ideologies presents an exciting opportunity to weave together cds and language ideology, because, as phuong (2017) shared, cds and language ideology “are rarely discussed in tandem,” despite disability and language ideology being similarly laden with cultural and social influences and struggles of power (p. 51). further, so many within the disability community communicate in ways that stretch far beyond talk and text. in this critique, i align with this group of language ideology scholars that have promoted this inclusivity. understanding various ideologies surrounding disability informs how disability is framed in multiple educational settings, including but not limited to literacy education and the research published within these fields. throughout this critique of the literature on inclusive literacy practice, language ideologies ground the analysis of research on inclusive literacy, while cds serves as a more specific way to examine why individual ideologies may be used in a particular context and how these ideologies are made evident through literacy engagement and language use. conceptualizing the complex inclusion, literacy, and disability each do not have one commonly accepted definition. instead, they are entities whose meanings change based on their context. to form my own understandings of these terms while critiquing the literature available, i use cds and language ideologies as frameworks to define these complex terms. i begin with the term literacy to ground my work in the larger field of language and literacy education and then move on to the concept of inclusion to similarly situate my work among previous notable scholarship in cds. lastly, the continually evolving concept of disability is unpacked to introduce the ways that the term can and is employed across the literature published on inclusive literacy. literacy. leu et al. (2013) proclaimed that literacy “defines both who we are and who we shall become” (p. 115). society collectively informs the ways that literacy is conceptualized, as lampp berglund 9 needs for producing and consuming texts change and evolve. literacy, in turn, also shapes who we are, as it defines the ways that we can and will communicate with others. literacy has continually been linked with societal needs (monaghan & hartman, 2000), and, with each piece cited in this critique, a different view of society and, thus, a different ideology of literacy is presented. each author and researcher whose work is featured understood and placed various degrees of importance on gender, race, class, and, obviously, ability, as literacy has long “been influenced by these shifting currents” (monaghan & hartman, 2000, p. 111). woolard and schieffelin (1994) echoed how ideologies of literacy have long relied on social institutions and that “the definition of what is and what is not literacy is always a profoundly political matter” (p. 66). scholars have made evident that no one understanding of literacy can be separated from the forces that have informed it. in this sense, my own definition of literacy is colored by the myriad forces that have shaped and formed it and is still continually evolving. most noticeably, cds and inclusive literacy have shaped the ways i view literacy. within this work and in my own life, i define literacy not just as written text or spoken language. literacy can encompass bodily movements and gestures, pictures drawn by hand or using computer software, and so much more. in this way, i view literacy as making meaning across multiple mediums, mirroring the underlying tenets of inclusive literacy. inclusion. as the concept of inclusive literacy is explored, a focus on the term inclusion as it relates to educational and, more specifically, classroom practices, is crucial. much of the research featured in this analysis of the literature focuses on the practical implications of inclusive literacy, so this consideration is key when unpacking the ideologies of scholars who support inclusive literacy. more specifically, inclusive education serves as a driving force of inclusive literacy. however, in different contexts, inclusion can be defined quite differently. within the united states, the passage of the individuals with disabilities education act (idea) in 1975 sought to guarantee that eligible students with disabilities are provided a “free and appropriate public school education in the least restrictive environment,” commonly abbreviated as fape and lre (u. s. department of education, n.d.). idea, then, seeks to control how state and public agencies provide particular educational services to the disability community, including early intervention and special education programs. or equitable access and inclusion for all children within digital spaces. however, despite this widespread government support, local schools grapple with the interpretation and implementation of this legislation and the appropriateness of the services offered vary widely (colker, 2013; sack, 2000). with this ambiguity, teachers and administrators alike are left wondering how to best educate their students with disabilities and, ultimately the meaning of inclusion. this uncertainty is prevalent throughout published research on inclusive literacy. researchers vary in their interpretations, and much of the research has viewed inclusion, particularly in regard to literacy, as a right (barratt-pugh et al., 2017; flewitt et al., 2009; kliewer et al., 2006; lawson et al., 2012; milton, 2017b), a way to reconceptualize literacy (lacey et al., 2007; lawson et al., 2012, milton, 2017a; milton, 2017b; oakley, 2017; price-dennis et al., 2015), and the outcome of desegregating classrooms (barratt-pugh et al., 2017; milton, 2017b; pricedennis et al, 2015). disability. as with inclusion, much legislation has sought to define disability. for instance, the americans with disabilities act (ada), a prominent piece of legislation in the united states, 10 georgia journal of literacy 45(1) legally defines disability as “a physical or mental impairment that substantially limits one or more major life activity” (ada national network, n.d., para. 2). further, this definition includes disability can be either “recorded” or “regarded” (ada national network, n.d., para. 2). the ada’s notion of “regarded as having a disability” aligns with the commonly accepted understanding of disability as a social phenomenon, and impairment serves as the central tenet of this definition. contrastingly, having a “record of” a disability entails “that the person has a history of or has been misclassified as having a mental or physical impairment… even though the person does not currently have a disability” (ada national network, n.d., para. 1). within my work, i use the ada’s concept of a “regarded” disability. with this definition, i consider individuals own personal interpretation of their disability. in addition to honoring the voices of the disability community in my definition of disability, i do the same with the discursive representation of disability. while many scholars often use the term dis/ability or (dis)ability to represent the postmodern or poststructural theories that informs their work, both scholars (linton, 2017; overboe, 1999; shildrick, 2012; titchkosky, 2006) and activists (ableism is trash, 2022; autistic truth, 2022; disability reframed, 2021; talk disability, 2021; neurodifferent, 2022) within the disability community simply use disability. this decision aligns with one of the integral components of the disability rights movement: nothing about us without us (charlton, 1998). with this alignment, i acknowledge and listen to the disability community on disability issues (disability reframed, 2021; talk disability, 2021). research methods to begin the process of gathering research on inclusive literacy, i sought to deeply understand the concepts that would serve as my primary search terms: inclusion, literacy, and disability. these keywords are relevant and were chosen with intent. maxwell (2006) defined keywords as terms “that have important implications for the design, conduct, or interpretation of the study, not simply those that deal with the topic, or in the defined field or substantive area, of the research” (p. 28). following maxwell’s guidance, each of these keywords informed and subsequently guided the review of the literature. after determining the keywords, literac* and inclus*, i began my search of six electronic databases, including academic search complete, ebscohost, education research complete, eric, psychinfo, and socindex with full text. i conducted this search in three different phases to discover how the term disability has been used within published research on inclusive literacy. each phase was documented extensively by recording the results of each individual search and listing commonalities found among the pieces featured and noting studies of interest. the numerical results from this initial phase of the search presented 17,788 peer-reviewed journal articles. to narrow the search significantly and to bound the search within the field of education, the keyword educat* was added and produced significantly less results: 8,505 published pieces. during the third and final phase, the key word disabilit* was added to align the search with the research question posed. this search highlighted 1,121 peer-reviewed academic journal articles, with only 171 being research reports. sharing the results from these three searches provides a wider scope to this critique by highlighting the vast amount of research that has been conducted that focuses on inclusive literacy. additionally, this presentation of data displays the significantly smaller amount of research that examines inclusive literacy that explicitly involve and include students with disabilities. the final search, with only 171 publications, provided a basis for the next step in the process of reviewing the available literature. i determined whether each article did, in fact, describe inclusive literacy lampp berglund 11 and students with disabilities by completing a “quality screening” that helped me to “narrow the search by identifying the best available studies” for this particular review (fink, 2014, p. 49). i then transferred the identifying information of each “quality” piece to a literature management system. this screening allowed me to narrow by focus by reviewing 10 studies in total. the goal in crafting an organizational scheme was to determine the types of research featured and to assist in the process of close reading. this system included the following: article citation, purpose, theoretical framework, methodology, definition of inclusion, definition of (dis)ability, findings and key arguments, and a “so what” category. the “so what” category allowed me to explicate what stood out in each piece and primary takeaways (bhattacharya, n.d.). additionally, by analyzing the research in this way invited me to “note differences in how a variable is measured across studies” (galvin & galvin, 2017, p. 73). in this critique, the variable measured across studies is the myriad ways that disability is employed in research published on inclusive literacy. findings employing the term disability is no simple task, as explored extensively in the sections above. multifaceted and complex, disability, as a concept, actively resists the use of one specific label or definition that can be used in all contexts (shildrick, 2012). within the context of the literature reviewed, two common themes are found in the ways that researchers attempt to employ the term disability: omission of the term disability when identifying students and promoting the participation of students with disabilities. these themes speak to the institutional discourses found within the scholarship and the ways these discourses reflect larger societal beliefs or ideologies (cavanaugh, 2020). avoidance of the term disability first and foremost, no published pieces explicitly defined disability, but these same publications defined literacy, inclusion, and inclusive literacy. the scholars’ attention to clearly defining literacy, inclusion, and inclusive literacy may be attributed to their selected publication outlets and foci. additionally, authors may have made assumptions of a shared understanding of what is meant by the term disability within a particular discipline. many of the cited pieces were featured in journals originating in the fields of special education and inclusive education, and these disciplines often focus on issues surrounding disability but not literacy engagement. for instance, within the journal of research in special educational needs, lacey et al. (2007) acknowledged that, for students with disabilities, “conventional literacy could be seen as irrelevant” (p. 149). with this acknowledgement, lacey et al. (2007) needed to define conventional literacy and how it differs from inclusive literacy. however, defining disability didn’t work toward achieving the goal of lacey et al.’s (2007) research which was to seek out and share examples of teaching and learning practices that include students with disabilities. while these reasons for omission may align with disciplinary norms or authors’ intentions, the scholars’ exclusion of an explicit definition of disability is striking, as disability is inherently bound within definitions of inclusion and inclusive literacy. despite the absence of an explicit definition of disability, researchers’ language use signals their ideological positioning in regard to disability. while four scholars did employ the term disability (barratt-pugh, 2017; flewitt et al., 2009; kliewer et al., 2006; milton, 2017a), five authors chose not to use the term disability in their work and instead used terms that still signal disability in various ways, either employing an asset-based or deficit lens (lacey et al., 2017; 12 georgia journal of literacy 45(1) lawson et al, 2012; oakley, 2017; price-dennis et al., 2015; valtierra & siegel, 2019). this avoidance is notable and aligns with the “underlying attitudes, values, and subconscious prejudices and fears that ground a persistent, albeit often unspoken intolerance” of people with disabilities that permeates society and, more specifically educational spaces (shildrick, 2012, p. 35). the terms that were used to signal disability deficiently include the following: students with severe learning difficulties (sld; lacey et al., 2007; lawson et al., 2012); learners with diverse needs (oakley, 2017); and special education students (price-dennis et al., 2015). the term associated with an asset-based stance is academically diverse learners (valtierra & siegal, 2019). used most frequently in the literature, the term students with sld derived from the organisation for economic cooperation and development (oecd) that divides literacy into five levels, ranging from the first level that includes “people with very poor skills” to levels four and five that seek to categorize “people who demonstrate command of higher-order information processing skills” (lacey et al., 2007, p. 149). the oecd is an international organization that works alongside governments, policy makers, and citizens to establish “evidence-based international standards and find solutions to a range of social, economic, and environmental challenges” (oecd, n.d.). the data produced from literacy research conducted by the oecd has implications in 38 countries around the world, but not without criticism. specifically, within the united states, the data is used to determine the need for additional educational opportunities and targeted instruction for students across grade levels. with its varying levels, the oecd’s literacy scale has created an international standard for literacy skills and employs a deficit-based lens that focuses on what students cannot do in regard to conventional literacy practices, rather than focusing on multimodal literacy engagement. this rating system excludes and sets students apart from their peers, and the specific words used to describe the literacy levels are connotative of the damaging discourses and normative views associated with the medical model of disability that sees disability as deficient (haegele & hodge, 2016). in the medical model, “it is the medical diagnosis (and not the individualized needs of the child) that determines the available placement for the child” (haegele & hodge, p. 196). similar discourses circulate around high-stakes literacy assessments that inform literacy levels such as these that seek to uphold “normative” standards (erevelles, 2012). within the featured scholarship, students with sld were understood simply as one level of a larger literacy scale, not as individual, capable learners who can and do enjoy engaging in literacy. by not acknowledging disability, the term students with severe learning difficulties (sld) focuses on difficulties rather than the possibilities and potentiality that is bound within disability (goodley et al., 2019). attempting to acknowledge the multidimensional nature of disability, diversity is often used as a placeholder for disability, as seen through the use of the terms, learners with diverse needs (oakley, 2017) and academically diverse learners (valtierra & siegel, 2019). oakley (2017) did not define what was meant by the term learners with diverse needs and instead cited that the focus of the piece was the benefits of using technology with students with disabilities. oakley (2017) further shared, “a major use of technology has been drills and games for struggling children to ‘remedy’ their learning difficulties or close the gap in the basics of phonological awareness and letter sound correspondences” (p. 162). with this goal clearly presented, one can infer that oakley equated learners with diverse needs with students with disabilities. exploring the implications of the use of the term learners with diverse needs presents the opportunity to unpack the complicated history of the term special needs, as the two terms are similar in many ways. special needs, once the preferred term by many within the disability community and beyond, has fallen from favor (shildrick, 2012). explaining this shift in discourse, linton (2017) wrote that special “can be lampp berglund 13 understood as a euphemistic formulation, obscuring the reality that neither the children or education are considered desirable and that they are not thought to surpass what is common” (p. 164). needs, as included in the term special needs and learners with diverse needs, is also complex and can work to position individuals as lesser than. disability reframed (2021) shared, “the needs of disabled people are not special. they are not extra, nor are they exceptional. they are human.” however, by employing the term learners with diverse needs, oakley (2017) positioned particular students’ needs as exceptional, rather than focusing on required accommodations that must be provided to ensure disabled students’ full participation in literacy learning. valtierra and siegel (2019) briefly explained their reasoning for using the term academically diverse learners. they used the term to encompass the variety of students featured in their study, one of which was a student with a diagnosed disability. specifically, the students selected for the study were “one typically developing reader, one struggling reader receiving special education services, and one non-heritage english speaker,” and these students were chosen to emphasize the benefits of inclusive literacy for all learners, not just students with disabilities (valtierra & siegel, 2019, p. 115). this consideration regarding the language used is valuable, as is valtierra and siegel’s (2019) aim to “shift narrow, ability-oriented dispositions toward literacy to more expansive and inclusive conceptualizations” (p. 119). in this context, inclusivity values all learners, and inclusive literacy seeks to ensure an equitable and empowering education for all. promoting the participation of students with disabilities as evidenced in the previously cited studies, a noticeable group of scholars did not employ the term disability in their work. the scholars who did use the term disability did not define disability, despite the complexity disability presents as a concept. however, two of these same scholars did situate their work within cds, particularly the social model of disability (flewitt et al., 2009; kliewer et al., 2006). this theoretical alignment signals the critical nature of their research, a stark contrast to the scholarship cited above. this criticality serves as the foundation of cds and represents “a sense of self-appraisal” that seeks to reflect and assess where we, as a society, have come from, where we are at, and where we might we going (goodley, 2013, p. 632). in particular, cds “rethink[s] the conventions, assumptions, and aspirations of research, theory, and activism” regarding disability (goodley, 2013, p. 632). the progression and evolution of the models of disability within cds serves as an example of this reflection and reassessment. transformative views of disability have continually given ways to new models of disability. for instance, the medical model is often positioned in contrast to the social model, while the social model has served as the foundation for postconventional models of disability (haegele & hodge, 2016). the literature on students with disabilities in the field of language and literacy education reflects these changes, as a growing body of research is grounded within the social model of disability (flewitt et al., 2009; kliewer et al., 2006). according to goodley (2014) and haegele and hodge (2016), the social model of disability is the most prevalent model of disability and frequently employed by scholars across disciplines. the popularity of the social model of disability can be seen in research published on inclusive literacy, as the social model of disability is only the theoretical model of disability evident in the scholarship (flewitt et al., 2009; kliewer et al., 2006). the use of the social model, in these contexts, is significant. in addition to being a well-known model of disability within cds and disability activism, the social model of disability, as its name indicates, is primarily concerned within societal understandings of disability and brings issues of disability into conversations concerning social constructions, practices, and institutions (kliewer et al., 2006). the social model 14 georgia journal of literacy 45(1) of disability focuses on how society continually imposes the concept of disability on individuals with impairments (haegele & hodge, 2016). specifically, when using this model, authors address the ways that disability has been set up “as a political category” and “the social, economic, and cultural barriers that prevent people with impairments from living a life like their non-impaired brothers and sisters” (goodley, 2014, p. 7). within this body of research, these social, political, economic, and cultural barriers include access to education, literacy, and communication opportunities (flewitt et al., 2009). flewitt et al. (2009) framed their work within the social model of disability to align with the stance of nls that situates literacy as a sociocultural practice. in this way, both disability and literacy are concepts that are formed by social and cultural perceptions. focusing on early literacy experiences, this group of researchers sought to explore different understandings of literacy and how associated literacy practices could expand “young children’s participation in different social and communicative opportunities” found in the home and at school (flewitt et al., 2009, p. 215). kliewer et al. (2006), more broadly, addressed the larger social institutions for which reconceptualizing literacy can prove to be more difficult. suggesting one way to combat oppressive social barriers, kliewer et al. (2006) proposed that “presuming competence and rightful citizenship in areas such as literacy development and facilitated communication may promote understanding” (p. 170) among individuals both with and without disabilities. presuming competence and literate citizenship both work in opposition to the social impositions that act as barriers for children with disabilities to fully participate in literacy practices. presuming competence challenges educators to expand their understandings of competence and find multiple and new ways for students to demonstrate competence and engaging and connecting with others (kliewer et al., 2006). inherently connected to presuming competence, presuming literate citizenship ensures the literate visibility of individuals with disabilities so that they may fully participate in literacy-based activities that ultimately facilitate full participation in society, more broadly (kliewer et al., 2006). as kliewer et al. (2006) explained, literacy is a “critical tool of community participation” (p. 177). in order for individuals to make vital connections with others in their communities, they must be able to express themselves. literacy facilitates this communication across multiple modes. conclusion although all the research included in this critique has the common goal of fostering inclusive literacy, diverging uses of the term disability and, thus, ideologies of disability exist in the scholarship. these differences are not surprising, as they are indicative of the contrasting conceptions of disability that exist within the field of language and literacy education and, largely, society. understanding the complexities surrounding discourses of disability has widespread implications for educators, particularly those who are in the field and can readily apply the principles of inclusive literacy in their own unique contexts. the knowledge gained through this critical exploration of research on inclusive can inform language use and then, in turn, shape ideologies of disability. most noticeably, understanding ideologies of disability, including our own and others’, can create educational spaces that are more inclusive and accessible sites where students with disabilities can participate more fully. gardland-thomson (2017) presented the concept of academic activism within the field of cds. academic activism is “the activism of integrating education” and creating inclusive learning environments for students with disabilities (p. 377). this concept is supported by the belief that “scholars and teachers shape the communal knowledge lampp berglund 15 and the archive that is disseminated from kindergarten to the university,” and educational stakeholders serve as the grassroots movement working toward equitable education for students within the disability community (garland-thomson, 2017, p. 377). through academic activism, educators can help to break down the cultural, social, economic, and historical barriers that students face when attempting to participate more fully in their classrooms and society, as highlighted by the concept of inclusive literacy. the presence of cds, and, more specifically, the social model of disability, and the active acknowledgement of the complexity and diversity of the disability experience within the research, though, serves as a hopeful reminder that there are educators and scholars who think critically and carefully about their language use and the ways that language and power are intimately related (cavanagh, 2020). as sandoval gomez and mckee (2020) shared, cds can help educators “understand the ‘why’ of inclusive education and equality” and help them determine how to move forward and take action (p. 2). the actions that teachers can take vary based on a number of contextual factors, including grade level, administrative support, and the resources available. however, practical applications of incorporating cds into one’s pedagogical practices and teaching philosophy include, first, reflecting on our own language use. this critique asks us to pause and ask the follow questions: do i avoid using the term disability? how does my language use promote the participation of students with disabilities in my educational spaces? the answers to these introspections can, then, guide future language use. in addition to reflecting on and shifting the language and terms we use in regard to our students with disabilities, promoting cds to colleagues and students through workshops and curriculum is critical. these opportunities can prompt deep, communal, and individual reflections on biases about disability and what larger social, cultural, political, economic, and historical forces have shaped these understandings (schalk, 2017; ware & hatz, 2016). third, teachers can presume competence in their students and their families. by presuming competence, teachers can push against deficient views of students with disabilities and broaden the scope of how students and their families participate in classroom communities and society more broadly (kleekamp, 2020; kliewer et al., 2006; valtierra & siegel, 2019). in addition to these applications of cds, teachers can also listen to and center the voices of the disability community in their classroom materials and beyond through humanizing and accurate portrayals (wong, 2020). however, as wong (2020) asserts, “and yet while representation is exciting and important, it is not enough . . . we all should expect more. we all deserve more” (p. xxi; emphasis in original). while inclusion in materials is important, inclusion in regard to literacy engagement is paramount. inclusive literacy, at its core, seeks to challenge social hierarchies that govern the ways that literacy is conceptualized, and the language used when writing about inclusive literacy should, too, seek to push against these long held institutions in regard to disability. references ableism is trash. 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(2007). language ideologies and the mediation of language choice in peer interactions in a dual-language first grade. journal of language, identity, & education, 6(3), 177–199. https://doi.org/10.1080/15348450701454205 ware, l., & hatz, n. (2016). teaching stories: inclusion/exclusion and disability studies. bank street occasional paper series, 36(11), 26–46. https://doi.org/10.58295/2375-3668.1161 wong, a. (ed.). (2020). disability visibility: first person stories from the twenty-first century. vintage books. woolard, k., & schieffelin, b. (1994). language ideology. annual review of anthropology, 23(1), 55–82. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.an.23.100194.000415 received: january 4, 2023 | accepted: march 6, 2023 | published: april 3, 2023 https://doi.org/10.1080/15348450701454205 https://doi.org/10.58295/2375-3668.1161 https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.an.23.100194.000415 what is inclusive literacy? theoretical framework critical disability studies (cds) language ideologies conceptualizing the complex research methods findings avoidance of the term disability promoting the participation of students with disabilities conclusion references georgia journal of literacy 2023, vol. 45(1), pp. 62–67 https://doi.org/10.56887/galiteracy.104 issn: 2833-7611 teaching tips article contact dr. tiffany watson, assistant professor, department of elementary and special education, university of north georgia, dahlonega, ga; email tiffany.watson@ung.edu. dr. nicole maxwell, associate professor, department of elementary and special education, university of north georgia, dahlonega, ga; email nicole.maxwell@ung.edu. dr. danielle e. hartsfield, associate professor, department of elementary and special education, university of north georgia, dahlonega, ga; email danielle.hartsfield@ung.edu (https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4607-9503). tips for planning a successful author visit tiffany watson university of north georgia, dahlonega, ga nicole maxwell university of north georgia, dahlonega, ga danielle e. hartsfield university of north georgia, dahlonega, ga abstract author visits are an exciting way to generate students’ interest in reading and writing. they offer the opportunity for students to hear directly from an author about the process and value of various texts. however, successful author visits require careful planning and collaboration. this teaching tip article explains how author visits can support learning outcomes, describes the steps involved in planning a visit, and identifies possibilities to fund a school or campus visit. keywords author visit; children's literature; literacy promotion n author visit occurs when a writer or illustrator visits a classroom to educate learners about their books, writing process, inspirations for writing, etc. author visits can be impactful for k–12 students, such as motivating them to tell their own stories (booth, 2018) and generating excitement about reading and writing (murphy et al., 2014). meeting an author can also be a meaningful experience for college students. walker and feldman (2014) investigated the effect virtual children’s author visits would have on pre-service teachers (i.e., teacher candidates). the researchers had their teacher candidates interview authors virtually as part of a college children’s literature course. using skype video calls, they found that “teacher candidates were able to converse with a children’s author, thus gaining a deeper understanding of the use of children’s literature, author’s visits, and technology in their own teaching” (walker & feldman, 2014, p. 39). based on the findings of this research, we sought to use an author visit to better prepare elementary/special education teacher candidates for teaching with and about nonfiction children’s books. we created a half-day professional development workshop for candidates enrolled in our institution’s elementary/special education program. the workshop focused on the nonfiction genre of children’s literature, including types of nonfiction, using nonfiction books to teach the craft of writing, and integrating nonfiction across subject areas in the elementary-level curriculum. it was led by patricia newman, an award-winning author of nonfiction books for children. our goal in implementing this workshop was to help the candidates in our courses develop a stronger appreciation of the nonfiction genre and a deeper understanding of pedagogical possibilities for nonfiction books. we shared our goals with ms. newman, who valued the collaboration and designed her presentation accordingly. she said, “my goal is to supplement your classroom a mailto:tiffany.watson@ung.edu mailto:nicole.maxwell@ung.edu mailto:danielle.hartsfield@ung.edu https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4607-9503 watson, maxwell, & hartsfield 63 curriculum, not distract from it. that’s why my visits empower readers of all ages to think about the world from different points of view and then make connections to their own lives” (newman, personal communication, january 2, 2023). specific outcomes were for candidates to know why children enjoy reading nonfiction and to be able to describe types of nonfiction, as well as to explain approaches and strategies for teaching nonfiction text structures and informational writing traits. we also wanted candidates to understand various ways to integrate nonfiction across the curriculum. as a result, our candidates would be better prepared for leading elementary classrooms of their own. after participating in the author visit, one candidate shared: i realized that i can use nonfiction to engage reluctant readers and to support curiosity in my students. i actually tried using a nonfiction book to engage a reluctant reader in my current placement, and it worked! she read the whole thing quickly and was excited to talk to me about it! outcomes like this one are what we hoped to achieve through the author visit. planning an author visit preparing for our author visit with patricia newman involved making multiple decisions. these decisions are outlined step-by-step in table 1 and described throughout the rest of this section. first, we had to determine a date for ms. newman to come and how to accommodate the large number of teacher candidates that would attend her presentation. we decided to separate our students into two groups so that the half-day professional development workshop could be offered twice in the same day, one in the morning at one location and another in the afternoon at a different location. this was necessary for finding a space with enough capacity for everyone, but also to allow for a more personalized experience that made the interactive activities more manageable. table 1: steps for planning an author visit step 1 reflect on the standards and units in your grade level or course to decide what type of literature and which author would align best with your needs. step 2 identify a date and time for the visit. step 3 determine the size of the audience and secure space. step 4 contact the author and schedule the visit. step 5 discuss details of the presentation and coordinating necessary materials with the author. through a virtual meeting with ms. newman, we were able to discuss what the presentation would look like and begin coordinating her travel plans. we talked about how ms. newman’s visit could connect to the objectives of the content literacy and children’s literature courses our teacher candidates were taking at the time of the scheduled author visit. for example, ms. newman’s suggestion to explain the different types of nonfiction during her workshop directly supported one of the main objectives of the children’s literature course, which examines formats and genres of youth literature. as professors, we discussed how best to prepare our teacher candidates for ms. newman’s visit. we wanted to make certain that candidates had exposure to at least a couple of her books before the workshop was held. this involved scheduling them in our course calendars prior to the 64 georgia journal of literacy 45(1) visit and deciding which ones fit best with our courses. in their children’s literature course, candidates were asked to read newman’s 2018 sibert honor book, sea otter heroes: the predators that saved an ecosystem. they were introduced to newman’s (2004) book, jingle the brass, in the content literacy course through a model lesson demonstrating how to use it as a mentor text when teaching informational writing to elementary students. an additional virtual meeting took place between the three of us and ms. newman within a couple of weeks of the scheduled workshop. the purpose was to finalize details in terms of what materials we needed to have with us and what she would need as a presenter. a major part of making the workshop meaningful and interactive was to have enough nonfiction books for the teacher candidates to explore to gain a better understanding of the possibilities associated with what ms. newman was teaching them. this required us to pull books from our personal and public libraries and to coordinate with one another to ensure we had nonfiction books that fell into the specific categories ms. newman would be referencing when presenting to the teacher candidates (see stewart & correia, 2021, for details about the five categories of nonfiction). while we designed this author visit for teacher candidates at the university level, we believe k–12 teachers could follow a similar path in planning their own author visit. among the factors to consider when developing a plan would be to reflect on your standards and units in your grade level and decide what type of literature and which author would align best with your needs. if you are not sure where to start finding potential authors, there are websites available that provide information about authors who are willing to do school visits. for example, the society of children’s book writers and illustrators at scbwi.org/speakers-bureau allows you to search based on author’s name, student age level, and topic. additionally, publishing companies’ websites may offer information on author visits, and many published authors have their own websites, which can provide useful information regarding having the author come to your school for a visit. you can even seek recommendations from your school’s media specialist. once you have determined which author is coming, you should consider when and how you can integrate some of the author’s work into your classroom prior to the author visit. providing students with the opportunity to interact with the author’s work prior to meeting them can make the visit more meaningful. collaborating with your school’s media specialist to integrate the author’s texts could also prove beneficial. funding is certainly something to consider, including how much you might need and where you can obtain it. there are many options available if you take the time to search. in fact, some possibilities are included in the next section to help you get started in your search. funding an author visit when planning an author visit, locating funds is a foremost consideration. we were fortunate that an internal grant from our university funded ms. newman’s honorarium and travel, and we were even able to purchase copies of her books to share with teacher candidates during her visit. while not all institutions offer such financial support, other grant opportunities are available to educators. table 2 summarizes some of these possibilities. nonprofit groups are one potential source of funding. professional organizations for educators sometimes offer grants and awards to support classroom or school-wide projects. for example, the georgia council of teachers of english offers mini-grants of up to $500 for educators planning projects that will directly impact the literacy experiences of k–12 students. other nonprofits also provide support. the honor society of phi kappa phi offers grants of up to $2,500 specifically for literacy projects. while one must be a member of this honor society to apply, https://www.scbwi.org/speakers-bureau/ watson, maxwell, & hartsfield 65 educators could collaborate on an application with a university-based chapter if they are not members themselves. many georgia colleges and universities have chapters, including the university of georgia, kennesaw state university, university of west georgia, and the university of north georgia. in addition, philanthropic organizations provide funding for educators. the dollar general literacy foundation has a variety of grants; the youth literacy grant may be especially appropriate for educators who wish to spark students’ excitement about reading and writing with an author visit. educators who teach children from low-income families are eligible to apply for a mccarthey dressman education foundation grant. this grant, which provides up to $10,000 annually and is renewable for a second year, is intended to fund both in-class and extracurricular enrichment opportunities. believe in reading, which is supported by the steve and loree potash family foundation, also provides grants to schools serving children with exceptional needs. another possibility is the voya unsung heroes awards program, which provides up to $2,000 to educators who facilitate innovative projects directly impacting students’ learning. sponsorships are another avenue for author visit funding. barnes and noble provides sponsorships to schools at the local level; inquiries about sponsorships may be directed to store managers. local businesses may also be willing to provide financial assistance. table 2: grant opportunities for literacy projects organization website barnes and noble barnesandnobleinc.com/about-bn/sponsorshipscharitable-donations believe in reading believeinreading.org/grant-guidelines dollar general literacy foundation dgliteracy.org/grant-programs/ georgia council of teachers of english wildapricot.org/gcte-teacher-minigrants honor society of phi kappa phi phikappaphi.org/grants-awards/literacy mccarthey dressman education foundation mccartheydressman.org/academic-enrichmentgrants/ voya unsung heroes awards program apply.scholarsapply.org/unsungheroes/ conclusion during ms. newman’s visit, the three of us were able to observe our teacher candidates working with the books and engaging in discussions about how they could be used in classrooms. we distributed a post-survey asking them to rate their comfort levels with nonfiction texts and share what they learned. although we did not receive a significant number of responses, the ones we received demonstrated that the author visit was beneficial. we were also able to engage in informal conversations with candidates after the visit, and these also showed that the candidates had enjoyed it and learned from it. one student said the visit allowed him to “see all the different ways that https://www.barnesandnobleinc.com/about-bn/sponsorships-charitable-donations/ https://www.barnesandnobleinc.com/about-bn/sponsorships-charitable-donations/ https://believeinreading.org/grant-guidelines/ https://www.dgliteracy.org/grant-programs/ https://gcte.wildapricot.org/gcte-teacher-minigrants https://www.phikappaphi.org/grants-awards/literacy https://mccartheydressman.org/academic-enrichment-grants/ https://mccartheydressman.org/academic-enrichment-grants/ https://apply.scholarsapply.org/unsungheroes/ 66 georgia journal of literacy 45(1) nonfiction can be used in the classroom,” and after the visit, he understood, “that nonfiction has a place in the classroom that should never be taken away.” another student echoed her peer’s statement in claiming that the visit helped her “gain a greater perspective on the benefits of including nonfiction literature in the classroom.” specifically, she stated that she knows now that nonfiction allows students to “make real-world connections and apply critical thinking skills.” prior to the author visit, teacher candidates experienced two of patricia newman’s books in their college courses. they saw a model of using nonfiction mentor texts to teach informational writing using jingle the brass (newman, 2004), and they read sea otter heroes: the predators that saved an ecosystem (2017) as a book club assignment. ms. newman noted the value of this practice: “the most meaningful author events establish a genuine connection between me and your students. one way to fuel this connection is by reading my books with students and integrating them into your curriculum” (newman, personal communication, january 2, 2023). to advance that connection, it is valuable to have students continue working with the author’s works after the visit. based on the timeline for our grant proposal and candidates’ course calendars, some had already completed assignments that would have allowed them to directly implement tips that ms. newman provided. coordinating an opportunity for application of learning after the author visit would likely produce more long-term impact on candidates’ instructional strategies. while planning an author visit, consider your space and resource availability. if you have a specific author in mind for the visit, their website may provide valuable information for planning the visit. patricia newman has a frequently-asked question page and video to support educators in scheduling author visits (newman, 2023). ms. newman was intentional in making her visit interactive. teacher candidates reviewed a wide variety of nonfiction styles across children’s books. they browsed about 30 books in small groups. this format was very effective in helping our students understand the content of her presentation more deeply. gathering the books for this component took forethought. we used our personal and public libraries as resources to gather more than enough nonfiction texts for the visit. our first professional development session took place in an auditorium. teacher candidates were in rows and did not have tables. in our second session, candidates were in an amphitheater-style room with tables on each level. this was much more conducive to collaboration and efficient transitions. collaboration was key throughout the process of implementing an author visit. working as a team allowed us to discuss the objectives of this professional development opportunity from a variety of perspectives, as we teach different candidates in different courses. communication with the author helped facilitate planning important components, including the necessary materials. careful collaborative planning led to a successful event that met our goal to help teacher candidates develop a stronger appreciation of nonfiction literature and a deeper understanding of pedagogical possibilities for nonfiction books. references booth, h. (2018). awesome author visits. school library journal, 64(9), 36–39. murphy, p. j., goldsmith-conley, e., & newell, d. l. (2014). the anatomy of a successful author visit. illinois reading council journal, 42(3), 26–31. newman, p. (2017). sea otter heroes: the predators that saved an ecosystem. millbrook press. newman, p. (2023). author visits: tips for funding and planning. https://www.patriciamnewman .com/author-visit-programs/author-visit-faqs/ newman, p. (2004). jingle the brass (m. chesworth, illus.). farrar, straus and giroux. https://www.patriciamnewman.com/author-visit-programs/author-visit-faqs https://www.patriciamnewman.com/author-visit-programs/author-visit-faqs watson, maxwell, & hartsfield 67 stewart, m., & correia, m. (2021). five kinds of nonfiction: enriching reading and writing with children’s books. stenhouse. walker, s. l., & feldman, j. (2014). a puzzling association: how an educator and an author influenced teacher candidates. the reading professor, 35(1), 35–39. https://scholar.stjohns .edu/thereadingprofessor/vol35/iss1/10 received: january 5, 2023 | accepted: march 2, 2023 | published: april 3, 2023 https://scholar.stjohns.edu/thereadingprofessor/vol35/iss1/10 https://scholar.stjohns.edu/thereadingprofessor/vol35/iss1/10 planning an author visit table 1: steps for planning an author visit funding an author visit table 2: grant opportunities for literacy projects conclusion references georgia journal of literacy 2023, vol. 45(2), pp. 81–87 https://doi.org/10.56887/galiteracy.128 issn: 2833-7611 teaching tips contact dr. lina b. soares, professor, department of middle grades and secondary education, georgia southern university, statesboro, ga; email lbsoares@georgiasouthern.edu. the open mind portrait: an innovative method to promote reading comprehension and critical thinking lina b. soares georgia southern university, statesboro, ga abstract this teaching tip article highlights the “open mind portrait” as a visual art strategy to assess middle and secondary students’ complex expressions of texts backed by research, the steps involved for implementation, and a student example to highlight the power of visual art projects. employing visual art projects to promote reading comprehension and critical thinking offers classroom teachers an innovative reading response method to the standard constructed response. through the combination of reading and art, teachers can assess students’ comprehension of literary characters as students analyze the role of a character in a story, as well as the larger social, historical, and cultural world occupied by the character when responding to texts. keywords critical thinking; young adult literature; bloom’s taxonomy; visual literacy; reader response rs. sloane passes out a worksheet and instructs her 10th-grade students to respond to comprehension questions one through five for like water for chocolate (esquivel, 1989). some students quietly groan while other students verbally protest their lack of enthusiasm. questions one through five require simple recall; responses that can be found in the text. mrs. sloane chooses not to respond. rather, she ponders, “i think i need to change my mindset and move beyond simple paper and pencil quizzes. i’ve been teaching to the state-mandated test for so long that i’ve forgotten to teach my students to think.” background recognizing that much has been written about the no child left behind act (no child left behind [nclb], 2002), reauthorized in 2015 as every student succeeds act (essa, 2015), we cannot ignore the numerous unintended consequences that occurred due to the enactment of the two federal laws. one such unintended consequence was a narrowed curriculum that was influenced by state-mandated tests that in turn, impacted the teaching and learning process (veselak, 2018). instruction shifted from teaching students important content knowledge in all disciplines to teaching students enough to pass the highly tested subjects of reading and math (smith & smith, 2020). simpson (2015) noted that higher-order thinking assignments and activities were minimalized due to the heavy emphasis on state-mandated tests which resulted in a pedagogy of “drill and kill” (p. 49). in the above scenario, mrs. sloane illustrates an example of the “drill and kill” pedagogy. unfortunately, she has matched her instruction and assessment to find a single correct answer. m https://doi.org/10.56887/galiteracy.128 mailto:lbsoares@georgiasouthern.edu 82 georgia journal of literacy 45(2) instead, she would be wise to ask students how and why questions; questions that require her students to think critically. as a professor in reading education, i believe i have an obligation to teach my middle and secondary master-level students in reading education that the students they teach must be given opportunities to engage in higher-order thinking processes to develop critical thinking skills; skills that can be applied in a wide range of contexts and different fields (heard et al., 2020). i believe it is necessary to allow my students to think, question, reason, and even argue as they read to model critical thinking skills for their classroom students. coupled with the need to prepare my students to develop critical thinking pedagogy, i further want my students to be innovative and pursue creative approaches to teach their students to be critical thinkers. creativity can foster critical thinking (sukardi et al., 2021). context young adolescent and adult literacy is a course i teach, and throughout this course, my students engage in multiple learning activities to enhance comprehension and critical thinking skills. first, i choose reading selections to speak strictly to the needs of the young adolescents and adolescents with whom my students interact in their classrooms by incorporating different genres of young adolescent and adult literature. in addition, i teach multiple reader response strategies (rosenblatt, 1978) to enhance comprehension and critical thinking, including print, performance, visual, and digital forms of knowledge. further, i integrate critical literacy with young adult literature to teach my students that literature is a space for conducting critical discourse. my stance has been adopted by the national council of teachers of english (ncte, 2019) as a basis for the organization’s resolution statement on critical literacy that offers, “critical literacy describes a pedagogical approach to reading that focuses on the political, sociocultural, historical, and economic forces that shape young students’ lives” (soares & wood, 2010, p. 487). at the beginning of each semester, i have found it beneficial for my students to develop a working knowledge of critical thinking that will be operationalized during the semester through assignments and assessments. my students come to know that the concept of critical thinking can be traced from the early writings of socrates, plato, and aristotle. in other words, the concept of critical thinking is not a novel idea, and there are many schools of modern-day thought. however, my stance on critical thinking aligns with the educational school of thought. from this stance, i always begin by providing my students with materials to tap into their prior knowledge of bloom’s (1956) cognitive taxonomy they received in their undergraduate teacher education programs before i introduce the revised bloom cognitive taxonomy (anderson et al., 2001) that serves as the framework for critical thinking in the course (see table 1). through direct instruction, i focus their attention on levels 4, 5, and 6 of the revised taxonomy, which includes analyzing, evaluating, and creating and the associated learning objectives for each stage. i have found many of my students are unfamiliar with the reorganization of the stages of cognition in the revised taxonomy and the learning objectives in each stage changed from nouns to verbs. according to anderson and colleagues (2001), the rationale for this change is that cognition is a dynamic process; the thinking process requires action (table 1). soares 83 table 1: bloom’s original and revised cognitive taxonomy cognition level original cognitive taxonomy revised cognitive taxonomy level 1 cognition knowledge remember level 2 cognition comprehension understand level 3 cognition application apply level 4 cognition analysis *analyze level 5 cognition synthesis *evaluate level 6 cognition evaluation *create note. *denotes the stages of critical thinking applied in the course. open mind portrait one of the units i teach in the course focuses on making meaning through art and graphic representations. specifically, my students create visual representations to fully understand the various dimensions of responding to literature visually. while there is a paucity of research that has been conducted on this line of inquiry, i draw upon the few evidenced-based practices when designing my teaching and learning instruction. for example, the use of visual art projects has been shown to aid in the construction of meaning (constantino, 2007; gullat, 2008) and increase critical thinking (appel, 2006; yenawine, 2013). additionally, research has found that incorporating visual art projects increases creative problem-solving (diaz-lefebvre, 2006; marshall, 2008). vacca et al. (2016) explicated that art-making activities can be used in content area reading to promote critical thinking. critical thinking is promoted as students reflect on their art projects through small group discussions or short writing activities to delineate their analytical reasoning when creating visual art projects in response to their reading. to begin, i introduce my students to the “open mind portrait” (tompkins & hoskisson, 1991) to build the foundation for the assignment objective, and i further introduce the rubric by which their portraits will be assessed (figure 1). it is important for my students to understand that the response strategy is a method that allows them to visually analyze characters in a story and reflect on their interpretation of the character. this method allows my students to apply their analytical reasoning and critical thinking skills by taking a critical stance as they must consider multiple viewpoints and re-symbolize the unfamiliar worlds in texts into understandable worlds through their own lived experiences. as a result, emphasis is placed on the rubric’s criteria: colors, symbols, quotes, and the critical thinking skills applied to represent the character and less on artistic ability. additionally, i share portrait examples from my former students to reinforce their understanding of the assignment (figure 2). 84 georgia journal of literacy 45(2) figure 1: directions, materials, and procedure directions you will produce a visual representation of a character from persepolis: a story of childhood (satrapi, 2004) using the “open mind portrait” strategy we have studied and provide a written explanation on your interpretation for the character in the graphic novel. the visual representation must demonstrate the cognitive thinking skills of analyzing, evaluating, and creating from bloom’s revised taxonomy (2001). you will post your visual representation on the character you choose to the discussion board. materials needed 1. the portrait template is provided. 2. markers, crayons, or various art supplies 3. digital tools procedure 1. utilize the template and rubric provided for the character’s head and neck. 2. draw significant scenes or images from the story that relate to the character portrayed and the character’s role in society. 3. include significant colors, symbols, and quotes that represent the character, and/or thoughts that are from the character’s perspective. 4. include a short paragraph explaining the details of what was represented and why. table 2: rubric for open mind portrait unacceptable 1 developing 2 acceptable 3 target 4 points overall design: use of colors and symbols to present a comprehensive visual product; use of quotes to demonstrate conceptual understanding of role and impact of character overall design is missing more than two required elements: colors and symbols, and quotes do not relate to the role of the character in the story or context. overall design is missing one of the required elements: colors, symbols, and quotes demonstrate a literal understanding of role of character in the story or context. design demonstrates an acceptable understanding of the character’s importance. acceptable use of color, symbol, and quotes reveal an acceptable understanding of the impact of the character on the story. design demonstrates a strong understanding of the importance of the character. effective use of color, symbols, and quotes reveal a critical understanding of character’s impact on the story. cognitive processes of analyzing, evaluating, and creating no evidence of higher levels of thinking in portrait or discussion less than two required higher levels of thinking are demonstrated in visual character representation and discussion. two of the three required higher levels of thinking are evident in visual character representation and discussion. all three required higher levels of thinking are evident in visual character representation and discussion. score / 8 soares 85 figure 2: student example explanation: for my open-mind portrait, the first image/symbol that i thought was important was the veil. at the very beginning of the graphic novel, marjane discusses the implications of having to wear the veil, despite not truly understanding what it means. as the graphic novel progresses, the veil serves as a consistent symbol of religion and innocence, especially when faced with the possibility of having that innocence stripped away from her. the fire represents the war, demonstrations, and bombings that take place. each explosion or conflict furthers the divide between peace and disaster in iran. for example, the supposed arson towards the start of the graphic novel, in which everyone knew the shah was behind. the crown represents marjane’s interpretation of how the king came to be versus the reality of the emperor’s taking power as told by her family. the pink flower, or jasmine, represents her grandmother, who serves as a sturdy resource of peace and comfort for marjane during the chaos and turmoil around her. the suitcase represents persecution and fleeing from the calamity, as marjane is sent to austria by her parents to protect her and give her the best chance at living a better life. the monopoly board represents marjane’s attempts to connect with her family, all overshadowed by her parents’ fatigue and preoccupation with the demonstrations. lastly, the letter represents the complexity of love in the story, as told through marjane’s involvement with the love letter between mehri and hossein, a neighbor boy. final thoughts when middle and secondary reading teachers permit their students to substantiate their interpretations of characters in a text and the impact of the characters’ roles using visual art projects, they engage their students in an innovative and creative response strategy to literature. moreover, they afford their students the opportunity to enhance their critical thinking skills; skills that are needed in all disciplines and for future careers. strategies such as the “open mind portrait” featured in this teaching tip allow students the opportunity to participate in critical discourse and examine their own implicit beliefs regarding the historical, political, sociocultural, and economic forces that have shaped their own lives. comments from students support the usefulness of the strategy: 86 georgia journal of literacy 45(2)  i implemented the open mind portrait for the first time with my 7th graders when we completed our reading of monster. this was the first time my students were actively engaged in their ability to analyze the characters of their choice and had fun to doing it.  the open mind portrait was a new response strategy to me, but i will use the strategy again and i have shared the strategy with my teammates. it was[a] great strategy to enhance my students’ critical thinking and creativity. on a final note, the “open mind portrait” is but one example for students to create visual representations when responding to literature visually. i have found that photography offers an additional medium that can used to assess higher levels of reading comprehension and critical thinking. not only does photography offer an alternative for a visual art project, but i have also found photography aligns with my students’ comfort zone due to the prevalence of today’s cell phones with high-powered digital cameras. references anderson, l. w., krathwohl, d. r., airasian, p. w., cruikshank, k. a., mayer, r. e., pintrich, p. r., raths, j., & wittrock, m. c. 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(2016). content area reading: literacy and learning across the curriculum. pearson. veselak, k. m. (2018). teachers’ beliefs about the purpose of education in a high-stakes testing environment. national teacher education journal, 11(3), 107–120. yenawine, p. (2013). visual thinking strategies: using art to deepen thinking across school disciplines. harvard education press. literature cited esquivel, l. (1989). like water for chocolate. doubleday. satrapi, m. (2004). persepolis: a story of childhood. pantheon. received: august 20, 2023 | accepted: september 9, 2023 | published: november 13, 2023 https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ej1268200.pdf https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ej1268200.pdf https://doi.org/10.1598/rt.63.6.5 https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0042030 background context table 1: bloom’s original and revised cognitive taxonomy open mind portrait figure 1: directions, materials, and procedure table 2: rubric for open mind portrait figure 2: student example final thoughts references literature cited 184f2ead-331e-472a-ae35-09b65bcac4c7 ���������� � ��������� � �� ��� ��� ������� ������������� ��������� !"�#$"�%&"�'#()�*&"!�$"#'+!,�#!'�*$+%+!,�!)+)%"'�) .".(� /�0$+!%"'�%"1%� !�0#0"$2� *��"."-%$ !+-�%"1%�"!30#))")�34-&� /�*&#%�*"�$"#'�#!'�*$+%"� !�#�'#+.(�5#)+)2�6&+)�"."-%$ !+-�%"1%�+)�0$ 7+'"'�% �4)�5(�%&"�8 $.'�8+'"�8"5�+!�7#$+ 4)�/ $3)�)4-&�#)�"3#+.)��5. ,)��8+9+)��#!'�) -+#.�!"%* $9)2��%�+)�7+%#.�%&#%�)-& .)�)%#(�40:% :'#%"�5(�+!$0 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��$%��$��($�'����%#��#) $�#'�#�����($����� �#%,�,�%$# #-�%#*� ##�)%� �#���%���'(���$���*"&%��$������#�%#&����"*�#��,�%$# #-���$�"-������ #�"� �#����&�#��'(�$%$y���&�#�,����%#*�* �%,�$���"$&��!��*"&%� �#%,��*' # ��$%��$�f%!�%,,�&%���� '���$���"$&����%#*�%&&��������#�"$��a]hau]h�ivan\wwua]_k�hvâ x̀�u]�x\j̀]akahb�ªz\]jb�%#*� #��-$%� �#!�!��%& , �%���%#*�(%$� & (%��� #�,�%$# #-�&�''"# � �����%���� '",%����#"$�"$��%#*��"((�$��%*' # ��$%��$����%&",�y��%#*���%��� #�������"*y�%#*�"��������&�#�,�-y!&!�($�'����%#*�'�*�,�����&� )��&�''"# &%� �#�%#*�&�,,%��$%� �#�%'�#-���%¤���,*�$��"� #-�* �%,�%-�����,�!*!���%y�%�$�%�������*"&%� �#%,�$���%$&��%#*��'�$#-��$�#*��$�-%$* #-�����&� )��"��������&�#�,�-y�%#*��#&�"$%-���)%,"%� �#����#�����&�#�,������$���� $�(���#� %,���� '($�)����"*�#��,�%$# #-!��&%"��� #��$%&� )���� ����%$*��%((�%$�����������&� )����&�#�,�&%,�*�) &���� �� ��#���"$($ �����%����� $�($�)%,�#&�� #��&���,��%&$����������$,*� ��-$�� #-�%��%�$%( *�$%��!���������&�#�,�����%�,�%*�$� #� #��$%&� )���� ����%$*���&�#�,�-y��$�,�%��*�%���%��'�#�� #��%#"%$y�����������%� #-���%��$�"-�,y���(�$&�#���������âvk[«w�jk_wwvaalw�̀_c\�_]�u]x\v_jxuc\�̂ ùx\oa_v[�_][�%(($�+ '%��,y��¬�(�$&�#����� !�!�&,%��$��'���%)��%#� #��$%&� )���� ����%$*�.�����������/!���%� �� &��, ¤���������������%���� ,�� #��$%&� )���� ����%$*���� ,,��%)��%��%y�����-������y�%$���,��,y�$�(,%& #-�����%#� �"%��*��,%&¤��%$*�%#*�*$y��$%�����%$*!m̀\�̂ vuxu]h�ivaj\wwy�_kx̀azh̀�̀uh̀kb�\ngju\]xy�uw�_���$%��-y���%���%�����#�"��*���$�*�&%*��� #�&,%��$��'�!����-" *�����"*�#�����$�"-����%-���%�����y�($�*"&��%�'%#"�&$ (��%#*���,(�����'�*�)�,�(�-��*��$ � #-�w�ukkw��­\x«w�kuc\]�zi�x̀uw�ivaj\ww�̂ ux̀�x\j̀]akahby���'��� #-���%��(,%y��%��"-��$�,�� #�����, )������y�"�����*%y!���%&��$�������%)��%&&������������� #��$%&� )��^̀ux\oa_v[w�ẁazk[�x_�\�nzkk�_[c_]x_h\�an�x̀uw�_l_�u]h�aiiavxz]uxb�xa�ulivac\�wxz[\]xw«�v\_[u]h�_][�̂vuxu]h� georgia journal of literacy 2023, vol. 45(1), pp. 51–61 https://doi.org/10.56887/galiteracy.94 issn: 2833-7611 practitioner article beyond the single story: utilizing cluster texts to celebrate diversity lisa parker penn state erie, the behrend college, erie, pa jenny malec wattsburg area school district, erie, pa abstract this article investigates the advantages of incorporating cluster texts in educational settings to present a variety of viewpoints. the discussion begins by examining the reasons behind choosing picturebooks, followed by introducing the concepts of intertextuality and cluster texts. the significance of students’ ability to connect with the texts is highlighted. the article then introduces three carefully curated cluster text sets, developed with consideration for classroom observations and students’ requirements: 1) laying the groundwork and the school experience; 2) highlighting unsung heroes and overcoming obstacles; 3) showcasing diverse family structures and experiences. each set features an in-depth analysis of a primary text, accompanied by a table outlining supplementary books within the cluster. the article wraps up with a summary of key insights on the subject matter. keywords cluster texts; intertextuality; viewpoints; diverse literature ach student enters my classroom with preconceived notions about the year. for many, their emotions are derived from stories passed on from older siblings or friends. some worry that their differences will not be accepted. others worry the uniqueness of their home life will not be understood. every year as i welcome students to our room, i see them evaluating the experience from the first step in the door. the first thing they do is look around the room. there is always a brief moment of pause . . . a pause with conversation . . . a pause with movement . . . they simply look for visual cues that are comforting (jenny, the second author). children want to see a classroom in which they feel represented. creating a classroom environment that visually reflects a variety of people and experiences allows for students to know they are accepted. when designing a classroom, we feel that diversity and inclusiveness in terms of the representation of race and ethnicity, socioeconomic status, abilities and disabilities and so on are important. when entering this classroom, students may encounter diverse bulletin boards, classroom libraries, and visual cues increasing the potential for them to feel comfortable in their environment. this mindset transcends throughout all members of the classroom. feeling welcomed and comfortable can allow children to lower their inhibitions, place their concentration on their learning, and feel safe while approaching new ideas (eggebrecht-weinschreider, 2020). it is a gateway to social, emotional, and academic success. we believe that much of this success occurs through stories. life is about stories. storytelling can serve to develop community and honor diverse communities. there are stories in every subject we teach: language arts, social studies, and even math and science. in our classrooms, we value picturebooks that are diverse culturally and linguistically as one way to share stories. through a picturebook, readers can feel the emotions of e 52 georgia journal of literacy 45(1) the individuals represented, can travel during the time period to visualize, and can experience the event rather than just reading to learn a bunch of facts or to identify story elements. we believe and advocate for utilizing text sets in the classrooms. text sets are one powerful tool that can be used to share stories with multiple perspectives (cappiello & dawes, 2021). with slight modifications, text sets can be transitioned into another powerful learning tool, cluster texts. cluster texts are like texts sets in many ways (ciecierski, 2017). they consist of multiple books just like a text set. however, in a cluster text one text is identified as the way-in text. a wayin text is a text that stimulates motivation where motivation did not exist before (bintz, 2011). this is the text a teacher and his/her students would utilize first. like text sets, cluster texts do not tell just a single story. they have sophisticated text potential in terms of the way the texts are connected as well as the vast array of stories they share. because the diversities in our classroom grow each year, cluster texts provide a tool where students may think, “i see myself in these books, so i know i am not alone.” the purpose of this article is to share the potentials of utilizing cluster texts in the classroom to share more than a single story. we begin by sharing our reasoning for choosing picturebooks. additionally, we present an introduction for intertextuality and cluster texts. we continue by sharing the value of students seeing themselves in the texts around them. next, we share three cluster texts formulated after reflecting on our classrooms and the needs of our students. we conclude with final thoughts. the first author taught for fifteen years in an urban district with many of her years spent teaching middle school in urban schools. the second author also spent fifteen years in the classroom. her experience is situated primarily in an elementary school located in a rural district. even our stories and backgrounds are diverse in a variety of ways. our experiences and backgrounds have helped us create cluster texts to represent multiple perspectives. therefore, we share three cluster texts: 1) developing an understanding of inclusion and empathy; 2) celebrating the uncelebrated through overcoming challenges; 3) diverse family dynamics and experiences. we describe one text in detail for each cluster text set. this is the way-in text and is followed by a table showcasing the other books in the cluster. we conclude with final thoughts. picturebooks in the classroom picturebooks are not just for children. as a matter of fact, picturebooks are even appropriate for adults (paul, 2021), making them a strong resource to have in classrooms in elementary, middle, and high schools. picturebooks are around 32 pages in length (murphy, 2009). while they are not lengthy in the number of pages, they are often hefty in terms of benefits. with compact language and rich aesthetic displays, picturebooks have great potential to be highly sophisticated (ciecierski & bintz, 2015) and therefore, encourage complex thinking to deconstruct their meaning. in many picturebooks, both the text and the pictures work together symbiotically to tell the story (youngs & serafini, 2011). the story would not exist without both the pictures and the text. thus, we utilize the word picturebook as one word, because of the importance of the two to each other. analyzing the techniques of the author and illustrator has potential to help readers learn skills that may be difficult and challenging (leland et al., 2017). for example, recognizing the author’s purpose, making inferences, drawing conclusions, and identifying the main idea are often difficult for students to understand but with picturebooks, it might be easier for several reasons. first, the text is shorter, so the reader can really focus in on the skill or practice. second, the reader can utilize both the text and the illustrations to support their thinking and learning. parker & malec 53 picturebooks are a helpful resource to build background knowledge and interest (bintz, 2011; ciecierski & bintz, 2015; murphy, 2009). many times, a picturebook can be read as an anticipatory set or “hook” to lay a foundation for a topic being studied and to stimulate interest. once the picturebook is read and deconstructed, then longer and more traditional texts can follow. implementing this type of instruction is an example of teaching in an intertextual manner. intertextuality and cluster texts intertextuality is a reading stance that acknowledges that no reader reads in a vacuum. according to bakhtin (1987), “all texts are tinted with echoes and reverberations of other texts” (p. 91). as a matter of fact, whether you know it or not, when you read any text, you are making connections to other texts as well as other experiences. according to kristeva (1987), text can be viewed as a mosaic of quotations. they are absorbed and transformed from one another to amplify meaning. according to ciecierski and bintz (2018), “reading intertextually affords the potential to interpret texts from multiple perspectives. it gives teachers a tool to challenge students to stretch their thinking beyond the fallacy that there is always a right or wrong answer, a black or white solution, or a good or bad decision” (p. 479). reading is about making connections (bintz, 2015). connecting texts in meaningful ways with clear intentions, benefits your students at a greater level rather than using single texts or even randomly connecting texts. also, when you vary your types of textual connections, students show increased learning of content material, greater comprehension, and more authenticity to their learning (ciecierski, 2017). we recommend varying the types of connections that you and your students make. altering between the use of companion texts (texts connected by topic) and corresponding texts (texts connected by theme) has proven results. you could also utilize contradictory texts. these treasures are more difficult to find but are connected by discrepancy related to either the topic or the theme (ciecierski, 2017). recognizing that companion, corresponding, and contradictory are different ways of connecting texts is the first step. the second step is determining which type of intertextually connected text will you use for your instruction. will you utilize paired text, tri-texts, cluster texts, or text sets? one of the most common types of connections are made with paired or twin texts, that is two connected texts (camp, 2000). paired texts might connect a picturebook with a textbook, a poem with an article, or even a picturebook and the author’s note to build on information learned by reading the picturebook. tri-texts are also an option with added benefits (ciecierski & bintz, 2018). simply stated, a tri-text consists of three intertextually connected texts. tri-texts are a valuable tool to use to extend beyond paired text and so are cluster texts. cluster texts are connected by theme and/or topic and are like a text set but have one distinguishable feature: the first book read matters and is identified as the way-in text (ciecierski, 2017). we use way-in texts to create cluster texts. however, way-in texts can stand by themselves. in terms of cluster texts, the way-in text is the text that is recommended as the first text read with the purpose of forming a foundation or inspiring interest. the other texts are connected in a way that either extends or substantiates meaning. we chose to showcase cluster texts in this article because we believe that cluster texts have the most potential for our students to see themselves in the texts around them. 54 georgia journal of literacy 45(1) the value of students seeing themselves in the text around them we have learned from experience that students naturally evaluate their surroundings by making observations and drawing conclusions. when a student sees a classroom poster promoting success, they may feel motivated and inspired. when the learning target is posted, students’ progress and achievement is regulated (moss & brookhart, 2012). however, when students observe their peers, the thought processes can be much different. students evaluate and internalize similarities such as skin color, accents, clothing, abilities and so much more. this continues through conversations about their homelives and social activities. students can recognize what is deemed normal or acceptable and whether they feel as though they meet this ideal. in our experiences, we have observed that using carefully chosen inclusive texts can bring a new dimension of diversity to the classroom. inclusive readings are designed to make texts relevant to more readers and simultaneously expand how texts are interpreted (skrlac lo, 2019). these texts allow students to see a variety of lifestyles, challenges, and ethnicities. they provide a new atmosphere in which students can see themselves in the characters and explore their ideologies. in today’s classroom, teachers more than ever can share the responsibility to approach conversations which promote equity. we define equity as students seeing themselves as equally valued members of a classroom community of learners. using picture books in our classrooms has shown to create opportunities for students to collectively explore their curiosities, while in turn helping us, the teachers, to guide these conversations. children need a place to begin the critical introduction to culturally sensitive ideas and concepts of social justice (norris, 2020). when students begin to see themselves in the texts and conversation, they feel safe and included. cluster texts to show multiple perspectives when we think about cluster texts, we are reminded of the value in showing students multiple perspectives. we want our students to accept and value differences, potentially building self-worth, community, and acceptance. here, we share three cluster texts to represent three points of consideration that we believe are prevalent in many classes. we highlight the way-in text first in detail and then share multiple texts that the way-in text might be surrounded by. when using cluster texts in the classroom, the teacher would utilize the way-in text first. this could be as an interactive read aloud where the teacher would stop periodically and engage students in conversation, or it could be part of a shared reading lesson with all students reading a copy of the text. following the reading of the way-in text, students would read other books in the cluster. this might take a variety of formats, depending on the purpose. perhaps all students read all the texts. maybe small groups of students focus on individual books and then come together to share what they learned. there is not a prescriptive way to implement cluster texts in the classroom. decisions can be made based on purpose as well as the needs of the students. as previously stated, picturebooks can be utilized with children of all ages, adolescents, and adults. we chose picturebooks that could primarily be used in elementary school classrooms. we begin by sharing a cluster text that lays a foundation for learning and centers around going to school. the second cluster text was created to celebrate the uncelebrated through overcoming challenges. the third cluster text represents diverse family dynamics and experiences. parker & malec 55 developing an understanding of inclusion and empathy all students experience school in some way. however, culture, religious belief, and race diversify this educational experience. here is a cluster text that contains characters that are diverse in cultural representation. this cluster text may begin the exploration of multiple stories. in exploring this cluster text, students might gain appreciation for school. they might also build empathy for those who have much different school experiences than they do. the day you begin (woodson, 2018) captivates the reader through its use of color and relatable childhood experiences. this picturebook highlights moments when students may come to school feeling as though they are different. in addition, the author’s voice gives the reader a sense of being spoken to. each situation provides a moment where students can instantly see themselves in the story, whether they are the student feeling left out, or a part of the class. raphael lopez, the illustrator, utilizes color tones that change as if to show the characters being in two different worlds. the student who appears to be left out is illustrated with a background of soft, but duller tone colors of a lonely world, while the remaining students are illustrated with bright, vibrant colors and pictures that include the other children together in a happy, inclusive world. at first glimpse, we see a little girl peeking into the classroom, accompanied by the narration “there will be times when you walk into a room and no one there is quite like you.” the phrase “there will be times when” is presented as though the author is speaking to the little girl, reassuring her that some moments are difficult to cope with. next, we see this same little girl sitting alone during share time. there is a buzz of excitement of children sharing their stories and souvenirs from their summer vacation. we see her reflection to her own summer experience where she cared for her younger sister. her escape to new adventures was done by reading on her fire escape. in this moment, we can understand the feeling of uncertainty as she looks over the building tops at the pigeons flying in the sky. here, the reader is presented with a moment of inquiry, “what good is this when other students were flying and sailing and going somewhere.” this moment of inquiry draws the reader to make a personal connection with the character and the self -doubt she is experiencing, as well as the beginning yearning for a connection with her siblings. the author continues this inquiry through a variety of examples from sitting alone at lunch time to watching others play at recess. each time using the phrase “there will be times when.” all the while, the color pattern continues, and we find the child who is left out venturing farther and farther from the group. we find a shift in the story as the author delivers an empowering message of resiliency. the reader is shown a child who has become so left out that he is completely alone standing in dry, brown grass at the edge of the water holding a book, peering at his reflection. in his reflection, we can see the bright, vibrant colors shooting out from his book, his face full of joy, as though he can see the happiness that has come from being brave. the illustrations give additional insight into the character’s internal struggle supporting the reader to see how the character is wanting the happiness of being included. the focus returns to the little girl as the author’s phrase has become empowering “there will be times when you walk into a room and no one there is quite like you until the day you share your stories.” we see the girl share her summer vacation. the color tones of the illustrations stay bright. all the children are talking, laughing, and playing together. it’s here in the story we see the phrase “this is the day you begin.” the reader can connect to the internal struggle of the character and the bravery she made the choice to share her story. 56 georgia journal of literacy 45(1) using the day you begin as a way-in text for a cluster text centering on going to school (see table 1) is an excellent foundation for developing an understanding of inclusion and empathy within the school setting. table 1: developing an understanding of inclusion and empathy title author(s) & year synopsis *the day you begin woodson, 2018 way-in text described above. the arabic quilt khalil, 2020 kanzi and her family moved to america from egypt. when kanzi is feeling homesick she wraps herself up in the quilt her teita (grandmother) made her. kanzi enjoys her school, but feels hurt when the other children laugh at her when she speaks in arabic. kanzi’s teacher invites her mother to school to make a class quilt, with each student having a square with their name written in arabic. this brings excitement and togetherness to the classroom. dreamers morales, 2018 every mother has a dream for her child. dreamers is a story of a mother’s dream of building a better life for her newborn child. she dreams of their journey together as immigrants to america, the challenges they will face, and the opportunities they find. the girl who buried her dreams in a can trent & gilchrist, 2015 in this true story of dr. tererai trent, we follow dr. trent’s journey of perseverance as a young girl in a village in zimbabwe, desperate to learn to read. she secretly learns to read and write with the help of her brother. after the war, she dreamt of an education in america. with the help of her fellow villagers, she is able to travel to america and attend college. she studies and earns degrees until she reaches the highest level. upon achieving her goals, she returns to her village to fulfill her dream of bringing education to the boys and girls of zimbabwe. nasreen’s secret school winter, 2009 in this true story set in afghanistan, nasreen’s town is overcome by soldiers during the war. the soldiers were harsh with rules and how they treated the villagers. girls are no longer allowed to attend school. villagers like nasreen’s mother came up missing. nasreen becomes withdrawn, not speaking to others. her grandmother sneaks her to a secret school. going to school brings her friendships and hope. she discovers the world outside of afghanistan and the dreams that are to come. steamboat school hopkinson & husband, 2016 based on true events from 1847 missouri, hopkins retells the struggles brought to african americans when a law is made that no african americans may learn in the state of missouri. devastated, the reverend with the help of a boy named james, use their ingenuity to continue learning on a steamboat on the mississippi river. celebrating the uncelebrated through overcoming challenges life is full of challenges. while we should acknowledge and learn from the challenges that we do not overcome, we believe that it is also beneficial to celebrate overcoming challenges. in addition, when students recognize each other’s obstacles, challenges, successes, and failures, there is an opportunity to build a strong community of learners. all because you matter (charles, 2020) is unique in that it speaks right to the reader. written in second person point of view, the message that you matter is prevalent and woven throughout. you mattered “long before you took your place in this world.” with a closer look, the parker & malec 57 reader sees the magnificent artistry of caldecott honor winner and illustrator, bryan collier. through collage, we see multiple faces woven in the quilting cloth being designed by many hands. this “quilt” is worn as a stunning headdress on the next page. amongst the colorful design shown like peacock feathers, we see that the faces are different. some are looking at the reader while others show side images. still others show faces with eyes closed. in another feather, we only see an eye. the arrangement and presentation suggest the diversity of those who matter. the reader is taken through birth, first steps, first words, and opening a book. the book shows a person who looks just like you, a young brown boy. the author shares how the boy sees himself in the characters with the “same hair, same skin, same dreams.” the author also shares how the words and pictures come together because “you matter.” not everything is always sugar coated and as the story continues, we see that “light does not always reach lonely planets, covered moons, stars unseen, and if matter no longer exists.” we see children laughing in the back as the question “what kind of a name is that?” is posed. the author shares how life is full of obstacles: seeing big red x’s on a math page might make you question if you, your work, and your effort matter; looking at the news to see people taking a breath, taking a stand, taking a knee; hearing whispered prayers as another name is called trayvon, tamir, philando and wondering if they, or you, will ever matter. with the turn of a page, we shift to the main character looking right at us. we read, “did you know that you were born from queens, chiefs, legends?” through all of creation and from the beginning of time “you mattered, they mattered. we matter. . . and always will.” this way-in text sets the stage and sends a message of resiliency. despite the obstacles our students encounter, they matter. each student is an important member of our classrooms just like the many colorful and unique feathers in the headdress shown in the book. this book is perfect to introduce stories about individuals who faced obstacles and succeed, despite the challenges (see table 2). table 2: celebrating the uncelebrated through overcoming challenges title author(s) & year synopsis *all because you matter charles, 2020 way-in text described above. all the way to the top: how one girl’s fight for americans with disabilities changed everything pimentel, 2020 this is the true story of jennifer keelan-chaffins who never let her wheelchair slow her down even if the world around her made it hard for disabled individuals to do simple things like go to school or eat in the cafeteria. she joined activists in washington d.c. for what became known as the capitol crawl as she climbed all the way to the top without her wheelchair when the americans with disabilities act was proposed to congress. emmanuel’s dream: the true story of emmanuel ofosu yeboah thompson, 2015 emmanuel was born in ghana, west africa with one deformed leg. he was dismissed by many people but never by his mother, who always taught him to reach for his dreams. when he was young, he hopped more than two miles to school. he learned to play soccer. at the age of thirteen, he left home to provide for his family and became a cyclist. he rode four hundred miles across ghana, showing many how determination pays off and a disability does not have to be an inability. i talk like a river scott, 2020 the schneider family award is awarded each year to an author or illustrator for a book with artistic expression of the disability experience. in 2020, i talk like a river won this prestigious award. we are taken through a young boy’s day. he wakes up silent. words stuck in his mouth, he eats his breakfast without 58 georgia journal of literacy 45(1) saying a word. after school, his dad picks him up and consoling him, tells him that he talks like a river. the story is based on the author’s experience. michael rosen’s sad book rosen, 2004 michael is sad. at times, his sadness takes over his mind, leaving him helpless. at other times, michael is angry. sometimes he wants to just disappear. michael suffers from mental illness, attributed partially to the loss of his son eddie. readers are brought into michael’s life and his struggles. rescue & jessica: a life-changing friendship kensky & downes, 2018 this heart-warming story personifies rescue, a dog meant to be a seeing eye dog, just as his family members were. rescue is surprised that he is going to be a service dog. jessica’s life is different than she expected, too. a runner in the boston marathon, jessica became a double amputee after surviving the bombing. rescue and jessica’s friendship is a valuable one as each helps the other survive. diverse family dynamics and experiences today, the students in our classrooms differ in their family dynamics and experiences. in 1960, eighty-eight percent of children lived with both parents (united states census bureau, 2016). that number is much lower now. in our classrooms, there are children from single parent homes and homes with divorced parents. additionally, we have students from interracial families as well as families with same sex parents. children without homes, and children with incarcerated parents are also amongst our students today. for those who are not privy to these backgrounds, they may feel in a position where they do not know what to do or what to say. realizing that each one of us is “good” and can do amazing things is an important first step. i am every good thing (barnes & james, 2020) makes the perfect way-in text for a cluster text centered around diverse family dynamics and experiences. written in first person, the main character shares how he is every good thing as we read “i am a nonstop ball of energy. powerful and full of light. i am a go-getter. a difference maker. a leader. i am every good thing that makes the world go round.” one of the beauties of this book is that the portrayal of the boy is not just positive. while we read that he is “good to the core, like the center of a cinnamon roll” and see him playing with his friends, we also see him fall while doing skateboard tricks but getting back on his feet, despite his scraped knees and elbows. the authors take us through the boy’s life in a relatable way that illustrates his experiences. for example, when they write that the main character is a gentleman and a scholar, it is followed by saying he is “kind and polite, like, ‘yes, ma’am,’ and ‘yes,sir,’ helping my grandmother cross the street, and saying ‘bless you’ when a stranger has to sneeze.” we learn about the boy in terms of learning, having fun, being musically and athletically talented. we also learn that he is an important member in the world around him as a “brother, son, nephew, favorite cousin, grandson, and friend.” this boy is “real” and recognizes that even though he is something of a superhero, there are times when he is afraid. despite this, he shares that he is brave, hope, worthy of success, and worthy to be loved. being worthy to be loved and worthy to be valued is a valuable message to send and be heard in our diverse classrooms making this the perfect way-in text for a cluster text on diverse family dynamics and experiences (see table 3). parker & malec 59 table 3: diverse family dynamics and experiences title author(s) & year synopsis *i am every good thing barnes & james, 2020 way-in text described above. knock, knock: my dad’s dream for me beaty, 2013 every day the young boy in the story plays a game with his father. his father comes to his room and says “knock, knock,” and the boy pretends to be asleep. one day, his father does not come. he does not come the next day or the day after that, either. while the reader does not truly know what happened to the father, the author’s note leads the reader to the conclusion that he may have been incarcerated. as the reader, we travel through the boy’s life as he becomes a man and a father. heather has two mommies newman, 2016 heather loves the number two. she has two arms, two legs, two pets, and two mommies. she does not have a daddy. when she goes to school, and the children all draw pictures of their families, heather learns that there are not any families that are the same. everyone is different in their own way. a shelter in our car gunning, 2004 zettie and her mother had a warm and comfortable home in jamaica. when they come to america, they are forced to live in their car. mama cannot find a steady job, and papa is gone. despite the situation, mama’s love is unwavering and shows zettie that they can meet all challenges. the case for loving: the fight for interracial marriage alko, 2015 richard loving was white, and his wife mildred was american and cherokee. they were married in washington d.c. their marriage was forbidden in virginia, where they lived, so when they returned home, they were arrested. their fight went all the way to the supreme court, where they finally won. they changed the world for interracial couples and showed the unfairness of any law that restricts who you are allowed to love. love de la pena, 2018 this book reminds readers that there is love all around us. even when parents fight, there is still love and something bright to look to. everything can be called love, from shared joy to comfort in the darkness. final thoughts i (lisa, the first author) still remember when i read knock, knock to my seventh-grade classroom. i had taken over a seventh-grade classroom in december, so i was a new teacher to them, even though i had many years of experience. we were reading and analyzing the picturebook, projected on a large screen. in those first days in the classroom, it was one of the few times during the day where all students were focused and engaged. the students had struggled with focus and appropriate behavior all school year. one student interrupted the reading at the point that the boy’s father disappears. he laughed and said, “i bet you he went to jail.” he looked around at his classmates trying to get them to join in his laughter. this student was trying to get the attention of his peers but was taken aback when i read the end of the book that shared that yes, indeed, the boy’s father was in jail. in that moment, my students began to look at me differently. instead of seeing a white, middle-class female in front of them, they saw someone who “got it.” they saw someone who understood that we all have stories and experiences who shape who we are and that our differences deserve to be celebrated as do our similarities. this showed in the way they interacted with me; it also showed in the focus and effort they showed towards their studies. 60 georgia journal of literacy 45(1) for this article, we chose three cluster texts to share. we reflected on the students we have taught during our years in education to choose these three clusters. these are just ideas, but we hope through our creations, we have demonstrated how to create cluster texts that are culturally and linguistically diverse. there are many books to choose from when building libraries that represent the students in your classrooms. additionally, there are many ways that teachers can utilize cluster texts in the classroom. we have suggested a few. there are many more. we wholeheartedly believe in the value of sharing multiple stories and in having our students feel represented in our classrooms. we know that this sense of value and belonging has great potential to stimulate interest, community, and deep learning. references bakhtin, n. (1987). speech genres and other late essays (2nd ed.). university of texas press. bintz, w. p. (2011). “way-in” books encourage exploration in middle grades classrooms. middle school journal, 42(3), 34–45. https://doi.org/10.1080/00940771.2011.11461763 bintz, w. p. (2015). using paired texts to teach ccss anchor standards in reading. voices from the middle, 22(4), 39–43. camp, d. (2000). it takes two: teaching with twin texts of fact and fiction. the reading teacher, 53(5), 400–408. cappiello, m. a., & dawes, e. t. (2021). text sets in action: pathways through content area literacy. stenhouse publishers. ciecierski, l., & bintz, w. p. (2015). using authentic literature to develop challenging and integrated curriculum. middle school journal, 46(5), 19–25. https://doi.org/10.1080/ 00940771.2015.11461921 ciecierski, l., & bintz, w. p. (2018). tri-texts: a potential next step to paired texts. the reading teacher, 71(4), 479–483. https://doi.org/10.1002/6565.1649 ciecierski, l. (2017). what the common core state standards do not tell you about connecting texts. the reading teacher, 71(3), 285–294. https://doi.org/10.1002/trtr.1616 eggebrecht-weinschreider, c. (2020). comfort is critical for student success: here are three simple factors to consider. classroom components. https://spaces4learning.com/articles/2020/ 05/25/comfort-is-critical-for-student-success.-here-are-3-simple-factors-to-consider.aspx kristeva, j. (1987). the kristeva reader. columbia university press. leland, c. h., lewison, m., & harste, j. (2017). teaching children’s literature: it’s critical! (2nd ed). routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315269627 moss, c., & brookhart, s. m. (2012). learning targets: helping students aim for understanding in today’s lesson. association for supervision and curriculum development. murphy, (2009). using picture books to engage middle school students. middle school journal, 40(4), 20–24. https://doi.org/10.1080/00940771.2009.11461677 norris, k. e. l. 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(2016, november 17). the majority of children live with two parents, census bureau reports. https://www.census.gov/newsroom/pressreleases/2016/cb16-192.html youngs, s., & serafini, f. (2011). comprehension strategies for reading historical fiction books. the reading teacher, 65(2), 115–124. https://doi.org/10.1002/trtr.01014 literature cited alko, s. (2015). the case for loving: the fight for interracial marriage. arthur & levine books. barnes, d., & james, g. c. (2020). i am every good thing. nancy paulsen books. beaty, d. (2013). knock, knock: my dad’s dream for me. little brown books for young readers. charles, t. (2020). all because you matter. orchard books. de la pena, m. (2018). love. g. p. putnam’s sons books for young readers. gunning, m. (2004). a shelter in our car. lee & low books. hopkinson, d., & husband, r. (2016). steamboat school: inspired by a true story. disney hyperion. kensky, j., & downes, p. (2018). rescue & jessica: a life-changing friendship. candlewick press. khalil, a. (2020). the arabic quilt. tilbury house publishers. morales, y. (2019). dreamers. findaway world. newman, l. (2016). heather has two mommies. candlewick press. pimentel, a. b. (2020). all the way to the top: how one girl’s fight for americans with disabilities changed everything. source book explore. rosen, m. (2004). michael rosen’s sad book. candlewick press. scott, j. (2020). i talk like a river. neal porter books. thompson, l. a. (2015). emmanuel’s dream: the true story of emmanuel ofosu yeboah. anne schwartz books. trent, t., & gilchrist, j. s. (2015). the girl who buried her dreams in a can: a true story. viking books for young readers. winter, j. (2013). nasreen’s secret school: a true story from afghanistan. zaner-bloser. woodson, j. (2018). the day you begin. nancy paulsen books. received: october 22, 2022 | accepted: march 15, 2023 | published: april 3, 2023 https://www.census.gov/newsroom/press-releases/2016/cb16-192.html https://www.census.gov/newsroom/press-releases/2016/cb16-192.html https://doi.org/10.1002/trtr.01014 picturebooks in the classroom intertextuality and cluster texts the value of students seeing themselves in the text around them cluster texts to show multiple perspectives developing an understanding of inclusion and empathy table 1: developing an understanding of inclusion and empathy celebrating the uncelebrated through overcoming challenges table 2: celebrating the uncelebrated through overcoming challenges diverse family dynamics and experiences table 3: diverse family dynamics and experiences final thoughts references literature cited georgia journal of literacy 2024, vol. 46(1), pp. 124–130 https://doi.org/10.56887/galiteracy.134 issn: 2833-7611 teaching tips contact dr. kimberly a. davidson, associate professor of literacy, department of elementary and special education, university of north georgia, dahlonega, ga; email kimberly.davidson@ung.edu. dr. sarah williams, associate professor, department of elementary and special education, university of north georgia, dahlonega, ga; email sarah.williams@ung.edu. dr. emily lin, professor, department of elementary and special education, university of north georgia, dahlonega, ga; email emily.lin@ung.edu. dr. annmarie jackson, associate professor, department of elementary and special education, university of north georgia, dahlonega, ga; email annmarie.jackson@ung.edu. dr. paula tench, associate professor, department of elementary and special education, university of north georgia, dahlonega, ga; email paula.tench@ung.edu. tips for organizing a dyslexia simulation workshop for pre-service teachers kimberly a. davidson department of elementary and special education, university of north georgia, dahlonega, ga sarah williams department of elementary and special education, university of north georgia, dahlonega, ga emily lin department of elementary and special education, university of north georgia, dahlonega, ga annmarie jackson department of elementary and special education, university of north georgia, dahlonega, ga paula tench department of elementary and special education, university of north georgia, dahlonega, ga abstract the impact of dyslexia on literacy has gained much attention in recent years, resulting in the need for additional training for teachers at all levels of the educational system. therefore, the purpose of this paper is to provide tips on how to organize a dyslexia simulation. authors recount their experiences building a team, identifying participants, selecting a simulation, planning, organizing, setting up, and implementing a dyslexia simulation workshop for pre-service elementary and special education teachers. initial expectations, challenges, and successes are highlighted. final reflections, lessons learned, tips, and resources (table 3) are shared. overall, the facilitators and participants found the experience beneficial. keywords educator preparation; dyslexia; experiential learning; simulations; literacy; elementary and special education yslexia is the most identified specific learning disability, affecting anywhere between four to twenty percent of children (riddick et al., 2012). at its most basic, dyslexia is defined as a word-level reading impairment in individuals with normal intelligence. however, dyslexia is a complex disorder that can vary in presentation and severity in different individuals (miles & miles, 1999). elliot (2020) contends there are four distinct conceptions of dyslexia, including: (a) students identified within the lowest end of the normal range of reading, (b) a neurobiological disorder affecting decoding, spelling, and word recognition, (c) a persistent reading disability that does not improve with academic interventions, and (d) a pervasive neurodiverse disorder that adversely affects working memory, processing speed, concentration, time management, self-organization, and verbal expression in addition to reading difficulties. with such a variety of ideas circulating about dyslexia, it is understandable that preservice and novice d mailto:kimberly.davidson@ung.edu mailto:sarah.williams@ung.edu mailto:emily.lin@ung.edu mailto:annmarie.jackson@ung.edu mailto:paula.tench@ung.edu davidson et al. 125 teachers would have difficulty recognizing and addressing the needs of students with this condition. further, it comes as little surprise that there is an abundance of myths and stereotypes about dyslexia as well. myths and stereotypes to ensure students with dyslexia (swd) are provided with the required education to become literate and succeed, educators must be properly trained to identify (a) the signs of the disability, (b) the effects on student learning, and (c) the proper methods to address learning needs. this has been a daunting task due to the aforementioned lack of a cohesive definition of dyslexia as well as persistent misconceptions about the nature of the syndrome. for example, a myth persists that the main characteristic of dyslexia is that students see words and letters backwards (riddick, 1995). gonzalez (2021) found that stereotypes continue to proliferate linking dyslexia to a specific gender, intelligence level, and socioeconomic status despite their repeated refutation. similarly, gonzalez (2021) reported that some educators mistakenly believe students can “grow out of” dyslexia, or that interventions such as diet and exercise, colored overlays for reading, eye tracking exercises, or medications are effective approaches to treating dyslexia. to address these misconceptions, in the last 5 years, multiple states, including georgia, have passed bills codifying the characteristics, methods of identification, and selection of scientifically researched methods and curricula to appropriately educate swd. the georgia department of education officially adopted the definition of dyslexia endorsed by the international dyslexia association: dyslexia is a specific learning disability that is neurobiological in origin. it is characterized by difficulties with accurate and/or fluent word recognition and by poor spelling and decoding abilities. these difficulties typically result from a deficit in the phonological component of language that is often unexpected in relation to other cognitive abilities and the provision of effective classroom instruction. secondary consequences may include problems in reading comprehension and reduced reading experience that can impede growth of vocabulary and background knowledge. (ida, 2002) further, the legislation in georgia specifies that educator preparation programs (epps) such as ours provide specific training in dyslexia to our preservice teachers (psts) to combat misinformation and cultivate competence (s.b.48, 2019). as part of our efforts to meet this mandate, we conducted a simulation activity with our psts in the department of elementary and special education (ese). theoretical framework kolb’s experiential learning theory highlights the significance of experience in the learning process. this theory is not separate and positioned as a stand-alone from previous theories such as behaviorism. instead, the experiential theory is viewed as a complement to other learning theories to provide a comprehensive perspective (kolb, 1984). most importantly, kolb posits that learning is a process that is regenerative and not fixed. to that end, the dyslexia simulations offered our psts multiple opportunities for teaching and learning. 126 georgia journal of literacy 46(1) context the epp at our university utilizes a professional development community (pdc) model. our students are assigned to a cohort and typically take the same classes together. classroom instruction takes place two days a week and may be delivered using face-to-face, online, or hybrid approaches. the other three days, our students are placed in an internship at a local public school working with a mentor teacher. psts in our program may work in small groups or individually with students who need additional support. our psts stay in their placements for roughly 6 weeks and then move to another classroom. psts log approximately 120 hours in each placement. our program provides a dual degree that can lead to certifications in elementary and special education, so psts are placed in both general and special elementary education classrooms. at the end of every six-week placement, psts attend a debriefing session. these sessions cover a variety of topics to help students succeed in their education. in response to the state mandate in 2022, ese faculty members in our college of education created four dyslexia modules for teacher candidates to complete at their own pace, before embarking on student teaching in the spring. the modules cover the characteristics, accommodations, development of instruction, and intervention support for swd. students complete a quiz at the end of each module, with an 80% passing score requirement. however, to provide a more active learning experience for our students, we decided to embed the dyslexia simulation in a debriefing session. steps to implement a dyslexia simulation to comply with the new legislation, we chose the experience dyslexia simulation because it provides hands-on experiences that simulate the challenges faced by swd (international dyslexia association of north carolina [idanc], 2018). we expected that the simulation would help decrease stereotypes, increase empathy and awareness, and support students in developing lesson plans that accommodate swd. therefore, we began organizing and preparing our simulation. we outline the steps for implementing a simulation below: step 1: build your team and identify participants first, find colleagues who are willing to help organize and facilitate the simulation activity. because we are organized in pdcs, it was natural for us to work as a team. ensure all team members know their initial roles and responsibilities. then, identify participants. we decided to focus on our approximately 50 seniors because they would soon be graduating. step 2: select simulation next, research available programs and simulations and examine the scope and focus to determine a fit for your program. when deciding, examine costs and available resources. the experience dyslexia simulation is low-cost and includes background information, detailed directions, and sample reflection questions. step 3: plan and organize next, enlist any additional facilitators needed for the simulation. you may want to involve both faculty and internship supervisors to ensure there is one facilitator for each of the six stations. allow facilitators to choose which station they would like to manage. the stations simulate davidson et al. 127 challenges typically experienced by individuals with dyslexia such as foundational reading, auditory, visual, and motor skills. stations are listed in table 1. table 1: simulation stations station number station name purpose of the station 1 learn to read simulates a beginning reading problem 2 listen to me simulates an auditory figure-ground problem 3 write with mirrors simulates a visual-motor and writing problem 4 name that letter simulates a letter-word identification problem 5 write or left simulates a copying and writing problem 6 hear and spell simulates an auditory discrimination problem then, meet with all facilitators to discuss the materials needed, decide what outcomes you would like students to experience as a result of participating in the workshop, and make a plan to measure the outcomes. we incorporated some of the post-station reflection questions provided in the dyslexia simulation kit. additionally, we created our own post-simulation reflection questions for students to complete when the entire simulation was finished. questions are presented in table 2. table 2: reflection questions post-station reflection questions how did the activity make you feel? did the activity give you any insights about the experiences of students with dyslexia? as a result of this activity, how likely are you to change your teaching approach? how might you use your experience from this activity to inform your teaching? post-simulation reflection questions the simulation workshop improved my awareness and knowledge of students with dyslexia. i have developed increased empathy and perspectives for students with dyslexia through this simulation workshop. this simulation workshop decreased my stereotypes toward students with dyslexia. this simulation workshop increased my interest in wanting to learn more about students with dyslexia. based on your experience in the simulation workshop, what practical strategies (accommodations) could you use to facilitate the learning of students with dyslexia or to decrease their challenges? 128 georgia journal of literacy 46(1) questions included open-ended responses and likert-scale response options. students accessed and answered the reflection questions through qr codes we generated and linked to google forms. these questions provide insights into students’ perceptions and conceptions of the simulation experience overall. step 4: set up materials and space next, locate a space that is large enough to hold all the students and allow for movement between stations. select a room supplied with tables, chairs, and (if possible) technology such as a public address system, computer, interactive whiteboard, and wi-fi, to support the facilitation of the simulation event. reserve the space for at least ninety minutes, to ensure plenty of time. then, print and organize the materials needed for the stations. materials consist of templates and directions provided with the simulation. at stations 2 and 6, devices to play audio are needed (table 1). in addition, mirrors or other means of reflecting written text backward are required for activities at two stations 3 and 5 (table 1). we brought laptops to play audio and a combination of mirrors and cell phones for “mirror writing” activities. step 5: implement simulation finally, set up and implement the simulation. arrange six tables with seating, label the stations, and provide enough materials for each group. describe the simulation and its purpose to the participants. explain that they will have a predetermined amount of time at each station to complete activities, access and answer reflection questions, and transition to the next station. we recommend allotting at least 10 minutes for each rotation. let participants know that there are questions to complete and a final group discussion after the simulation. set a timer and begin the simulation. after the post-simulation discussion with participants, plan to meet with facilitators to debrief and reflect upon the outcomes of the event. reflection and debriefing soon after the simulation, the facilitators should meet to debrief and reflect on the simulation and review the students’ feedback and reflections. we determined that the active participation of students was a key achievement. although most facilitators indicated that the students appeared confused, stressed, and unsure when addressing certain tasks, psts maintained their positivity by smiling, assisting one another, and working together to overcome the challenges. some of our students reflected that the noises in the room posed challenges for them to complete and focus on tasks. others indicated that the rotations through the stations made them feel overwhelmed. however, we explained to psts that this was precisely the purpose of the exercise: to simulate the real-life environmental challenges of a typical classroom, where students must adapt to varying levels of stimulation and dissonant sounds while managing transitions and attending to instruction. table 3: resources about dyslexia title of resource link to resource dyslexia facts & myths handout education.ufl.edu/ufli/files/2019/09/dyslexia-myths-andfacts.pdf gadoe dyslexia resources gadoe.org/curriculum-instruction-andassessment/curriculum-and-instruction/pages/dyslexia.aspx https://education.ufl.edu/ufli/files/2019/09/dyslexia-myths-and-facts.pdf https://education.ufl.edu/ufli/files/2019/09/dyslexia-myths-and-facts.pdf https://www.gadoe.org/curriculum-instruction-and-assessment/curriculum-and-instruction/pages/dyslexia.aspx https://www.gadoe.org/curriculum-instruction-and-assessment/curriculum-and-instruction/pages/dyslexia.aspx davidson et al. 129 ufli dyslexia resource hub education.ufl.edu/ufli/dyslexia-resources/ understood.org what is dyslexia? understood.org/en/articles/what-is-dyslexia skills that can be affected by dyslexia understood.org/en/articles/skills-that-can-be-affectedby-dyslexia signs of dyslexia at different ages understood.org/en/articles/checklist-signs-of-dyslexiaat-different-ages we encountered several challenges while facilitating the workshop. first, we did not have sufficient time to give the students an overview of the activities and provide them with essential background information about dyslexia at the beginning of the workshop. this lack of information left some students feeling confused and embarrassed as they struggled to grasp the instructions. the takeaway is that at the beginning of the workshop, it is critical to provide students with a comprehensive introduction, including an overview of all planned activities and what is expected of them. this approach will enable them to comprehend the purpose of the workshop and prepare for the tasks they will encounter later. another challenge was that in the writing station, where the students were requested to write with their dominant hand while looking in the mirror to complete three tasks, some students expressed their difficulty in finding the right angle to view their own handwriting by using their camera in the smartphone. using a small self-standing mirror as a more practical alternative to a smartphone is suggested. in the future, we would pair this simulation activity directly with the dyslexia modules to provide additional information addressing facts and myths about dyslexia. additionally, we would highlight not just the academic impact of dyslexia but the social, emotional, and behavioral components. to achieve these goals, we would prioritize debriefing and reflection throughout the simulation, encouraging psts to make explicit connections between simulation activities and realworld applications. the simulation provided a concrete way to better understand swd and with more context and debriefing psts will be better prepared to meet these students’ needs. a final suggestion is to implement this simulation with juniors so they can build knowledge and experience earlier. see table 3 above for additional resources on dyslexia. overall, we felt that the simulation provided psts with insights into what it is like to be a student with dyslexia. despite the initial frustration, stress, and confusion expressed by our students during the activities, it became evident that this simulation activity ultimately provided them with valuable and positive experiences. during the reflection activity, psts indicated a reduction in stereotypes, development of empathy, and increased awareness of swd, and their ability to generate appropriate accommodation strategies to meet the needs of these students. references elliott, j. g. (2020). it’s time to be scientific about dyslexia. reading research quarterly, 55(s1), s61–s75. https://doi.org/10.1002/rrq.333 gonzalez, m. (2021). dyslexia knowledge, perceived preparedness, and professional development needs of in-service educators. annals of dyslexia, 71(3), 547–567. https://doi.org/10.1007/ s11881-021-00235-z https://education.ufl.edu/ufli/dyslexia-resources/ https://www.understood.org/en/articles/what-is-dyslexia https://www.understood.org/en/articles/skills-that-can-be-affected-by-dyslexia https://www.understood.org/en/articles/skills-that-can-be-affected-by-dyslexia https://www.understood.org/en/articles/checklist-signs-of-dyslexia-at-different-ages https://www.understood.org/en/articles/checklist-signs-of-dyslexia-at-different-ages https://doi.org/10.1002/rrq.333 https://doi.org/10.1007/s11881-021-00235-z https://doi.org/10.1007/s11881-021-00235-z 130 georgia journal of literacy 46(1) international dyslexia association. (ida). (2002, november 12). definition of dyslexia. https://dyslexiaida.org/definition-of-dyslexia/ international dyslexia association of northern california. (2018). experience dyslexiatm kit: a learning disabilities simulation. https://norcal.dyslexiaida.org/experience-dyslexia/ experience-dyslexia-kit/ kolbe, d. a. (1984). experiential learning. prentice-hall. miles, t. r., & miles, e. (1999). dyslexia: a hundred years on. mcgraw-hill education (uk). riddick, b. (1995). dyslexia: dispelling the myths. disability & society, 10(4), 457–474. https://doi.org/10.1080/09687599550023453 riddick, b., wolfe, j., & lumsdon, d. (2012). dyslexia: a practical guide for teachers and parents. david fulton publishers. s.b. 48, 2019 biennium, 2019 reg. sess. (ga. 2019). https://legiscan.com/ga/text/sb48/2019 acknowledgments the authors would like to acknowledge the contribution of materials from their colleagues, drs. tiffany watson, nicole maxwell, and alyssa barnes. correspondence inquiries and other correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to dr. kimberly a. davidson, department of elementary & special education, 122 oakwood building, 3820 mundy mill rd., gainesville, ga 30566, united states; email: kimberly.davidson@ung.edu. received: december 20, 2023 | accepted: february 6, 2024 | published: may 15, 2024 https://dyslexiaida.org/definition-of-dyslexia/ https://norcal.dyslexiaida.org/experience-dyslexia/%e2%80%8cexperience-dyslexia-kit/ https://norcal.dyslexiaida.org/experience-dyslexia/%e2%80%8cexperience-dyslexia-kit/ https://doi.org/10.1080/09687599550023453 https://legiscan.com/ga/text/sb48/2019 mailto:kimberly.davidson@ung.edu myths and stereotypes theoretical framework context steps to implement a dyslexia simulation step 1: build your team and identify participants step 2: select simulation step 3: plan and organize table 1: simulation stations table 2: reflection questions step 4: set up materials and space step 5: implement simulation reflection and debriefing table 3: resources about dyslexia references 2013 spring gjr full issue.pdf ���������� � ��������� � �� ��� ��� ������� ������������� �������� 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<��/vrj��xkx�lmnn�px��,�)7+�*54+�5t�r5,)+�)�0,�8*.)u/,-��!(@<�n �<b>�b!�g@(�p> �$�� !�$<�<b���<� ��v(=;�%%�#�����(��$%=��&����'���@(�p> �$�c� !�($�?%�@<���(�>���%�@<��<��?!��b@b��&??���mnl�'����;p$��b!c���;p$��b!� <�g!$��%��h$!��� �b���d����&�all'��q!�(=�<b�g@(�p> �$��%@��;?$@g!�$!���<b�(@;?$!=!<��@<�� $p�<�����c� �%�@<� ��@><(� �@e�q!�(=!$��@e��<b ��=� �%�@<� ��!<%!$�e@$���>(�%�@<�v%�%��%�(���&����'��q=!��@<��%�@<�@e���>(�%�@<������& ��v�����n��l'���<��(�%@$�o�� �v�� !?�$%;!<%�@e���>(�%�@<��/)05,s.��+:5*)��/*-x�l����px�7)):2�,/)05,.*+:5*)r/*-xb@g�$!���<b����a�<�%�bl���?��>p%�p�����q�p�_#%�p����%�p��%�p��@<%��<!$ �%�@<� ��!���<b�h�<! �&����'��q!�(=�<b�(=� �$!<�%@�$!��c��<�!g��!<(!np��!�����!��;!<%�@e�%=!�.r0+,)08r�*+.+/*r7�40)+*/)1*+�5,�*+/-0,v�/,-�0).��;? �(�%�@<��e@$�$!���<b��<�%$>(%�@<��& �%�@<� ��<�%�%>%!�@e�f!� %=�h>p�� @����nm_om'��d��=�<b%@<�� georgia journal of literacy 2024, vol. 46(2), pp. 72–76 https://doi.org/10.56887/galiteracy.164 issn: 2833-7611 teaching tips contact dr. lunetta m. williams, professor, department of teaching, learning, and curriculum, university of north florida, jacksonville, fl; email lmwillia@unf.edu. text considerations to motivate boys to want to read lunetta m. williams university of north florida, jacksonville, fl abstract increasing motivation to read among elementary boys is an important consideration in closing the gender achievement gap in reading as students who are motivated to read typically increase their reading volume which can positively impact reading achievement. this article discusses the following text considerations that can impact boys’ motivation to read: (a) topic; (b) genre; (c) series, and (d) text layout. it is critical that books with these text considerations are accessible in classroom libraries, as male students in previous studies have not found texts of interest at school. the article provides a checklist for teachers to self-evaluate the types of texts that are needed in classroom libraries that can appeal to male students. keywords boys reading; reading achievement gap; motivation; interests; texts he most recent national assessment of educational progress (naep, 2022) reading achievement levels reveal that girls outperform boys. while this occurred at all grade levels that were assessed: fourth, eighth, and twelfth, this article focuses on the elementary grades. sixty-six percent of fourth-grade girls performed at or above the naep basic level, while 60 percent of boys performed at this level (national center for education statistics, 2022). further, in one study, a higher percentage of female students engaged in leisure reading and stated spending money on buying books for pleasure than male students (griva et al., 2012). mitigating the gender reading achievement gap is an important topic for educators to address. motivation is a critical consideration in closing the gender reading achievement gap as students who are motivated to read tend to increase their reading volume (stutz et al., 2016), and allington and mcgill-franzen (2021) cite numerous studies that demonstrate that reading volume positively affects reading achievement. further, in one study, students not originally identified as remedial readers and who did not engage in reading during their free time eventually lost academic ground (anderson et al., 1988). in a study conducted by marinak and gambrell (2010), findings revealed that third-grade boys who were average readers were less motivated to read than thirdgrade girls, and they indicated that many boys valued reading less than girls who were also average readers. while there are numerous strategies to contemplate when motivating boys to read, this article focuses on text considerations that include the following: (a) topic; (b) genre; (c) series, and (d) text layout. as some studies found that texts that boys want to read are not readily available in classrooms (husband, 2012; scholes et al., 2021), the information in this article can help educators become more informed about the types of books to provide to help mitigate the gender achievement gap in reading. a checklist is provided so that teachers can self-evaluate their libraries in order to ensure variation in texts to increase boys’ motivation. t mailto:lmwillia@unf.edu williams 73 topic it is helpful to know what research reveals regarding topics of interest to boys so that this information can provide guidance in making these texts easily accessible. books with animals such as sharks and reptiles were of interest to many elementary aged boys in some studies (cervetti et al., 2009; correia, 2011; scott & williams, 2016; sturm, 2003). sports, specifically football and basketball, were preferences of many male participants (griva et al., 2012; scott & williams, 2016; sturm, 2003; williams, 2008), and cars were also of interest in one study’s findings (boltz, 2007). further, some studies revealed that boys were interested in reading books about favorite movies (scholes et al, 2021) and other popular culture topics such as superheroes and singers (williams, 2008). genre fiction or nonfiction, what do boys prefer? in some studies, fiction was more popular among boys (williams, 2008, 2016) while in other studies, nonfiction was of more interest (husband, 2012; repaskey et al, 2017; senn, 2012). perhaps educators should ask students what types of books they like to read within the fiction genre as well as within the nonfiction genre, comparable to bonto and colleagues (2016), as opposed to asking which genre they prefer to read most. it is critical that both genres are represented in libraries, particularly as most teachers expose students to more fiction texts in the classroom (senn, 2012). some studies mentioned specific types of fiction that boys preferred, including fantasy (bonto et al., 2016; dillon et al., 2017), comics (bonto et al, 2016; dillon et al., 2017; griva et al., 2012; senn, 2012), realistic fiction (bonto et al., 2016), and humor (bonto et al., 2016). others noted that how-to manuals and newspapers (husband, 2012), reference books such as almanacs and history books (bonto et al, 2016), and sports magazines (bonto et al, 2016; griva et al., 2012) were forms of nonfiction that boys enjoyed. series numerous studies indicated boys’ desire to read books in a series (bonto et al., 2016; dillon et al., 2017; farris et al., 2009; scholes et al., 2021; senn, 2012; thomas, 2018; williams, 2008). farris and colleagues (2009) noted, “by reading a series book, he’d cut down on his ‘getting to know the book’s setup’ because he’d already been introduced to the setting, plot structure, and usual characters in previous books in the series” (p. 180). similarly, senn (2012) stated that series books can be of interest to boys as they have a preexisting connection to the characters. examples of popular book series among elementary boys included miami jackson (thomas, 2018), horrible harry (thomas, 2018), diary of a wimpy kid (scholes et al, 2021), and big nate (scholes et al, 2021). text layout while two studies found that boys prefer short, succinct texts (husband, 2012; senn, 2012), one study’s male participants preferred longer books that were more than 32 pages, the typical page length of picture books (williams, 2016). perhaps the types of books (e.g. topics, series) provided should be considered as someone might be more apt to read a longer book about a topic of high interest or that is a part of a familiar series. also, farris et al. (2009) discovered that striving male readers were interested in wide margins, easy-to-read fonts, large print, and ample white space such as who is lebron james (hubbard, 2023). their data revealed that boys who were not struggling readers enjoyed unusual fonts and books with unique textual features such as ben 74 georgia journal of literacy 46(2) yokoyama and the cookie of doom (swanson & behr, 2021) and chupcarter (lopez & calejo, 2023). figure 1 can be used to self-evaluate texts that are in classroom libraries to note the amount of representation of the text considerations that are mentioned in this article. figure 1: self-evaluation checklist for text considerations in a library text consideration adequate representation minimal representation need representation sharks reptiles football basketball cars popular culture fiction nonfiction series books various text lengths various text features (e.g. white space, unique font) conclusion educators must attend to the data that reveals elementary boys tend to achieve at lower levels in reading than elementary girls (naep, 2022). in addressing this issue, motivation should be considered as students who are motivated to read tend to read more (stutz et al., 2016), and reading volume positively affects reading achievement (allington & mcgill-franzen, 2021; anderson et al., 1988). one strategy that can enhance reading motivation among boys is providing access to books with particular text considerations that are mentioned in this article: a) topic, b) genre, c) series, and d) text layout. it is critical to evaluate if books in classroom libraries have these text considerations as male participants in one study (scholes et al., 2021) indicated that they did not often find books that they desired at school, which negatively impacted their motivation to read. a self-evaluation checklist provided in the article serves as a quick way to assess texts that are provided in classrooms. while offering access to books with these text considerations is important, it is also critical to recommend these texts during reading conferences and read them aloud for exposure. our role as educators is crucial in mitigating the gender reading achievement gap. references allington, r. l., & mcgill-franzen, a. m. (2021). reading volume and reading achievement: a review of recent research. reading research quarterly, 56(1), 231–238. https://doi.org/ 10.1002/rrq.404 https://doi.org/%e2%80%8c10.1002/rrq.404 https://doi.org/%e2%80%8c10.1002/rrq.404 williams 75 anderson, r., wilson, p., & fielding, l. (1988). growth in reading and how children spend their time outside of school. reading research quarterly, 23(3), 285–303. https://doi.org/ 10.1598/rrq.23.3.2 boltz, r. h. (2007). what we want: boys and girls talk about reading. school library media research: research journal of the american association of school librarians, 10, 1–18. bonto, j. m., arias, m. j., & macahilig, h. b. (2016). development of book selection criteria based on fifth graders’ (boys) reading interest. the normal lights, 10(1), 1–25. https://doi.org/10.56278/tnl.v10i1.168 cervetti, g. n., bravo, m. a., hiebert, e. h., pearson, p. d., & jaynes, c. a. (2009). text genre and science content: ease of reading, comprehension, and reader preference. reading psychology, 30(6), 487–511. https://doi.org/10.1080/02702710902733550 correia, m. p. (2011). fiction vs. informational texts: which will kindergarteners choose? young children, 66(6), 100–104. dillon, d. r., o’brien, d. g., scharber, c., & nichols-besel, k. (2017). motivating boys to read: guys read, a summer library reading program for boys. children and libraries, 15(2), 3– 8. https://doi.org/10.5860/cal.15n2.03 griva, e., alevriadou, a., & semoglou, k. (2012). reading preferences and strategies employed by primary school students: gender, socio-cognitive and citizenship issues. international education studies, 5(2), 24–34. https:// doi.org/10.5539/ies.v5n2p24 farris, p. j., werderich, d. e., nelson, p. a., & fuhler, c. j. (2009). male call: fifth-grade boys’ reading preferences. the reading teacher, 63(3), 180–188. husband, t. (2012). why can’t jamal read? there’s no simple answer why black males struggle with reading, but part of the problem stems from correctable factors that tend to lead to an early disconnect. phi delta kappan, 93(5), 23–27. https://doi.org/10.1177/00317217120 9300506 marinak, b. a., & gambrell, l. b. (2010). reading motivation: exploring the elementary gender gap. literacy research and instruction, 49(2), 120–141. https://doi.org/10.1080/19388 070902803795 national center for education statistics. (2022). percentage of students at or above selected national assessment of educational progress (naep) reading achievement levels, by grade and selected student characteristics: selected years, 2005 through 2022. https://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d22/tables/dt22_221.20.asp repaskey, l. l., schumm, j., & johnson, j. (2017). first and fourth grade boys’ and girls’ preferences for and perceptions about narrative and expository text. reading psychology, 38(8), 808–847. https://doi.org/10.1080/02702711.2017.1344165 scholes, l., spina, n., & comber, b. (2021). disrupting the ‘boys don’t read’ discourse: primary school boys who love reading fiction. british educational research journal, 47(1), 163– 180. https://doi.org/10.1002/berj.3685 scott, k., & williams, l. m. (2016). beyond biographies and research reports: capitalizing on topics of interest to support boys reading nonfiction for fun. dragon lode, 35(1), 28–35. https://doi.org/%e2%80%8c10.1598/rrq.23.3.2 https://doi.org/%e2%80%8c10.1598/rrq.23.3.2 https://doi.org/10.56278/tnl.v10i1.168 https://doi.org/10.1080/02702710902733550 https://doi.org/10.5860/cal.15n2.03 https://doi.org/10.1177/003172171209300506 https://doi.org/10.1177/003172171209300506 https://doi.org/10.1080/19388%e2%80%8c070902803795 https://doi.org/10.1080/19388%e2%80%8c070902803795 https://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d22/tables/dt22_221.20.asp https://doi.org/10.1080/02702711.2017.1344165 https://doi.org/10.1002/berj.3685 76 georgia journal of literacy 46(2) senn, n. (2012). effective approaches to motivate and engage reluctant boys in literacy. the reading teacher, 66(3), 211–220. https://doi.org/10.1002/trtr.01107 sturm, b. w. (2003). the information and reading preferences of north carolina children. school library media research: research journal of the american association of school librarians, 6, 1–30. stutz, f., schaffner, e., & schiefele, u. (2016). relations among reading motivation, reading amount, and reading comprehension in the early elementary grades. learning and individual differences, 45, 101–113. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2015.11.022 thomas, k. l. (2018). building literacy environments to motivate african american boys to read. the reading teacher, 72(6), 761–765. https://doi.org/10.1002/trtr.1784 williams, l. m. (2008). book selections of economically disadvantaged black elementary students. journal of educational research, 102(1), 51–63. https://doi.org/10.3200/joer. 102.1.51-64 williams, l. m. (2016). gaining insight: involving struggling male readers during independent reading. the reading professor, 38(1), 6–15. literature cited hubbard, c. (2023). who is lebron james? (s. marchesi, illus.). penguin workshop. lopez, g., & calejo, r. (2023). chupacarter (s. gutiérrez, illus.). viking books for young readers. swanson, m., & behr, r. (2021). ben yokoyama and the cookie of doom. knopf books for young readers. received: july 19, 2024 | accepted: october 10, 2024 | published: november 15, 2024 https://doi.org/10.1002/trtr.01107 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2015.11.022 https://doi.org/10.1002/trtr.1784 https://doi.org/10.3200/joer.%e2%80%8c102.1.51-64 https://doi.org/10.3200/joer.%e2%80%8c102.1.51-64 topic genre series text layout figure 1: self-evaluation checklist for text considerations in a library conclusion references literature cited a1ad0615-b583-41bf-b1c9-a51e64c224fb ���������� � ��������� � �� �� ��� ������� ������������� ������������ 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a#���$�%����(� �� �� ���� !qf���a��#��� !����a �a�do�;|s=~}=~�¡¢?�¡�=�s=t�¡>|y?��y<�@y�z�£}=tz$� �g¤#�!�a����f���#��#!� ��a#q��p��#aqq$�"���� q���$�%�&¥¦($�§|y�̈<<?uy@@�xs=~$� ab�cd#ef����d��q���$� �a# ���d ����a�!� ���qqd�����d �%�&&&($�r}~|©ª>svyz�«99*99¬*�­�8��®*1�8��3�«�̄:98­8:��)­1­*¬*�­�:,�>|y�°=>y?=s>}<=s@�xyst}=~�±zz<{}s>}<=$� ab�#e�� �f��"��d#$���eqd ���$�%���¥($�²89­710­*�3�45*�.7:98:��:,�±>>y=>}<=�s=t�>|y�;<�}=~�̈s?v�±~y$��g�a#q��� cf��#dga��a"q$ �#dqe� a �� $�$����g¤#a�����$�$��n����� "q���$�$�%�&&�($�³�a�"qa�do�#a�a��� ��od#��d#�od��d��qqaqqga ��do�#a�!� ���dg�#a�a q�d $��}>y?s{��°zz¢yz�s=t��?s{>}{yz���d�$�������$����''$[́]ìfp�h�µ�¶mk�hikjm_�p�·r�ţww¹xr�hj\iiºin[�� �a#����d �¤"��!q�a ��"q��qg�od#�#a�!� ��� !�b#��� �$�§|y�xyst}=~�§ys{|y#���d�$��'����$��&�����$�" q�����$ $�%�&¥�($�§|y��s�y?��s~��?}={yzz$�%��"q$��$���#���a ed(�³d#d �df�� ��e��#aqq$ ���d ��� d" ����do�³a���a#q�do�����ag����q$�%����($��#� ����aq�� !���� !�#!q�od#����dd������ag����q$��aq�d ����f��"��d#$��#e�p���$»$�n���� od#!���$�$�%����($�����ag����q��a�dg� ����³a���a#$�%�a(� aa!��g��a����q����f����p �n����d $�a�a#qd �� $�%���¦($����#�ga#�� ��dq����a��qp��d�d�p$� ab�cd#ef��¼od#!� ��a#q��p��#aqq$��q� qe���³$�%����($�§|y�½@¢y=>�xysty?�%�a($� ab�cd#ef����d��q���$�� �!a�»������$��$����#����$��$��n���p�»�����gq���$��$�%����($�.+*¬*�­172�1���¾8��+*�)05::+�¾1­5*¬1­8093�§ys{|}=~�̈y�y@<��y=>s@@��%'���a!$($��dq�d f����p �n����d $�p�d�qep���$��$�%�&'¥($��� !�� !��d��a�pf�§|y�ÿ�y@<��y=>�<w�r}~|y?��z�{|<@<~}{s@��?<{yzzyz$� �g¤#�!�a����f���#��#!� ��a#q��p��#aqq$¿àáâã�äåæãçåèèåé�êëìí�îïðñ�ñëñòëïí�ðî�óôë�õö×�øùúûü�ýþ�ß�àáâãßä�äåßä�þåßâæþ�ýçàáâãßäýáç�àâáã�ßçè�ßéáêä�ãæãéæâþ�ßçè�ëáêçëýìþ�ßëâáþþ�íæáâîýßï�ðåýþ�ëßç�éæ�âæñýæòþ�áà�êóëáãýçî�çæò�éááôþõ�èßäæþ�áà�êóëáãýçî�ãææäýçîþõ�çæòþ�áâ�æöëýäýçî�åßóóæçýçîþ�ßéáêä�ß�ìáëßì�ëáêçëýì�ãæãéæâï�÷åßä�ß�òáçèæâàêì�òßø�äá�þêóóáâä�äåæ�ßëäýñæ�óæáóìæ�ýç�áêâ�áâîßçýùßäýáçï�ðåýþ�ýþ�ß�þóáä�äá�óêéìýþå�ýçäæâæþäýçî�þäáâýæþ�áâ�óáæäâø�äåßä�ß�äßìæçäæè�ãæãéæâ�áâ�þäêèæçä�åßþ�òâýääæçï�úæçè�çæòþ�äá��áâæääß��ßýìï������� � �� ���ð��í������������������������������������������ ��� ����ï�úæçè�ßâäýëìæþõ�äåáêîåäþõ�óáæãþõ�æäëï�äá!�"ßêìß�#æýçæâä�$�%&'(��æ)ßñæç�*ýâëìæ�$�ðêëôæâõ�í+�&,,-%�$�óôæýçæâä.éæììþáêäåïçæä georgia journal of literacy 2023, vol. 45(1), pp. 31–50 https://doi.org/10.56887/galiteracy.100 issn: 2833-7611 practitioner article contact dr. william p. bintz, professor of literacy education; college of education, health, and human services; school of teaching, learning, and curriculum; kent state university, kent, oh; email wbintz@kent.edu. reading-aloud to children: a cautionary tale with recommendations for success william p. bintz kent state university, kent, oh abstract this article advocates and promotes the practice of reading aloud to children, adults, and everybody in between, by parents, siblings, teachers, librarians, and guardians throughout the world. at the same time, it article presents a cautionary tale about reading aloud. the tale is based on an instance of one guest reader who read aloud a picturebook to children at a public reading session sponsored by scholastic. author experiences with and personal reflections on this session describes several cautions to adults (teachers, administrators, parents, grandparents, and guardians) that reading aloud to children is not a simple activity, but a complex art. a brief review of research on reading aloud is presented, highlighting four major categories: reading aloud picturebooks, reading aloud picturebooks across the curriculum, reading aloud picturebooks to older readers, and reading aloud to english language learners. a variety of recommended texts and instructional strategies for reading aloud to children are presented and some final thoughts described. keywords reading aloud; picturebooks; cautionary tale; read-aloud texts; read-aloud strategies what is it that you like to do what is it that you like to do with someone you care about in a comfortable place with a lot of expression and with no interruptions? read aloud! (of course) (layne, 2001, p. 53) his little poem poignantly captures the big idea about reading aloud. it is a pleasurable experience because someone reads aloud to someone else who they care about. for parents, it is their children and for teachers it is their students. moreover, reading aloud is a memorable experience, often lasting throughout a lifetime. one parent, who also is an elementary school teacher, stated: i read aloud to my students as often as i can. they absolutely love it. they particularly like it when i perform while reading a book, changing my facial expression and fluctuating the tone of my voice. as for myself, i really enjoy reading aloud to individual students. it always reminds me of when i read to my son when he was a young child. t mailto:wbintz@kent.edu 32 georgia journal of literacy 45(1) this article promotes the practice of reading aloud to children, adults, and everybody in between. it is a universal experience practiced by parents, siblings, teachers, librarians, and guardians throughout the world. at the same time, this article provides a cautionary tale about reading aloud. the tale cautions adults (i.e., teachers, administrators, parents, grandparents, and guardians) that reading aloud to children is not a simple activity, but a complex art. i begin by sharing a vignette about an instance of reading aloud to children. next, i share reflections on this instance of reading aloud from a reading educator point of view. then, i describe research on reading aloud, highlighting four major categories: reading aloud picturebooks, reading aloud picturebooks across the curriculum, reading aloud picturebooks to older readers, and reading aloud to english language learners. finally, i share a variety of recommended texts and instructional strategies for reading aloud to children. i end with some final thoughts. vignette readin’ worries i got some readin’ worries and they’re buggin’ me to beat the band the stuff they’re tellin’ me in school is makin’ me look like a fool! those diagraphs are plumb hard to take and schwa gives me a belly ache! i’m sick to death of blends and such and no more vowels i’ve had too much! the words i’m s’posed to know on sight are keepin’ me up late at night! and darn that word wall makes me frown i’d like to say, “let’s tear it down!” but teacher, she likes words a bunch she reads to us right after lunch and when she does, i start to feel that books just might have some appeal. “cause all us kid’sill gather ‘round a-sitting, lyin’ on the ground as teacher reads aloud each day my readin’ worries melt away. (layne, 2001, pp. 54–55) reading aloud to my granddaughter takes away, or at least temporarily pauses, my worries. that’s why i recently took my four-year old granddaughter to a read-aloud session for young children sponsored by scholastic publication. the session took place in a library/media center at bintz 33 a large, local university. a total of nine children attended, each accompanied by at least one parent, grandparent, or caregiver. the read aloud was conducted by an adult affiliated with this university. for this session, the library/media center was organized as a book fair. a variety of literature, mostly children’s picturebooks, were displayed on tables so that children and adults could browse and purchase. as the session started, the guest reader sat in a large, soft, cozy chair, accompanied by her nine-year old daughter, and the children sat in a semi-circle in front of them. she introduced herself and her daughter and displayed the front cover of the picturebook she selected to read that morning. it was the good egg (john, 2019). the following is a precis. this story uses a good egg as both an idiom and a description of the main character. it tells the story of not just a good egg, but a verrrrrrry good egg, one is kind to, generous with, and thoughtful of other eggs. he is perfect to everyone, and that is the challenge. the good egg lives in a recycled carton with 11 other eggs, all of whom, except for the good egg, get into mischief and trouble. his carton-mates behave rotten and are just plain rotten. metaphorically, the good egg starts to crack from the pressure of feeling like he, unlike the other eggs, must be perfect. he decides it’s time for a change. the good egg makes time for himself, goes on a road trip, and learns the value of caring for self is as important as caring for others (even if they are rotten!). the guest reader started to read-aloud the picturebook. not long after, she invited her daughter to read the rest of the story aloud to the children. as a grandfather, i was grateful that the guest reader and her daughter took the time on a weekend to read aloud to a group of children. to be sure, it was an enjoyable experience for the children, as well as for the parents and grandparents. in addition to grandfather, however, i am also a teacher educator in literacy education, specializing in reading education. as such, i spent time afterward the session reflecting on the whole experience, not as a grandfather but as a reading educator. reflection there’s something there’s something in their eyes there’s something in their hearts there’s something in their souls that longs to hear a story. there’s something in their eyes that sparkles like a gem; each time i tell them of a book i’d like to read to them. there’s something in their hearts, a yearning deep within; they’re hoping i will take them, to a place they’ve never been. 34 georgia journal of literacy 45(1) there’s something in their souls, which craves the chance to meet; the characters who seem to somehow, make their lives complete. there’s something in their eyes there’s something in their hearts there’s something in their souls that longs to hear a story. (layne, 2001, pp. 60–61) this poem is an important reminder that there is just something special about reading aloud to children. it is a joyful experience for children and the joy is reflected in their eyes, hearts, and souls. mem fox, an internationally renowned children’s book author and advocate for reading aloud to children, characterizes the practice as “magic” (fox, 2022, p. 2). reading aloud to children comes natural to most adults, but tips are always helpful. table 1 illustrates some general tips for reading aloud (trelease & giorgia, 2019). table 1: suggested tips for reading aloud tip 1 preview the book by reading it to yourself ahead of time. such an advance reading allows you to spot material you may want to shorten, eliminate, or elaborate on. tip 2 remember that reading aloud comes naturally to very few people. to do it successfully and with ease, you must practice. tip 3 if you are reading a picturebook, make sure the children can see the pictures easily. tip 4 allow listeners a few minutes to settle down and adjust their feed and minds to the story. tip 5 set the stage for reading. read the title, show the illustration, introduce the author and illustrator. discuss briefly. tip 6 remember that the art of listening is an acquired one. it must be taught and cultivated gradually—it just doesn’t happen overnight. tip 7 vary the length and subject matter of your readings. tip 8 position yourself so that you and the reader are comfortable. your head should be above the heads of your listeners for your voice to carry to the far side of the room. tip 9 use plenty of expression when reading. if possible, change your tone of voice to fit the dialogue. tip 10 adjust your pace to fit the story. during a suspenseful part, slow down, draw your words out, bring your listeners to the edge of their chairs. bintz 35 tip 11 when possible, encourage the listeners to join in on repetitive parts of the story. tip 12 allow time for discussion after a reading a story. do not turn discussions into quizzes or insist upon prying story interpretations from readers. tip 13 do not read too fast. read slowly enough for readers to build mental pictures of what they just hear you read. slow down enough for listeners to see the pictures without feeling rushed. tip 14 try to read a story that you personally enjoy. your dislike may show in the reading. tip 15 don’t be unnerved by questions during the reading. foster curiosity with patient answers, then resume the reading. tip 16 relax and have fun! although it comes naturally, reading aloud is often viewed not as magic but as a simple activity in which an adult (i.e., teacher, parent, grandparent, or caregiver) reads aloud a picturebook to a child. while appearing simple, reading aloud is actually a complex art, requiring attention to at least two interrelated perspectives: curricular and instructional. curricular. this perspective focuses on text selection, and asks: what text is to be selected for reading aloud? many parents and teachers use a variety of texts to read aloud in the classroom, but tips for text selection are always helpful. table 2 illustrates some suggestions for selecting texts to read aloud. table 2: suggestions for selecting texts to read aloud suggestion 1 select a short text or excerpt from a book that provides several natural stopping points for the teacher to pause during a read-aloud, share her thinking about the strategy, and explain how the strategy helps her better understand the text. suggestion 2 select an interesting, perhaps provocative text in which children are likely to be engaged in the topic because it is relevant, compelling, or intriguing. suggestion 3 select a text that is more challenging than one that all the children would be able to read independently. suggestion 4 select a familiar, well-loved text for a particular group of children. suggestion 5 select a short text from a student’s own writing that is conducive to thinking aloud about a particular strategy. in this instance, although well-intended, i question the good egg as a good text selection for reading aloud to this particular group of children. in addition to the criteria identified above, i question it for at least three reasons: audience, theme, and tone. one, all children in this group were at, or under, the age of four years old. during the reading, they all sat quietly and listened passively, moving only to tilt their heads periodically to get a better view of the illustrations. they were not actively engaged. two, the major theme of the picturebook is how the good egg had difficulty dealing with being perfect, exacerbated by the fact that his carton-mates were just the 36 georgia journal of literacy 45(1) opposite. while important, the children were not understanding this theme, even though the guest reader referred to it often. in fact, near the middle of the story, i heard one child whisper to another child: “this story is silly because eggs don’t talk.” three, instead of being enjoyable and conversational, the tone of the picturebook is didactic, almost moralizing. it stresses the importance of behaving like the good egg and not like the mischievous eggs. i question whether any of the children created this meaning, or any other like it, from this text. instructional. this perspective focuses on how to read aloud a selected text. in this instance, at the beginning, the guest reader displayed the front cover of the book and then started to read aloud. disappointingly and somewhat surprisingly, the reader provided no engaging introduction to the read-aloud experience. for example, there was no build-up to the experience, no attempt to generate curiosity, no invitation to children to ponder the front cover and make inferences and predictions about the story, no attempt to connect the book to children’s personal experiences, and invitation to children to wonder about what the title, characters, or story. the reader read the first two or three pages, and then invited her daughter to read aloud the rest of the story nonstop. periodically, the adult reader paused the reading to share her ongoing understandings of the text. children were not invited to share or discuss what they were understanding about the story at any time in the whole experience. what was particularly noticeable, however, was that the daughter did not seem prepared to read aloud the book. from the time she started to read, it was apparent that she had not rehearsed reading-aloud the picturebook before her mother invited her to be a co-reader. for example, at one point in the story the good egg returns to see his carton-mate and greets each of them by their first name, e.g. “hey, greg.” however, when the daughter needed to read “aloha, shelly”, she struggled to read the word aloha. she tried to decode the word several different ways but wasn’t sure which, if any, pronunciation was correct. finally, a parent in the group pronounced the word. the daughter smiled and continued to read. in the end and upon reflection, i had mixed views on the whole experience. on the one hand, i view this experience as a generous and gracious instance of a guest reader and her daughter reading aloud to other people’s children. on the other hand, i see this experience as a cautionary tale, a caution for teachers to see reading aloud as a complex art, not a simple activity. what makes reading aloud a complex art is that the practice requires the integration of curriculum (who am i reading aloud to? what texts are most appropriate for this person or group? how do i select a specific text to read? why is this particular text appropriate to read aloud to this person or group?) and instruction (what are different ways to read aloud a text? what way should i read aloud this specific text to this person or group?). this integration and these questions illustrate the complex art of reading aloud. the following sections describe some of this complexity. reading aloud reading aloud to children of any age improves their literacy. (fox, 2013, p. 5) historically, reading aloud has been, and continues to be, a common practice in schools, libraries, and homes all around the world. the benefits of reading aloud are universally recognized. among other things, reading aloud supports language and language development, introduces children to a wide range of authentic literature, particularly picturebooks, demonstrates what good reading looks bintz 37 like and sounds like, creates and supports meaningful relationships, and develops positive dispositions about reading (fox, 2013, 2022). simply put, reading aloud is a good way for teachers and students to spend time in school and for parents and children to spend time at home. here, i share a brief literature review of reading aloud across four categories: reading aloud picturebooks, reading aloud picturebooks across the curriculum, reading aloud picturebooks to older readers, and reading aloud to english language learners (ells). reading aloud picturebooks. picturebooks are particularly beneficial for reading aloud. they provide opportunities to increase student engagement in reading and foster a positive disposition about reading. moreover, picturebooks have much power and potential for students of all ages and across all content areas. for example, “picturebooks serve to help middle grade students visualize concepts, become familiar with vocabulary, connect to content, and get excited about science” (braun, 2010, p. 46). reading aloud informational picturebooks is also important (hoyt, 2009, as cited in oczkus, 2009). among other things, it helps students learn important content area material across the curriculum. laminack and wadsworth (2006) use bridge as a metaphor for the role picturebooks can play across the curriculum: picturebooks have the very real potential for bringing together ideas, images, content, vocabulary, language and art in the minds of any learner. picturebooks often do become a bridge to span the curriculum, connecting each subject and each topic into one interconnected entity. this makes it possible for both teaching and learning to travel freely in the territory of ideas and information. (p. 208) reading aloud picturebooks across the curriculum. picturebooks can be used to introduce a new topic or generate interest in a concept across the curriculum. science is a good example. reading aloud informational picturebooks in science helps students better understand scientific ideas (webster, 2009). it can also help students develop an interest in science that currently doesn’t exist, as well as ultimately help them read better. reading aloud picturebook biographies of scientists can help students understand how scientists think, observe, infer, formulate and test hypotheses, and draw conclusions (zarnowski & turkel, 2012). mathematics is another good example. reading aloud informational picturebooks in mathematics can “provide students with opportunities to explore ideas, discuss mathematical concepts, and make connections to their own lives” (hintz & smith, 2013, p. 104). making personal connections in math class helps make mathematics accessible for students. integrating literature and mathematics helps students make sense of their lives. social studies is yet another good example. columba et al. (2009) state, “events in the past are told in stories; we learn about others in remote places through stories; and myths and legends from ancient civilizations are passed down as stories” (p. 21). informational picturebooks are also ideal to integrate literacy and social studies. they can be used “to promote civic competence, the underlying reason for teaching social studies” (libresco et al., 2011, p. 2). lastly, reading aloud picturebooks across the content areas can also increase word knowledge, syntax knowledge and genre knowledge, and thus motivation to read (allen, 2007), as well as support student conceptual understanding (hoffman et al., 2015). 38 georgia journal of literacy 45(1) reading aloud with older readers. compared to young readers, little research has been conducted on reading aloud with older readers. and yet, in becoming a nation of readers, the commission on reading states: “[reading aloud] is a practice that should continue throughout the grades” (anderson et al., 1985, p. 51), including middle grades education. despite this emphasis, little is known about the effectiveness of read aloud practices beyond elementary school (albright and ariail, 2005). this may be because students are exposed to read-alouds less frequently as they move from primary through intermediate grades (duursma et al., 2008), and in middle and high school the practice of reading aloud has all but disappeared (delo, 2008). interestingly, reading aloud is an instructional strategy teachers use to encourage literacy for students regardless of their age. in fact, it is one of the most preferred instructional strategies by middle grades teachers (harvey & goudvis, 2017). for middle grades students, reading aloud can have positive outcomes for motivation, interest, engagement, and learning (follos, 2006. mccormick and mctigue (2011) state that “because students can often comprehend orally presented texts that are normally above their own reading level, teacher read-alouds allow middle school students to experience texts that may be otherwise inaccessible” (p. 46). similarly, for middle grades teachers, it allows them to model aspects of fluent reading, such as pronunciation, intonation, rhythm, and style, as well as make texts more accessible to students (albright & ariail, 2005). it also helps teachers enhance student vocabulary development, especially when teachers pause to go over difficult words and then have conversations with students using the new words after reading (reutzel & cooter, 2018). reading aloud benefits students at all grade levels including high school (zehr, 2010). jim trelease (2013), author of the the new read-aloud handbook, believes that continuing to read aloud to learners at any age is beneficial. similarly, routman (2018) notes that “reading aloud— in all grades—has long been viewed as a critical factor in producing successful readers as well as learners who are interested in reading” (p. 20). in particular, older students who are less fluent readers receive the greatest benefits from teachers reading aloud (meloy et al., 2002). trelease (2013) states that the first reason to read aloud to older kids is to consider the fact that a child’s reading level doesn’t catch up to his listening level until about the eighth grade . . . you have to hear it before you can speak it, and you have to speak it before you can read it. reading at this level “happens through the ear.” (pp. 1–2) in addition to children and adolescents, pitts states that even “college students read more and better books when they are read to” (as cited in krashen, 2004, p. 78). reading aloud to english language learners (ells). reading aloud helps english language learners develop english fluency, word meanings, oral language and thinking skills (hickman et al., 2004). interactive read-alouds help ell students’ language development; curiosity; vocabulary development, particularly incidental vocabulary acquisition (hoyt, 2009); and learning and comprehension, especially making connections with and across texts (giroir et al., 2015, p. 647). moreover, reading aloud is beneficial with special needs students. the practice helps “build a sense of community in any class that experiences the same shared, secret joy of bintz 39 listening to the same great pieces of literature, be they brief or much longer. the class bonds in such a way that it becomes more like a family than a class” (fox, 2013, p. 6). selecting texts to read aloud whether reading to children, adolescents, young adults, or english language learners, there are several important factors to consider when selecting text to read aloud. among others, these include student interest, student enjoyment, cultural relevance, authentic language, evocative illustrations, exposure to traditional literature, as well as variations of that literature, ability to develop positive disposition about reading, potential to illustrate what good reading looks and sounds like, potential for active engagement and discussion, and an introduction to award-winning literature, authors, and illustrators. selecting a text to read aloud is a curricular decision and an instance of creating curriculum. all too often, this decision is made as much, if not more, by commercial reading programs than by classroom teachers. some time ago, however, burke (1995) reminded us that “the most important curricular decisions about learners should always be made by those closest to learners.” teachers, not reading programs, are closest to learners. on average, teachers spend approximately 6 hours per day, 185 days per year, with students in the classroom. therefore, teachers, not programs, are in the best position to select the most appropriate, meaningful, and relevant texts to read aloud to their students. text type is an important consideration in selecting text to read aloud. patterned text is an important text type, especially for young children. patterned texts are “purposefully crafted conversations that are organized in predictable patterns” (grote-garcia & durham, 2013, p. 45). where is the green sheep? (fox, 2004) is an example of this text type. it is a delightful and engaging picturebook that presents different colored sheep engaged in different activities. there are red sheep and blue sheep, and scared sheep and brave sheep. but, where is the green sheep? this is the question that is repeated throughout the story. the mystery of the whereabouts of the green sheep is only revealed at the end of the story. in addition to patterned texts, other types include predictable language text, familiar cultural patterns, familiar problem pattern, chronological pattern, circle pattern, rhyme/rhythm pattern, and antiphonal voices pattern. table 3 (in the appendix) illustrates these text types for reading aloud, provides a description, example, and citation for each text type. selecting instructional strategies for reading aloud like selecting texts, selecting instructional strategies for reading aloud is also a strategic and artful process. it is an instructional decision and, like text selection this decision is best made by teachers not publishers of reading programs. of course, teachers use a variety of instructional strategies to read aloud text to their students. many teachers have their favorites, but always welcome other strategies. table 4 (in the appendix) illustrates a variety of instructional strategies for reading aloud a text. these include interactive reading aloud, shared reading, echo reading, choral reading (single voices, accumulating voices, cacophonous voices, cast of background voices, multiple voice poems), reading/thinking aloud, reverse reading/thinking aloud, and readers theatre. it also provides a description, example, and citation for each instructional strategy. while different, these 40 georgia journal of literacy 45(1) strategies share a common characteristic, namely, they promote active engagement and social interaction of readers. final thoughts some time ago, soren kierkegaard, the famous danish theologian and philosopher, stated, “life can only be understood backwards, but it must be lived forwards” (mccallum, 2019, p. 5). i have always found this statement powerful in my personal and professional life, although it has been easier for me to remember it as moving forward also means looking backwards. in this final section i look back again at the reading aloud experience described here as a cautionary tale, in order to move forward with some recommendations for success with reading aloud to children, adults, and everybody in between. looking back at the reading aloud experience, i am reminded of carolyn burke, a nationally recognized reading teacher and researcher, who once stated, “when teaching is easy student learning is often hard, and when teaching is hard student learning is often easy.” reading aloud is not particularly difficult for teachers and other adults. more often than not, teachers have a receptive audience. students enjoy teacher read alouds, especially young students who have little experience being read to. older students enjoy them as well, but sometimes for unexpected reasons. for instance, i was recently invited by a 9th grade science teacher to conduct a read aloud in her science class. at the time students were studying important concepts in earth and space science. i read aloud stay curious! a brief history of stephen hawking (krull, 2020) for four reasons. one, the class period was only 45-minutes. this piece of literature is a 32-page, beautifully illustrated picturebook that i could read and discuss with students within that time limit. two, i decided to conduct an interactive read aloud, stopping at strategic parts of the text and inviting students to share their current thinking. three, this picturebook is an engaging biography of the science superstar, describing his personal life struggling with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (als) as well as his professional life exploring mysteries of the universe. four, this picturebook deals with important concepts in earth and space science and therefore was relevant to what students were studying at the time. after reading aloud the entire picturebook, i invited students to share their impressions of the book. one student stated, i’ve heard about stephen hawking from movies, television shows, and the internet. i knew he was a scientist and studied the universe, but i didn’t know he was interested in black holes. i don’t know anything about black holes, but after you read this book, i am interested in knowing more about them. i was pleased to hear that comment, especially that the picturebook motivated the student to want to know more about black holes. another student stated, i really liked this story. i didn’t know much about hawking’s personal life, especially the fact that he liked to go to parties. what struck me the most, however, was how you read that book. you really are a good reader, and i haven’t seen a good reader read since elementary school. bintz 41 i paused for a moment after hearing this comment. it was unexpected, but also appreciated. his comment reminded me that students can, and often do, experience teacher read alouds very differently. afterwards, i reflected on the whole experience. i thoroughly enjoyed the experience and, according to the teacher and students, so did they. quite frankly, it felt easy. i was not surprised to find this read aloud an easy and comfortable experience. after all, i am experienced. over the years, i have conducted hundreds and hundreds of read alouds in k–12 classrooms and in my own graduate courses. what made this, and many other read alouds easy was preparation. i spent much more time preparing for this read aloud than conducting it. specifically, i spent much time considering and making curriculum decisions based on the question, what text should i read? i considered the audience, in this instance, 9th grade students. i also considered the content area, science, and specific topics in science, earth and space science, as well as time constraints, 45-minutes. i also spent much time considering and making instructional decisions: how should i read aloud this text? i considered many different read aloud strategies and decided on an interactive read aloud i wanted to engage students with an engaging story. lastly, i considered some form of informal assessment or feedback. i decided on an interactive read aloud so i could hear student responses during the reading experience and reflections after the experience. in sum, i tried to develop and conduct a read aloud that made student learning easy and enjoyable. to make student learning easy, i had to make my teaching hard in terms of consideration, preparation, and integration of curricular, instructional, and assessment decisions. once again, i was reminded that reading aloud is not a simple activity but a complex art. i end with the following poem. read to them read to them before the time is gone and stillness fills the room again read to them what if it were meant to be that you were the one, the only one who could unlock the doors and share the magic with them? what if others have been daunted by scheduling demands, district objectives, or one hundred other obstacles? read to them be confident charlotte has been able to teach them about friendship, and horton about self-worth; be sure the skin horse has been able to deliver his message. read to them let them meet tigger, homer price, aslan, and corduroy; take them to oz, prydain, and camazotz; show them a truffula tree. read to them laugh with them at soup and rob, and cry with them when the queen of terabithia is forever lost; allow the meeker family to turn loyalty, injustice, and war 42 georgia journal of literacy 45(1) into something much more than a vocabulary lesson. what if you are the one, the only one, with the chance to do it? what if this is the critical year for even one child? read to them before the time, before the chance, is gone. (layne, 2001, pp. 62–63) for me, this poem is endearing and gentle, but also a direct reminder for adults to read to children for many reasons, but especially before the time is gone. this reminder is important, not just because children will become adolescents and less receptive to being read aloud to by parents and teachers, but because reading aloud is a joyful and pleasurable experience for the child, parent, sibling, grandparent, guardian, and teacher. it is a valuable way to spend time with a child in school, at home, in the library, or any context in which adults and children interact with each other. i am speaking from personal experience. i have a five-year-old granddaughter who just started kindergarten this year. i have read to her since she was born and continue to do so today. like this poem, she shows and reminds me how important it is for me to read to her. we both will select books for me to read to her. among others, she selects books about popular characters like elsa and anna in the movie frozen, peppa pig and all her friends, the disney princesses, the three little pigs (marshall, 2000) and its variations, rapunzel (zelinsky, 1997), if you give a mouse a cookie (numeroff, 2015) and its variations, i know an old lady who swallowed a pie (jackson, 1997) and its variations, mother goose rhymes (crews, 2011), and the little engine that could (piper, 1992). in turn, i also select books but introduce her to the works of popular authors like david shannon, mem fox, pat hutchins, denise fleming, don and audrey wood, lois ehlert, and remy charlip. together, and perhaps most importantly, reading aloud her selections and mine helps me and her to stay personally, socially, emotionally, and psychologically connected with each other. i hope this article is a reminder to “read to them before the time, before the chance, is gone” (layne, 2001, p. 63). i also hope that it starts new conversations about reading aloud as a complex art, a valuable way for parents and guardians to spend time with children at home and for teachers to spend time with students in the classroom. let the conversations begin. references albright, l., & ariail, m. 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(2017). strategies that work: teaching comprehension for engagement, understanding, and building knowledge. stenhouse. hickman, p., pollard-durodola, s., & vaughn, s. (2004). storybook reading: improving vocabulary and comprehension for english-language learners. the reading teacher, 57(8), 720–730. https://www.jstor.org/stable/20205423 hintz, a., & smith, a. (2013). mathematizing read-alouds in three easy steps. the reading teacher, 67(2), 103–108. https://doi.org/10.1002/trtr.1182 hoffman, j., collins, m., & schickedanz, j. (2015). instructional challenges in developing young children’s science concepts: using informational text read-alouds. the reading teacher, 68(5), 363–372. https://doi.org/10.1002/trtr.1325 hoyt, l. (2009). interactive read-alouds: linking standards, fluency, and comprehension. heinemann. krashen, s. d. (2004). the power of reading: insights from the research (2nd ed). greenwood publishing group. laminack, l., & wadsworth, r. (2006). reading aloud across the curriculum. houghton mifflin. layne, s. (2001). life’s literacy lessons: poems for teachers. international reading association. libresco, a., balantic, j., & kipling, j. (2011). every book is a social studies book. greenwood. mccallum, t. (2019). life can only be understood backwards, but it must be lived forwards. https://tommccallum.com/2019/02/25/life-can-only-be-understood-backwards-but-itmust-be-lived-forwards/ mccormick, m., & mctigue, e. (2011). teacher read-alouds make science come alive. science scope, 34(5), 45–49. mcgill-franzen, a. (2006). kindergarten literacy. scholastic. oczkus, l. (2009). interactive think-aloud lessons. scholastic. opitz, m., & rasinski, t. (1998). good-bye round robin: 25 effective oral reading strategies. heinemann. reutzel, r., & cooter, r. (2018). teaching children to read: the teacher makes the difference. pearson. routman, r. (2018). literacy essentials: engagement, excellence, and equity for all learners. stenhouse. trelease, j. (2013). new read-aloud handbook. penguin. trelease, j., & giorgis, c. (2019). jim trelease’s read-aloud handbook. penguin. http://interactivereadalouds.pbworks.com/f/if+teens+want+to+listen,+whay+do+%e2%80%8cwe+shut+up.pdf http://interactivereadalouds.pbworks.com/f/if+teens+want+to+listen,+whay+do+%e2%80%8cwe+shut+up.pdf https://doi.org/10.1002/trtr.1354 https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ej1110819.pdf https://www.jstor.org/stable/20205423 https://doi.org/10.1002/trtr.1182 https://doi.org/10.1002/trtr.1325 https://tommccallum.com/2019/02/25/life-can-only-be-understood-backwards-but-it-must-be-lived-forwards/ https://tommccallum.com/2019/02/25/life-can-only-be-understood-backwards-but-it-must-be-lived-forwards/ 44 georgia journal of literacy 45(1) webster, p. s. (2009). exploring the literature of fact. the reading teacher, 62(8), 662–671. https://doi.org/10.1598/rt.62.8.4 zarnowski, m., & turkel, s. (2012). how nonfiction reveals the nature of science. children’s literature in education, 44(4), 295–310. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10583-012-9194-z zehr, m.a. (2010). reading aloud to teens gains favor among teachers. education digest, 76(1), 4–7. literature cited crews, n. (2011). the neighborhood mother goose. greenwillow books. fox, m. (2004). where is the green sheep? penguin. jackson, a. (1997). i know an old lady who swallowed a pie. scholastic. john, j. (2019). the good egg. harpercollins publishers. krull, k. (2020). stay curious! a brief history of stephen hawking. crown books. marshall, j. (2000). the three little pigs. grosset & dunlap. piper, w. (1976). the little engine that could. platt & munk. zelinsky, p. o. (1997). rapunzel. dutton books for young readers. https://doi.org/10.1598/rt.62.8.4 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10583-012-9194-z bintz 45 table 3: text types for reading aloud text type description text reference patterned text texts having recurring patterns to help readers build fluency and support comprehension. where is the green sheep? fox, m. (2004). where is the green sheep? clarion. it didn’t frighten me goss, j., & harste, j. it didn’t frighten me. willowisp press. the important book brown, m.w. (1977). the important book. harper collins. fortunately charlip, r (1993). fortunately. aladdin. to market, to market miranda, a. (2001). to market, to market. clarion. fortunately, unfortunately foreman, m. (2011). fortunately, unfortunately. andersen press. our granny wild, m. (1998). our granny. clarion. no david shannon, d. (1998). no david. blue sky press. ten little fingers and ten little toes fox, m. (2010). ten little fingers and ten little toes. clarion. knock knock who’s there? grindley, s. (1986). knock knock who’s there? knopf. uptown collier, b. (2004). uptown. square fish. hist dennis, c. (2012). hist. penguin australia. guess what? fox, m. (1995). guess what? clarion. who’s hiding here yoshi. (1987). who’s hiding here. picture book studio. predictable language text texts having “repetitive language patterns or story patterns or familiar sequences such as numbers, the days of the week, or hierarchical patterns” (huck, hepler & hickman, 1993) the very busy spider carle, e. (1995). the very busy spider. world of eric carle. if you give a mouse a cookie numeroff, l. (2015). if you give a mouse a cookie. harpercollins. koala lou, i do love you fox, m. (1994). koala lou, i do love you. the trumpet club. the napping house wood, a. (2009). the napping house. clarion. bark feiffer, j. (2018). bark. michael di capua books. something from nothing gilman, p. (2012). something from nothing. scholastic canada. pout-pout fish diesen, d. (2013). pout-pout fish. farrar, straus and giroux. go sleep in your own bed fleming, c. (2017). go sleep in your own bed. schwartz & wade. we all went on safari krebs, l. (2021). we all went on safari. barefoot books. william’s winter nap groenink, c. (2017). william’s winter nap. little brown books for young readers. one day in the eucalyptus, eucalyptus tree bernstrom, d. (2017). one day in the eucalyptus, eucalyptus tree. the maestro plays martin, jr., b. (1994). the maestro plays voyager. 46 georgia journal of literacy 45(1) a bear sat on my porch today yolen, j. (2018). a bear sat on my porch today. chronicle. familiar cultural pattern texts having common patterns in a culture q is for duck folsom & elting (2005). q is for duck. hmh. i just want to say good night isadora, r. (2017). i just want to say good night. nancy paulsen books. chicken soup with rice sendak, m. (2018). chicken soup with rice. harpercollins. jo macdonald saw a pond quattlebaum (2013). jo macdonald saw a pond. dawn publications. does a kangaroo have a mother, too? carle, e. (2005). does a kangaroo have a mother, too? harpercollins. there was an old lady who swallowed a shell colandro, l. (2008). there was an old lady who swallowed a shell. scholastic. once upon a time prater, j. (1995). once upon a time. candlewick. where are my shoes? dudke, m.a., & larsen, m. (1993). where are my shoes? barney. familiar problem pattern texts having patterns based on other patterned stories with similar problems. three little pigs weisner, d. (2001). three little pigs. clarion. somebody and the three blairs tolhurst, m. (1990). somebody and the three blairs. orchard. five little monkeys sitting in a tree christelow, e. (1991). five little monkeys sitting in a tree. scholastic. harriet, you’ll drive me wild! fox, m. (2000). harriet, you’ll drive me wild! voyager. the true story of the three little pigs scieszka, (1996). the true story of the three little pigs. puffin. the three little wolves and the big bad pig trivizas (1997). the three little wolves and the big bad pig. margaret k. mcelderry books. the three javalenas lowell, s. (1992). the three javalenas. cooper square publishing. moose’s loose tooth clarke, j.a. (2003). moose’s loose tooth. scholastic. three billy goats gruff barnett, m. (2022). three billy goats gruff. orchard books. chronological pattern texts following a sequence of events the grouchy ladybug carle, e. (1999). the grouchy ladybug. harper festival. one monday morning shulevitz, u. (2003). one monday morning. square fish. grandpa’s slippers watson, j. (1989). grandpa’s slippers. scholastic. spunky little monkey martin, bill, jr. (2017). spunky little monkey. scholastic. dreadful david odgers, (1984). dreadful david. scholastic. seven blind mice young, e. (1992). seven blind mice. puffin. the teeny-tiny woman galdone, p. (1984). the teeny-tiny woman. clarion. bintz 47 circle pattern “texts that are artistically and purposefully crafted so that the main character or characters experience a great adventure that terminates back at the original location” city dog, country dog willems, m. (2010). city dog, country dog. hyperion. if you give a dog a donut numeroff, l. (2011). if you give a dog a donut. harpercollins. nicolas, where have you been? lionni, l. (1987). nicolas, where have you been? alfred a. knopf. i love you more duksta, l. (2001). i love you more. shine. meerkat mail gravett, e. (2006). meerkat mail. macmillan. pete the cat: i love my white shoes dean, j. (2010). pete the cat: i love my white shoes. harpercollins. rhyme/rhythm pattern texts having words that produce the same or similar sounds, and the reoccurrence of these sounds. brown bear, brown bear, what do you see martin, jr., b. (1996). brown bear, brown bear, what do you see. henry holt. walking through the jungle harter, d. (2001). walking through the jungle. mantra lingua. the flea’s sneeze downey, l. (2000). the flea’s sneeze. scholastic. the day the goose got loose lindbergh, r. (1990). the day the goose got loose. scholastic. baby hearts and baby flowers charlip, r. (2002). baby hearts and baby flowers. greenwillow. big pigs helakoski, l. (2014). big pigs. boyds mill. sleepytime rhyme charlip, r. (2001). sleepytime rhyme. greenwillow. i wish i had a pirate suit allen, p. (1989). i wish i had a pirate suit. viking kestral. here comes the band! jorgensen, g. (1988). here comes the band! rigby. mother, mother, i feel sick: send for the doctor, quick, quick, quick charlip, r. (2001). mother, mother, i feel sick: send for the doctor, quick, quick, quick. tricycle press. antiphonal voices pattern alternating reading by two or more readers in which one reader reads with a high voice vs. low voice, happy voice vs. sad voice, assertive vs. questioning voice, etc. that’s good, that’s bad cuyler, m. (1993). that’s good, that’s bad. henry holt. eat your peas gray, k. (2009). eat your peas. random house uk. macca the alpaca cosgrove, m. (2018). macca the alpaca. scholastic. tops & bottoms stevens, j. (1995). tops & bottoms. scholastic. i am a tiger newson, k. (2019). i am a tiger. scholastic. hairy bear cowley, j. (1990). hairy bear. wright group. don’t say that word katz, a. (2007). don’t say that word. margaret k. mcelderry books. dear mr. blueberry james, s. (1991). dear mr. blueberry. aladdin. yo! yes? raschka, c. (2007). yo! yes? scholastic. the ghost eye tree martin jr., b. (1985). the ghost eye tree. henry holt. no, no, kitten thomas, s.m. (2015). no, no, kitten. boyds mill. duck! rabbit! rosenthal, (2009). duck! rabbit! chronicle. 48 georgia journal of literacy 45(1) table 4: instructional strategies for reading aloud text type description text reference interactive reading aloud strategy for reading aloud a text, occasionally pausing for conversation at selected points in the text. the wise woman and her secret merriam, e. (1991). the wise woman and her secret. simon & schuster. what joe saw hines, a.g. (1994). what joe saw. greenwillow. owl moon yolen, j. (2001). owl moon. philomel books. into the forest browne, a. (2004). into the forest. walker books. what do you do with a tail like this? jenkins, s., & page, r. (2009). what do you do with a tail like this? houghton mifflin. a nice walk in the jungle bodsworth, n. (1990). a nice walk in the jungle. viking kestrel. shared reading strategy for reading aloud a text in which the teacher conducts most of the reading and students respond based on what they are understanding. you read to me, i’ll read to you hoberman, m. (2006). you read to me, i’ll read to you little brown books. very short fairy tales to read together hoberman, m. (2012). very short fairy tales to read together. little brown books. very short fables to read together hoberman, m. (2013). very short fables to read together. little brown books. very short mother goose tales to read together hoberman, m. (2012). very short mother goose tales to read together. little brown books. echo reading strategy for reading aloud a text line by line or sentence by sentence modeling appropriate fluency and prosody. after reading each line, student(s) echoes the reading of the line with the same rate, fluency, and prosody. shh! we have a plan haughton, c. (2014). shh! we have a plan. candlewick. tough boris fox, m. (1998). tough boris. hmh books. i went walking williams, s. (1996). i went walking. clarion. here are my hands martin, jr., b., & archambault, j. (1985). here are my hands. henry holt. quick as a cricket wood, a. (1982). quick as a cricket. scholastic. choral reading: single voices strategy for reading aloud a text or sections of a text in unison with whole class or group of students, helping build students’ fluency, self-confidence, and motivation. what does the fox say? nyhus, s. (2013). what does the fox say? simon & schuster. the spider in the shower mahy, m. (1988). the spider in the shower. rigby. chicken little (retold) hillman, j. (1989). chicken little. rigby. who sank the boat? allen, p. (1982). who sank the boat? putnam. suddenly! mcnaughton, c. (1994). suddenly! voyager. bintz 49 who’s that tripping over my bridge? salley, c. (2002). who’s that tripping over my bridge? pelican. choral reading: accumulating voices strategy for using choral reading with accumulating voices. hattie and the fox fox, m. (1986). hattie and the fox. clarion. king bidgood’s in the bathtub wood, a. (1996). king bidgood’s in the bathtub. harcourt brace jovanovich. the house that jack built miller, j. p. (2008). the house that jack built. little golden books. the great big enormous turnip award, a. (2013). the great big enormous turnip. award publications. henry’s stars elliot, d. (2015). henry’s stars. philomel. i have to go! munsch, r. (1993). i have to go! annick. old devil wind martin, jr. b. (1971). old devil wind. voyager. the napping house wood, a. (1984). the napping house. harcourt brace. today is monday carle, e. (1993). today is monday. scholastic. where are you going? to see my friend! carle, e., & iwamura, k. (2001). where are you going? to see my friend! scholastic. henny-penny wattenberg, j. (2000). henny-penny. scholastic. choral reading: cacophonous voices strategy for using choral reading with cacophonous voices. grumbles from the town: mother-goose voices with a twist yolen, j. (2016). grumbles from the town: mother-goose voices with a twist. wordsong. red: a crayon’s story hall, m. (2015), red: a crayon’s story. takatuka. strega nona de paola, t. (1975). strega nona. aladdin. some smug slug edwards, p.d. (1996). some smug slug. harpercollins. mice squeak, we speak depaola, t. (1997). mice squeak, we speak. g.p. putnams. noisy nora wells, r. (1997). noisy nora. penguin. duck on a bike shannon, d. (2002). duck on a bike. the blue sky press. dooby dooby moo cronin, d., & lewin, b. 2006). dooby dooby moo. scholastic. betsy red hoodie levine, g.c. (2010). betsy red hoodie. harpercollins. the day the crayons quit daywalt, d. (2013). the day the crayons quit. philomel. the day the crayons came home daywalt, d. (2015). the day the crayons came home. philomel. 50 georgia journal of literacy 45(1) superchicken jane, m. (2003). superchicken. scholastic. gotta go! gotta go! swope, s. (2004). gotta go! gotta go! sunburst. fix-it duck alborough, j. (2001). fix-it duck. harpercollins. giggle, giggle, quack cronin, d. (2002). giggle, giggle, quack. simon & schuster. quacky quack-quack! whybrow, i. (1991). quacky quack-quack! candlewick. crunch the crocodile croser, j. (1986). crunch the crocodile. mcclean-carr. choral reading: cast of voices strategy for using choral reading with a cast of different voices. wolf won’t bite gravett, e. (2012). wolf won’t bite. simon & schuster. what’s that noise? rosenfeldt (1988). what’s that noise? orchard books. elmer takes off mckee, d. (1997). elmer takes off. harpercolings. petunia duvoisin, r. (1977). putunia. alfred a. knopf. wake up, big barn chitwood, s.t. (2002). wake up, big barn. scholastic. happy birthday hamster lord, c. (2011). happy birthday hamster. scholastic. bear snores on wilson, (2002). bear snores on. little simon. rain! stojic, m. (2000). rain! random house. cloudland burningham, j. (1996). cloudland. dragonfly. click, clack, moo: cows that type cronin, b. (2000). click, clack, moo: cows that type. atheneum books for young children. skippyjon jones schachner, j. (2003). skippyjon jones. puffin. who eats orange white (2018). who eats orange. beach lane books. choral reading: reading aloud multiple voice poems choral reading: reading aloud multiple voice poems boom! bellow! bleat!: animal poems for two or more heard, g. (2019). boom! bellow! bleat!: animal poems for two or more. wordsong. dirty laundry pile: poems in different voices janeczko (2001). dirty laundry pile: poems in different voices. harpercollins. joyful noise: poems for two voices fleischman, p. (2004). joyful noise: poems for two voices. harpercollins. i am phoenix: poems for two voices fleischman, p. (1989). i am phoenix: poems for two voices. harpercollins. big talk: poems for four voices fleischman, p. (2000). big talk: poems for four voices. harpercollins. bintz 51 “me” “me.” in swados, e. (2002) hey you! c’mere: a poetry slam. arthur a. levine. voices in the park browne, a. (2001). voices in the park. dk children. math talk pappas, t. (1993). math talk. wide world publishing. readers theatre reader’s theater highlights reading fluency and involves students reading parts orally from scripts that include multiple characters and much dialogue. the web files palantini, m. (2001). the web files. scholastic. dinner at the panda palace calmenson, s. (1995). dinner at the panda palace. harpercollins. yo, hungry wolf lewin, b. (1993). yo, hungry wolf. dell. the shopping basket burningham, j. (1980). the shopping basket. candlewick. alvie eats soup collins, r. (2002). alvie eats soup. arthur a. levine. woolbur helakoski, l. (2008). woolbur. harpercollins. the obvious elephant robinson, b. (2000). the obvious elephant. bloomsbury. time to sleep fleming, d. (1997). time to sleep. henry holt. received: november 2, 2022 | accepted: january 2, 2023 | published: april 3, 2023 04 100 reading-aloud to children (bintz, 2023) 01 vignette reflection table 1: suggested tips for reading aloud table 2: suggestions for selecting texts to read aloud reading aloud historically, reading aloud has been, and continues to be, a common practice in schools, libraries, and homes all around the world. the benefits of reading aloud are universally recognized. among other things, reading aloud supports language and langu... here, i share a brief literature review of reading aloud across four categories: reading aloud picturebooks, reading aloud picturebooks across the curriculum, reading aloud picturebooks to older readers, and reading aloud to english language learners ... selecting texts to read aloud final thoughts references literature cited 04 100 reading-aloud to children (bintz, 2023) 02 table 4: instructional strategies for reading aloud georgia journal of literacy 2023, vol. 45(2), pp. 73–80 https://doi.org/10.56887/galiteracy.124 issn: 2833-7611 teaching tips contact dr. ebony t. lee, acting chief of communications, public relations, and marketing division, clayton county public schools, jonesboro, ga; email ebony.lee@clayton.k12.ga.us. moving writing forward through peer-critique partners ebony t. lee clayton county public schools, jonesboro, ga abstract the author describes a simple yet impactful cycle for cultivating greater engagement and agency among students during the writing process. specifically, the article explains how the implementation of peer-critique partners who provide one another with criterion-based feedback repositions students from mere “passengers” to active “drivers” on the journey to better writing. feedback is found to “increase [students’] effort, motivation, and engagement and reduce the discrepancy between the current status and the goal” (hattie & clarke, 2019, p. 3). the key is having clearly defined writing criteria that inform students of the goals or expectations for writing. these expectations should frame the feedback (e.g., comments, critiques, suggestions, and questions) provided from one peer to the next and move students beyond mere editing to true revision. traditional commentary such as “excellent,” “good job,” or “more work is needed,” or over-concentration on mechanical errors is insufficient to move writing forward, closer to the desired outcome. moreover, the article highlights four steps for effectively establishing peer-critique feedback partners. these steps are powerful drivers for helping students move their writing forward by implementing a true revision process. the article opens and concludes by emphasizing that writing is the evidence of thinking. for students to become more thoughtful in their written expression, they must have clarity, support, accountability, and some choice in the process. keywords writing engagement; peer-critique partners; writing support riting is the evidence of thinking. it helps make that which is inward outward for others to enjoy, learn, or be inspired (lee, 2021). if writing adds this much value to an experience, why aren’t more students writing—and specifically—why aren’t more students writing well? one can instantly witness the shift in the classroom when the teacher steps forward and announces, “okay, scholars, great discussion! now, take out a piece of paper (or computer device) and write an essay that reflects the ideas you discussed in your groups.” a cacophony of sighs ensues. “aww, man, why do we have to write it? how long does it have to be? i don’t have any paper. my computer just died!” along with these responses is the obvious reluctance displayed by students’ body language—legs extended, bodies slumped, an elbow on the desk with chin in hand, or pencils tapping on the desk. as a former english teacher, i experienced these types of responses from my students early on; however, i eventually started observing more encouraging dispositions to writing when my students began seeing the value in the writing opportunity. writing was no longer solely about the product—but the process—and what occurred throughout the writing process. my role versus my students’ roles began to shift in more meaningful ways. in this article, i describe the peer-to-peer w https://doi.org/10.56887/galiteracy.124 mailto:ebony.lee@clayton.k12.ga.us 74 georgia journal of literacy 45(2) feedback cycle that was paramount to my later success in increasing students’ engagement and agency in the writing process. it is important to note that the peer-to-peer feedback process that i implemented helped my students understand important distinctions between editing and revising. these practices are often used interchangeably; however, editing focuses on addressing word or sentence-level errors, typically involving punctuation, spelling, or grammar mistakes. conversely, revision requires a holistic examination of the writing. this may involve mechanical improvements, but revision also includes enhancing broader aspects of the paper, such as strengthening the voice or the argument in a paper, ensuring a better organizational structure, or establishing greater clarity. having a peer provide feedback during the revision process enables a comprehensive and neutral review of the writing. to the writer, his or her argument may be clear and substantial; however, a reader may find the argument limited or unsubstantiated. this article focuses on how to help students use a peer-to-peer feedback cycle to navigate the revision process. in the classroom, i established expectations and strategies that moved my students from mere “passengers” to active “drivers” on the journey to better writing. by implementing what i term, peer-critique partners, my students received timelier and in-the-moment feedback to support the revision process. i define feedback as comments, critiques, suggestions, or posed questions that aim to close the gap between the current product and the desired product. by establishing peer-critique partners, my students were able to receive this guidance with greater efficiency. what are peer-critique partners? this practice involves pairing two students to evaluate each other’s writing using specified criteria. during this session, they offer commendations (glows) and recommendations (grows) for improving their written responses. the criteria answer the question, “what are the goals or expectations for the writing?” these expectations are identified by the teacher or selected in collaboration with students, and they are influenced by the learning standards for the subject matter. additionally, criteria should require students to move beyond mere editing at the sentence level to revising important aspects of the writing, such as clarity, coherence, and development. the writing or language standards may be most influential in language arts. peer-critique partners may be required to evaluate the introductions for their essays to determine the effectiveness of the opening in establishing the context and purpose of the writing. establishing and communicating clear writing criteria upfront ensures the feedback fundamentally helps move the writing forward, closer to the desired outcome. of course, i would love to say this meaningful practice grew out of my thirsty pursuit of evidence-based research that highlights those promising practices that increase student motivation and writing achievement. while feedback is found to “increase [students’] effort, motivation, and engagement and reduce the discrepancy between the current status and the goal” (hattie & clarke, 2019, p. 3), i instituted this practice due to being exhausted from grading 86 to 90 essays each week. also, i felt my students were not as cognitively or emotionally engaged in the process as they needed to be to make meaningful enhancements to their writing. i knew it was important to give my students feedback, but i was the one overly consumed and committed in the process—and to some degree—learning more and more about improving writing. my students were passive recipients—like backseat “passengers” in the process. as a result, i redesigned my writing experiences to ensure students took a more prominent role in the feedback cycle. in figure 1 below, i describe the process that i employed with my students and, eventually, with teachers in writing workshops as a literacy coach, k–12 language arts coordinator, and soon after, an assistant superintendent of curriculum and instruction. using the technique as lee 75 described in this article is most appropriate for grades three and above. the process is simple, yet it requires a lot of patience, modeling by the teacher, and student practice to ensure their feedback is effective in moving writing to the next level. figure 1: peer-critique feedback process figure 1 summarizes each step in the process of cycling peer-critique partners through their review session. the following section elaborates on each step and provides specific examples of implementing the practice. step 1: ensure students have clarity of the writing criteria. it is challenging to hit a moving target and even more challenging to hit an unknown one. the teacher and students must clearly define what constitutes effective writing based on the selected criteria. here, i describe how instructors can determine their criteria or the expectations for writing. to start, teachers should keep it standards-based and simple (k.i.s.s.) to ensure feedback is focused and feasible. teachers can use their state’s writing standards (e.g. georgia standards of excellence) to prioritize the focus for the peer-critique session. the questions below provide further guidance on how to use the standards.  what is the standard of focus for the current lesson? use the language from the standard. if the standard is too “meaty,” determine what knowledge and/or skill is a requisite for the remaining portion of the standard. for instance, this sixth-grade language arts writing standard (elagse6w1) states: write arguments to support claims with clear reasons and relevant evidence. element a. introduce claim(s) and clearly organize the reasons and evidence. from this standard, the teacher may determine that first, he or she wants to assess if students can introduce a claim for an argumentative paper. therefore, as students are critiquing one another, they may focus on evaluating how clearly and effectively the claim is introduced in the writing. step 1: ensure students have clarity of the writing criteria. step 2: ensure students have a peer-critique partner in the process and a method to capture the feedback. step 3: ensure students’ feedback is focused on the criteria and includes “glows” and “grows.” step 4: ensure students have an opportunity to revise their written response based on the feedback. 76 georgia journal of literacy 45(2)  what standards have i already taught? in the prior section, the focus was on the current lesson. here, the focus is on previously taught standards that students should continue to implement in their writing. consider what standards [e.g. writing standards, language standards] or writing traits have already been taught that should be present in students’ writing. this practice holds students accountable for retaining the skills from previous instruction. for example, if students have learned about the importance of establishing an appropriate voice [e.g., overall style, word choice] in their writing, this may be a part of the writing criteria, along with the current standard, introducing clear and effective claims in the writing.  how can students have a voice and choice? have students determine an area in which they know they need to improve and want to continue practicing during future writing tasks. in this instance, students may choose to focus on revising their writing by developing their main ideas using relevant examples and textual evidence. this option is student-determined and student-driven and fosters student agency in the writing process. once the writing criteria have been determined, ensure students know what constitutes effective vs. ineffective versions of the criteria by using one or more of the following suggestions. students benefit from seeing ineffective versions, too; this enables them to self-assess where their writing aligns more closely and make revisions accordingly.  use writing exemplars. teachers can create examples or use mentor texts that reflect effective examples of the writing practice teachers desire to cultivate in their students’ writing. for instance, through an analysis of a text that skillfully uses figurative language to bring ideas to life, students learn the impact that figurative language can have on meaning and engagement. the non-exemplars show students the outcomes of not using the desired writing technique.  use a writer’s checklist. this tool outlines what specific standards or traits should be present in the writing, and it may include a section to indicate to what extent the writer achieves each criterion. figure 2 provides an example of a writing checklist. figure 2: sample writing checklist for an argumentative essay criteria yes partially no 1. effectively introduces claim(s) 2. uses an organizational strategy to present reasons and relevant evidence logically 3. supports claim(s) with clear reasons and relevant evidence using specific, well-chosen facts, details, or other information from credible sources and demonstrates a good understanding of the topic or texts 4. acknowledges and counters opposing claim(s), as appropriate  use an analytical rubric. this rubric describes what standards or traits should be present in the writing using a continuum from ineffective (1) to extremely effective (4). the specific language of the levels may vary. table 4 provides an example of an analytical rubric. lee 77 students can see in advance the expectations for proficient writing, and during the peercritique process, peers can use the language from the rubric to provide specific feedback that will aid the writing piece in moving toward the desired outcome. figure 4: georgia milestones assessments – opinion rubric (grade 3) trait 1: idea development, organization, and coherence this trait examines the writer’s ability to effectively establish a point of view and to support the opinion with reasons from the text(s) read. the writer must form an opinion from the text(s) in his/her own words and organize reasons for opinion (from text that they have read) in order to create cohesion for an opinion essay. 4 3 2 1  the student’s response is a welldeveloped opinion piece that effectively examines a topic and supports a point of view, with reasons clearly based on text as a stimulus.  effectively introduces a topic and clearly states an opinion  creates an effective organizational structure to group reasons  the student’s response is a complete opinion piece that examines a topic and supports a point of view based on text.  introduces a topic and states an opinion  provides some organizational structure to group reasons  provides reasons to support the opinion  the student’s response is an incomplete or oversimplified opinion piece that examines a topic and partially supports a point of view based on text.  attempts to introduce a topic and state an opinion  attempts to provide some organization, but structure sometimes impedes the reader  the student’s response is a weak attempt to write an opinion piece that examines a topic and does not support a textbased point of view.  may not introduce a topic or state an opinion  may not have any organizational structure evident step 2: ensure students have a peer-critique partner and a method to capture the feedback. it is highly beneficial to have students involved in peer-to-peer feedback sessions. these sessions deepen their knowledge and command of the content (almarode et al., 2022) and their needs to determine the most appropriate peer-to-peer pairing or to determine when students can freely choose their peer-critique partner. ensure pairing is beneficial for both students so that reciprocal exchange of ideas and feedback can occur. peer-critique partners should have access to the checklist, rubric, or examples shared previously to ensure clarity of the writing expectations, which will guide students’ feedback to one another. partners should know how feedback will be captured and shared with one other. for example:  if the feedback process is occurring electronically, partners can use the add comment feature in the writing for most applications. in some applications, partners may be able to add a voice recording.  if the writing is not electronic, partners can use sticky notes and place the notes in the margin. https://us.corwin.com/author/john-taylor-almarode 78 georgia journal of literacy 45(2)  partners can use color coding, where each color represents a different criterion and indicates if the writing feature (e.g. detail, word choice) is a glow or a grow.  partners can write feedback on the actual rubric or writing checklist.  partners can verbally share their feedback, and each student is responsible for capturing the comments in writing. teachers are encouraged to model how to work with a partner and use the various methods to provide feedback to a partner. teachers may consider providing students with a choice of which method(s) they want to use to capture and share the glows and grows in the writing they are critiquing. step 3: ensure students’ feedback is focused on the criteria and includes “glows” [commendations] and “grows” [recommendations]. many students will not know how to give standards-based feedback that reflects a combination of glows and grows. students may be more accustomed to saying, “good job,” “i like it,” or “i don’t like this.” the instructor will have to teach students how to reference specific criteria when they provide feedback, such as stating, “good job of using relevant details to elaborate on your first main point.” teachers will have to model this process and give feedback to their students as they gradually release them to work independently. peer-critique partners should remember the following during feedback sessions:  be respectful and focus on the writing, not the writer.  be clear and specific.  start with glows. [share what was most enjoyable or effective about the writing in general if students are not yet exhibiting the writing traits of focus.]  share the grows. [here, feedback should be specific to the criteria.]  allow the receiving partner to provide an explanation or ask any clarifying questions based on the feedback provided.  peer-critique partners are encouraged to provide examples to complement their feedback.  as a courtesy, peers can thank each other for the opportunity to read and review the paper. to reiterate, the teacher must model this process, perhaps modeling what it should and should not resemble. during feedback sessions, teachers should monitor, notice, and listen to gauge how well partners are implementing the process, how aligned the feedback is to the specified writing criteria, and what are the trends and patterns in writing that may need to be revisited with the whole class or with smaller groups of students. lee 79 table 3: example of glows and grows peer-critique chart writing criteria:  introduce claims clearly and effectively [current standard].  vary sentence types for reader interest [previously taught standard]. the writer: student 1 the peer-critique partner: student 2 glows: i like that in your writing . . . grows: in the future, remember . . .  your claim clearly explains your position on students having homework.  your claim would be more effective if it aligned with the main ideas in the remaining portion of your paper.  most of your sentences are correctly written and not run-ons or fragments.  select conjunctions to combine simple and choppy sentences in order to vary your sentence type. additional comments: table 3 shows an example of one peer providing feedback to another using specific writing criteria, which involve evaluating claim statements and sentence types. notice that one criterion is based on the current lesson, and another criterion is from a previously taught lesson. step 4: ensure students have an opportunity to revise their written responses based on the feedback. this is perhaps where the magic happens! it is great to know the criteria, it is wonderful to have a partner in the process, and it is remarkable to receive feedback. however, none of these steps adds a level of value as when students are required to revise to move the writing forward. according to research, “...most comments, unless they required a student response, were often ignored by students if the feedback comments were given out with no time allocated for students to read the comments, no chance to use them to improve, or where they were illegible or hard to understand” (hattie & clarke, 2019, p. 3). of course, students can have a voice in what they choose to incorporate or not incorporate from the feedback session, but there must be an expectation for revising and editing because this is where the learning crystallizes in students’ minds. revising requires students to think about their thinking and become cognitively engaged in the process—moving from passenger to driver. if writing is the evidence of thinking, the writer and the teacher must see that students really got it! and this is not verified by students merely stating what they will do next time. seeing is believing! furthermore, revising increases students’ self-efficacy, motivation, and confidence in writing. one way to incorporate the revision process is via a strategy known as the ticket out of the door. toward the end of the lesson, students are asked to revise a portion of their writing based on their peer’s feedback. the teacher has a way to check or review each student’s efforts before leaving the classroom. in conclusion, the four steps described in this article and summarized below are powerful drivers for helping students move their writing forward. in order for students to become more thoughtful in their written expression, they must have clarity, support, accountability, and some choice in the process. ✔ step 1 – ensure students have clarity of the writing criteria. ✔ step 2 – ensure students have a peer-critique partner and a method to capture the feedback. 80 georgia journal of literacy 45(2) ✔ step 3 – ensure students’ feedback is focused on the criteria and includes “glows” and “grows.” ✔ step 4 – ensure students have an opportunity to revise their written responses based on the feedback. the process discussed in this article will hopefully provide meaningful guidance on how students can take a more active role in the writing process. the implementation of the peer-critique feedback process allows both the teacher and students to have greater clarity on how to implement feedback in an impactful manner. continue to make writing an instrumental part of your instruction and ensure feedback is provided in real-time; this will take students’ writing to the next level on their journey to writing with confidence and competence. here’s to activating your students’ writevoice! to receive more practical strategies for teaching writing, purchase the writevoice toolkit. also, visit writevoicellc.com to sign up to receive writing strategies electronically. references almarode, j., fisher, d., & frey, n. (2022). how feedback works. corwin. georgia department of education. (2023). georgia milestones assessment guide, grade 3. https://www.gadoe.org/curriculum-instruction-and-assessment/assessment/documents/ milestones/assessment%20guides/ega125_gr03_ elma_ag_0001_20200925.pdf hattie, j., & clarke, s. (2019). visible learning feedback. routledge. lee, e. (2021). writevoice toolkit. blue cafe books. received: july 8, 2023 | accepted: september 11, 2023 | published: november 13, 2023 https://www.amazon.com/writevoice-toolkit-dr-ebony-lee/dp/0578975475 https://www.amazon.com/writevoice-toolkit-dr-ebony-lee/dp/0578975475 http://www.writevoicellc.com/ https://www.gadoe.org/curriculum-instruction-and-assessment/assessment/documents/milestones/rubrics/grade_3_rubrics.pdf https://www.gadoe.org/curriculum-instruction-and-assessment/assessment/documents/milestones/rubrics/grade_3_rubrics.pdf figure 1: peer-critique feedback process step 1: ensure students have clarity of the writing criteria. figure 2: sample writing checklist for an argumentative essay figure 4: georgia milestones assessments – opinion rubric (grade 3) step 2: ensure students have a peer-critique partner and a method to capture the feedback. step 3: ensure students’ feedback is focused on the criteria and includes “glows” [commendations] and “grows” [recommendations]. table 3: example of glows and grows peer-critique chart step 4: ensure students have an opportunity to revise their written responses based on the feedback. references georgia journal of literacy 2024, vol. 46(1), pp. 101–112 https://doi.org/10.56887/galiteracy.137 issn: 2833-7611 teaching tips contact dr. adam c. whitaker, instructional designer, elevate achievement educational services, atlanta, ga; email elevateachievement@gmail.com. igniting the fire within: culturally relevant expository writing adam c. whitaker elevate achievement educational services, atlanta, ga abstract this article presents the findings of an action research study that explored the impact of culturally relevant writing instruction in an english classroom. research practitioners have used terms such as real-life (moore-hart, 2005), innovative (kinloch, 2009), and culturally relevant writing pedagogy (winn & johnson, 2011) to denote the type of experiential and relevant writing instruction that should be occurring in classrooms. these terms are synonymous because they require students to leverage their culture, perspectives, interests, and personal experiences as inspiration for writing. the discussion begins by presenting the literature on culturally relevant literacy instruction. then, the author discusses the steps for implementing this pedagogical approach and provides key insights on the subject matter. keywords writing instruction; culturally relevant writing pedagogy; culturally relevant literacy instruction s a lifelong learner and english language arts educator, i have always wanted my students to have a passion for writing. one of the ways that i developed my students’ writing knowledge and skills was through culturally relevant writing instruction. over the past 18 years, i have taught students who had negative attitudes and dispositions regarding writing. many of the students i served were reluctant to engage in class, reluctant to read, and, more importantly, reluctant to write. i often thought to myself: how do i ignite my students’ passion for writing? when i reflect on my writing passion, i equate it to that of a fire. for me, this is a powerful juxtaposition because, in the right environment, a fire is very difficult to put out. in the same way, i created an instructional environment that converged around student choice and culturally relevant texts, fueling my students’ passion for writing. this article presents the findings of an action research study that explored the impact of using culturally relevant writing pedagogy to build students’ expository writing skills. in this paper, i discuss how i leveraged this pedagogical approach to create a space for students to take on issues reflecting their cultural, social, and personal experiences. by facilitating relevant instruction, i legitimized students’ voices and ignited a fire for writing that could not be extinguished. the diversity in today’s schools requires that teachers use diverse pedagogy strategies to meet the needs of an increasingly diverse student population. researchers have cited writing as a major educational issue in the united states. at the elementary level, there is a strong emphasis on learning to write (graham et al., 2013). at the secondary level, the writing instruction does not challenge students to make connections with issues or show depth and breadth of knowledge (applebee & langer, 2011). a mailto:elevateachievement@gmail.com 102 georgia journal of literacy 46(1) to increase the writing capacity of students, particularly students of color, there is a need for more culturally relevant approaches to writing. winn and johnson (2011) noted, writing is a natural fit for pairing culturally relevant pedagogy to create meaningful learning opportunities for all students. though teachers must be strategic and deliberate in ways in which they consider content, curriculum, and culturally relevant pedagogy right alongside writing instruction and assessment, doing so can have a positive effect on the educational outcomes in our classrooms. (p. 87) according to these scholars, culturally relevant writing instruction challenges students to write for authentic audiences, leverages the ideas, voices, and perspectives of students, and inspires them to engage critically with the world. culturally relevant literacy instruction literacy is defined as “the ability and willingness to use reading and writing to construct meaning from printed text in ways that meet the requirement in a particular social context” (as cited in callins, 2004, p. 3). culturally relevant literacy instruction “bridges the gap between the school and the world of the student and is consistent with the values of the student’s own culture” (as cited in callins, 2004, p. 4). literacy instruction that is culturally situated places emphasis on using reading and writing strategies that are relevant to the culture, background experiences, and frames of reference of students. researchers (au, 2001; irizarry, 2009; johnson & eubanks, 2015; murphy & murphy, 2016; rozansky, 2010; winn & johnson, 2011) have found that one method for implementing culturally relevant literacy instruction is through integrating texts that connect to student’s cultural background and experiences. au (2001) maintained that integrating texts that connect with students’ lives “may help them gain insight about themselves, their families, and discover the value of their own experiences” (p. 7). similarly, irizarry (2009) found that one teacher’s literacy instruction for african american and latino students involved the use of rap music. students were able to use their language preferences, such as african american vernacular english and spanish language, to craft raps about their identities and dreams for the future. he suggested that using popular culture music and communication practices congruent with the lives of students increased students’ writing capacity. rozansky (2010) provides another example of integrating culturally relevant texts in the classroom. she conducted a case study that explored an 8th-grade reading teacher’s understanding and implementation of culturally relevant pedagogy in the classroom. this was seen through the teacher providing students the opportunity to discuss personal tragedies, such as a student’s cousin who was shot by a police officer, and selecting articles that connected to students’ lives. these articles consisted of topics about unfairness, lack of opportunity, or various types of oppression that connected to students’ experiences. meanwhile, other researchers (johnson & eubanks, 2015) explored the impact of anthem essays in an 8th-grade middle school classroom. the anthem lesson diverged from traditional writing assignments because it focused on students analyzing anthems such as the star-spangled banner and lift ev’ry voice and sing and then choosing contemporary anthems such as modest mouse’s float on, janelle monae’s queen, and beyonce’s run the world and then analyzing how these texts connected to their identity, experiences, or cultural background. the authors found that when teachers connect writing instruction to texts aligned with students’ experiences, it provides rich opportunities for them to learn about themselves, learn about others, and make meaning of the world. whitaker 103 murphy and murphy (2016) agreed that reading should be used as a conduit for building student writing proficiency. the authors conducted a mixed methods study to explore the impact of culturally relevant approaches to writing instruction with latino students in a pre-collegiate english program. the authors used culturally relevant texts written by latino authors to build students’ writing capacity in (1) descriptive, (2) narration, (3) exemplification, and (4) persuasive writing. texts were chosen based on the author's latino heritage and relevance to the lives of the students. the text needed to be 1,000 to 1,800 words. students read the text associated with each genre of writing and created an original piece of writing using the text read as a model. the authors discovered that student enthusiasm increased, and they felt the texts were relevant to their lives and experiences. all things considered, the literature in this section gives credence to the importance of using culturally relevant approaches to facilitate writing instruction. the sections that follow will make connections to the literature in this section and explain how culturally relevant writing instruction can be utilized to build students’ expository writing skills. culturally relevant writing in action step 1: cultural questionnaire. one of the initial steps required to enact culturally relevant writing involved students completing a cultural questionnaire (figure 1). the cultural questionnaire was a critical component of the writing process for two important reasons. firstly, i wanted to build my cultural competency and learn about my students’ cultural backgrounds, experiences, customs, and their family makeup, as well as understand more about their country of origin. secondly, i wanted to empower students and help them see their culture (milner, 2011) as an asset for writing about content and topics important to them. before the beginning of the writing lesson, students answered the cultural questions independently or interviewed a member of their family who was familiar with their cultural background. i encouraged my students to interview family members because i wanted them to begin to think about how their family culture and history influenced their cultural sense of self (heuman, 2009). throughout the unit, students were encouraged to leverage this reflective tool as a resource for creating their writing products. student responses from the cultural questionnaire provided rich descriptions of their cultural background, and students leveraged the content as a resource for creating their expository essays. figure 1: cultural questionnaire instructions: answer the questions that deal with your culture, social, and personal experiences. it may be beneficial to consult someone in your immediate family (i.e., mother or father) or extended family (i.e., grandmother, grandfather, uncle, aunt, cousin) if you have difficulties answering any of the questions. work carefully! make sure you respond to each question in 5–7 sentences. 1. what is your definition of “culture?” 2. how do you define “family?” 3. who holds the most “status” in your family? why? 4. how do you define success? 5. do you consider your parents to be successful? 6. how important is education in your family? 7. is punctuality important to you? why or why not? 8. what is the most important meal of the day? 9. do you eat foods that are indigenous to your culture? why or why not? if you answered yes, name some of the foods that you eat. if you answered no, what types of foods do you eat? 15. do you have any eating habits/rituals that are specific to your culture? 16. define and describe the most important (or most celebrated) holiday of your culture. 17. if you are from a culture that speaks english as a second language, do you speak your native language? if not, why? if so, will you teach your native language to any children you have? 18. how are displays of affection viewed in your culture? 19. what is considered most disrespectful in your culture? 20. what is considered most respectful in your culture? 21. what would you say is, from your perspective, the most held misconception about people of your culture? 22. have you ever experienced racism? in what form? 104 georgia journal of literacy 46(1) 10. did you ever live with your grandparents or extended family? 11. do you actively participate in organized religion? 12. how important is religion in your family? why? 13. if religion is important in your family, do you plan to pass this on to your children? why or why not? 14. are the roles of men and women specifically defined in your family? if so, what are they? 23. what can be done about racism and prejudice, in your opinion? 24. do young people today have a sense of culture? 25. have you ever felt excluded based on your culture or gender? 26. do you remember excluding others based on culture or gender? step 2: writing interest form. the next step in engaging in relevant instruction involved assessing student writing interests. the writing interest form (winn & johnson, 2011) was used to gather information about students’ reading/writing preferences, the last text students read, activities they participated in and outside of school, and they ranked their writing preferences for expository writing on a scale from 1–3. this was a valuable tool because it supported students in making sure that the texts selected were culturally relevant for the students in the english i course. the open-ended questions in the survey provided rich details about students' reading preferences, and the ranking of the writing preferences provided numerical data so that the percentage of students who preferred expository writing could be determined. data from the writing interest form revealed that 12.6% (n = 8) of students identified expository writing as their first preference, 39.6% (n = 25) of students identified expository writing as their second preference, and 47% (n = 30) of students identified expository writing as their third preference. the writing interest form was an essential component of the research study as it provided critical data that supported the researcher in selecting culturally relevant texts for students. step 3: lesson planning. after assessing student writing interest, the next step involved planning for the lesson. lemov (2021) maintains that teachers sometimes prioritize learning activities instead of first framing the objective. researchers (kaplan et al., 2017; laidlawalamguer, 2012) contend that deconstructing a standard to develop mastery objectives is an essential component of lesson planning, and engaging in this process ensures that lesson objectives are aligned with the learning standard. the standard was identified from the texas essential knowledge and skills (teks). english i is an end of course test (eoct) in the state of texas. at the time of the study, e1.15a was a high-leverage standard that students were required to master at the ninth-grade level. the following components were deconstructed: (1) knowledge/skill, (2) genre, (3) verbs, and (4) content knowledge. table 1 provides an example of the deconstruction process. table 1: deconstructed standard standard knowledge & skills genre verb(s) content e1.15a students write expository and procedural or workrelated texts to communicate ideas and information to specific audiences for specific purposes. writing/expository and procedural texts expository write communicate expository, procedural, work-related texts ideas, information, audience, purpose whitaker 105 once the deconstructing standard process was completed, the next step involved selecting texts that were culturally relevant to the lives of the students. students chose one text from 10 expository options to read and analyze. data from the writing interest form indicated that 72% of students preferred reading online materials. as a result, the text options consisted of both text and multimedia videos. hughes-hassell and rodge (2007) explored the leisure reading habits of urban adolescents. the authors found that students in the study preferred reading on the internet and suggested that the definition of reading must change to include websites, e-books, e-mail, discussion boards, chat rooms, instant messaging, and listservs. fisher and frey (2018) reported that using videos as a tool for writing in the classroom provides students the opportunity to use their critical thinking skills and content knowledge to understand, analyze, and evaluate the world around them. in another study, shimray et al. (2015) reported on students’ mobile reading habits and how students have shifted from print to online texts. the authors posited that reading on the internet is a popular practice for young people because they are constantly spending their time reading electronic resources as well as scanning and surfing the internet. reading online is a preference because the development of digital mass media has low cost, ease of access, and up-todate content. seok and dacosta (2017) explored the gender differences, propensity, and preferences for digital and printed text. the authors maintained that the advancement of technology and the convenience of smartphones have provided a variety of options for content to reach students. in addition to providing students access to a variety of texts, the researchers explain that online reading has a positive impact on learning outcomes. table 2 provides a list of expository text options provided for students. table 2: expository text options author/tv studio title of text/video media soledad o’brien latino in america good morning america/ pbs two men interviewed/police chief news conference allison graham how social media makes us unsocial debbie sterling inspiring the next generation of engineers joseph weber house to vote on school gun violence bill jon pareles and zachary woolfe kendrick lamar music pulitzer prize rumeana jahangir how does black hair reflect black history rozina sabur ramadan 2018: how muslims celebrate the revelation of the koran marilyn price-mitchel the psychology of youth sports monsy alvarado as trump crackdown continues, more immigrants are choosing to selfdeport step 4: lesson delivery. the first step in preparing students for culturally relevant writing involved them selecting an expository text based on their lives, experiences, or cultural background. after this, students who selected the same text were assigned in pairs to annotate their 106 georgia journal of literacy 46(1) text using visual annotations (figure 2). as mentioned by fisher and frey (2018), the process of taking notes during reading is an essential practice for closely reading a text. students annotated their text for the following content: (1) vocabulary, (2) thesis, (3) topic sentence, (4) supporting details, (5) text structure, and (6) author’s craft. if they chose a multimodal text, then they answered comprehension questions (figure 3) as they watched the visual text. multimodal texts were provided as an option for students because it was important to deepen their critical thinking skills (hobbs et al., 2022) and to provide students an opportunity to write about their stances on contemporary social issues important to them (unsworth & mills, 2020). figure 2: visual annotations whitaker 107 figure 3: multimodal comprehension questions number question 1 who is the target audience (and how do you know)? 2 who might benefit from this message? who might be harmed by it? 3 why might this message matter to me? 4 what is this about (and what makes you think that)? 5 what ideas, values, information, and/or points of view are overt? implied? 6 what is left out of this message that might be important to know? 7 how credible is this (and what makes you think that)? once they completed reading and annotating their texts, students created an expository writing prompt aligned with the text they selected. the purpose of this process was for students to create a prompt (figure 4) aligned with how they would be assessed on the eoct. this process required students to identify a topic, select a quote that connected to their topic, create a critical thought question to stimulate reflection, and then create a writing task that they would use to write their text. as students began the writing process, they were reminded that their expository writing should be connected to their lives, experiences, or cultural background. additionally, students were also reminded that they could use their cultural questionnaire as a resource or inspiration to craft their essays. many of the students commented on how they enjoyed the autonomy of creating their writing prompt. tommy (all names are pseudonyms) explains how he chose an article about the psychology of sports. he grew up playing sports and aspired to major in psychology in college. therefore, the article connected to his current interests and future aspirations: i am able to be creative about what i want to write about based [on] what i have read from the article. when you write, your writing must come from experience of what the topic is about. the article was about sports psychology [and it was] something i could relate to. i related to this article because i have grown up playing sports and i want to major in psychology. jackson captures the same sentiments in his writing reflection. he commented, “the part of the instruction that i really enjoyed was making my own prompt. it helped me write about something i clearly understand.” 108 georgia journal of literacy 46(1) figure 4: culturally relevant prompt after creating their prompt, students began the drafting process. this process included using the longhorn box, a self-regulated writing strategy (figure 5) used by students to craft their expository essays. students used this tool to write their hook, thesis, body paragraphs, and conclusion. it has been documented by scholars (campbell & filimon, 2018; graham & perin, 2007) the importance of using self-regulated writing strategies to explicitly develop students’ writing skills. several of the participants commented on the advantages of using the longhorn box. mason captures the commentary that most students shared about the strategy. he stated, using the longhorn box method, i was able to effectively plan out my essay in the provided method. the structure of the longhorn box helped me identify what [was] needed to put into my writing. after students finished with the prewriting strategy, students completed their essays on a 26-line template (figure 6). for the eoct, their essay could not extend more than 26 lines, so it was important for students to follow this guideline as they created their relevant writing products. once students completed the drafting process, they engaged in partner feedback. whitaker 109 figure 5: longhorn box figure 6: sample student essay titled “altruism” 110 georgia journal of literacy 46(1) in pairs, students used a writing feedback form (winn & johnson, 2011) to give feedback to their assigned partner. students gave feedback on the ideas of the text, organization, sentence fluency, word choice, and voice. moreover, the researcher provided holistic feedback for the class based on informal observations. the goal of the feedback was to create an environment in which writing was a “collective responsibility and collaborative activity” (calhoon-dillahunt et al., 2022, para. 24) that provided high-quality feedback for students to improve their essays. johnathon articulated the sentiments that most students shared when they discussed the impact of the writing feedback process. he stated, “i really think communicating with others and getting their viewpoints on my work and the ideas really helped me.” table 3 provides the reflective questions students considered as they crafted their final draft. table 3: reflective questions reflective question 1 how will you address your cultural, social, or personal experiences in your text? reflective question 2 how will you leverage your cultural lens and language to craft your text? reflective question 3 how will you address the historical and contemporary norms of your culture to craft your text? students did not need to address all the reflective questions in their writing. instead, these questions served as a checklist to ensure that students used either their experiences, culture, or interests in the creation of their product. once students completed the writing feedback form and considered the reflective questions, students created the final draft. step 5: class presentations. the final step in this lesson involved students sharing their writing products with the class. researchers have found that providing students the opportunity to share their writing instills ownership and pride (winn & johnson, 2011) and builds community (williamson, 2019). at the end of the lesson, students presented their final products to (1) their feedback partner, (2) their writing table group, and (3) the entire class. classroom time limits did not allow every student to share their writing product. as a result, students nominated 3 to 4 students to share their products with the entire class. conclusion culturally relevant writing instruction has the potential to ignite students’ fire for writing. this pedagogical approach prioritizes their writing choices and provides them the opportunity to write about content and topics important to them. blessing captures this sentiment as she reflects on the steps in creating her expository essay. she explained, i have improved on my expository essays because i used objects that are most influential in [my] life and wrote about them. it showed me that i can only write my best when i pull my own experiences into my writing. several students indicated that the writing instruction provided them with the inspiration to write, and they were able to create, in their opinion, some of their best work. in a conversation with charles, a student from a past class, he stated, “you significantly exposed me to worldwide literature and essential black literature from a perspective reflective of mine, [and that] sparked the match for me. i’m forever grateful.” if teachers encourage students to pull from within, this will whitaker 111 ignite their writing voices and help them develop a burning desire for writing that cannot be extinguished. references applebee, a. n., & langer, j. a. 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(2011). writing instruction in the culturally relevant classroom. national council of teachers of english. received: december 29, 2023 | accepted: february 22, 2024 | published: may 15, 2024 https://txate.org/resources/documents/2012-forum-vol2.pdf https://doi.org/10.1007/s11256-009-0143-0 https://doi.org/10.1598/rt.59.4.3 https://www.jstor.org/stable/44290243 https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ej943185.pdf https://doi.org/10.1007/s11528-016-0134-4 https://doi.org/10.14429/djlit.35.5.8901 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jslw.2020.100712 https://doi.org/10.1177/2381336919870291 https://doi.org/10.1177/2381336919870291 culturally relevant literacy instruction culturally relevant writing in action figure 1: cultural questionnaire table 1: deconstructed standard table 2: expository text options figure 2: visual annotations figure 3: multimodal comprehension questions figure 4: culturally relevant prompt figure 5: longhorn box figure 6: sample student essay titled “altruism” table 3: reflective questions conclusion references georgia journal of literacy 2024, vol. 46(1), pp. 113–123 https://doi.org/10.56887/galiteracy.125 issn: 2833-7611 teaching tips contact dr. sharon swift, associate professor, department of occupational therapy, augusta university, augusta, ga; email sswift@augusta.edu. dr. kim barker, associate professor and assistant department chair, department of teaching and leading, augusta university, augusta, ga; email kbarker@augusta.edu. ten quick and easy ways to enhance early literacy instruction: tips from a school occupational therapist sharon swift department of occupational therapy, augusta university, augusta, ga kim barker department of teaching and leading, augusta university, augusta, ga abstract occupational therapists (ots) can be valuable team members because of their expertise in activity and environmental analysis and, in particular, their skills in facilitating access to curricular and extracurricular activities for students with unique learning needs (aota, 2017). school ots can assist with creating multi-sensory activities and providing suggestions for environmental modifications to increase children’s engagement in learning activities to support literacy learning. research shows that when children use multiple senses to learn new skills, they are not only able to remember the new skills more quickly, but they are also able to attend to activities longer (golden & mccraken, 2016). the more parts of the brain involved in tasks, the greater the likelihood of learning; thus, multisensory learning through participation in meaningful, fun literacy activities can increase learning! keywords early literacy instruction; occupational therapy; environmental modifications; multimodal literacy o you know your school’s occupational therapist (ot)? if you are not already on a firstname basis, you could be missing out on a new school bestie! historically, ot’s role in schools has been limited to a related service under the individuals with disabilities education act (idea). however, ots can be valuable team members who can address the needs of all students because of their expertise in activity and environmental analysis (american occupational therapy association, 2017). the individuals with disabilities education act (idea) provides free and appropriate education for children with disabilities, including the provision of related services. to qualify for idea, students must have a disability that adversely affects their educational performance. related services are defined as “developmental, corrective, and other supportive services as are required to assist a child with a disability to benefit from special education” (usdoe, 2017). ot is just one of twelve related services identified by the georgia department of education (2023) that may be provided as part of the student’s individualized educational program (iep) when a student is unable to access or progress in their educational program without consistent support. ot is part of the educational/iep team to support student participation, engagement, and success in the school environment. ot may also be provided under the every student succeeds act (essa). according to the 2015 reauthorization of the elementary and secondary education act of 1965 (pub. l. 89-313), d mailto:sswift@augusta.edu mailto:kbarker@augusta.edu 114 georgia journal of literacy 46(1) the every student succeeds act (essa; pub. l. 114-95), related service personnel are identified as essential contributors that enhance the education of all students by supporting the instruction, curriculum, and environment. essa requires that states and local educational agencies (leas) must conduct “timely and meaningful consultation with” related service personnel (essa, 2015, § 1112[a][1][a]) who are identified as specialized instructional support personnel within essa (laverdure et al., 2023). hence, ot is a valuable collaborator on the educational teams for both regular and special education programs. in the early literacy classroom, combining ot’s knowledge of play, language, cognition, and emotional regulation with teachers’ knowledge of literacy instruction and classroom management can lead to a powerful multisensory approach that has proven to have a positive impact on literacy outcomes for young children with and without identified disabilities (jasmin et al., 2018; strong et al., 2018). emerging research has found that ots can impact student literacy rates and academic participation, especially for students who are reading below grade level or have been unsuccessful in traditional reading programs (grajo & candler, 2016; grajo et al., 2020). ots consider learning to read and write to be children's primary “occupation” in the early grades. ots further recognize that early literacy learning is fundamental to the child’s role as a student and to their adult selves as social beings who practice self-care and engage in meaningful occupations throughout their lives (arnaud & gutman, 2022). academic skills are developed in a hierarchical manner, and until foundational skills are mastered, new skills cannot be fully developed (kramer et al., 2018). when children use multiple senses to learn new skills, they are not only able to remember the new skills more easily, but they are also able to attend to activities longer (golden & mccraken, 2016). essentially, the more parts of the brain that are involved in learning tasks, the greater the likelihood that learning will occur. most educators are aware that ots can support handwriting objectives. however, they may not be aware that ots specialize in understanding a broad range of foundational developmental sequences and in embedding activities into learning environments that support the development of those skills. you can integrate ot into early literacy instruction even if you don’t have an ot spending time in your classroom or school. here are ten suggestions to get educators started! ten suggestions for infusing ot into early literacy learning 1. get strong! let children develop core strength. core strength supports the development of handwriting and increases engagement in learning activities. children who have not yet developed core trunk control spend excessive physical energy maintaining posture and may become overly fatigued, impacting classroom attention, behavior, and overall performance (north shore pediatric therapy, 2024). incorporating motor skills into daily routines will positively impact the development of core strength, helping young children gain awareness and learn to control their growing bodies. when children are aware of where their bodies are relative to the world around them, they are more ready to learn and to be able to make precise movements like those required for legible handwriting, a skill that impacts reading skills into upper elementary grades (lê et al., 2021). pairing literacy concepts such as letter names and sounds, rhyming, and segmenting sounds with controlled motor activities such as yoga, twister, and hopscotch increases movement and builds core strength while practicing early literacy skills. swift & barker 115 figure 1: get strong! example activities 2. get smart! let children learn to use helpful reminders. helpful reminders or cues support independence and confidence during literacy activities. learning laterality (left vs. right) and directionality (front vs back) are foundational skills for being able to differentiate between letters, numbers, and words and for learning physical relationships between objects in the world (griswold, 2021). becoming independent is vital as young learners who are supported and encouraged to be autonomous in their learning activities are more motivated to persevere with those activities (erickson & wharton-mcdonald, 2019). honing skills by using the tools in their academic toolbox helps young learners develop the ability to “self-correct” during reading and writing. some of us still use our thumbs and index fingers to make an “l” or backward “l” to differentiate between left and right. we can teach the use of motor cues like these to assist children with alphabetic differentiation. similar cues are also available for b and d and p and q. figure 2: get smart! examples of motor cues 116 georgia journal of literacy 46(1) 3. get on the floor! let children lie on the floor. lying on the floor (tummy down) supports skills necessary for writing development and legibility. lying tummy down while reading and writing increases muscle development of the hands, wrists, and arms due to weight bearing. “tummy time” during infancy has proven to positively impact upper body strength and development. in contrast, children who spent more time lying on their backs during infancy later acquired motor skills (carson et al., 2022). weight-bearing activities in the classroom can enhance the continued development of muscles that impact handwriting and other school-related fine motor activities, including cutting, drawing, buttoning, snapping, and shoe tying (flynn, 2020; pearl & duckart, 2023). examples of weight-bearing activities for the classroom include independent reading on the floor, writing on whiteboards while lying on the floor, and child-friendly yoga. figure 3: get on the floor! example activities 4. get moving! let children move. movement helps increase attention (mualem et al., 2018). young children are often expected to sit still, but few children in early elementary have the ability to sit for long periods of time. did you know that children can only attend to a task for a maximum of 3 minutes per year of age? (brain balance, n.d.). this means a 5-year-old should only be expected to attend for 15 minutes, and a 10-year-old for no longer than 30 minutes at a time. therefore, taking short rest breaks (approx. 5 min) is important to break longer tasks into smaller chunks. this will allow young children to move, stretch, and refocus. teachers can also allow children opportunities to change positions during learning activities by standing, lying on pillows, or sitting on beanbags. literacy-focused movements can include reading and writing the room, classroom scavenger hunts, and schoolwide story walks. swift & barker 117 figure 4: get moving! example activities 5. get messy! let children explore a variety of materials, even if they get a little messy. “messy play” allows children to utilize multiple senses to develop creativity, curiosity, and sensory motor skills. increased engagement results from messy play because it is just plain fun (casey & prendiville, 2020). increased engagement through multi-sensory activities leads to greater concept formation and retention (broadbent et al., 2018). it is easy to infuse literacy activities with a bit of messy play. messy play activities also provide students with a repertoire of experiences to talk and write about! literacy activities can easily be infused into messy play activities. young children can explore letters and words by writing on sandpaper, in shaving cream, or using finger paints; by searching for letters in sand using tweezers; and by finding hidden objects in water beads. figure 5: get messy! example activities 118 georgia journal of literacy 46(1) 6. get reaching! let children reach across their bodies. reaching across the midline of the body is crucial for the two sides of the brain to learn to communicate with each otherresulting in smooth coordinated muscle movements (therapies for kids, n.d.). when both sides of the brain communicate effectively with each other, hand and eye movement is highly coordinated, leading to fluent hand and eye muscle movements. this is important to reading and writing since eyes and hands need to move across a page from left to right in the process of reading and writing (robertson & riek, 2022). many children lack spontaneous opportunities to reach across their body’s midline during routine play due to the overuse of smartphones, computers, and gaming consoles in lieu of play. crossing midline activities can easily be incorporated into movement breaks, recess, and any time children are lining up. literacy activities to promote crossing midline include having children write large letters on the whiteboard, standing in one spot and touching letters or words spread out on the wall, or even walking along a literacy-focused sensory path. figure 6: get reaching! example activities 7. get flexible! let children choose from a variety of flexible seating options. flexible seating has become more common in various learning and work settings, including schools and classrooms. flexible seating accommodates and facilitates all bodies which not only come in a variety of shapes and sizes but with different sensory preferences. individual preferences can change based on mood, time of day, and activity. having various seating options in the classroom will allow children to select the “right” chair for their needs so their bodies and minds will be ready to learn (castellucci et al., 2016). by using flexible seating, teachers can reduce disruptive behavior and increase attention to tasks, which in turn impacts academic teaching time and performance (hardin, 2017). examples of flexible seating options for the classroom include bean bag chairs, standing tables, wobble stools, foam wedges, and ball chairs. swift & barker 119 figure 7: get flexible! example activities 8. get rid of the paper and pencil! let children use a variety of hands-on materials for learning. hands-on materials activate multiple senses during learning activities. this results in more brain areas being stimulated, increasing learning and retention (okray et al., 2023). there are many ways to work on literacy activities other than using paper and pencil. incorporate the use of magnetic letters, blocks, and string alphabet beads for letter identification, sequencing, and spelling. turn classroom tables into chalkboards or whiteboards. many children lack the fine motor skills necessary to successfully engage in classroom tasks such as writing (seo, 2018). getting rid of paper and pencil allows children to engage with classroom materials that promote fine motor skill development. classroom activities that promote fine motor skills include using tongs to pick up and sort items, shape punchers to create artwork, and building blocks. even clean-up tasks like putting caps back on markers and glue sticks build fine motor skills. figure 8: get rid of the paper and pencil! example activities 9. get a sensory-friendly environment! let children learn in a sensory-friendly environment. sensory-friendly classrooms protect young children from becoming over-stimulated and help them maintain focus on learning activities (barrett et al., 2013). think of the impact the bright lights, sounds from the hallways, and people talking to you all day have on your sensory system. children experience the same impact from their environment, and many are not able to tell us when they are overstimulated. 120 georgia journal of literacy 46(1) they tend to simply shut down (i.e., zone out) or act out. one of the quickest and easiest solutions to sensory overload is to adapt the lighting in your room. research has shown that fluorescent lights negatively impact alertness, attitude, and energy level (morrow & kanakri, 2018). adding fluorescent light covers can change the entire mood of your classroom and your students! other ideas for making learning environments sensory-friendly include using white tree lights for an added soothing glow, indirect and soft lighting, sound-absorbing rugs, or tennis balls to reduce chair noise. also, soothing music and white noise can have a calming effect. figure 9: get a sensory-friendly environment! examples 10. get playful! let children have fun. fun instructional activities are effective for your students and for you! play is considered the work of a child. research shows that active play has a positive effect on academic performance as it impacts behavior and children’s ability to self-regulate (becker et al., 2014). we often view what children are doing as “mere play” when, in reality, they are learning about the world, how objects interact, and how to use their bodies. children are not always ready to join the serious adult world, so let us join them in making learning fun! playful activities that can support literacy learning include coloring and drawing, play-doh creations, and card and board games. all of these can easily be adapted for literacy learning. figure 10: get playful! example activities swift & barker 121 conclusion the tips included in this article should be appropriate for most students in early education classrooms as part of regular classroom activities. if teachers have questions about additional ways to incorporate multisensory activities into their classrooms, they should reach out to their school’s ot. ots may provide classroom and curriculum-level suggestions to maximize student engagement and success (aota, 2017). references american occupational therapy association. 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(2019). fostering autonomous motivation and early literacy skills. the reading teacher, 72(4), 475–483. https://doi.org/10.1002/trtr.1750 https://www.aota.org/%7e/media/corporate/files/practice/children/school-administrator-brochure.pdf https://www.aota.org/%7e/media/corporate/files/practice/children/school-administrator-brochure.pdf https://doi.org/10.1080/19411243.2020.1732260 https://doi.org/10.1080/19411243.2020.1732260 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2012.09.016 https://doi.org/10.1080/10409289.2013.780505 https://www.brainbalancecenters.com/blog/normal-attention-span-expectations-by-age https://www.brainbalancecenters.com/blog/normal-attention-span-expectations-by-age https://doi.org/10.1111/desc.12726 https://doi.org/10.1186/s12966-022-01248-6 https://doi.org/10.1186/s12966-022-01248-6 https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429327230-17 https://doi.org/10.1080/00140139.%e2%80%8c2016.1170889 https://doi.org/10.1080/00140139.%e2%80%8c2016.1170889 https://doi.org/10.1002/trtr.1750 122 georgia journal of literacy 46(1) therapies for kids. (n.d.). the importance of crossing the midline. https://therapiesforkids.com.au/ blog/importance-of-crossing-the-midline/ flynn, a. (2020, may 27). handwriting involves more than just the hand! san diego occupational therapy. https://sandiegooccupationaltherapy.com/occupational-therapy/handwritinginvolves-more-than-just-the-hand/ georgia department of education. (2023). occupational and physical therapy. https://www. gadoe.org/curriculum-instruction-and-assessment/special-education-services/pages/ occupational-and-physical-therapy-.aspx georgia department of education. (2020). characteristics of educationally relevant therapy and medical/ clinical therapy. https://www.gadoe.org/curriculum-instruction-and-assessment /special-education-services/documents/eligibility%20areas/ot-pt/characteristics%20 of%20educationally%20relevant%20therapy%20and%20the%20medical%20model%2 0_11_2020.pdf golden, k., & mccracken, h. (2016). the effect of multisensory activities to facilitate the learning of spelling words in first-grade students. american journal of occupational therapy, 70(4), article 7011505172p1. https://doi.org/10.5014/ajot.2016.70s1-po7024 grajo, l. c., & candler, c. (2016). an occupation and participation approach to reading intervention (opari), part i: defining reading as an occupation. journal of occupational therapy, schools, & early intervention, 9(1), 74–85. https://doi.org/10.1080/19411243. 2016.1141082 grajo, l. c., candler, c., & sarafian, a. (2020). interventions within the scope of occupational therapy to improve children’s academic participation: a systematic review. the american journal of occupational therapy, 74(2), 1–32 https://doi.org/10.5014/ajot.2020.039016 griswold, m. (2021, april 19). the importance of learning left and right. lla therapy. https://llatherapy.org/the-importance-of-learning-left-and-right/ hardin, c. (2017). flexible seating in the early childhood classroom [master’s thesis, northwestern college orange city]. nwcommons. https://nwcommons.nwciowa.edu/ cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1050&context=education_masters jasmin, e., gauthier, a., julien, m., & hui, c. (2018). occupational therapy in preschools: a synthesis of current knowledge. early childhood education journal, 46(1), 73–82. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10643-017-0840-3 kramer, p., hinojosa, j., & howe, t. (2018). frames of reference for pediatric occupational therapy (4th ed.). wolters kluer. laverdure, p., vancamp, a. b., & lecompte, b. (2023). empowering essa’s value in schools. ot practice, 28(4), 15–19. https://www.aota.org/publications/ot-practice/ot-practiceissues/2023/empowering-essas-value-in-schools lê, m., quémart, p., potocki, a., gimenes, m., chesnet, d., & lambert, e. (2021). modeling the influence of motor skills on literacy in third grade: contributions of executive functions and handwriting. plos one, 16(11), article e0259016. https://doi.org/10.1371/ journal.pone.0259016 https://therapiesforkids.com.au/blog/importance-of-crossing-the-midline/ https://therapiesforkids.com.au/blog/importance-of-crossing-the-midline/ https://sandiegooccupationaltherapy.com/occupational-therapy/handwriting-involves-more-than-just-the-hand/ https://sandiegooccupationaltherapy.com/occupational-therapy/handwriting-involves-more-than-just-the-hand/ https://www.gadoe.org/curriculum-instruction-and-assessment/special-education-services/pages/occupational-and-physical-therapy-.aspx https://www.gadoe.org/curriculum-instruction-and-assessment/special-education-services/pages/occupational-and-physical-therapy-.aspx https://www.gadoe.org/curriculum-instruction-and-assessment/special-education-services/pages/occupational-and-physical-therapy-.aspx https://www.gadoe.org/curriculum-instruction-and-assessment%e2%80%8c/special-education-services/documents/eligibility%20areas/ot-pt/characteristics%20%e2%80%8cof%20educationally%20relevant%20therapy%20and%20the%20medical%20model%20_11_2020.pdf https://www.gadoe.org/curriculum-instruction-and-assessment%e2%80%8c/special-education-services/documents/eligibility%20areas/ot-pt/characteristics%20%e2%80%8cof%20educationally%20relevant%20therapy%20and%20the%20medical%20model%20_11_2020.pdf https://www.gadoe.org/curriculum-instruction-and-assessment%e2%80%8c/special-education-services/documents/eligibility%20areas/ot-pt/characteristics%20%e2%80%8cof%20educationally%20relevant%20therapy%20and%20the%20medical%20model%20_11_2020.pdf https://www.gadoe.org/curriculum-instruction-and-assessment%e2%80%8c/special-education-services/documents/eligibility%20areas/ot-pt/characteristics%20%e2%80%8cof%20educationally%20relevant%20therapy%20and%20the%20medical%20model%20_11_2020.pdf https://doi.org/10.5014/ajot.2016.70s1-po7024 https://doi.org/10.1080/19411243.%e2%80%8c2016.1141082 https://doi.org/10.1080/19411243.%e2%80%8c2016.1141082 https://doi.org/10.5014/ajot.2020.039016 https://llatherapy.org/the-importance-of-learning-left-and-right/ https://nwcommons.nwciowa.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1050&context=education_masters https://nwcommons.nwciowa.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1050&context=education_masters https://doi.org/10.1007/s10643-017-0840-3 https://www.aota.org/publications/ot-practice/ot-practice-issues/2023/empowering-essas-value-in-schools https://www.aota.org/publications/ot-practice/ot-practice-issues/2023/empowering-essas-value-in-schools https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0259016 https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0259016 swift & barker 123 morrow, b. l., & kanakri, s. m. (2018). the impact of fluorescent and led lighting on students’ attitudes and behavior in the classroom. advances in pediatric research, 5(15), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.24105/apr.2018.5.15 mualem, r., leisman, g., zbedat, y., ganem, s., mualem, o., amaria, m., kozle, a., khayatmoughrabi, s. & ornai, a. (2018). the effect of movement on cognitive performance. frontiers in public health, 6, article 100. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2018.00100 north shore pediatric therapy. (2024, february 1). how does decreased trunk control affect my child’s schoolwork? https://www.nspt4kids.com/parenting/how-does-decreased-trunkcontrol-affect-my-childs-schoolwork/ okray, z., jacob, p. f., stern, c., desmond, k., otto, n., talbot, c.b., vargas-gutierrez, p., & waddell, s. (2023). multisensory learning binds neurons into a cross-modal memory engram. nature, 617, 777–784. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-023-06013-8 pearl, m. m., & duckart, j. a. (2023). prone to success: the effects of prone on handwriting legibility. the american journal of occupational therapy, 77(2), article 7711510270p1. https://doi.org/10.5014/ajot.2023.77s2-po270 robertson, a., & riek, j. (2022). multi-sensory play in the reading classroom. educating young children: learning and teaching in the early childhood years, 28(1), 24–31. https://search.informit.org/doi/10.3316/informit.518698986322089 seo s. m. (2018). the effect of fine motor skills on handwriting legibility in preschool age children. journal of physical therapy science, 30(2), 324–327. https://doi.org/10.1589/ jpts.30.324 strong, k., wolff, m., meier, c., bublitz, s., geboy, s., myers, s., & szczech moser, c. (2018). occupational therapy and literacy. journal of occupational therapy, schools, & early intervention, 11(4), 485–511. https://doi.org/10.1080/19411243.2018.1558523 u.s. department of education. (2017). sec. 300.34 related services. https://sites.ed.gov/ idea/regs/b/a/300.34 received: july 9, 2023 | accepted: january 11, 2024 | published: may 15, 2024 https://doi.org/10.24105/apr.2018.5.15 https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2018.00100 https://www.nspt4kids.com/parenting/how-does-decreased-trunk-control-affect-my-childs-schoolwork/ https://www.nspt4kids.com/parenting/how-does-decreased-trunk-control-affect-my-childs-schoolwork/ https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-023-06013-8 https://doi.org/10.5014/ajot.2023.77s2-po270 https://search.informit.org/doi/10.3316/informit.518698986322089 https://doi.org/10.1589/%e2%80%8cjpts.30.324 https://doi.org/10.1589/%e2%80%8cjpts.30.324 https://doi.org/10.1080/19411243.2018.1558523 https://sites.ed.gov/idea/regs/b/a/300.34 https://sites.ed.gov/idea/regs/b/a/300.34 ten suggestions for infusing ot into early literacy learning 1. get strong! figure 1: get strong! example activities 2. get smart! figure 2: get smart! examples of motor cues 3. get on the floor! figure 3: get on the floor! example activities 4. get moving! figure 4: get moving! example activities 5. get messy! figure 5: get messy! example activities 6. get reaching! figure 6: get reaching! example activities 7. get flexible! figure 7: get flexible! example activities 8. get rid of the paper and pencil! figure 8: get rid of the paper and pencil! example activities 9. get a sensory-friendly environment! figure 9: get a sensory-friendly environment! examples 10. get playful! figure 10: get playful! example activities conclusion references georgia journal of literacy 2024, vol. 46(2), pp. 46–49 https://doi.org/10.56887/galiteracy.143 issn: 2833-7611 teaching tips contact dr. amy davis, assistant professor; department of teaching, learning, & foundations; eastern illinois university, charleston, il; email addavis7@eiu.edu. it’s time for a “brain drain!” amy davis eastern illinois university, charleston, il abstract in their classrooms, teachers create learning environments that foster knowledge acquisition through the strategies they choose to implement. this article highlights a strategy called brain drain, which teachers can set up as an activity that will help students access their prior knowledge, connect new learning, and have an opportunity to discuss and build upon this learning with peers. the schema, cognitive load, and sociocultural learning theories are mentioned, briefly highlighted, and connected to this strategy. keywords schema theory; collaborative learning environment; social interaction; long-term memory integration eachers have the formidable task of planning strategies that will foster a collaborative learning environment and help students acquire, retain, and recall information. each student comes to the learning space with prior knowledge based on their personal experiences. while learning is a social process, allowing students to discuss their learning deepens those existing connections. the brain drain strategy is one that allows students time to access their prior knowledge, connect new learning, and express their understanding with peers. as students acquire, recall, and share their learning with others, they can feel their contributions are heard and valued. the learning space becomes an expressive, collaborative, and rich experience for students. background knowledge and social learning theories creating learning environments that foster the recall and sharing of knowledge are ones where students are actively engaged in the learning process. there are two theories that support the brain drain strategy. the schema theory introduced by british psychologist, frederic bartlett in 1932, states that acquiring knowledge is a two-step process. the first process is that individuals build mental representations of the world around them. when acquiring new knowledge, they integrate information stored in long-term memory, referred to as schemata. schemata will be different for every reader, and mental structures will slowly change over time as new knowledge is assimilated (bartlett, 1932). the likelihood of information being encoded to long-term memory is dependent on the ability of working memory to process and integrate new information into existing schema. according to smith et al. (2021), knowledge stored in long-term memory can be categorized into two types: availability and accessibility. availability refers to that relevant knowledge that is held in one’s long-term memory, while accessibility is the time and ease in which this knowledge can be retrieved. students learn from their interactions with others. russian psychologist lev vygotsky (1962) examined how social interactions influenced the learning process. he concluded that learning cannot be separated from a social context. through these interactions with others, t mailto:addavis7@eiu.edu davis 47 individuals learn the rules, skills, and abilities that are shaped by one’s culture. furthermore, vygotsky (1978) concluded that language is the tool that promotes thinking and reasoning and supports reading and writing. when teachers utilize strategies that promote and celebrate individuality and the collective expression of all those participating, the reading and learning experience is enhanced. brain drain strategy the brain drain strategy can be used with students of varying ages and abilities. the purpose is to allow time for “draining” the brain of previously read content and background knowledge, then allowing time for peer-to-peer discussion. there are two steps in implementing this strategy. step 1: preparation. to prepare, post self-adhesive chart paper around the classroom. give each student a marker, then ask students to find a partner and a piece of paper. step 2: implementation. set the timer between two to five minutes; time will vary depending on students’ ages and abilities. pose a question to the group and ask students to quietly use words or pictures to represent their understanding of the text. step 3: discussion and wrap-up. when the timer goes off, allow two to five minutes for them to discuss with their partner what they’ve drawn or written and allow them to add to their initial explanation or drawings. ask each group to share their posters with the group. table 1: directions for brain drain strategy implementation step directions preparation • post self-adhesive chart paper around the classroom • pass out markers to students implementation • ask students to find a partner and paper • pose question • ask students to respond to the question in words or pictures individually • set a timer for 2-5 minutes discussion & wrap up • after the timer goes off, allow students to discuss their interpretations • allow students to add to their interpretations • ask each partnership to share their posters with the group brain drain example figure 1 is an example of the strategy i implemented with my undergraduate preservice teachers in an english as a second language methods course. they had read, and we discussed the stages of language acquisition, vygotsky’s zone of proximal development, and dr. jim cummin’s iceberg theory. i found it interesting how the discussion with their partner helped them remember additional details. for example, in figure 1, the time periods of language acquisition stages were added after the discussion. as a group, we discussed modifications and variations for this strategy. i used it as an informal summative assessment and a way to incorporate language for english learners through 48 georgia journal of literacy 46(2) the discussion piece. my students suggested that you could use it as a way to assess students’ background knowledge of particular content and then assess what they learned. teachers would follow the same format, with students individually adding to the poster and discussion, and then additional details could be added. one thing i thought was particularly interesting was that one student said to color code these additions. for example, background knowledge is one color, then new learning is another, so students can see how much they learned. for small group modifications, teachers could ask students to individually write or draw everything they know about a particular topic and then share their drawings or explanations with a partner. after a guided reading experience with text, students could add more detail and then again discuss their drawings or writing with a partner. the brain drain strategy enhances the learning experience for students because they must recall existing knowledge from their long-term memories and display it with words or drawings. students are given time to access this knowledge, and there is individual accountability in that each participant completes their own work before the peer-to-peer discussion. in addition, this strategy raises students’ awareness of what they already know and what they learned and how talking with their peers can both enhance and increase their learning. figure 1: example of brain drain activity note. timeframes were added after discussion with a partner. davis 49 conclusion teachers are responsible for designing and implementing instructional strategies that will ultimately assist their students to learn and remember content. the strategy, brain drain, allows for individual thinking and expression as well as peer-to-peer interaction. most importantly, students make connections to previous and new knowledge and discuss with peers, which will enhance and increase their learning experience and create a collaborative, rigorous learning environment. this strategy can be implemented at various ages and skill levels and either with a whole or small group of students. teachers should observe and adjust based on student responses and learning outcomes. the brain drain strategy does require some teacher preparation such as question generation and gathering supplies. if students are experiencing difficulty either responding to the question or working with a specific peer, the teacher can walk around and monitor the partnerships closely, offer suggestions, or strategically partner students before implementation. ultimately, it is the teacher’s planning for a successful learning experience, and i encourage you to try the brain drain strategy with students and share it with colleagues. it’s always a good time for a brain drain! references bartlett, f. c. (1932). remembering: a study in experimental and social psychology. cambridge university press. smith, r., snow, p., serry, t., & hammond, l. (2021). the role of background knowledge reading comprehension: a critical review. reading psychology, 42(3), 214–240. https://doi.org/ 10.1080/02702711.2021.1888348 vygotsky, l. s. (1962). thought and language. mit press. vygotsky, l. s. (1978). mind in society: the development of higher psychological processes. harvard university press. received: april 16, 2024 | accepted: june 10, 2024 | published: november 15, 2024 https://doi.org/10.1080/02702711.2021.1888348 https://doi.org/10.1080/02702711.2021.1888348 background knowledge and social learning theories brain drain strategy table 1: directions for brain drain strategy implementation brain drain example figure 1: example of brain drain activity note. timeframes were added after discussion with a partner. conclusion references georgia journal of literacy 2023, vol. 45(2), pp. 1–3 https://doi.org/10.56887/galiteracy.131 issn: 2833-7611 editorial article contact dr. robert a. griffin, associate professor and assistant chair, department of early childhood through secondary education, university of west georgia, carrollton, ga; email rgriffin@westga.edu (https://orcid.org/00000002-3128-7687). dr. bethany l. scullin, associate professor, department of early childhood through secondary education, university of west georgia, carrollton, ga; email bscullin@westga.edu. bridging the divide: advancing the science and art of teaching reading in diverse and inclusive classrooms robert a. griffin university of west georgia, carrollton, ga bethany l. scullin university of west georgia, carrollton, ga abstract the fall 2023 issue of the georgia journal of literacy delves into a crucial intersection: the empirically supported science of reading and the ever-present need for diversity, inclusion, and multi-modal literacies in our classrooms. as the dialogue around literacy shifts toward science-based methods, the articles in this issue pose a pivotal question: how can these scientifically grounded methods be incorporated into diverse and inclusive learning environments? our contributors approach this conundrum from multiple angles—examining esol co-teaching strategies, leveraging picturebook biographies for inspiration, implementing culturally relevant pedagogies, and providing practical teaching tips for diverse classrooms. through a carefully curated ensemble of articles, we challenge traditional paradigms and advocate for a literacy education that is scientifically rigorous yet deeply sensitive to the rich tapestry of cultural, linguistic, and cognitive diversity in our classrooms. the content serves not just as a timely response to ongoing debates in literacy education but also as a catalyst for future innovations that harmonize the science with the art of teaching reading. this issue aims to inspire a shift—from mere motivation to deeprooted inspiration, from monolingualism to multilingualism, and from traditional to culturally responsive pedagogical practices. keywords science and art of teaching reading; diversity and inclusion; multimodal literacies s we usher in the fall season, we are reminded that the landscape of literacy education, much like the leaves that are metamorphosing around us, is in a constant state of change. in this evolving ecosystem, diversity—of thought, culture, and practice—emerges as an invaluable resource. educators and scholars are again embroiled in a nuanced iteration of the ageold reading wars, reframed now through the lens of the science of reading. while consensus grows around the empirical evidence supporting science-based reading instruction, the question persists: how do we integrate these insights within a pluralistic, evolving landscape of learners? this fall’s issue of the georgia journal of literacy aims to contribute nuanced perspectives to this ongoing debate. with a particular focus on diversity, inclusion, motivation, and multimodal literacies, this issue explores pedagogical models and practices designed to respond adeptly to the multifaceted needs of today’s diverse student body. this collection of articles challenges reductive paradigms by presenting multifaceted approaches that align with scientific research while respecting the diversity that students bring into a https://doi.org/10.56887/galiteracy.131 mailto:rgriffin@westga.edu https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3128-7687 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3128-7687 mailto:bscullin@westga.edu 2 georgia journal of literacy 45(2) the classroom—be it linguistic, cultural, or cognitive. the confluence of these themes serves not merely as a response to the evolving debates in literacy education but also as a catalyst for innovative, evidence-based strategies that privilege both rigor and inclusivity and that bridge the science and art of teaching reading (griffin, 2023; such, 2021; young et al., 2022). this issue pushes the boundary of what reading science means in the context of diverse classrooms, multiple literacies, and culturally sustaining pedagogies. it serves as an invitation for educators, scholars, and literacy advocates to engage deeply with these complexities, inspiring a shift from motivation to inspiration, from monolingualism to multilingualism, and from traditional pedagogies to culturally relevant practices. we hope this issue will serve as both a resource and a call to action, inviting a concerted effort to redefine literacy education in a manner that is as rigorously scientific as it is profoundly artful and inclusive. exploring the esol conundrum: rethinking co-teaching dr. megan devoss’s comprehensive literature review, “models of instruction for multilingual learners: facets of the esol co-teacher role,” offers a nuanced examination of esol models sanctioned by the u.s. department of education. through a critical lens, dr. devoss weighs the merits and drawbacks of these frameworks, spotlighting the burgeoning prominence of co-teaching strategies. this piece acts as a cornerstone for educators and policymakers aiming to incorporate empirically-backed, effective multilingual instructional practices into their repertoire. picturebook biographies: beyond motivation to inspiration advocating a move from motivation to inspiration, dr. william p. bintz and shabnam moini chaghervand explore the transformative potential of picturebook biographies in “from motivation to inspiration: using picturebook biographies to inspire all learners, especially english language learners.” the authors argue persuasively for the pedagogical power of these books, which both teach and inspire, catalyzing a deeper level of student engagement and emotional investment in learning. pioneering multimodal literacies in culturally relevant pedagogy aligning with multimodal literacies, dr. christine craddock’s research article, “multimodal literacies in elementary teacher education: facilitating culturally relevant pedagogy with mathematics,” delves into the practical application of multiple modes of expression. dr. craddock’s work, based on qualitative action research, uncovers how these modes can enrich culturally relevant pedagogical practices, especially in the teaching of mathematics. in a similar vein, dr. laura szech’s practitioner-oriented piece “culturally sustaining writer’s workshop for beginners” offers a detailed framework that encourages students to bring their unique cultural and linguistic experiences into authentic writing exercises. a toolkit for inclusive teaching: diverse strategies for diverse classrooms our teaching tips section offers a triad of insightful articles catering to the diversity of today’s classrooms. heather s. riddle examines nuanced methods for evaluating language and literacy skills among students with developmental disabilities in “assessing language and literacy of students with developmental disabilities and complex communication needs.” dr. ebony t. lee’s “moving writing forward through peer-critique partners” outlines a step-by-step strategy for fostering constructive peer-to-peer feedback during the writing process. rounding off this griffin & scullin 3 section, dr. lina soares, former editor of the georgia journal of reading (the former name of gjl), presents “the open mind portrait: an innovative method to promote reading comprehension and critical thinking,” revealing the underexplored potential of visual art to improve reading comprehension and provoke critical thought. final thoughts each article, in its unique way, contributes to a unified vision: transforming the science of reading into an inclusive practice that honors and leverages diversity. from devoss’s exploration of esol co-teaching models to bintz and moini chaghervand’s shift from motivation to inspiration, from culturally relevant pedagogies to practical teaching strategies, each contribution engages with the complex tapestry of student diversity as an invaluable asset, rather than a challenge to overcome. in so doing, these articles not only provide a wealth of academic insight but also serve as a collective clarion call to all stakeholders—teachers, administrators, and literacy advocates alike. they urge us to fully embrace the abundant diversity in our classrooms and to integrate scientific rigor with cultural responsiveness. as we navigate this dynamic and ever-evolving educational terrain, let us do so with both the empirical grounding and the compassionate intentionality that our diverse student populations merit. our collective commitment to this integrated approach will not only elevate educational practices but also profoundly impact the academic and socio-emotional well-being of generations to come. thank you for joining us in this endeavor. your engagement with the georgia journal of literacy signifies your role in this critical and timely dialogue, a conversation that, at its core, is both deeply scientific and profoundly inclusive. references griffin, r. a. (2023). a comprehensive literacy approach: integrating the science and art of reading for adolescents. literacy practice & research, 48(2), article 1. https://digital commons.fiu.edu/lpr/vol48/iss2/1/ such, c. (2021). the art and science of teaching primary reading. corwin. young, c., paige, d., & rasinski, t. v. (2022). artfully teaching the science of reading (1st ed.). routledge. published: november 13, 2023 https://digitalcommons.fiu.edu/lpr/vol48/iss2/1/ https://digitalcommons.fiu.edu/lpr/vol48/iss2/1/ exploring the esol conundrum: rethinking co-teaching picturebook biographies: beyond motivation to inspiration pioneering multimodal literacies in culturally relevant pedagogy a toolkit for inclusive teaching: diverse strategies for diverse classrooms final thoughts references 2013 spring gjr full issue.pdf ���������� � ��������� � �� ��� ��� ������� ������������� ��������� ��� �� ���!�"����#����$�%�� �&������ '�%��� '��%%��!!��%'��!(�� ��� ���()�('�(���!*� ������+��,'���-�./���� "��,�%�������� �� ���� 01234356�789:82;�/�'��%�%�,$�%��<� '�!("''�� %�! ��( !� '����!�����%��<��("����.�� ������!� ',� !�('�%��)�! $%�� !�#)��./�'���<� "��=$��� )� ',��� ���()���! �$( �'���(�'!!� "��($���($�$.*�789:356�>8?1@�a�b3;3c5�dc2�ae13c5� 95:�78;892ef�35�g3::h8�95:�i36f�0efcch� 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6~��&131�1!v�s�!�3����3uv�!3�m��q��nn�8�h@@?�ab?c�?@<9c@>d�?:�@z<hbj@� �� �� �� gd?ti@j?�a:>y�<ji�@e<;t<?@�?c@b>�dt99@dd�acb;@�<j<;fsbjk�?>@jid�<ji�>@dt;?d.�!vu�3�$nn�nn7�!3�8�w:>�bjibebit<;d�:>�k>:tld�:w�d?ti@j?d� �� �� �� g�#$%&$'&��(��)*++,-+�*%�#'-.#*/%$+��#'$#r�*�#�.�!3�!3�$��1�)!�4 �vq��8�yj:a�c:a�>@<ibjk�<ji�a>b?bjk�l>:9@dd@d�>@;<?@�ab?c� �� �� �� g?c@�e<>b:td�ibd9bl;bj@d�ybx@x��jk;bdc�;<jkt<k@�<>?d��h<?c��d9b@j9@��<ji�d:9b<;�d?tib@d�m��o�v��*!n3�u�3��!�8�w:>�bjibebit<;d�:>�dh<;;�k>:tld�:w�d?ti@j?d�ac:�<>@�d?>tkk;bjk� �� �� �� g>@<i@>d�yltdc�bj��lt;;�:t?��:>�=:?c�d@??bjkd� $pp�!v���0�bii;@��9c::;��b?@><9f��:<9c��t>e@f�i<l?@i�w>:h�������������������������������������������������������y�����������<ji�������� ¡�¢��������£¡��y�<ddbif�¤��<ddbif�����¥��8�¦<>?�:w�hf�9t>>@j?�9:<9cbjk�>:;@�<ji�dc:t;i�=@� �8� :?�l<>?�:w�hf�9t>>@j?�9:<9cbjk�>:;@�=t?�dc:t;i�=@�8�¦<>?�:w�hf�9t>>@j?�9:<9cbjk�>:;@�<ji�dc:t;i�j:?�=@� g8� :?�l<>?�:w�hf�9t>>@j?�9:<9cbjk�>:;@�<ji�dc:t;i�j:?�=@ georgia journal of literacy 2025, vol. 47(1), pp. 1–3 https://doi.org/10.56887/galiteracy.193 issn: 2833-7611 editorial article contact dr. robert a. griffin, associate professor and assistant department chair, department of early childhood through secondary education and reading, university of west georgia, carrollton, ga; email rgriffin@westga.edu (https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3128-7687). dr. bethany l. scullin, associate professor, department of early childhood through secondary education and reading, university of west georgia, carrollton, ga; email bscullin@westga.edu. beyond the page: reimagining literacy across media, cultures, and classrooms robert a. griffin university of west georgia, carrollton, ga bethany l. scullin university of west georgia, carrollton, ga abstract the spring 2025 issue of the georgia journal of literacy, themed “beyond the page: reimagining literacy across media, cultures, and classrooms,” challenges, expands, and reimagines what literacy means in modern classrooms. this issue explores a mix of literacy practices, from digital texts and ai tools to dialect use and blending across different genres and fields. the opening research articles invite readers to consider early literacy through the lens of multimodality, social-emotional development, and teacher identity. a bridging article explores how ai can personalize literacy instruction for students with autism, and the teaching-focused pieces offer classroom-ready strategies that celebrate linguistic diversity and integrate literature with science instruction through blended genres. these contributions together illustrate how literacy is not confined to the printed page but lived, embodied, and continuously reshaped by the media we use, the identities we affirm, and the worlds we seek to understand. keywords literacy innovation; multimodality; inclusive pedagogy; digital texts; interdisciplinary instruction hat if we stopped asking what literacy is and started asking what it could become? the spring 2025 issue of the georgia journal of literacy, “beyond the page: reimagining literacy across media, cultures, and classrooms,” invites our readers to ask that very question. in this issue, the contributors treat literacy as a living, evolving practice, one that stretches across disciplines, takes shape through new media, honors diverse linguistic and cultural identities, and responds to the changing contours of classrooms and communities. we publish this issue at a moment of disruption and possibility. the rise of generative artificial intelligence (ai), persistent debates over book access and language use, and the continued expansion of what counts as a “text” challenge us as educators to rethink how literacy is taught and why it matters (grote-garcia et al., 2025; kalantzis & cope, 2025). each article in this issue redefines literacy from a different vantage point, whether through the lens of digital storytelling, socio-emotional learning (sel), science integration, linguistic justice, or neurodiverse inclusion. the issue begins with research-based inquiries into emerging definitions and practices of literacy, moves into a research-practitioner bridge piece focused on ai and neurodiverse learners, and concludes with practical teaching tips grounded in culturally responsive, interdisciplinary instruction. together, these pieces ask us not to abandon the page but to move beyond it. these contributions also remind us how we can continue to shape, question, and grow as literacy educators and advocates in a world that’s constantly changing. w mailto:rgriffin@westga.edu https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3128-7687 mailto:bscullin@westga.edu 2 georgia journal of literacy 47(1) research articles: literacy as digital, emotional, and personal practice the issue opens with three research articles that rethink the core of what literacy is and does, including its tools, its purposes, and its practitioners. in “very mindful, very multimodal: digital texts’ affordances for emergent readers,” emily colleen cobb examines how digital texts are reshaping early literacy. drawing from current scholarship in new literacies and multiliteracies, cobb challenges the assumption that today’s children are digital natives naturally equipped to navigate digital content. she argues that digital texts require their own forms of strategic reading, interpretation, and meaning making and that these need to be taught explicitly. instead of treating digital texts as extras, cobb encourages educators to view them as active, engaging spaces where young readers can explore, create, and make sense of what they read in fresh ways. in “fostering social-emotional learning in children’s books,” dr. forrest r. parker iii and dr. jodi cronin turn to picturebooks as catalysts for developing social-emotional competencies. using the widely recognized collaborative for academic, social, and emotional learning (casel) framework, parker and cronin conduct a quantitative analysis of contemporary children’s literature to assess both the presence and the quality of sel themes. their findings suggest that effective sel integration depends not only on content but on how that content is delivered through compelling narratives, strong visuals, and thoughtfully designed characters that model empathy, regulation, and responsible decision-making. dr. matt sroka’s “teachers as readers: examining the personal reading lives of english educators” offers a more inward-looking perspective. through a participatory action research design, sroka follows four english teachers as they reflect on their personal reading habits, histories, and identities. the study reveals how these inner literate lives shape classroom practice in subtle but important ways, from the texts teachers choose to the culture of reading they create. ultimately, sroka suggests that fostering engaged student readers begins with teachers who themselves live as readers and who are willing to reflect on and share that identity. bridging research and practice: personalized possibilities with technology next, alexis lawton’s “leveraging ai to enhance literacy in students with asd” offers an appropriate bridge between research and application, exploring how generative ai tools, such as chatgpt, otter.ai, and image generators, can provide personalized literacy supports for neurodiverse learners. drawing from her experiences as a speech-language pathologist, lawton illustrates how these tools can scaffold vocabulary, comprehension, and writing development in ways that honor student strengths and needs. instead of seeing ai as something that replaces human teaching, she presents it as a helpful, adaptable tool for inclusive learning and one that needs to be used thoughtfully and responsibly. lawton’s classroom-based insights echo the broader theoretical implications of scholars like kalantzis and cope (2025), who position generative ai as a new medium of literacy that invites educators to rethink reading and writing as dynamic, design-driven practices shaped by both human input and machine output. teaching in action: language, science, and story the final section of the issue turns to classroom-ready practices that celebrate language diversity and expand the possibilities of interdisciplinary literacy instruction. in “teaching with a twist: embracing appalachian (and other) dialects—y’all ready for this?” dr. melissa comer advocates for bringing marginalized dialects, particularly appalachian english, into the heart of english language arts instruction. calling on personal narrative and cultural linguistics, comer makes a strong push for honoring students’ “first voices” as legitimate and valuable. activities griffin & scullin 3 like student-created dialect glossaries and digital storytelling model an asset-based approach that affirms linguistic identity while deepening engagement with language, literature, and critical inquiry. one of our biggest contributors, dr. william bintz, supplies two practical pieces to this issue that extend the reach of literacy into the sciences through the innovative use of blended genres. in “combining picturebooks and poetry as blended genres to teach life science,” bintz shares examples and strategies, such as the h-map, for helping students connect poetic and narrative texts with life science concepts. in the companion piece, “combining picturebooks and poetry as blended genres to teach earth and space science,” he expands this approach to include earth and space content, introducing instructional tools like the z-map and interlocking spheres of intertextuality. these pieces provide k–8 educators with imaginative ways to integrate literacy into stem as a bridge across disciplines. takeaways: connection, complexity, and possibility together, these seven articles offer a rich and varied look at what teaching and promoting literacy means by highlighting the different ways literacy advocacy shows up in classrooms, communities, and everyday life. we see literacy reimagined:  as emotional and interpersonal, through children’s sel texts, dialect affirmation, and teacher identity;  as multimodal and digital, through screen-based reading, generative ai, and the layering of genres and tools;  and as interdisciplinary, where literacy lives not just in novels and essays, but in science, culture, and new media landscapes. the literacy scholars and educators who add their voices to this issue do not accept the status quo. instead, they challenge us to blur the lines between genres, subjects, modes, and traditions to build more expansive, equitable, and imaginative literacy spaces. this issue adds layers to our evolving definition of literacy by expanding and reshaping the definition itself, and it calls on us to move beyond the page, not to leave it behind, but to let it lead us into new spaces of meaning. in doing so, this issue reframes literacy as a generative, connective act shaped as much by curiosity and design as by rules and convention. references grote-garcia, s., ortlieb, e., & cardona, s. l. (2025). what’s hot in literacy: misguided trends in a divided field. literacy research and instruction, 64(1), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1080/ 19388071.2024.2409130 kalantzis, m., & cope, b. (2025). literacy in the time of artificial intelligence. reading research quarterly, 60(1), e591. https://doi.org/10.1002/rrq.591 published: may 20, 2025 https://doi.org/10.1080/19388071.2024.2409130 https://doi.org/10.1080/19388071.2024.2409130 https://doi.org/10.1002/rrq.591 research articles: literacy as digital, emotional, and personal practice bridging research and practice: personalized possibilities with technology teaching in action: language, science, and story takeaways: connection, complexity, and possibility references georgia journal of literacy 2024, vol. 46(2), pp. 1–3 https://doi.org/10.56887/galiteracy.179 issn: 2833-7611 editorial article contact dr. robert a. griffin, associate professor and assistant department chair, department of early childhood through secondary education and reading, university of west georgia, carrollton, ga; email rgriffin@westga.edu (https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3128-7687). dr. bethany l. scullin, associate professor, department of early childhood through secondary education and reading, university of west georgia, carrollton, ga; email bscullin@westga.edu. empowering readers: student-centered strategies for literacy success robert a. griffin university of west georgia, carrollton, ga bethany l. scullin university of west georgia, carrollton, ga abstract the fall 2024 issue of the georgia journal of literacy, themed “empowering readers: student-centered strategies for literacy success,” highlights innovative methods and practical strategies that equip educators to enhance literacy outcomes. the articles here explore methods that blend research with pragmatism and directly address the needs of today’s learners. from fostering critical thinking and decoding skills to boosting reading engagement through diverse text selections, this issue provides actionable insights to help teachers cultivate empowered, motivated readers. contributors share teaching tips, practitioner reflections, and researchinformed articles that are structured to support educators in shaping resilient, skillful readers. keywords literacy strategies; student-centered approaches; reading engagement; phonics; critical literacy he fall 2024 issue of the georgia journal of literacy, themed “empowering readers: student-centered strategies for literacy success,” represents a shift toward actionable, research-informed practices that place the learner at the center of effective literacy instruction. student empowerment through skill-specific instruction and responsive classroom strategies equips teachers to ignite student interest in reading as a lifelong pursuit (davis, 2010; tegmark et al., 2022). as literacy/reading educators and professionals, we often must balance time-tested practices with innovative, student-centered approaches. in this issue, our goal is to offer resources that are deeply rooted in research while also being adaptable to meet the varied needs of our students. bridging research and practice for student-centered literacy two research and practitioner articles are at the core of this issue. leading is dr. stephanie grotegarcia, dr. bethanie pletcher, and hannah patton-elliot’s introduction of the phonetic continuum matrix—a highly structured tool for decoding instruction that provides a sequenced approach for selecting decodable words. the authors draw on decades of phonemic awareness research to offer teachers a continuum for introducing increasingly complex words for students at different levels of decoding skills. by mapping word selection to phonetic difficulty, this resource helps teachers build word-level fluency that seamlessly feeds into broader literacy skills. next, dr. william bintz and abbey galeza’s article on blended genres introduces an innovative means of promoting intertextuality through pairing picturebooks with poems. their t mailto:rgriffin@westga.edu https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3128-7687 mailto:bscullin@westga.edu 2 georgia journal of literacy 46(1) genre-blending technique invites students to explore topics across different literary forms that enrich their comprehension and analytical skills. students are encouraged to draw connections among themes, styles, and perspectives by engaging with paired texts, which fosters critical engagement and deepens appreciation of how diverse texts can inform each other. bintz and galeza’s strategies provide educators with a practical framework for using blended genres in the classroom, empowering students to interpret and connect texts meaningfully. building a foundation through direct strategies five teaching tips articles that give educators strategies designed to demystify complex literacy skills come next. dr. shannon tovey presents the ssslide strategy for decoding multisyllabic words—a cleverly crafted approach that aids intermediate readers in breaking down challenging vocabulary. the ssslide method, in just a series of 12 concise lessons, offers students structured support to decode longer words independently. in a post-pandemic context, where gaps in foundational literacy persist, tovey’s timely strategy empowers students to read confidently without over-relying on teachers for word-level support. dr. amy davis’s brain drain technique explores the social and cognitive benefits of prior knowledge activation. davis’s strategy, rooted in sociocultural learning theory, invites students to share, visualize, and discuss their understanding of content in small peer groups before diving into new material. davis’s technique is a refreshing reminder of how revisiting students’ background knowledge scaffolds new learning and affirms their voices within the classroom (hattan et al., 2024). through simple prompts and collaborative engagement, the brain drain method encourages active participation and bolsters students’ confidence as they see their ideas represented in collective learning. dr. adam whitaker’s “focus on vocabulary” complements these strategies by demonstrating explicit methods to teach vocabulary that students can and will use. whitaker’s strategies, tailored to the english language arts (ela) classroom, include methods for selecting tiered vocabulary that supports comprehension and expression (mckeown, 2019). through structured repetition and contextualized use, whitaker’s work reminds us that vocabulary is more than a memorization task—it is an active tool for communication and engagement with the world. with the strategies whitaker presents, students are learning to wield language to express themselves confidently and with nuance. empowering critical thought and reading motivation the remaining two teaching tips focus on critical literacy and student motivation. dr. lina soares and ali ameduri provide a framework for authoring counter-narratives by empowering students to assume a critical stance in response to stereotypical portrayals in texts. through counternarrative exercises, students learn to challenge biases, reframe narratives, and author alternative perspectives. soares and ameduri’s critical literacy approach enriches comprehension and gives students a voice—a key element in building empowered readers who recognize their role in interpreting and even reshaping the narratives they encounter. the counter-narrative strategy prompts students to think, question, and articulate, all of which embodies a depth of engagement that extends beyond text analysis into self-advocacy and agency. lastly, dr. lunetta williams’s piece on motivating boys to read, emphasizes the oftenoverlooked importance of text selection and representation in elementary reading materials (ives et al., 2020). with a checklist for evaluating text diversity, williams provides a roadmap for teachers to ensure classroom libraries include books that resonate with boys’ interests, from griffin & scullin 3 adventure and sports to animal stories. her focus on texts that foster autonomy and interest speaks to the broader aim of this issue: to empower students to see reading as a personal and fulfilling journey, not a prescribed task (tegmark et al., 2022). final reflections this issue offers practical, student-focused resources that meet students where they are. from decoding multisyllabic words to building intertextual connections across genres, the strategies here share a common thread: they empower students to be active participants in their learning. by embracing these methods, readers will come away with a repertoire of skills for their “teacher toolbelts,” from selecting culturally responsive texts to implementing scaffolded vocabulary instruction, that encourage a student-centered literacy experience. each article is crafted to support teachers in teaching reading and motivating their students to read because they are engaged, empowered, and equipped to do so. let this issue serve as a reminder that every classroom strategy, every thoughtfully selected text, every scaffolded skill is a step toward shaping students who are not only capable but passionate, resilient, and literate. references davis, l. (2010). toward a lifetime of literacy: the effect of student-centered and skills-based reading instruction on the experiences of children. literacy teaching and learning, 15(1– 2), 53–79. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ej910114.pdf hattan, c., alexander, p. a., & lupo, s. m. (2024). leveraging what students know to make sense of texts: what the research says about prior knowledge activation. review of educational research, 94(1), 73–111. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654322114847 ives, s. t., parsons, s. a., parsons, a. w., robertson, d. a., daoud, n., young, c., & polk, l. (2020). elementary students’ motivation to read and genre preferences. reading psychology, 41(7), 660–679. https://doi.org/10.1080/02702711.2020.1783143 mckeown, m. g. (2019). effective vocabulary instruction fosters knowing words, using words, and understanding how words work. language, speech, and hearing services in schools, 50(4), 466–476. https://doi.org/10.1044/2019_lshss-voia-18-0126 tegmark, m., alatalo, t., vinterek, m., and winberg, m. (2022). what motivates students to read at school? student views on reading practices in middle and lower-secondary school. journal of research in reading, 45(1), 100–118. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9817.12386 published: november 15, 2024 https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ej910114.pdf https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654322114847 https://doi.org/10.1080/02702711.2020.1783143 https://doi.org/10.1044/2019_lshss-voia-18-0126 https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9817.12386 building a foundation through direct strategies empowering critical thought and reading motivation final reflections references georgia journal of literacy 2023, vol. 45(2), pp. 15–32 https://doi.org/10.56887/galiteracy.106 issn: 2833-7611 practitioner article contact dr. william p. bintz, professor of literacy education in the school of teaching, learning, and curriculum studies, college of education, kent state university, kent, oh; email wbintz@kent.edu. shabnam moini chaghervand, doctoral candidate in the school of teaching, learning, and curriculum, kent state university, kent, oh; email smoinich@kent.edu. from motivation to inspiration: using picturebook biographies to inspire all learners, especially english language learners william p. bintz kent state university, kent, oh shabnam moini chaghervand kent state university, kent, oh abstract this article begins with a vignette that involved a response by an eighth-grade english language arts (ela) teacher to the question: “why do you assign a grade for every student assignment?” she stated: “because grades drive my students! it’s so much a part of their lives that if i don’t give them points toward a good grade, they ask themselves, ‘then, why am i doing this?’” for us, this response generated several inquiry questions about the role of motivation in student learning. one question was: is motivation alone enough for student success? our initial answer was probably not. we hypothesized that motivation is helpful but insufficient for student learning. inspiration is also important. this hypothesis inspired this article. it describes fundamental principles underlying research on motivation, identifying important differences between motivation and inspiration. next, it provides an overview of different definitions of the term picturebook. it then describes the power of picturebook biographies to inspire all learners, especially ell learners. it shares an extensive list of high-quality, award-winning, multicultural picturebook biographies of historical figures from around the world and across four major categories: trailblazers and daredevils, sports figures, heroes conquering disabilities, and historical figures from around the world. it ends with final thoughts and an invitation for teachers to hear new voices and start new conversations about the importance of using picturebook biographies to inspire all learners. keywords picturebook biographies; english language learners; reading motivation; inspiration the value of learning about people who have achieved something extraordinary is immeasurable. children need to find heroes and role models who can inspire and motivate them. (morgan & collett, 2018, p. 14) ecently, i (shabnam) conducted a picturebook study to support student inquiry in an 8th grade ela classroom. during the study, i asked the classroom teacher: “why do you assign a grade for every student assignment? she stated: r https://doi.org/10.56887/galiteracy.106x mailto:wbintz@kent.edu mailto:smoinich@kent.edu 16 georgia journal of literacy 45(2) i assign grades for each assignment because grades drive my students! it’s so much a part of their lives that if i don’t give them points toward a good grade, they always ask themselves, “then, why am i doing this in the first place?” afterward, i spent time thinking about this comment, specifically the rationale for this teaching practice. at the end of the study, i realized that a few students did not submit the last assignment. i contacted the classroom teacher and asked her to remind these students about the last assignment. she emailed and reminded them that they would lose points if they did not complete and submit the assignment. ultimately, the students did not submit the assignment and received no credit. i did not understand why these students chose not to submit the assignment, especially knowing there would be negative consequences. i shared this experience with my co-author (dr. bintz). we became curious. why did these students not complete the last assignment and receive no credit? why was teacher motivation, expressed as a reminder and warning of losing points, unsuccessful for students to complete the assignment? why didn’t the teacher’s reminder email motivate these students to complete the project? we used these questions to generate a broader inquiry question: is motivation alone enough for student success? our preliminary answer was probably not. our current hypothesis is that motivation is helpful but insufficient for student learning. inspiration is also important. this hypothesis inspired this article. we begin by describing fundamental principles underlying research on motivation, followed by a description of inspiration and how picturebooks are tools that can inspire students. next, we define a picturebook and describe the power and potential of picturebook biographies to inspire all learners, especially ell learners. we end by sharing high-quality, award-winning, multicultural picturebook biographies, and some final thoughts. research on motivation research has identified three fundamental principles of motivation. one principle is that motivation is based on a behavioristic view of teaching and learning, driven by stimulus and response. a stimulus is a change in the external or internal environment that is provided to a recipient, human or nonhuman, to produce a desired response. for example, a reward is provided to a person (or animal, etc.) to create or change a desired behavior. a second principle is that there are two significant types of motivation: intrinsic and extrinsic. the center on education policy (2012) states: intrinsic motivation is the desire to do or achieve something because one truly wants to and takes pleasure or sees value in doing so. extrinsic motivation is the desire to do or achieve something not so much for the enjoyment of the activity itself, but because it will produce a certain result. (p. 2) in school, the “certain result” can be characterized as a teacher-student exchange. teachers assign schoolwork and offer rewards or incentives to students in exchange for completing it (completing worksheets, projects, and homework; meeting reading goals; performing successfully on standardized tests, etc.). students complete assigned schoolwork in exchange for the reward (receiving extra credit and higher grades). much research indicates that reward incentives and programs show mixed results (fryer, 2011; raymond, 2008). a third principle is that teacher and student motivation is viewed primarily as an instructional issue. teachers plan schoolwork and use motivational strategies to increase students’ bintz & moini chaghervand 17 likelihood of completing the work. teachers use encouragement, rewards, reminders, and even threats of penalties to motivate students. however, like the vignette shared earlier, motivational strategies do not always work. we hypothesize that motivation is, at times, helpful but insufficient for successful student learning. inspiration is also important. from motivation to inspiration in general, inspiration is a feeling of enthusiasm a person gets from someone or something. hank finds inspiration (frazier, 2008) is a picturebook that beautifully illustrates this notion of inspiration. stanley, a man, and hank, a snake, are friends. both are desperate for inspiration. separately, they go to the city to look for inspiration. hank asks different people where he could get inspiration, but they all have different answers. finally, in an art gallery, inspiration finds hank when he falls in love with a sculpture, only to learn it has already been sold. hank returns home only to find a pleasant surprise and learns that friends can be a good source of inspiration. this picturebook highlights the notion that inspiration can be found in someone, whether that is someone already known, like stanley, or someone little known or unknown, and something, like a beautiful sculpture. this picturebook is one of many high-quality picturebooks about inspiration and inspirational people. in tables 1 through 4 at the end of the manuscript, we share picturebooks of inspirational people across four categories: trailblazers and daredevils (table 1), sports figures (table 2), heroes conquering disabilities (table 3), and historical figures around the world (table 4). definition of picturebooks over time, a picturebook has been defined in different ways. almost fifty years ago, sutherland and hearn (1977) defined a picturebook as “one in which the pictures either dominate the text or are as important” (p. 158). similarly, marantz (1977) stated that “a picturebook, unlike an illustrated book, is properly conceived of as a unit, a totality that integrates all the designated parts in a sequence in which the relationships among them: the cover, endpapers, typography, picturesare crucial to understanding the book” (p. 3). since then, definitions have continued to change but still emphasize that “a picturebook is the inextricable connection of words and pictures and the unique qualities of the form, always rejecting the notion that a picturebook is not simply a book that happens to have pictures” (wolfenbarger & sipe, 2007, p. 273). from a semiotic perspective, a picturebook is an aesthetic object that involves three sign systems (language, illustration, design), and each system has meaning potentials by itself and with each other (sipe, 2002). here, we use the most cited definition (bader, 1976): a picturebook is text, illustrations, total design; an item of manufacture and a commercial product; a social, cultural, historic document; and foremost, an experience for a [reader]. as an art form, it hinges on the interdependence of pictures and words, on the simultaneous display of two facing pages, and on the drama of the turning page. (p. 1) 18 georgia journal of literacy 45(2) picturebooks have much power and potential. among other things, they 1) are compact in length yet abundant in significance (culham, 2004), 2) contain intriguing, artful illustrations that are pleasurable and informative to view and reflect different artistic styles, 3) contain carefully chosen words that build vocabulary, 4) are reader-friendly and enjoyable and support reading comprehension (murphy, 2009), and 5) help students understand and appreciate perspectives other than their own (morgan, 2009). picturebooks for all learners, especially english language learners picturebooks benefit all learners but are particularly important for english language learners (ell). for some time now, there have been significant increases in the number of non-native english speakers entering public and private schools in the united states. like native speakers of english, ell students, regardless of their age and language proficiency, benefit from reading materials that are personally meaningful, linguistically authentic, visually engaging, and culturally relevant. the picturebook is one such reading material with much power and potential for english language learners (carr et al., 2001). there are several significant reasons picturebooks are valuable for english language learners. perhaps most importantly, they are authentic pieces of literature. the international literacy association (2023) defines authentic texts as those used in everyday life, not just for teaching purposes. they include novels, children’s literature, hobbyist magazines, and newspapers. however, texts that have been altered to shorten sentences are not considered authentic. mourao (2016) states: picturebooks are very special books, for they are authentic in every way—the words (if they exist, for some picturebooks are wordless) have not been abridged or altered for language learning purposes and the illustrations are created by illustrators who use their art creatively with neither a care for, nor an interest in, the confines of language learning. (p. 2) another reason is that picturebooks are an example of multicultural literature. the international literacy association (2023) explains that multicultural literature is comprised of books, poetry, and various written works crafted by or centered around underrepresented or minority groups. many english language learners are students who are members of one or both groups. picturebooks are valuable because they can be used by teachers with students from diverse backgrounds. still, another reason deals with language and language development. one characteristic is that authentic texts use real-life language; that is, the language sounds like the natural language people use in everyday life. picturebooks invite students to actively engage in meaningful conversations and learning experiences using natural language (harste & short, 1988). they include rich vocabulary, descriptive illustrations, and innovative designs. picturebooks are powerful because they have the “potential to act as a magnifying glass that enlarges and enhances the reader’s personal interactions with a subject” (vacca & vacca, 2005, p. 161). they enable students to learn to read and read to learn simultaneously, not sequentially. moreover, personally meaningful and culturally relevant picturebooks enable ells to develop important literacy skills. the “visual-verbal connection,” or the act of associating pictures with text, supports second language learners’ literacy needs and builds confidence and positive dispositions about reading (henry & simpson, 2001, p. 1). bintz & moini chaghervand 19 lastly, picturebooks are important because they can be used as mentor texts to improve second language learners’ writing skills. mentor texts are examples of excellent writing. thompson and reed (2019) state that mentor texts are: written pieces that serve as an example of good writing for student writers. the texts are read for the purpose of studying the author’s craft, or the way the author uses words and structures the writing. the goal is to provide students a model they could emulate in crafting their own piece. (p. 28) mentor texts allow students to see what good writing looks like and encourage them to use the same structure and style for their own writing. picture books are short text, typically 32-pages, and thus allow students to reread a text to explore and imitate a good writing structure. by frequently exposing ells to high-quality picture books and using them as mentor texts, they will be able to see quality writing and eventually use their observation to improve their own writing (dorfman & capelli, 2009). for these, and many other reasons, picturebooks are excellent resources for teachers to use with english language learners. picturebook biographies picturebooks are valuable for english language learners as picturebook biographies are particularly important. one teacher learned this lesson from her third-grade students. we were beginning the day with math. we were learning about picture graphs and i needed to conduct a survey on my students’ favorite type of book. my lesson presented four book options: animals, arts and crafts, sports and fantasy. students looked at the books, and one stated: “but where are the biographies?” fortunately, this teacher learned what many students, boys and girls, ell and non-ell, already know, namely, they have reading preferences. farris et al. (2009) identified nine student preferences, one of which is biography. this is not a new revelation. almost seventy-five years ago, heriot (1948) noted that people, including young children, enjoy biography because people “have a normal interest in other people” (p. 98). definition. biography is a “genre that tells the life story of a significant historical figure” (coffin, 2006, p. 53). this genre has a rich literary history. life stories about outstanding persons are popular in children’s literature (bjorlo, 2021). michael benton (2011), a prominent theorist of the biography genre, claims that biography is “a hybrid genre that is grounded in history but shares many of the characteristics of fiction” (p. 68). picturebook biographies are important because the hybridity of the genre may also include interactions between the written text and various visual elements (bjorlo, 2021). fortunately, over the years, increasing numbers of picturebook biographies for children have been published (von merveldt, 2018). qualities & benefits. picturebook biographies encompass a wealth of captivating qualities, echoing the sentiments highlighted by heriot (1948) as she observed that they narrate true stories about people, imbuing them with inspirational ideals. these literary works have garnered favor among students, largely due to their embodiment of these attributes, coupled with the inclusion of thought-provoking illustrations that seamlessly intertwine with the narrative. 20 georgia journal of literacy 45(2) moreover, the advantages of engaging with picturebook biographies span across readers of all age groups. for instance, these biographies:  illuminate significant and inspiring individuals hailing from diverse socio-cultural backgrounds, effectively fostering an appreciation for multicultural perspectives.  contribute to the portrayal and endorsement of positive representations of femininity and masculinity, promoting a well-rounded understanding of gender roles.  nourish students’ cognitive growth by nurturing multiple interpretations and viewpoints (morgan, 2009).  facilitate an immersive journey into the past, contextualized within authentic, meaningful, and engrossing textual narratives (ellenmeyer & chick, 2003).  deepen understanding about an individual’s life experiences, the communities that shaped them, and the innate qualities that defined their character (bruner, 2004).  uncover the profound impact of personal struggles, family origins, and character traits, transforming historical figures from mere timeline placeholders into threedimensional personas (meyers et al., 2009).  serve as inspirational models for life choices, allowing students to grasp the interconnectedness of actions and outcomes.  portray the transformative journey from modest beginnings to triumphant outcomes, showcasing the potential within adversity (temple et al., 2018).  extend an invaluable opportunity for students to identify with a diverse array of individuals, fostering a sense of inclusion and shared human experience.  enrich learning experiences by introducing novel information that diverges from traditional textbooks, offering a broader and more inclusive perspective (lesesne, 2002). in summary, the allure and benefits of picturebook biographies extend a compelling invitation to english language learners and readers of all backgrounds. selecting picturebook biographies we (william and shabnam) are teacher educators teaching reading theory and practice with picturebook biographies. typically, our own students often ask: there are so many picturebook biographies out there. how can i select the best ones to use with my students? this is a good question, one that we constantly ask ourselves. table 5 illustrates some guidelines, in the form of questions, that we use to select picturebook biographies and picturebooks that reflect each guideline (floyd & hebert, 2010). we hope these guidelines will help teachers select excellent picturebook biographies to use with their own students. bintz & moini chaghervand 21 table 5: guidelines for selecting picturebook biographies guidelines example does the biography tell a good story? does it have a “storyteller’s flair”? the storytellers (lewin, 1998). does the biography use dynamic language? mighty jackie: the strike-out queen (moss, 2004) is the biography culturally authentic? planting stories: the life of librarian and storyteller pura belpre (denise, 2019) is the biography culturally diverse? the junkyard wonders (polacco, 2010) is the biography respectful of cultural differences? tea with milk (say, 1999) is the biography factually accurate? dancing hands: how teresa carreno played the piano for president lincoln (engle, 2019) is the biography unbiased and not stereotypical? drum dream girl: how one girl’s courage changed music (engle, 2015) is the biography told over some years and includes personal and professional information? the boy who dreamed of infinity: a tale of the genius ramanujan (alznauer, 2020) is the biography realistic? the librarian of basra: a true story from iraq (winter, 2019) does the biography include illustrations that capture the life story and historical events accurately? the girl who thought in pictures (mosca, 2017) am i selecting male and female biographies? of numbers and stars: the story of hypatia (love, 2006) am i selecting familiar and unfamiliar biographies? tiger of the snows: tenzing norgay (burleigh, 2006) final thoughts this article was inspired by a simple story about a few students who were not motivated, despite teacher motivation, to complete an assignment, electing instead to accept a lower grade. although simple, this story offers important lessons about the nature of learning. one lesson is that motivation may be helpful but, by itself, is insufficient. inspiration is vital for learning. another lesson is that inspiration provides intrinsic motivation for students to take charge of their own learning, pursue their own questions, develop their own voices, and outgrow what they currently know about themselves and others. still, another lesson is that picturebook biographies can help. they are tools and toys for children to read about historically important people who look like them and do not look like them, talk like them and do not talk like them, dress like them and do not dress like them, etc. in the process, students learn more about themselves as well as about others who are not like themselves. ultimately, we hope this article will start some new conversations about the power and potential of picturebook biographies to inspire all learners, especially english language learners. 22 georgia journal of literacy 45(2) references bader, b. 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(2008). paying for a’s: an early exploration of student reward and incentive programs in charter schools. center for research on educational outcomes (credo). sipe, l. (2002). talking back and taking over: young children’s expressive engagement during storybook read-alouds. the reading teacher, 55(5), 476–483. https://www.jstor.org/ stable/i20205071 sutherland, z, & hearn, b. (1977, october). in search of the perfect picture book definition. wilson library bulletin, 158–160. temple, c. a., martinez, m. g., & yokota, j. (2018). children’s books in children’s hands: a brief introduction to their literature. pearson. reed, d. k. (2019, january). using mentor texts to learn from the best and improve students’ writing. iowa reading research center. http://bit.ly/3sdiqxc vacca, r. t., &vacca, j. l. (2005). content area reading: literacy and learning across the curriculum (8th ed.). pearson. von merveldt, n. (2018). informational picturebooks. in b. kümmerling-meibauer (ed.), the routledge companion to picturebooks (pp. 231–245). routledge. wolfenbarger, c., & sipe, l. (2007). a unique visual and literary art form: recent research on picturebooks. language arts, 84(3), 273–280. https://www.literacyworldwide.org/get-resources/literacy-glossary https://www.literacyworldwide.org/get-resources/literacy-glossary https://doi.org/10.1007/s10643-009-0339-7 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10643-009-0339-7 https://doi.org/10.5860/cal.16.3.14 http://bit.ly/45uht9k https://doi.org/10.1080/00940771.2009.11461677 https://www.jstor.org/%e2%80%8cstable/i20205071 https://www.jstor.org/%e2%80%8cstable/i20205071 http://bit.ly/3sdiqxc 24 georgia journal of literacy 45(2) literature cited alznauer, a. (2020). the boy who dreamed of infinity: a tale of the genius ramanujan. candlewick. burleigh, r. (2006). tiger of the snows: tenzing norgay, the boy whose dream was everest. antheneum books for young readers. denise, a. a. (2019). planting stories: the life of librarian and storyteller pura belpré. harpercollins. engle, m. (2015). drum dream girl: how one girl’s courage changed music. clarion books. engle, m. (2019). dancing hands: how teresa carreño played the piano for president lincoln. atheneum books for young readers. love. d. a. (2006). of numbers and stars: the story of hypatia. holiday house. mosca, j. f. (2017). the girl who thought in pictures: the amazing story of dr. temple grandin. the innovation press. moss, m. (2004). mighty jackie: the strike-out queen. simon & schuster/paula wiseman books. polacco, p. (2010). the junkyard wonders. philomel books. say, a. (2009). tea with milk. clarion books. thundercloud, r. (2022). finding my dance. penguin. winter, j. (2019). the librarian of basra: a true story from iraq. clarion books. bintz & moini chaghervand 25 table 1: trailblazers and daredevils title reference trailblazers the boy who dreamed of infinity: a tale of the genius ramanujan alznauer, a. (2020). the boy who dreamed of infinity: a tale of the genius ramanujan. candlewick. never give up: dr. kati karikó and the race for the future of vaccines dadey, d. (2023). never give up: dr. kati kariko and the race for the future of vaccines. dreamscape media. planting stories: the life of librarian and storyteller pura belpre denise, a. a. (2019). planting stories: the life of librarian and storyteller pura belpre. harpercollins. the marvelous thing that came from spring: the accidental invention of the toy that swept the nation ford, g. (2016). the marvelous thing that came from a spring: the accidental invention of the toy that swept the nation. atheneum. the discovery of longitude galat, j.m. (2012). the discovery of longitude. pelican publishing company. talkin about bessie: the story of aviator elizabeth coleman. grimes, n. (2002). talkin about bessie: the story of aviator elizabeth coleman. scholastic. a lady has the floor: belva lockwood speaks out for women’s rights. hannigan, k. (2018). a lady has the floor: belva lockwood speaks out for women’s rights. calkins creek. the boy who loved math: the improbable life of paul erdos. helligman, d. 2013). the boy who loved math: the improbable life of paul erdos. roaring book press. the unbreakable code hunter, s.h. (1996). the unbreakable code. rising moon. levi strauss gets a bright idea: a fairly educated story of a pair of pants johnston, t. (2011). levi strauss gets a bright idea: a fairly educated story of a pair of pants. harcourt. rough, tough charley. kay, v. (2007). rough, tough charley. tricycle press. the boy who invented tv: the story of philo farnsworth krull, k. (2014). the boy who invented tv: the story of philo farnsworth. dragonfly books. of numbers and stars: the story of hypatia love, d. a. 2006). of numbers and stars: the story of hypatia. holiday house. earmuffs for everyone: how chester greenwood became known as the inventor of earmuffs. mccarthy, m. (2015). earmuffs for everyone: how chester greenwood became known as the inventor of earmuffs. simon & schuster. maryam’s magic: the story of mathematician maryam mirzakhani reid, n. (2021). maryam’s magic: the story of mathematician maryam mirzakhani. balzer and bray. queen of physics: how wu chien shiung helped unlock the secrets of the atom robeson, t. (2020). queen of physics: how wu chein shiung helped unlock the secrets of the am sterling children’s books. when marian sang: the true recital of marian anderson ryan, p.m. (2002). when marian sang: the true recital of marian anderson. scholastic. lighter than air: sophie blanchard, the first woman pilot. smith, m. c. (2019). lighter than air: sophie blanchard, the first woman pilot. candlewick. ada lovelace, poet of science: the first computer programmer. stanley, d. (2016). ada lovelace, poet of science: the first computer programmer. simon & schuster. brave girl: clara and the shirtwaist makers’ strike of 1909 sweet, m. (2013). brave girl: clara and the shirtwaist makers’ strike of 1909. harpercollins. ada byron lovelace and the thinking machine wallmark, l. (2015). ada byron lovelace and the thinking machine. creston books. the boy who thought outside the box: the story of video game inventor ralph baer wessels, m. (2020). the boy who thought outside the box: the story of video game inventor ralph baer. sterling children’s books. harpercollins. 26 georgia journal of literacy 45(2) one wish: fatima al-fihri and the world’s oldest university yuksel, m. o. (2022). one wish: fatima al-fihri and the worlds’s oldest university. daredevils ruth law thrills a nation brown, d. (1993). ruth law thrills a nation. ticknor & fields. fearless mary: mary fields, american stagecoach driver charles, t. (2019). fearless mary: mary fields, american stagecoach driver. albert whitman & company. flying solo: how ruth elder soared into america’s heart cummins, j. (2013). flying solo: how ruth elder soared into america’s heart. roaring brook press. sam patch: daredevil jumper cummings, j. (2009). sam patch: daredevil jumper. holiday house. fearless flyer: ruth law and her flying machine lang, h. (2016). fearless flyer: ruth law and her flying machine. calkins creek. daredevil: the daring life of betty skelton mccarthy, m. (2013). daredevil: the daring life of betty skelton. simon & schuster. brave harriet: the first woman to fly the english channel moss, m. (2001). brave harriet: the first woman to fly the english channel. silver whistle. chico o’connor, s.d. (2005). chico. dutton juvenile. table 2: sports figures title reference shoeless joe and black betsy bildner, p. (2002). shoeless joe and black betsy. simon & schuster. players in pigtails corey, s. (2010). players in pigtails. national geographic. girl wonder: a baseball story in nine innings hopkinson, d. (2003). girl wonder: a baseball story in nine innings. aladdin. catching the moon: the story of a young girl’s baseball dream. hubbard, c. (2005). catching the moon: the story of a young girl’s baseball dream. lee & low books. the boy in number four kootstra, k. (2014). the boy in number four. dial books. roller derby rivals macy, s. (2014). roller derby rivals. holiday house. basketball belles: how two teams and one scrappy player put women’s hoops on the map macy, s. (2011). basketball belles: how two teams and one scrappy player put women’s hoops on the map. holiday house. miss mary reporting: the true story of sportswriter mary garber macy, s. (2016). miss mary reporting: the true story of sportswriter mary garber. simon & schuster. baseball saved us mochizuki, k. (1993). baseball saved us. lee & low books. mighty jackie: the strike-out queen moss, m. (2004). mighty jackie: the strike-out queen. simon & schuster. dirt on their skirts: the story of the young women who won the world championship rappaport, d. (2000). dirt on their skirts: the story of the young women who won the world championship. dial books. dust bowl girls: the inspiring story of the team that barnstormed its way to basketball glory reeder, l. (2017). dust bowl girls: the inspiring story of the team that barnstormed its way to basketball glory. algonquin books. leagues apart: the men and times of the negro baseball leagues ritter, l.s. (1995). leagues apart: the men and times of the negro baseball leagues. morrow junior books. yogi: the life, loves, and language of baseball legend yogi berra rosenstock, b. (2019). yogi: the life, loves, and language of baseball legend yogi berra. calkins creek. bintz & moini chaghervand 27 streak: how joe dimaggio became america’s hero rosenstock, b. (2014). streak: how joe dimaggio became america’s hero. calkins creek. the kid from diamond street: the extraordinary story of baseball legend edith houghton vernick, 2016). the kid from diamond street: the extraordinary story of baseball legend edith houghton. clarion books. she loved baseball: the effa manley vermick, a. (2010). she loved baseball: the effa manley story. clarion books. all star! honus wagner and the most famous baseball card ever yolen, j. (2010). all star! honus wagner and the most famous baseball card ever. philomel. table 3: heroes conquering disabilities title reference the william hoy story: how a deaf baseball player changed the game churin, n. (2016). the william hoy story: how a deaf baseball player changed the game. albert whitman & company. my heart glow: alice cogswell, thomas gallaudet, and the birth of the american sign language mccully, e.a. (2008). my heart glow: alice cogswell, thomas gallaudet, and the birth of the american sign language. hyperion. the girl who thought in pictures mosca, j.f. (2017). the girl who thought in pictures. scholastic. the junkyard wonders polacco, p. (2010). the junkyard wonders. scholastic. a boy and a jaguar rabinowitz, a. (2014). a boy and a jaguar. clarion books. i talk like a river scott, j. (2020). i talk like a river. neal porter books. table 4: historical figures from countries, regions, and cultures around the world title reference country afghanistan the sky of afghanistan eulate, a. (2012). the sky of afghanistan. cuento de luz. i see the sun in afghanistan king, d. (2011). i see the sun in afghanistan. satya house publications. fly, girl, fly!: shaesta waiz soars around the world pimm, n.r. (2020). fly, girl, fly!: shaesta waiz soars around the world. beaming books. the library bus rahman, b. (2020). the library bus. pajama press. brave with beauty: a story of afghanistan schur, m.r. (2019). brave with beauty: a story of afghanistan. yali publishing. razia’s ray of hope: one girl’s dream of an education sunby, e. (2020). razia’s ray of hope: one girl’s dream of an education. kids can press. four feet, two sandals williams, k. l. (2007). four feet, two sandals. eerdmans. argentina who was che guevara? labrecque, e. (2019). who was che guevara? penguin workshop. evita: opposites rodruquez, p. (2018). evita: opposites. lil’ libros. bangladesh yasmin’s hammer malaspina, a. (2015). yasmin’s hammer. lee & low books. 28 georgia journal of literacy 45(2) the unexpected friend: a rohingya children’s story rahman, r. r. (2020). the unexpected friend: a rohingya children’s story. guba publishing. iqbal and his ingenious idea: how a science project helps one family and the planet suneby, e. (2018). iqbal and his ingenious idea: how a science project helps one family and the planet. kids can press. twenty-two cents: muhammad yunus and the village bank yoo, p. (2018). twenty-two cents: muhammad yunus and the village bank. lee & low books. canada gaawin gindaaswin ndaawsii/i am not a number dupuis, j. k. (2019). gaawin gindaaswin ndaawsii/i am not a number. second story press. when i was eight jordan-fenton, c. (2013). when i was eight. annick press. when we were alone robertson, d. a. (2016). when we were alone. press. phyllis’s orange shirt webstad, p. (2019). phyllis’s orange shirt. medicine wheel education. pablo neruda: poet of the people brown, m. (2011). pablo neruda: poet of the people. henry holt and co. my name is gabriela brown, m. (2005). my name is gabriela. cooper square publishing. cuba drum dream girl: how one girl’s courage changed music engle, m. (2015). drum dream girl: how one girl’s courage changed music. hmh books for young readers. the wildest race ever: the story of the 1904 olympic marathon mccarthy, m. (2016). the wildest race ever: the story of the 1904 olympic marathon. simon & schuster. marti’s song for freedom otheguy, e. (2017). marti’s song for freedom. lee & low books. dominican republic islandborn diaz, j. (2018). islandborn. dial books. if dominican were a color recio, s. (2020). if dominican were a color. denene millner books. growing up pedro: how the martinez brothers made it from the dominican republic all the way to the major leagues. tavaras, m. (2017). growing up pedro: how the martinez brothers made it from the dominican republic all the way to the major leagues. candlewick. egypt nefertiti parker, k. (2020). nefertiti. scholastic. hands around the library: protecting egypt’s treasured books roth, s.l., & abouraya, k.l. (2012). hands around the library: protecting egypt’s treasured books. dial books. france seeker of knowledge: the man who deciphered egyptian hieroglyphs rumford, j. (2000). seeker of knowledge: the man who deciphered egyptian hieroglyphs. houghton mifflin. henri’s scissors winter, j. (2013). henri’s scissors. beach lane books. germany just like rube goldberg: the incredible true story of the man behind the machines aronson, s. (2019). just like rube goldberg: the incredible true story of the man behind the machines. beach lane books. rube goldberg’s simple normal humdrum school day george, j. (2017). rube goldberg’s simple normal humdrum school day. abrams books. haiti bintz & moini chaghervand 29 nadia’s good geed: a story about haiti harris, r. (2014). nadia’s good deed: a story about haiti. john fielder publishing. selavi, that is life: a haitian story of hope landowne, y. (2004). selavi, that is life: a haitian story of hope. cinco puntos press. toussaint l’ouverture: the fight for haiti’s freedom myers, w.d. (1996). toussaint l’ouverture: the fight for haiti’s freedom. simon & schuster. hoops for haiti siumilien, c. (2021). hoops for haiti. independently published. radiant child: the story of young artist jeanmichel basquiat steptoe, j. (2016). radiant child: the story of young artist jean-michel basquiat. little brown books. jean-michel basquiat vegara, m.i.s. (2020). jean-michel basquiat. frances lincoln children’s books. holland van gogh and the sunflowers anholt, l. (2007). van gogh and the sunflowers. b.e.s the story of anne frank: a biography book for new readers berne, e. c. (2021). the story of anne frank: a biography book for new readers. rockridge press. anna and johanna: a children’s book inspired by jan vermeer elschner, g. (2018). anna and johanna: a children’s book inspired by jan vermeer. prestel junior. anne frank genius, i. i. (2021). anne frank. iig publication. vincent van gogh: he saw the world in vibrant colors guglielmo, a. (2021). vincent van gogh: he saw the world in vibrant colors. dk children. i am anne frank meltzer, b. (2020). i am anne frank. dial books. vincent can’t sleep: van gogh paints the night sky rosenstock, b. (2017). vincent can’t sleep: van gogh paints the night sky. knopf books. honduras berta saves the river llewellyn s. (2021). berta saves the river. share foundation. the good garden: how one family went from hunger to having enough milway, k.s. (2020). the good garden: how one family went from hunger to having enough. kids can press. rosalia: the honduran american. osoria, c. (2020). rosalia: the honduran american osoria independent publishing. india the boy who grew a forest gholz, s. (2019). the boy who grew a forest. sleeping bear press. grandfather gandhi gandhi, a. (2014). grandfather gandhi. atheneum the story of gandhi: a biography book for new readers katz, s.b. (2020). the story of gandhi: a biography book for new readers. rockridge press. she sang for india: how m.s. subbulakshmi used her voice for change subramamiam, s. (2022). she sang for india: how m. s. subbulakshmi used her voice for change. farrar, status and giroux. iran a refugee’s journey from iran hudak, h.c. (2018). a refugee’s journey from iran. crabtree publishing company. maryam’s magic: the story of mathematician maryam mirzakhani reid, m. (2021). maryam’s magic: the story of mathematician maryam mirzakhani. balzer & bray. iraq alia muhammad baker: saving a library from war bacher, l. (2016). alia muhammad baker: saving a library from war. momentum. 30 georgia journal of literacy 45(2) silent music: a story of baghdad rumford, j. (2008). silent music: a story of baghdad. roaring brook press. alia’s mission stamaty, m.a. (2010). alia’s mission. dragonfly books. the librarian of basra: a true story from iraq winter, j. (2019). the librarian of basra: a true story from iraq. clarion. israel young captain on a broken boat adler, i. (2021). young captain on a broken boat. zaccmedia. golda meir: a strong, determined leader adler, d. a. (2015). golda meir: a strong, determined leader. puffin books. a queen to the rescue: the story of henrietta szold, founder of hadassah churnin, n. (2021). a queen to the rescue: the story of henrietta szold, founder of hadassah. creston books. little judah in america dauid, h. (2017). little judah in america. the awakening remnant koalition. goldie takes a stand: golda meir’s first crusade. krasner, b. (2014). goldie takes a stand: golda meir’s first crusade. kar-ben publishing. the language of angels: a story about the reinvention of hebrew michelson, r. (2017). the language of angels: a story about the reinvention of hebrew. charlesbridge. osnat and her dove: the true story of the world’s first female rabbi samuel, s. (2021). osnat and her dove: the true story of the world’s first female rabbi. querido independent publishing italy i, galileo christensen, b. (2012). i, galileo. knopf books. leonardo da vinci: extraordinary machines hawcock, d. (2019). leonardo da vinci: extraordinary machines. dover publications. bartali’s bicycle: the true story of gino bartali, italy’s secret hero. hoyt, m. (2021). bartali’s bicycle: the true story of gino bartali, italy’s secret hero. quill tree books. the story of leonardo da vinci: a biography book for new readers o’neal, c. (2021). the story of leonardo da vinci: a biography book for new readers. rockridge press. starry messenger: a book depicting the famous scientist, mathematician, astronomer, philosopher, and physicist: galileo galilei sis, p. (2000). starry messenger: a book depicting the of a famous scientist, mathematician, astronomer, philosopher, and physicist: galileo galilei. san val. morocco naseem’s journey farmay, a. (2019). naseem’s journey. createspace independent publishing. the storytellers lewin, t. (1998). the storytellers. lothrop, lee & shepard books. nepal tiger of the snows: tenzing norgay-the boy whose dream was everest burleigh, r. (2010). tiger of the snows: tenzing norgay-the boy whose dream was everest. atheneum. chandra’s magic light: a story in nepal heine, t. (2014). chandra’s magic light: a story in nepal. barefoot books. everest: the remarkable story of edmund hillary and tenzing norgay stewart, a. (2020). everest: the remarkable story of edmund hillary and tenzing norgay. bloomsbury children’s books. pakistan basket of bangles howard, g. (2002). basket of bangles. millbrook press. bintz & moini chaghervand 31 listen to the wind mortenson, g., & roth, s.l. (2009). listen to the wind. dial books. four feet, two sandals williams, k.l., & mohammed, k. (2007). four feet, two sandals. eerdmans. iqbal: a brave boy from pakistan. winter, j. (2014). iqbal: a brave boy from pakistan. beach lane books. malala: a brave girl from pakistan winter, j. (2014). malala: a brave girl from pakistan. beach lane books. peru sharuko: peruvian archaeologist julio c. tello brown, m. (2020). sharuko: peruvian archaeologist julio c. tello. lee & low books. kusikiy: a child from taquile, peru dcecilia, m. (2011). kusikiy: a child from taquile, peru. keeper of wisdom and peace books. martin de porres: the rose in the desert schmidt, g.d. (2012). martin de porres: the rose in the desert. clarion. the pied piper of peru tompert, a. (2002). the pied piper of peru. boyds mill press. romania nadia: the girl who couldn’t sit still gray, k. (2016). nadia: the girl who couldn’t sit still. clarion books. russia anastasia’s album: the last tsar’s youngest daughter tells her own story brewster, h. (1996). anastasia’s album: the last tsar’s youngest daughter tells her own story. hyperion. a royal ride: catherine the great’s great invention fulton, k. (2019). a royal ride: catherine the great’s great invention. margaret k. mcelderry books. i am marc chagall landmann, b. (2006). i am marc chagall. eerdmans books. ivan the terrible: terrifying tyrant of russia nagelhout, r. (2016). ivan the terrible: terrifying tyrant of russia. gareth stevens. through the window: views of marc chagall’s life and art rosenstock, b. (2018). through the window: views of marc chagall’s life and art. knopf books. the noisy paint box: the colors and sounds of kandinsky’s abstract art rosenstock, b. (2014). the noisy paint box: the colors and sounds of kandinsky’s abstract art. knopf books. swan: the life and dance of anna pavlova snyder, l. (2015). swan: the life and dance of anna pavlova. chronicle books. when stravinsky met nijinsky: two artists, their ballet, and one extraordinary riot stringer, l. (2013). when stravinsky met nijinsky: two artists, their ballet, and one extraordinary riot. hmh books. peter tchaikovsky venezia, m. (2018). peter tchaikovsky. children’s press. south africa nelson mandela nelson, k. (2019). nelson mandela. katherine tegen books. the story of nelson mandela stokes, f. (2021). the story of nelson mandela. rockridge. spain picasso and the girl with a ponytail arnolt, l. (2007). picasso and the girl with a ponytail. b.e.s. pablo picasso venezia, m. (2014). pablo picasso. children’s press. syria yusra swims abery, j. (2020). yusra swims. creative editions. my name is bana alabed, b. (2021). my name is bana. salaam reads. 32 georgia journal of literacy 45(2) a refugee’s journey from syria mason, h. (2017). a refugee’s journey from syria. crabtree publishing. the cat man of aleppo shamsi-basha, k., & latham, i. (2020). the cat man of aleppo. g.p. putnam’s sons. thailand titan and the wild boars: the true cave rescue of the thai soccer team hood, s. (2019). titan and the wild boars: the true cave rescue of the thai soccer team. harpercollins. the floating field: how a group of thai boys built their own soccer field riley, s. (2021). the floating field: how a group of thai boys built their own soccer field. millbrook press. venezuela a picture book of simon bolivar adler, d.a. (1992). a picture book of simon bolivar. holiday house. dancing hands: how teresa carreno played the piano for president lincoln engle, m. (2019). dancing hands: how teresa carreno played the piano for president lincoln. atheneum. received: march 2, 2023 | accepted: march 28, 2023 | published: november 13, 2023 research on motivation from motivation to inspiration definition of picturebooks picturebooks for all learners, especially english language learners picturebook biographies selecting picturebook biographies table 5: guidelines for selecting picturebook biographies final thoughts references literature cited table 1: trailblazers and daredevils table 2: sports figures georgia journal of literacy 2023, vol. 45(1), pp. 20–30 https://doi.org/10.56887/galiteracy.102 issn: 2833-7611 practitioner article contact dr. sharryn larsen walker, professor in education, development, teaching, and learning; central washington university, ellensburg, wa; email sharryn.walker@cwu.edu. maggie r. walker, costume shop assistant, theater department, california state university, fresno, ca; email maggiewalker@mail.fresnostate.edu. a passion for fashion: studying fashion through children’s literature sharryn larsen walker central washington university, ellensburg, wa maggie r. walker california state university-fresno, fresno, ca abstract many middle and high school students used the internet during the pandemic to delve more deeply into their interests. one of those areas was the exploration of the fashion industry. however, some students may need more background knowledge of this $15 billion industry. this article aims to explore the fashion industry through children’s literature. reviews of fashion biographies, how-to books, reference books, and strategy suggestions are presented. teachers may use the ideas in english/language arts, career and technical education, or arts courses. keywords art education, career/technical education, children’s literature, fashion, social media, teaching strategies he fashion industry is one area that saw a rise in social media influence during the pandemic, with many middle and high school students turning to the internet and social media as creative outlets (laffier et al., 2021). budding designers and stylists created their own media channels, blogs, and other social media accounts to share their creations and develop a following as an influencer (meisels, 2021), defined by geyser (2021) as: people who have built a reputation for their knowledge and expertise on a specific topic. they make regular posts about that topic on their preferred social media channels and generate large followings of enthusiastic, engaged people who pay close attention to their views. these influencer accounts were worth $15 billion in 2022 (bannigan & shane, 2020). the fashion industry in the united states was estimated to generate more than $100 billion in 2021 (orendorff, 2021), with most employed in the field receiving education at the university level. students with interest in fashion may follow influencers like billie eilish (burns, 2019), bryanboy, or amy song (larocca, 2018) and can tap into the market at an early age. students who rely only on social media to obtain background knowledge about an area of interest, such as fashion, risk missing crucial foundational information. millennials in the fashion industry were motivated by an entrepreneurial ideal, pathway, practice, and experience (brydges & hrac, 2019). gender, age, and class also influenced the participants’ creations shared through social media. nevertheless, many created their designs and display spaces as they worked. they independently negotiated the challenges of learning content, design elements, and business practices. their paths might have been more accessible if they had opportunities to develop background knowledge before engaging in their enterprises. t mailto:sharryn.walker@cwu.edu mailto:maggiewalker@mail.fresnostate.edu walker & walker 21 there is little debate about the importance of background knowledge in student learning (neuman et al., 2014). the amount known about a topic enhances the retention of information. additionally, learners broaden their vocabulary, make more robust inferences, play with language, and better understand informational text when they deepen their background knowledge. teachers can build background knowledge by teaching content-focused vocabulary, using comparison/contrast and analogies, providing reading experiences in content-based books, and embedding digital media in lessons. lupo et al. (2019) recommend using text sets to increase student background knowledge in elementary and secondary classrooms. a text set is a group of texts selected about a specified topic. there are several considerations when selecting text sets for a content-focused study. the texts should increase content knowledge, motivate students to read, and provide for a range of students’ reading levels. text sets can be used in multiple content areas to help students learn different perspectives and new content. content from various disciplines can be integrated and students learn through authentic reading experiences. the authors caution that the selection of texts can be overwhelming but collaborating with colleagues can lighten the load of which texts to include. the purpose of this article is to present ways in which children’s literature can support the building of background knowledge about the fashion industry, using a text set appropriate for middle and high school students. this text set consists of biography, how-to, and reference books. each genre presented includes reviews of the texts followed by a suggested strategy. examples of products are included. middle and high school teachers teaching art or career and technical education courses can use this text set and suggested strategies to develop the background knowledge necessary for understanding the fashion industry further. studying fashion through biography analyzing characteristics of fashion trendsetters polka dot parade: a book about bill cunningham (blumenthal, 2018) describes cunningham’s search for residents who expressed their sense of everyday style. he snapped pictures of those who inspired, marveled, and delighted him through their clothing expressions, which he displayed on the pages of the new york times. he captured those who “made” fashion instead of those who “followed” fashion. he lived a sparse life, developing his photographs at one-hour photo shops and filing his art in cabinets in his small new york apartment. he was honored for his work by the french government and through extravagant displays on new york’s fifth avenue. he photographed his street-fashion inspirations until he died in 2016. his documentation of fashion continues to inspire the runway today. fancy party gowns (blumenthal, 2017) is the story of ann cole lowe, a well-known yet unknown gown designer. born in alabama, lowe was the daughter of a dressmaker who took over her mother’s business. the clientele included the upper echelon of alabama society. from there, lowe moved to florida and new york to apprentice and attend design school. typical of the times, lowe received a segregated education, but she continued designing and dressmaking. one of her most famous dresses was jacqueline kennedy’s wedding dress. numerous americans can identify her iconic creations, yet they do not know the designer’s name. corey (2009) recounts annette kellerman’s influence on swimsuit design in mermaid queen. as a child, annette kellerman could not walk well and took up swimming to become stronger. although she became a champion racer, the public did not support a woman swimmer. 22 georgia journal of literacy 45(1) kellerman then created water ballet, improvising a swimsuit to cover her bare legs. annette was arrested for indecency when wearing her suit in boston. the court judge agreed with her argument about nonsensical women’s swimsuits. bostonian women soon traded their bathing attire for annette’s one-piece, bare-legged, sleeveless racing suit style. her ideas continue to influence contemporary swimwear. strategy suggestion: analyzing characteristics through a category map after reading the three biographies, students can analyze the lives of the fashion trendsetters through a category map as demonstrated in figure 1 (ciecierski & bintz, 2017). the students work in pairs to expand their thinking and practice the skill of character analysis. they first list the titles across the top of the map. then they choose characteristics they wish to highlight about the fashion trendsetters along the right side. to assist in choosing characteristics, the students can select from a substantial list (josué, 2019). students discuss how the trendsetters exhibited the identified characteristics and record them on the chart. ciecierski and binz (2017) recommend that students cite evidence of the answer locations. figure 1: category map polka dot parade: a book about bill cunningham fancy party gowns: the story of fashion designer ann cole lowe mermaid queen bill cunningham showed his passion by taking photos of those he found interesting wearing their everyday fashions. ann cole lowe showed her passion by taking over the dressmaking from her mother and creating fashions for many in high society. annette kellerman showed her passion through her swimming. she took swimming to a new level when she created a new art form of water ballet. passionate c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s by photographing people on the street in their everyday fashion choices, bill influenced others to wear what he saw in everyday attire. although many do not know her name, ann dressed many famous people. jacqueline kennedy was one of her clients. by showcasing ann’s designs, kennedy assisted ann’s influence. annette was influential because she redesigned swimsuits to be more practical and comfortable. her revolutionary idea changed swimwear for women. influential bill was committed to fashion by the number of photographs he kept. he filed them in his apartment and referred to them in his other works. ann showed her commitment because she faced many challenges. she had to rise above poverty and attend a segregated school. despite the challenges, she persevered. annette was committed to the change in swimsuit design to make it more practical for her racing and water ballet. she had to convince others of the practicality. her drive to do so showed her commitment. committed bill used the imagination of the subjects of his photographs to spur his imagination. he used his archived photos to assist him in his fashion displays. ann’s imagination helped her create different party gowns for each client. since many of her clients attended the same events, ann had to create a new gown for each client. annette’s revolutionary idea of a sleek swimsuit was imaginative in its necessity. because she was swimming long distances and performing in the water, her swimsuit needed to be lighter and moveable in the water. imaginative walker & walker 23 comparing and contrasting similar biographies told in first person, elsa spoke of her drab childhood in bloom: a story of fashion designer elsa schiaparelli (maclear, 2018). inspired by the world around her, elsa used her imagination to dream, thus giving her the confidence to leave home. she traveled through paris, london, new york, and back to paris, ready to show the fashion world her designs. her sweater design with the illusion of a bow tie propelled her into the paris fashion scene. her avant-garde thinking led her to create “shocking pink,” a color she used in her designs that spun the fashion world’s head. in hot pink: the life and fashions of elsa schiaparelli, rubin (2015) details the life and schiaparelli. as a teen, schaip, a nickname, moved to london, then to paris, beginning her foray into fashion. following paul poiret’s advice, schaip made clothes women wanted to wear after wwi. she used events and movements, such as the rise of aviators, vacationing in the tropics, and the surrealist art movement, to inspire her designs. her business thrived through the great depression as she worked with manufacturers to provide affordable clothing. after wwii, schaip’s designs fell out of favor, but she persevered, presenting new styles of hats, luggage, and hollywood costume designs. her imaginary thinking propelled fashion to new heights and inspired future designers. strategy suggestion: comparison/contrast with an adapted t-chart a t-chart is a graphic organizer in which two features are compared side-by-side. the t-chart is highly adaptable, and examples are available online. to create an adapted t-chart, a rectangle is drawn at the top of the paper and labeled “similarities.” the “t” is drawn below the rectangle with the titles of the books written on each side. the adapted t-chart leaves students more space to write the similarities and differences than a venn diagram. following ciecierski and binz’s (2017) recommendation, the students work in pairs and cite evidence as they complete the chart as seen in figure 2. figure 2: adapted t-chart similarities how are bloom: a story of fashion designer elsa schiaparelli and hot pink: the life and fashions of elsa schiaparelli alike? both books highlight the life of designer elsa schiaparelli. both share her struggles in her younger years and how she worked to overcome them. both books share her design of the bowknot sweater and its influence today. both books share her use of color in fashion design, mainly “hot pink.” 24 georgia journal of literacy 45(1) differences how are bloom: a story of fashion designer elsa schiaparelli and hot pink: the life and fashions of elsa schiaparelli different? bloom: a story of fashion designer elsa schiaparelli illustrated pictures more of a traditionally formatted children’s book more of a glossed-over timeline of elsa’s life mention of some of her mentors story ends with touting of elsa’s influence on fashion then and now hot pink: the life and fashions of elsa schiaparelli use of photographs extended, oversized picture book format much more detailed timeline, including her life as a single working mother detail of mention of her mentors and how they influenced her end of the story, details elsa’s struggles to remain relevant in the fashion industry after designs fell out of favor analyzing illustrations between biographies different like coco (matthews, 2007) describes chanel’s chronology from humble beginnings to her impact on fashion. chanel’s ability to study people yet design clothing she wanted to wear created a market for her designs. her revolutionary, sleek, modern style made her clients want to be like coco, not just dress like her. the illustrator’s use of turned-up noses in the facial features subtly displays chanel’s view of the snobbery around her. the book concludes with a timeline of chanel’s life, including the creation of chanel no.5, the first perfume conceived by a fashion designer, and the release of her concept of “the little black dress.” in coco and the little black dress, van haeringen (2015) describes chanel’s difficult upbringing in a french orphanage. while there, coco became accomplished at sewing, knitting, crocheting, and embroidery, parlaying those skills into work as a seamstress. she spent her evenings with friends and soon realized that being wealthy was her heart’s desire. she taught herself to ride to fit in with the elite crowd while wearing a pair of jodhpurs she designed. coco then opened a millinery, creating not only hats and accessories but dresses that were practical, slimming, and did not require a corset. her shop flourished, selling the concept of “the little black dress,” a fashion staple every woman could wear while feeling beautiful. strategy suggestion: analyzing illustrations with access lenses bryan (2019) introduces the reader to analyzing illustrations with “access lenses.” the use of the chart guides discussion about illustrated mood. mood is examined through facial expressions, body language, color, distance, aloneness, sounds, words, silence, big and little things, zooming in and out, and symbols and metaphors. when comparing two books on a similar topic, students can discuss how each illustrator portrayed the facets of mood. similar incidences portrayed in each book may spur deeper conversation about how different illustrators chose to portray the same event. students can keep track of their discussions within their reading notebooks (rief, 2014) or display their ideas on wall charts. they should cite the pages of differing aspects of mood. the “access lenses” chart is available at fouroclockfaculty.com/2015/05/visuals-access-lenses. https://fouroclockfaculty.com/2015/05/visuals-access-lenses/ walker & walker 25 studying fashion with how-to books summarizing knowledge with stories and words in bolte’s (2014) book girly girl style: fun fashion you can sketch, tips for drawing fashion sketches are presented. the first section offers beginning step-by-step directions with an introduction about the style. each sketch shows ideas on blending colors and sketching in pencil. the subsequent pages provide the budding designer with a four-step drawing process. suggestions for sketching specific features or styles of clothing, sketch designs for edges, beachwear, coldweather wear, and vintage clothing are suggested. the book concludes with ideas for adding accessories to the designs. the collaboration between author ware (2018) and illustrator papier is dynamic in how to be a fashion designer. ware introduces the world of fashion to the reader, while papier’s vibrant collages include photographs and sketches with illustrated models from diverse backgrounds. entries introduce the background content needed to be a fashion designer, including using tools, creating a mood board, selecting color, and finding inspiration for design within the environment. a “do-it-yourself” page where the budding designer is encouraged to practice follows the information. suggestions for accessories to complete the inspired looks are also included. the last section of the book includes space for the designer to sketch. back matter includes a glossary of fashion vocabulary and an index. the premise of the fashion book: create your own cool looks from the story of style (beeden, 2014) is to show the novice designer how contemporary style is influenced by past designs. the designer is shown how to style themselves and others using information from ancient, medieval, and victorian eras and fashion icons. the collage illustrations are enhanced with photographs, paintings, and sketches and supported with informational text and quotes about the fashion displayed. the illustrator shows how to assemble a complete style look within each section. career opportunities in fashion, including student designers, shoe designers, make-up artists, and runway models, are highlighted. the back matter includes a detailed glossary, a list of influential designers, and an index. strategy suggestion: story or vision board a story or vision board is a frequently used tool in design. students are encouraged to “show what they know” by creating a vision board after the design concepts are taught and practiced. tebbets (2008) recommends the final storyboard display theme, fashion illustration, typography, color, composition, and artistry. the theme of the storyboard drives all the other components. the illustrations show design ideas based on research. the typography must reflect the period or event portrayed on the storyboard and selecting appropriate colors, both essential to the theme’s message. composition and artistry refer to the visual presentation of the board’s content. movement of the eye from the viewer’s perspective and attention to minute details of the final product are critical to the presentation of ideas. figure 3 is an example of a vision board displaying the essential components. 26 georgia journal of literacy 45(1) figure 3: example of vision board studying fashion history why’d they wear that? fashion as the mirror of history (albee,2015) is an iconic fashion history book like one used in many undergraduate costume design programs (tortora & marcketti, 2015). the grade 5–12 reader can explore fashion from the ancient world to the 20th century. true to the quality of a book published by national geographic, photographs, great works of art, paintings, and sketches enhance the text. each chapter is themed and details that era’s social, political, economic, art, and people movements. the book concludes with a message about the fashion industry’s impact on the environment and what the reader can do to decrease consumption. the back matter includes a fashion history timeline, bibliography, index, and illustration credits. the complete book of fashion history: a stylish journey through history and the ultimate guide for being fashionable in every era (sedláčková, 2017) contains 24 informational chapters from prehistoric to contemporary fashion. each chapter is collaged in differing modern cartoon styles and enhanced by short paragraphs, captions, and bubble quotes. the content contains biographies of influencers, types of attire, accessories, hairstyles, make-up, and production of the period’s fashion. the book concludes with illustrations of fashion worldwide, fashion icons, swimwear, wedding dresses, accessories, shoes, and notable designers. walker & walker 27 strategy suggestion: the fashion zine students can practice their skills of writing, revising, editing, and illustrating fashion design from history by creating a fashion zine. a zine is a handmade, reproducible, adaptable, and inexpensive way to create a magazine (horst, 2015; vanneman, 2010). for instance, students could study the clothing worn by people of an era. figures 4 and 5 are examples of pages of a fashion zine entitled the lords and ladies of fashion-1776 created by a fifth-grade student as part of a unit of study on the american revolution. the zine showcases six fashion designs, three for women and three for men, of differing social classes and positions in the war. a description accompanies each design. fashion vocabulary such as “weskit,” “breeches,” “bodice,” and “petticoat” is used to describe the fabrics and ensemble. students should include a table of contents and reference page when creating an informational zine. figure 4: a sample page from lords and ladies of fashion-1776 28 georgia journal of literacy 45(1) figure 5: a sample page from lords and ladies of fashion-1776 conclusion text sets and literacy strategies can be used in instruction to build background knowledge in content-focused instruction (neuman, 2014; lupo, 2019). the presentation of this text set and accompanying strategies highlighted how they could be used in a study of the fashion industry, most likely in art or career and technical education courses. the strategies presented here can be adapted to other middle and high school content areas (lupo et al., 2018). biography is frequently used in english/language arts, social studies, and science courses. teachers in these content areas also teach students the process of comparison/contrast. therefore, the comparison/contrast strategies shared here can support student understanding of this comprehension process. students across content area courses can also create a vision board or zine to present what they have learned. this format allows students a “flexible, open-ended, and welcome alternative to the usual paper and/or slide show presentation” (gresham, 2018, p. 34). students returning to the classrooms after an extended time of online learning will likely be more adept at delving deeper into the digital and social media world. some of these students may have spent time creating social media accounts related to fashion. however, many secondary students need to learn how to find and evaluate resources available at the click of a button (gleason & von gillern, 2018). providing middle and high school students with the background knowledge walker & walker 29 necessary to gain a deeper understanding of fashion can help them make better-informed decisions. using children’s literature in teaching can expand the knowledge of the fashion industry by introducing influencers, techniques, and history to secondary students. students’ analysis of this multibillion-dollar industry can 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(2018). how to be a fashion designer. dk. tebbets, c. (2008, october). the storyboard. school arts, 108(2), 52–53. https://www.davisart. com/schoolarts/issues/ horst, c. (2015, may/june). zines with friends. school arts, 114(9), 36–37. https://www.davisart .com/schoolarts/issues/2015/ larocca, a. (2018, february 5–18). the affluencers: influencers who have actual influence. new york magazine, 60–65. https://www.thecut.com/2018/02/instagram-influencers-are-thenew-fashion-establishment.html burns, n. (2019, july). no one is running from young phenom, billie eilish. lesbian news, 44(12), article 7. https://lesbiannews.com/magazine/lesbian-news-july-2019-issue/ josué. (2019, october 3). positive character traits list. http://allfreeprintable.com/positivecharacter-traits-list orendorff, a. (2021, march 29). the state of the ecommerce fashion industry: statistics, trends & strategy. shopify.com. https://www.shopify.com/enterprise/ecommerce-fashion-industry meisels, a. (2021, november 6). social media plays a major role in teen fashion and creation. berkley high jacket. https://berkeleyhighjacket.com/2021/features/social-media-playsmajor-role-in-teen-fashion-and-creation/ geyser, w. (2021, december). what is an influencer? social media influencers defined. influencer marketing hub. http://influencermarketinghub.com/what-is-an-influencer received: december 28, 2022 | accepted: march 15, 2023 | published: april 3, 2023 https://www.davisart.com/schoolarts/issues/ https://www.davisart.com/schoolarts/issues/ https://www.davisart.com/schoolarts/issues/2015/ https://www.davisart.com/schoolarts/issues/2015/ https://www.thecut.com/2018/02/instagram-influencers-are-the-new-fashion-establishment.html https://www.thecut.com/2018/02/instagram-influencers-are-the-new-fashion-establishment.html https://lesbiannews.com/magazine/lesbian-news-july-2019-issue/ http://allfreeprintable.com/positive-character-traits-list http://allfreeprintable.com/positive-character-traits-list https://www.shopify.com/enterprise/ecommerce-fashion-industry https://berkeleyhighjacket.com/2021/features/social-media-plays-major-role-in-teen-fashion-and-creation/ https://berkeleyhighjacket.com/2021/features/social-media-plays-major-role-in-teen-fashion-and-creation/ http://influencermarketinghub.com/what-is-an-influencer studying fashion through biography analyzing characteristics of fashion trendsetters figure 1: category map comparing and contrasting similar biographies figure 2: adapted t-chart fancy party gowns: the story of fashion designer ann cole lowe polka dot parade: a book about bill cunningham mermaid queen annette kellerman showed her passion through her swimming. she took swimming to a new level when she created a new art form of water ballet. ann cole lowe showed her passion by taking over the dressmaking from her mother and creating fashions for many in high society. bill cunningham showed his passion by taking photos of those he found interesting wearing their everyday fashions. passionate annette was influential because she redesigned swimsuits to be more practical and comfortable. her revolutionary idea changed swimwear for women. although many do not know her name, ann dressed many famous people. jacqueline kennedy was one of her clients. by showcasing ann’s designs, kennedy assisted ann’s influence. by photographing people on the street in their everyday fashion choices, bill influenced others to wear what he saw in everyday attire. c h a influential r a c annette was committed to the change in swimsuit design to make it more practical for her racing and water ballet. she had to convince others of the practicality. her drive to do so showed her commitment. ann showed her commitment because she faced many challenges. she had to rise above poverty and attend a segregated school. despite the challenges, she persevered. bill was committed to fashion by the number of photographs he kept. he filed them in his apartment and referred to them in his other works. t e r committed i s t i c annette’s revolutionary idea of a sleek swimsuit was imaginative in its necessity. because she was swimming long distances and performing in the water, her swimsuit needed to be lighter and moveable in the water. ann’s imagination helped her create different party gowns for each client. since many of her clients attended the same events, ann had to create a new gown for each client. bill used the imagination of the subjects of his photographs to spur his imagination. he used his archived photos to assist him in his fashion displays. s imaginative studying fashion with how-to books summarizing knowledge with stories and words strategy suggestion: story or vision board figure 3: example of vision board studying fashion history strategy suggestion: the fashion zine figure 4: a sample page from lords and ladies of fashion-1776 figure 5: a sample page from lords and ladies of fashion-1776 conclusion references georgia journal of literacy 2025, vol. 47(1), pp. 84–97 https://doi.org/10.56887/galiteracy.169 issn: 2833-7611 teaching tips contact dr. william p. bintz, professor of literacy education, college of education, health, and human services; school of teaching, learning, and curriculum, kent state university, kent, oh; wbintz@kent.edu. combining picturebooks and poetry as blended genres to teach life science william p. bintz kent state university, kent, oh abstract this article introduces the concept of combining poetry and picturebooks as blended genres and shares an instructional strategy that k–8 teachers can use with blended genres to help students learn important concepts in ela and life science. it begins with background on the important relationship between science and literature. next, it describes fundamental differences between paired text and blended genres and connects blended genres to the next generation science standards (ngss) and the common core state standards (ccss). then, it shares examples of blended genres and a sample of an instructional strategy that can be used with blended genres to teach important concepts in life science. it ends with a final thought. keywords science and literature integration; intertextuality; blended genres, picturebooks and poetry; inquirybased learning there is much to be learned from both poetry and science, and when they are combined, the potential for learning grows. (mcclure, 2013, p. 13) teach a graduate reading course entitled reading in the content areas. a major goal of the course is for me to demonstrate, and my students to experience, the power and potential of picturebooks as curricular resources to teach content material across the curriculum. i begin each class session by reading aloud a selected picturebook from a different content area and for a specific purpose. recently, i read aloud i wonder (harris, 2013) to highlight wondering as an important process in learning science and introduce the importance of inquiry in learning. this picturebook tells the story of eva, a little girl who likes to take walks with her mother. on one walk, eva wonders and poses questions to her mother about gravity, life cycles, and the vastness of the universe. while neither knows the correct answers, her mother reminds eva that wondering is the first step to understanding and it is always okay to say, “i don’t know.” afterwards, i invited students to share their responses to the picturebook. all responses were thoughtful, but one response caught my attention. one student stated, this picturebook reminded me of taking walks with my grandfather around his farm when i was little. like eva, i’d asked lots of questions, too. and like the mother, my grandfather listened, too. it also reminded me of the poem, “i like to wonder off alone.” i read this poem in high school, and i’ve never forgotten it. as you were reading, i found myself seeing all kinds of similarities between the picturebook and the poem. i mailto:wbintz@kent.edu bintz 85 this response was interesting and insightful, but not the first of its kind. after reading aloud picturebooks, i often hear students saying they were making personal connections to the picturebook during the read aloud. in this instance, however, this student’s response, unbeknownst to her and me at the time, created a paired text. traditionally, a paired text consists of two texts that are interrelated in some way, and the texts reflect the same or similar genre (bintz, 2015). her paired text was different. i wonder (harris, 2013) and “i like to wonder off alone” (wynne, 2023) is a paired text but consist of two different genres, one a picturebook and the other a poem. in many ways, her paired text was a blended genre. i started to wonder about the idea of blended genres. i have read i wonder several times, but was unfamiliar with the poem, “i like to wonder off alone.” i wondered what connections i would make between the picturebook and the poem. i read the picturebook again, then the poem, and completed an h-map to record my connections between the two texts (see figure 1). i used an h-map to record my intertextual connections between this blended genre. i wrote the title of the picturebook at the top of the left vertical column, and the title of the poem at the top of the right vertical column. i wrote the heading, intertextual connections, at the top of the rectangle to connect the left and right columns. during and after reading, i recorded important ideas from the picturebook in the left column, and important ideas from the poem in the right column. in the middle, i recorded important intertextual connections from this blended genre. i found this instructional strategy helpful for recording and reflecting on my intertextual connections. figure 1: h-map text: i wonder tells the story of eva, a young girl who wonders about everything. she wonders why the moon follows her from place to place, disappearing behind trees and then appearing again someplace new. one day she talks a walk with her mother and shares her wonderings along the way. how does the moon really stay close to us? her mother introduces her to the concept of gravity. how many grains of sand are in the whole world? her mother reminds her that is okay to say we don’t know and encourages her to keep wondering. where did all these butterflies come from? her mother introduces her to the notion of life cycles and invites her to think about other things that change. after their walk, eva learns that it is important to always wonder, but wonderings can reveal mysteries and it is okay to say we just don’t know. poem: “i like to wonder off alone” in rhyming verse, an unidentified young person describes a desire to wander off alone and wonder about the natural world, including the sky, a curly cloud, the grass, and birds. the young person also wonders if things in the natural world wonder about him or her. the young person concludes that everybody and everything likes to wonder because there is so much to wonder about. the young person will always wonder, except for stopping sometimes to play. intertextual connections 1. both texts include young people as main characters. 2. both texts include young people who like to wonder. 3. both texts include young people who wonder about concepts related to earth and space science, e.g. life cycles, moon, sky, gravity, grass, flying things (birds, etc.), butterflies, clouds, etc. 4. both texts include young people who wonder but don’t insist on finding immediate and correct answers to their wonderings. 5. both texts depict wondering as a natural, positive, and lifelong process. 6. both texts have potential to introduce wondering as form of inquiry and scientific inquiry. 86 georgia journal of literacy 47(1) in the end, this whole experience sparked my curiosity about the idea of blended genres. it generated my interest in developing other blended genres across the curriculum that i could use with students in my own courses. specifically, i wanted to develop and share blended genres that english/language arts (ela) and science teachers could collaboratively implement in the k–8 classroom. the purpose of this article is to share picturebooks and poetry as blended genres and an instructional strategy to teach important concepts in ela and life science. i focus on ela and science for several reasons. one, i am a former middle and high school english/language arts teacher with a personal interest in this content area. two, i am presently a teacher educator in literacy education with a professional interest in advocating for the use of literature, specifically picturebooks, to support student learning across the k–12 curriculum. three, to date, i have developed blended genres by pairing picturebooks with poems in english/language arts and am currently developing blended genres in english/language arts & social studies and english/language arts & mathematics. however, i have not developed blended genre in english/language arts & science. this whole experience inspired me to do so. with this experience and background in mind, i began by providing background on the relationship between science and literature, describing differences between paired text and blended genres, and connecting blended genres with next generation science standards (ngss) and common core state standards (ccss). next, i share examples of blended genres and a sample of an instructional strategy to teach important concepts in life science. i end with a final thought. science & literature storytelling will bring the science to children. (kaser, 2001, p. 355) the value of literature and storytelling to teach and learn science has long been recognized by both science and literacy specialists (dagher & ford, 2005). much research continues to indicate that literature is a valuable tool to support growth and development across science and literacy (broemmel et al., 2021). consequently, and fortunately, literature is increasingly being included as an integral component to the science curriculum (rice, 2002). moreover, much research indicates that picturebooks are effective instructional tools to integrate science and literacy (saul, 2004). among other things, picturebooks help students “ask and address questions about science content…and build their capacity to engage in scientific reasoning” (hapgood & palincsar, 2007, p. 55). poetry is also an effective tool to integrate science and literacy. poetry instead of coexisting as parallel lanes without intersection, poetry and science can cross over as one merges lanes. (brown, 2015, p. 1) historically, poetry has been a popular and flexible literary genre, a way to experiment with rhyme, rhythm, repetition, and a variety of poetic formats. poetry supports abstract thought and provides a means to communicate “complex ideas in symbolic ways” (graves, 1992, p. 163). it also helps develop rich vocabulary and explore “poetic devices like metaphor, simile, imagery, alliteration, and rhyme” (kane & rule, 2004, p. 665). bintz 87 poetry offers many benefits for readers of all ages and backgrounds. one benefit is that poetry is often brief. vardell and wong (2015) state, poetry has an advantage in that it typically consists of fewer words than expositoryprose passages, and poems can be read and reread in very little time. the brevity of poetry is less intimidating to children who may be overwhelmed by longer prose and streams of new vocabulary, especially students acquiring english as a new language. (p. 30) poetry is also multisensory. it allows readers and writers to experience all five senses, especially through metaphor and imagery. poetry also supports interdisciplinary teaching and learning across the curriculum (vardell & wong, 2015), including science (kane & rule, 2004). science historically, science and poetry have been viewed as dichotomies, or at least “unlikely partners.” (vardell & wong, 2014, p. 15) in large part, this is because scientists and poets perceive the world through different lenses and reflect different mindsets. instead of dichotomies, however, science and poetry have had a long symbiotic relationship. webb (1948) stated, poets find science, in the form of nature, more interesting than love…practically every bird, flower, and tree has been studied with poetic insight. the sea, the mountains, the sky, the fields, the list of nature’s wonders that have inspired poets is almost endless. (p. 30) more recently, hoffman (2002) described this relationship as “two luxuriating contra entropic glories of the human spirit walking hand in hand” (p. 137). today, much research indicates that science and poetry are interdependent fields of study (bono, in kurtz and loewenstein, 2007), and incorporating poetry in the teaching of science offers many benefits for students (rule et al., 2004). these benefits are based on three important concepts: transfer, process, and goal. transfer recognizes that “spontaneous transfer of useful knowledge across domains is a powerful cognitive tool” (kurtz & loewenstein, 2007, p. 335). in this case, the domains are science and poetry. process recognizes that the “processes of science and literacy learning are similar and may help the development of each discipline” (akerson, in vardell & wong, 2015, p. 1). goal recognizes that science and poetry share a common goal and “emerge from an attempt to understand the universe around us—and from a wish to share that understanding with others in words” (hoffman, 2002, p. 140). additional benefits of integrating poetry and science include:  poetry plays a role in humanizing science and functions as a creative trespasser to end the cold war between science and poetry (watts, in rule, 2001).  poetry uses images and metaphors which can clarify and intensify the meaning of science content (rule et al., 2004).  poetry invites and enables scientists to quickly capture and express new ideas. 88 georgia journal of literacy 47(1)  poetry offers a way for scientists to play with language, to reframe concepts, and to engage with aesthetics to capture readers in ways that are not possible with scientific articles (silverton, 2015).  poetry that reflects good science leads to a fuller inquiry, interpretation, and appreciation of science. paired text and blended genres all texts are tinted with echoes and reverberations of other texts. (bakhtin, 1986, p. 91) traditionally, a paired text consists of two texts that are conceptually related in some way (harste, short, burke, 1988). it is a curricular resource and instructional tool to teach the concept of intertextuality, a term commonly referred to as making connections between texts (harvey & goudvis, 2017). intertextuality is an important concept in reading and learning. for example, one college and career readiness reading anchor standard (national governors association center for best practices and council of chief state school officers, 2010) states the need for students to “analyze how two or more texts address similar themes or topics in order to build knowledge or to compare the approaches the authors take” (integration of knowledge and ideas section, para. 3). paired text is one way to put intertextuality into action and address this standard in the classroom. a blended genre is also a paired text. it consists of two texts with each text representing a different literary genre. for example, the picturebook the life cycle of an emperor penguin (kalman, 2006) and the poem “dark emperor” (sidman, 2010) is an enjoyable and informative blended genre that focuses on the topic of life cycle. blended genres, ccss, and ngss standards the next generation science standards (ngss, 2013) states that “literacy skills are critical to building knowledge in science” (see appendix m, p. 1). similarly, the common core state standards (ccss) in literacy identify skills for high proficiency in literacy, and the common core reading anchor standards (ccras) identify skills for high proficiency in reading. to ensure consistency, ngss identifies connections between ccss literacy and ccras reading skills and science content demands in grades 6–12. blended genres is a curricular resource that, when used with instructional strategies, can integrate ngss, ccss, and ccras standards. blended genres and instructional strategies in this section, i share an example of a blended genre and a sample of an instructional strategy that teachers can use to teach important content area material in life science. i created this sample to share specifically with k–8 ela and science teachers, but the instructional strategy can be used with any blended genre across the curriculum. first, however, i want to share a two-step process that teachers can use to teach this strategy, along with the other strategies, to help students make intertextual connections between the two texts in any blended genre. the two-step process involves teacher demonstration and student engagement. for demonstration, teachers can do the following: 1) organize students in pairs or small groups (3–4) to support collaboration and discussion, 2) prepare and distribute a blank copy of the instructional strategy to each student, 3) display a selected blended genre to students and introduce each text with a picturewalk, introduction, book chat, etc., 4) demonstrate bintz 89 the instructional strategy by reading aloud both texts, pausing at strategic times, e.g., major episodic changes in the text, 5) identify examples of intertextual connections between the texts and record these connections on the instructional strategy displayed to the entire class, e.g. powerpoint, and 6) as a culminating experience, invite student discussions on the paired text, reflections on the intertextual connections, and questions about completing the strategy on their own. for engagement, teachers can follow the same procedure with a different blended genre, but this time inviting students to identify, discuss, and record intertextual connections between the two texts. life science summer birds: the butterflies of maria merian (engle, 2010) is a picturebook biography of maria merian, naturalist, field scientist, and artist. born in 1647, she secretly captured, fed, and observed insects that at the time people considered “beasts of the devil.” she observed that many insects, especially butterflies, go through developmental life cycles. over time and with persistent observation, she discovered metamorphosis and nine new species of butterflies. “maria sibylla merian, january 1670” (ackerman, 2020) is a biographical poem about maria merian. here is an excerpt. maria sibylla merian, january 1670 there was a way of beholding nature that was like a form of prayer. when she painted a caterpillar, she limned the whole bracing saga of its life from birth, instars, and metamorphosis… she chose to reveal the smallest, most despised creatures on earth as divine works of nature… and peer in wonder at the visible but unseen life all around them, dining, sparring, molting, mating… here is a caterpillar's eye, her paintings said, look how cleverly it's designed! here is a spider's toe with tiny hairs. can you imagine how they tread? here is time elapsing inside a chrysalis, where caterpillar becomes butterfly, shape-shifting with infinite gradualness from one unlikely form to another, its behavior and purpose radically changed. come closer, i will show you. figure 2 illustrates interwoven intertextual connections as an instructional strategy to represent intertextual connections between this blended genre (for additional strategies, see bintz, 2015). this strategy invites individual students, pairs of students, or small groups of students to create and represent intertextual connections they consider most important across the blended genre. afterward, students share their connections with the whole class, noting and discussing similarities and differences between connections. 90 georgia journal of literacy 47(1) teachers can also use this strategy to create and represent their own intertextual connections and share them with the class. this is important for three reasons. one, it demonstrates active engagement by teachers. second, it allows students to see and understand connections different from their own. third, in the event students do not recognize some important connections, it allows teachers to bring those connections to the attention of students. figure 2: interwoven intertextual connections summer birds in medieval times, butterflies were a mystery. people believed they magically came from mud and were evil and people who studied them, like maria sibylla merian, practiced witchcraft. maria sibylla merian studied the life cycle of summer birds, noting they are born from eggs, eat leaves, spin cocoons, and turn into butterflies. maria sibylla merian compared herself to summer birds, growing slowly but waiting to fly to faraway lands. marian sibylla merian also studied other species born from eggs and who change forms, e.g. tadpoles turning into frogs. trailblazer life cycle personal connections changing forms “maria sibylla merian, january 1670” maria sibylla merian studied butterflies which in medieval times were regarded as “one of the most despised creatures on earth.” she discovered and shared just the opposite. she regarded them as “divine works of nature.” maria sibylla merian wrote about the life cycle of butterflies, using language people could understand, e.g., a caterpillar is a shapeshifter until it gradually becomes a butterfly. maria sibylla merian considered studying nature as a form of prayer and a chance to peer in wonder at the visible but unseen life existing all around. in addition to butterflies, maria sibylla merian also studied other living things that changed form (spontaneous combustion), e.g., maggots hatching freely from eggs. final thought according to vardell and wong (2015), “science is rich in content and poetry offers powerful language. together they can both inform and inspire” (p. 15). the student vignette at the beginning of this article inspired me to develop blended genres for use in the english/language arts and science classrooms. i hope this article will inform and inspire ela and science teachers to use blended genres of picturebooks and poems as an instructional tool not only to teach life science, but also earth and space, and physical science. in addition, i hope this article will inspire students and teachers to develop and use their own blended genres. references bintz, w. 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(2015). the symbiosis of science and poetry. children and libraries, 13(1), 15–18. https://doi.org/10.5860/cal.13n1.15 webb, h. a. (1948). chats with science teachers ii: science and poetry. the science teacher, 15(1), 30–33. https://www.jstor.org/stable/44977040 picturebooks and poetry cited ackerman, d. (2020, february 1). maria sibylla merian, january 1670: science in meter and verse [poem]. scientific american. https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/poetry-mariasibylla-merian-january-1670/ alber, d. (2020). a little spot stays home: a story about viruses and safe distancing. art llc. aliki. (2015). my five senses. harpercollins. amberlynne. (2014). metamorphosis [poem]. hello poetry. https://hellopoetry.com/poem/ 796930/metamorphosis/ professor, b. (2017). human body book: introduction to the respiratory system. baby professor. professor, b. (2024). under the microscope: earth’s tiniest inhabitants. baby professor. bagert, b. (2006). hormone jungle: coming of age in middle school (2nd ed.). brod bagert poetry dba juliahouse. baines, b. (2009). the bones you own. national geographic. balkwell, f. (1993). dna is here to stay. first avenue editions. balkwell, f. (1993). cell wars. first avenue editions. balkwell, f. (1993). cells are us. first avenue editions. barr, c. (2015). the story of life: a first book about evolution. frances lincoln children’s books. berger, m. (1985). germs make me sick! harpercollins. billings, c. w. (1978). spring peepers are calling. dodd, mead, & co. brown, s. g. (2003). the crow and the pitcher. tricycle press. brown. b. (2022). lungs. bold kids. bunting, e. (1999). butterfly house. scholastic. burach, r. (2019). the very impatient caterpillar. scholastic. carle, e. (2022). the very hungry caterpillar’s first spring. world of eric carle. carle, e. (2005). the tiny seed. simon spotlight. cassino, m. (2009). the story of snow: the science of winter's wonder. chronicle books. chin, j. (2016). coral reefs: a journey through an aquatic world full of wonder. square fish. corcoran, m. k. (2010). the circulatory story. charlesbridge. davies, n. (2009). what’s eating you? parasites, the inside story. candlewick. dna test. (n.d.). now poems. https://www.nowpoems.com/dna https://doi.org/10.5860/cal.13n1.15 https://www.jstor.org/stable/44977040 https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/poetry-maria-sibylla-merian-january-1670/ https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/poetry-maria-sibylla-merian-january-1670/ https://hellopoetry.com/poem/%e2%80%8c796930/metamorphosis/ https://hellopoetry.com/poem/%e2%80%8c796930/metamorphosis/ https://www.nowpoems.com/dna bintz 93 dove, r. (2004). heart to heart [poem]. poetry foundation. https://www.poetryfoundation.org/ poems/51662/heart-to-heart dunphy, m. (2008). the peregrine’s journey: a story of migration. web of life children’s books. ehlert, l. (2001). waiting for wings. clarion books. engle, m. (2010). summer birds: the butterflies of maria merian. henry holt & co. espinoza, j. r. (2021). the ugly butterfly: an imaginative story about the life cycle of a caterpillar. independently published. fleischman, p. (1988). i am phoenix. harpercollins. gelman, r. g. (1992). body battles. scholastic. george, j. c. (2014). galapagos george. harpercollins. gibbons, g. (2014). beavers. holiday house. grennan, e. (1998). winter bees [poem]. poetry magazine. https://www.poetryfoundation.org/ poetrymagazine/poems/40133/winter-bees gunawardana, d. (2016). darwin. in two poems on darwin and evolution. researchgate. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/296976075_two_poems_on_darwin_and_evo lution harris, a. (2013). i wonder. four elephants press. harrison, d. l. (2020). and the bullfrogs sing: a life cycle begins. holiday house. hopkins, l. b. (1999). spectacular science: a book of poems. simon & schuster. hough, r. (2011). my genes [poem]. poem hunter. https://www.poemhunter.com/poem/mygenes-2/ humowitz, m. (2020). operation achoo! page. isadora, r. (2006). what a family! putnam juvenile. jenkins, m. (1999). the emperor’s egg. candlewick. kalman, b. (2006). the life cycle of an emperor penguin. crabtree classics. krutsinger, c. (2022). bubba bear’s cozy hibernation haven [poem]. poetry soup. https://www.poetrysoup.com/poem/bubba_bears_cozy_hibernation_haven_1506814 la marche, m. (n.d.). what’s up with dna [poem]. 23andme education. https://education. 23andme.com/dna-poems/ lasky, k. (2012). one beetle too many. candlewick. lewis, j. p. (1998). doodle dandies: poems that take shape. atheneum books for young readers. lewis, j. p. (2005). galileo’s universe. creative editions. lewis, j. p. (2007). poems for teaching in the content areas. scholastic. locker, t. (1997). water dance. clarion books. long, d. (2020). when darwin sailed the sea. wide eyed editions. https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poems/51662/heart-to-heart https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poems/51662/heart-to-heart https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poetrymagazine/poems/40133/winter-bees https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poetrymagazine/poems/40133/winter-bees https://www.researchgate.net/publication/296976075_two_poems_on_darwin_and_evolution https://www.researchgate.net/publication/296976075_two_poems_on_darwin_and_evolution https://www.poemhunter.com/poem/my-genes-2/ https://www.poemhunter.com/poem/my-genes-2/ https://www.poetrysoup.com/poem/bubba_bears_cozy_hibernation_haven_1506814 https://education.23andme.com/dna-poems/ https://education.23andme.com/dna-poems/ 94 georgia journal of literacy 47(1) loper, c. m. (2020). the sneezy breeze. crown & arrow publishing. lyon, g. e. (1998). counting on the woods. dk children. mahtrow, s. j. (2006). rosalind franklin [poem]. poem hunter. https://www.poemhunter.com/ poem/rosalind-franklin/ mckinney, b. s. (1998). a drop around the world. dawn publications. mckinney, b. s. (2000). pass the energy, please! dawn publications. milne, a. a. (1927). forgiven. in now we are six. e. p. dutton & co., inc. https://www.gutenberg .org/ebooks/70516 monem, s. (2019). charles darwin [poem]. poem hunter. https://www.poemhunter.com/poem/ charles-darwin-3/ mr. r. (n.d.). butterfly metamorphosis [poem]. mr. r.’s world of science. https://sciencepoems .net/butterfly-metamorphosis-poem/ mr. r. (n.d.). human bones poem [poem]. mr. r.’s world of science. https://sciencepoems.net/ human-bones-poem/ nash, o. (1937). the germ. in the private dining room and other verses. little, brown and company. https://www.poemhunter.com/poem/the-germ/ nims, j. f. (1990). the six-cornered snowflake and other poems. new directions. norman, k. (2019). give me back my bones! candlewick. o'meara, k. (2020). in the time of pandemic [poem]. the daily round. https://www.medhumchat. com/discussionguides/2020/7/15/kitty-omeara-in-the-time-of-pandemic padmini, s. (2021). caterpillar’s journey to metamorphosis. independently published. pallotta, j. (2000). dory story. charlesbridge. petty, d. (2021). moth & butterfly: ta da! nancy paulsen books. pham, b. (2022). cardiology for kids: a fun picture book about the cardiovascular system. black phoenix press. pulsifer, c. (n.d.). life like a butterfly [poem]. stressless country. https://www.stresslesscountry .com/bring-butterflies-garden/ recao, f. (2021). why the butterfly: why do seasons and weather change? author. reniscience education. (n.d.). cell theory [poem]. facebook. https://www.facebook.com/ ourlearninglab/posts/a-poem-explaining-cell-theory-by-a-7th-grader__________ shakespearean-sonnets-are/302855489846947/ richardson, j. (2015). and tango makes three. little simon. robertson, m. p. (2009). food chain. limited. scieszka, j. (2004). science verse. viking. senker, c. (2003). rosalind franklin. hodder wayland. sidman, j. (2000). just us two: poems/animal dads. millbrook press. https://www.poemhunter.com/poem/rosalind-franklin/ https://www.poemhunter.com/poem/rosalind-franklin/ https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/70516 https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/70516 https://www.poemhunter.com/poem/charles-darwin-3/ https://www.poemhunter.com/poem/charles-darwin-3/ https://sciencepoems.net/butterfly-metamorphosis-poem/ https://sciencepoems.net/butterfly-metamorphosis-poem/ https://sciencepoems.net/human-bones-poem/ https://sciencepoems.net/human-bones-poem/ https://www.poemhunter.com/poem/the-germ/ https://www.medhumchat.com/discussionguides/2020/7/15/kitty-omeara-in-the-time-of-pandemic https://www.medhumchat.com/discussionguides/2020/7/15/kitty-omeara-in-the-time-of-pandemic https://www.stresslesscountry.com/bring-butterflies-garden/ https://www.stresslesscountry.com/bring-butterflies-garden/ https://www.facebook.com/%e2%80%8courlearninglab/posts/a-poem-explaining-cell-theory-by-a-7th-grader__________%e2%80%8cshakespearean-sonnets-are/302855489846947/ https://www.facebook.com/%e2%80%8courlearninglab/posts/a-poem-explaining-cell-theory-by-a-7th-grader__________%e2%80%8cshakespearean-sonnets-are/302855489846947/ https://www.facebook.com/%e2%80%8courlearninglab/posts/a-poem-explaining-cell-theory-by-a-7th-grader__________%e2%80%8cshakespearean-sonnets-are/302855489846947/ bintz 95 sidman, j. (2005). song of the water boatman and other pond poems. clarion books. sidman, j. (2010). dark emperor and other poems of the night. clarion books. sidman, j. (2014). winter bees & other poems of the cold. clarion books. silentfairynat. (2011). white blood cells [poem]. allpoetry. https://allpoetry.com/poem/ 7202472-white-blood-cells-by-silentfairynat silverstein, s. (1981). a light in the attic. harpercollins. simon, s. (2006). the heart: all about our circulatory system. harpercollins. sis, p. (2016). the tree of life: charles darwin. farrar, straus, & giroux. smith. a. (2022). allergies [poem]. funny poems for life. https://www.funnypoemsforlife.com/ poems/allergies sunprincess. (2013). mystical migration of the monarch butterflies [poem]. poem hunter. https://www.poemhunter.com/poem/mystical-migration-of-the-monarch-butterflies/ swope, s. (2000). gotta go! gotta go! square fish. tan, s. (2019). cicada. arthur a. levine books. tweet, j. (2016). grandmother fish: a child’s first book of evolution. feiwel & friends. vilma. (2020). untitled poem about covid-19 [poem]. save the children. https://www.savethe children.org/us/charity-stories/childrens-poems-about-covid-19-and-lockdown winter, j. (2016). my name is james madison hemings. schwartz & wade. wilson, k. (2002). bear snores on. little simon. wing, c. (2005). evolution song [poem]. poetry magazine. https://www.poetryfoundation.org/ poetrymagazine/poems/43237/evolution-song wolf, a. (2003). the blood-hungry spleen and other poems about our parts. candlewick. wynne, p. j. (2017). my first book about the five senses. dover publications. yost, j. (2013). snakes! createspace. table 1: additional blended genres in life science topic picturebook poetry grade band k–4 charles darwin the tree of life: charles darwin (sis, 2016) darwin (gunawardana, 2016) charles darwin when darwin sailed the sea (long, 2020) charles darwin (monem, 2019) charles darwin one beetle too many (lasky, 2012) forgiven (milne, 1927) evolution the story of life: a first book about evolution (barr, 2015) evolution (scieszka, 2004) evolution grandmother fish: a child’s first book of evolution (tweet, 2016) evolution song (wing, 2005) natural selection galapagos george (george, 2014) the loneliest creature (lewis, 2007) life cycle the life cycle of an emperor penguin (kalman, 2006)c dark emperor (sidman, 2010) https://allpoetry.com/poem/7202472-white-blood-cells-by-silentfairynat https://allpoetry.com/poem/7202472-white-blood-cells-by-silentfairynat https://www.funnypoemsforlife.com/poems/allergies https://www.funnypoemsforlife.com/poems/allergies https://www.poemhunter.com/poem/mystical-migration-of-the-monarch-butterflies/ https://www.savethechildren.org/us/charity-stories/childrens-poems-about-covid-19-and-lockdown https://www.savethechildren.org/us/charity-stories/childrens-poems-about-covid-19-and-lockdown https://www.poetryfoundation.org/%e2%80%8cpoetrymagazine/poems/43237/evolution-songhttps://www.poetryfoundation.org/%e2%80%8cpoetrymagazine/poems/43237/evolution-song96 georgia journal of literacy 47(1) life cycle the ugly butterfly: an imaginative story about the life cycle of a caterpillar (espinoza, 2021) chrysalis diary (fleischman, 1988) life cycle spring peepers are calling (billings, 1978) listen for me (sidman, 2005) life cycle beavers (gibbons, 2014) under ice (sidman, 2014) life cycle song of the water boatman and other poems (sidman, j., 2005) water boatmen (fleischman, 1988) life cycle coral reefs: a journey through an aquatic world full of wonder (chin, 2016) how coral reefs are made from tiny animals (polyps) not much bigger than a pinhead (lewis, 2007) grade band 5–8 life cycle cicada (tan, 2019) cicadas (fleischman, 1988) life cycle the emperor’s egg (jenkins, 1999) if i were an egg (sidman, 2000) life cycle and the bullfrogs sing: a life cycle begins (harrison, 2020) bullfrog (lewis, 1998) life cycle the tiny seed (carle, 2005) the seed (hopkins, 1999) life cycle the peregrine’s journey: a story of migration (dunphy, 2008) egg business (sidman, 2000) snakes snakes! (yost, 2013) snake’s lullaby (sidman, 2014) seasons & weather why the butterfly: why do seasons and weather change? (recao, 2021) life like a butterfly (pulsifer, n.d.) seasons & weather the story of snow: the science of winter's wonder (cassino, 2009) the six-cornered snowflake (nims, 1990) seasons & weather the very hungry caterpillar’s first spring (carle, 2022) first burst of spring (lewis, 1998) five senses my five senses (aliki, 2015) the senseless lab of professor revere (scieszka, 2004) five senses my first book about the five senses (wynne, 2017) senses (silverstein, 1981) food chain dory story (pallotta, 2000) food chain (scieszka, 2004) food chain pass the energy, please! (mckinney, 2000) food chain (scieszka, 2004) food chain food chain (robertson, 2009) food chain (scieszka, 2004) metamorphosis summer birds: the butterflies of maria merian (engle, 2010) maria sibylla merian, january 1670 (ackerman, 2020) metamorphosis moth & butterfly: ta da! (petty, 2021) changes (scieszka, 2004) metamorphosis the very impatient caterpillar (burach, 2019) conversation on a leaf (lewis, 2005) metamorphosis waiting for wings (ehlert, 2001) metamorphosis (amberlynne, 2014) metamorphosis caterpillar’s journey to metamorphosis (padmini, 2021) changes (scieszka, 2004) metamorphosis butterfly house (bunting, 1999) butterfly metamorphosis (mr. r’s, n.d.) hibernation bear snores on (wilson, 2002) bubba bear’s cozy hibernation haven (krutsinger, 2022) migration gotta go! gotta go! (swope, 2000) mystical migration of the monarch butterflies (sunprincess, 2013) bintz 97 human heart cardiology for kids: a fun picture book about the cardiovascular system (pham, 2022) you can’t beat your heart (wolf, 2003) human dna rosalind franklin (senker, 2003) rosalind franklin (mahtrow, 2006) human dna dna is here to stay (balkwill, 1993) dna test (n.d.) human cells cell wars (balkwell, 1993) cell theory (reniscience education, n.d.) human cells cells are us (balkwell, 1990) fifty million cells (lewis, 2007) human bones the bones you own (baines, 2009) human bones poem (mr. r’s, n.d.) genes what a family! (isadora, 2006) my genes (hough, 2011). chromosomes my name is james madison hemings (winter, 2016) chromosome poem (lewis, 2007) chromosomes amazing schemes within your genes (balkwill, 1993) chromosome poem (lewis, 2007) human bones give me back my bones! (norman, 2019) boneless (wolf, 2003) human circulatory system the circulatory story (corcoran, 2010) shy silent rivers (wolf, 2003) human lungs lungs (brown, 2022) lungs (wolf, 2003) human germs under the microscope: earth’s tiniest inhabitants (professor, 2024) under the microscope (hopkins, 1999) human germs cell wars (balkwill, 1993) germ (nash, 1937) germs germs make me sick! (berger, 1985) germ (nash, 1937) germs operation achoo! (humowitz, 2020) germ (nash, 1937) germs body battles (gelman, 1992) white blood cells (silentfairynat, 2011) viruses a little spot stays home: a story about viruses and safe distancing (alber, 2020) untitled poem about covid-19 (vilma, 2020) parasites what’s eating you? parasites, the inside story (davies, 2009) mary had a… (scieszka, 2004) allergies the sneezy breeze (loper, 2020) allergies (smith, 2022) human heart the heart: all about our circulatory system (simon, 2006) heart to heart (dove, 2004) human body human body book: introduction to the respiratory system (professor, 2017) respiratory failure (bagert, 2006) viruses & pandemics a little spot stays home: a story about viruses and safe distancing (alber, 2020) in the time of pandemic (o’meara, 2020) received: august 16, 2024 | accepted: october 21, 2024 | published: may 20, 2025 science & literature poetry science paired text and blended genres blended genres and instructional strategies life science final thought references picturebooks and poetry cited georgia journal of literacy 2024, vol. 46(1), pp. 1–3 https://doi.org/10.56887/galiteracy.141 issn: 2833-7611 editorial article contact dr. bethany l. scullin, associate professor, department of early childhood through secondary education and reading, university of west georgia, carrollton, ga; email bscullin@westga.edu. dr. robert a. griffin, associate professor and assistant department chair, department of early childhood through secondary education and reading, university of west georgia, carrollton, ga; email rgriffin@westga.edu (https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3128-7687). integrating conventional and innovative practices: enhancing literacy education in diverse contexts bethany l. scullin university of west georgia, carrollton, ga robert a. griffin university of west georgia, carrollton, ga abstract the spring 2024 issue of the georgia journal of literacy highlights how traditional teaching methods and innovative practices can be merged to effectively address the needs of today’s diverse student population. articles within this issue advocate for a dynamic approach to literacy instruction, combining decades of research with contemporary classroom realities. the contributors to this issue explore topics from the complexities of reading aloud to leveraging community-based literacy projects, each underscoring strategies to create more inclusive and engaging learning environments. the issue also examines the importance of empirical data in developing effective literacy practices and offers practical strategies that apply research findings to enhance teaching and learning. the nine articles in this issue deepen understanding and encourage educators to innovate and adapt in ways that improve student engagement and literacy outcomes. keywords innovative literacy practices; evidence-based literacy strategies; culturally responsive literacy; inclusive literacy n this spring issue of the georgia journal of literacy, we explore how blending conventional methods with innovative practices enhances literacy education in diverse contexts. as literacy educators, we find themselves at a critical juncture in our field, one that calls on us to blend established methods with innovative approaches to effectively address the diverse needs of our students (neuman & gambrell, 2015). this integration goes beyond merely responding to changes in classroom demographics; it actively seeks diverse strategies to make learning environments more inclusive, engaging, and effective. the authors of the nine articles showcased in this issue advocate for a dynamic approach to literacy instruction that synthesizes conventional pedagogies with contemporary research and practices. from exploring the complexities of reading aloud to engaging with culturally rich writing instruction—a trending topic in literacy research (ho et al., 2024)—and the rigorous evaluation of state-approved assessment tools, each piece demonstrates the advantages of this integrative approach. as you read through this issue, consider how decades of empirical research and educational theory can be enhanced with innovative methods specifically tailored to meet the needs of today’s learners (neuman & gambrell, 2015; stewart et al., 2024). our goal for this issue is to spark conversations that lead to action and encourage practices grounded in rigorous research yet adapted to the realities of today’s classrooms. by linking the i mailto:bscullin@westga.edu mailto:rgriffin@westga.edu https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3128-7687 2 georgia journal of literacy 46(1) science of literacy with the art of teaching, we strive to inform professional conversations that reflect our current times and anticipate future educational challenges while ensuring literacy education continues to advance and become more inclusive and effective. evidence-based practices and interventions the issue opens with two rigorous research studies. emphasizing the essential role of empirical data in shaping literacy education strategies, dr. lindee morgan, joseph wenke, and dr. kristina dandy analyze the effectiveness of state-approved literacy screeners in “a psychometric review of universal reading screeners approved by the state board of education” and offer insights into their reliability for educators. likewise, drs. susan green and maryann mraz examine the impact of question-answer-relationship (qar) strategies on improving third graders’ reading comprehension in “the effects of question-answer-relationship (qar) instruction on standardized reading comprehension test scores of third-grade students,” with a focus on underserved populations. both research articles highlight the importance of using solid, evidencebased research to develop literacy practices that are effective and inclusive. cultivating empowerment through inclusive literacy practices four practitioner-oriented articles follow the empirical pieces, the first two of which center on inclusive and empowering literacy practices. seeking to deepen our understanding of how inclusivity and cultural relevance can fundamentally enhance literacy education, dr. leah panther and caitlin hochuli’s “looking for it: language, literacy, and history in place” shows how community-based literacy projects in georgia empower youth by connecting them with their local languages and histories. dr. bethany l. scullin, nickie b. smith, and holly n. proby address the rise in book bans in “teaching between the bans: exploring book banning, censorship, and book access in the middle grades,” promoting literature as a tool for intellectual freedom and engagement with diverse narratives. these practitioner articles emphasize the critical role of diverse perspectives and histories in enriching literacy education and empowering students to connect meaningfully with their learning environments. complexity and depth in literacy practices the remaining practitioner-oriented articles call on readers to examine the complexity and depth of conventional literacy practices. emphasizing the intricacies of effective literacy practices, dr. william p. bintz’s article “reading-aloud as complex art, not simple activity: a cautionary tale, part ii” reexamines the practice of reading aloud, showcasing its ability to engage a broad range of students, including those with special needs. this discussion is further developed by bintz and dr. lisa parker in “using companion texts to widen student perspective across the curriculum,” which introduces companion texts as innovative tools for improving literary comprehension and intertextual analysis across disciplines. these two articles promote a deeper understanding of text engagement and stress the need for careful text selection and teaching strategies that meet diverse intellectual needs. practical strategies for inclusive literacy education three teaching tips articles provide readers with direct, actionable methods to meet diverse learning needs and create more engaging, inclusive classrooms. in “igniting the fire within: culturally relevant expository writing,” dr. adam c. whitaker illustrates the impact of culturally scullin & griffin 3 relevant pedagogies and encourages educators to draw on students’ cultural backgrounds to boost writing engagement and learning. next, drs. sharon swift and kim barker, in “ten quick and easy ways to enhance early literacy instruction: tips from a school ot,” discuss how multisensory learning, facilitated by occupational therapy techniques, can advance literacy in young learners. in “tips for organizing a dyslexia simulation workshop for pre-service teachers,” drs. kimberly a. davidson, sarah williams, emily lin, annmarie jackson, and paula tench offer a detailed guide on using simulation exercises to help educators better understand and support students with dyslexia. together, these articles provide valuable insights into creating supportive learning environments that cater to the diverse needs of all students. final thoughts we want to express our gratitude to the contributors whose work has been pivotal in shaping this issue of the georgia journal of literacy. each article plays a crucial role in illustrating how blending traditional literacy approaches with innovative practices can meet the complex needs of today’s diverse student populations. this issue and each article therein enrich our understanding and provide actionable strategies that bridge research and practice to make our classrooms more inclusive and effective. we also extend our thanks to you, our readers, for your continued engagement and dedication to literacy education. your active participation is essential as we strive to learn, grow, and respond to the educational challenges of our time. references ho, y. s., al-moraissi, e. a., christidis, n., & christidis, m. (2024). research focuses and trends in literacy within education: a bibliometric analysis. cogent education, 11(1), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186x.2023.2287922 neuman, s. b., & gambrell, l. b. (2015). editorial: disruptive innovations in reading research and practice. reading research quarterly, 50(1), 7–12. https://doi.org/10.1002/rrq.93 stewart, m. a., abbasher, d., jaimes, m. a. a., & hughes, m. (2024). supporting early biliteracy in english-medium classrooms: initiatives for family engagement and instructional innovations. the reading teacher, 77(6), 1039–1043. https://doi.org/10.1002/trtr.2316 published: may 15, 2024 https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186x.2023.2287922 https://doi.org/10.1002/rrq.93 https://doi.org/10.1002/trtr.2316 evidence-based practices and interventions cultivating empowerment through inclusive literacy practices complexity and depth in literacy practices practical strategies for inclusive literacy education final thoughts references 2013 spring gjr full issue.pdf ���������� � ��������� � �� ��� ��� ������� ������������� ���������� !�"#$�%& �&''!(& !�)*"�)�" !�+ 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3)��:0):���!�;<=>?<@=ab<@c�dbe?<@c�bf�g>@?<a<h����"��&����ij��k!20�8�� !��!�"���$&!�l(� �*�����30�*0�7�:������)� 0/���0 �)�:4�-����0�� (��:����)��-m����2!��!���)����� !��!�20�8��6�9!�9!����:8�"�*�!&�nbcc@ob?@=ap>�ca=>?@qrs�tua<h�haf=>v�u=?@=>ha>u�=b�><?aqw�c>@?<a<h�fb?�>p>?r�u=ev><=�",,!�#j�$&!�'(�3���*���8���9�1�9�).0�!��::����!��6���::����!�"�###&!����*0�7�0�� (��:�� �� ��)��1��0 �)�:4���*����)�0�7��:)���� (��:3))0:3�3-!���� ������1����4����*���:��! �47� �84���!�2!�"�#$%&!��0�*���*���:0� 41�'(��*�/���,-�� ��x�(07(�)�,�4:(���70:���,)�:���!�9�-�)0*7�����1�y�)/�)*� �0/�)�0 4�5)���!l�������!�"���k&!� 0���70:�0�z30)41�'�.�)*�����:0�:3� 3)���,)�: 0:����*� (��)4��x��*3:� 0��!�9�-�)0*7�����1�9�-�)0*7�� �0/�)�0 4�5)���!l��*��[!� !������)�� !��!��6���) 0��\���!�"����&!�9������)� 0/���0 �)�:41������������)��*�x)�-��0 �)� 3)�!�]w>�̂>@va<h�]>@qw>?��ii"�&�����j���! georgia journal of literacy 2023, vol. 45(2), pp. 66–72 https://doi.org/10.56887/galiteracy.121 issn: 2833-7611 teaching tips contact heather s. riddle, graduate student in early childhood education with autism endorsement, university of north georgia, dahlonega, ga; email hsridd4220@ung.edu. assessing language and literacy of students with developmental disabilities and complex communication needs heather s. riddle university of north georgia, dahlonega, ga abstract students with developmental disabilities and complex communication needs are impacted by assessments that may not show their ability or address their needs. multiple modes of assessment presentation and response formats, augmentative and alternative communication approaches, and assistive technology may help students engage more equitably in literacy assessment activities. the nonverbal literacy assessment (nvla) is an example of a tool used to assess the language and literacy skills of students with disabilities in various formats. augmentative and alternative communication (aac), eye-gazing, and speech-generating device (sgd) technology are also used to make assessment more accessible to students with developmental disabilities and speech difficulties. keywords assessment; developmental disabilities; communication needs; language and literacy skills s an educator of nearly thirty years, i place great importance on assessing students with reliability and validity. however, assessing students with developmental disabilities and complex communication needs in the general education setting can be especially tricky in day-to-day classroom operations. for example, while working in a publicly funded prekindergarten classroom, i once taught a student who did not speak at school. according to the student’s caregiver, conversations occurred in the home, but they were non-existent in the classroom. the assessment system used by the school required me to record evidence of contingent conversation and rate the student on a developmental checklist. this created a challenge because i did not have enough evidence to determine whether she could communicate verbally. instead, i had to record examples of times that she did not respond so i could justify a rating of not yet. although documenting the absence of communication was probably not ideal, there was a positive result. by continuing to speak to the child (if only to document that she was not responding), there were multiple opportunities for social engagement, which eventually led to a one-word response near the end of the school year. i imagine many other teachers have had similar experiences. i wonder how much more progress could have been achieved if the assessment had been tailored to the student’s abilities. perhaps the assessment would have been more valid had i considered other forms of non-verbal communication rather than relying exclusively upon vocal speech. additionally, i might have incorporated visual supports or technology to elicit more opportunities for communicative exchanges. in hindsight, i would have been better able to document my student’s language development had i implemented a more expansive understanding of what constituted reciprocal communication, which might have been more in line with the spirit of the individuals with disabilities act (idea). a https://doi.org/10.56887/galiteracy.121 mailto:hsridd4220@ung.edu riddle 67 idea is a u.s. federal law that protects the educational rights of children with disabilities. since the law’s last reauthorization in 2004, updates have been made to serve students with disabilities more equitably. a 2016 revision addressed the over-representation of some children in special education programs, which could jeopardize their access to rigorous academic content in the least restrictive environment. before idea, children with disabilities were often excluded from school. in the 2020–2021 school year, however, around two-thirds of students with disabilities spent at least 80% of their instructional day in the general education classroom (u.s. department of education, 2023). since many students with disabilities are already in the mainstream classroom and there appears to be a move toward increasing inclusivity, accurate literacy assessment of students with developmental disabilities and complex communication needs is crucial to facilitate their reasonable participation in general reading instruction. unfortunately, these students are currently underrepresented in reading assessment data as many cannot participate in testing due to behavioral challenges or limited verbal ability (fleming et al., 2018). therefore, educators must find more inclusive ways to assess students with developmental disabilities and delays. current methods may help determine eligibility for special education services by identifying weaknesses and deficits; however, we must also be able to identify what students can do so they are placed in the least restrictive environments that allow them to develop their strengths and abilities. this will create a more equitable learning environment for students who have too often been assessed and labeled based solely on their inability to conform to modes of performance that do not consider how they can demonstrate skills and abilities. students with developmental disabilities and complex communication needs deserve the same academic prospects as their peers to reach their highest potential. a more thoughtful, flexible approach to assessment could contribute to that outcome. this article presents a variety of tools that could be used to assess the language and literacy of students with developmental disabilities and complex communication needs. the section below describes how multiple assessment formats enhance student participation in literacy assessment, followed by a discussion of augmentative and alternative communication technologies that could increase access to literacy instruction and assessment if incorporated into mainstream classroom settings. multiple assessment formats one way to make assessment more available to students with developmental disabilities and complex communication needs is to provide multiple assessment formats. presenting content in various ways and providing different response-type options can allow these students more opportunities to show what they know rather than merely display their inability to access content and/or communicate their understanding of it. multiple assessment formats provide alternative ways for students to show what they have learned so that they can use a communication venue that works best for them. one such assessment is the nonverbal literacy assessment (nvla), designed to evaluate the reading ability of students who utilize alternative augmentative communication or means of expressing themselves. this assessment includes six components: phonemic awareness, phonics, reading comprehension, listening comprehension, text awareness, and vocabulary. answer choices are arranged in rows of two to four options, and students can respond by pointing, choosing cards, or eye-gazing (ahlgrim-delzell et al., 2011). the nvla proposal document contains tables with some of the student performance tasks. it also provides the contact information of the 68 georgia journal of literacy 45(2) corresponding author. one of the authors of nvla is also associated with the early reading skills builder (ersb), which is available for purchase with other curriculum materials for students with disabilities at attainmentcompany.com/curriculum/ersb. multi-format assessment for students with developmental disabilities is supported by research. a pilot study at baylor university used multiple methods to investigate the validity of norm-referenced language and literacy assessment for children with down syndrome (ds). as with the nvla, students could show their knowledge in multiple ways (prahl & shuele, 2022). four parallel response measures of listening and reading comprehension were evaluated: nonverbal, cloze, passage with closed questions, and passage with open-ended questions. to address typically low performance on norm-referenced tests by individuals with ds, the researchers used multiple content presentations and answer formats to ensure participants with limited reading ability and speech articulation difficulties could respond to some items at the beginning of the assessment. this study lays the groundwork for creating and assessing reading interventions for children with ds through varied assessment types. it also sets the stage for learning the most effective ways to assess listening and reading comprehension of students with ds. if assessments are modified to match the communicative modes accessible to individuals with disabilities, children who have previously had limited participation in literacy assessment may be more fairly included in data that could impact the quality and appropriateness of education they receive (prahl & shuele, 2022). aidonopoulou-read (2020) examined the impact of a differentiated approach with an adapted formative assessment for students with autism and significant learning challenges. this assessment considered both formative and summative assessments so that the relationship between the two could be used to assess whether students were learning. to establish the relationship, two checklists were created: one to measure academic progress and another to evaluate behavioral engagement. for example, the academic checklist contained literacy objectives, such as watching the teacher point to pictures or matching images to tangible items. the behavioral engagement checklist showed evidence, such as seeing a student turn toward a stimulus or observing a student’s pleasant facial expression. the results indicated customized interventions were needed based on the differing motivations and needs observed through formative assessments. this modified assessment supports the simultaneous recording of formative and summative assessment data, which can be incorporated into daily classroom instruction. this is important because it creates more opportunities for students with different academic, social, and communication needs to participate in the classroom (aidonopoulou, 2020). a modified assessment that evaluates both academic achievement and motivation would be useful to teachers for planning differentiated instruction based on students’ needs and interests. augmentative and alternative communication technologies augmentative and alternative communication (aac) systems are another method to increase participation of students with developmental disabilities and complex communication needs. these systems typically use labeled visual representations, such as pictures and photographs, to depict concepts. while traditional, motionless aac supports may possibly interfere with the acquisition of sight words, proposed enhancements to aac technology would incorporate research-based transition-to-literacy (t2l) features that would include a more interactive, animated presentation focusing on sight words and student interests. a study by caron and colleagues in 2018 found that after an intensive intervention using the t2l feature, five schoolaged students with autism spectrum disorder made gains of between 45% and 69% in sight-word https://www.attainmentcompany.com/curriculum/ersb riddle 69 accuracy and were able to use the words they had learned to make comments about images shown to them. the study concluded that when aac supports are incorporated into literacy instruction, people with communication challenges can better integrate into a community that often requires literacy to participate (caron et al., 2018). some examples of aac technology used in the caron et al. (2018) study include software programs like news-2-you, pixwriter, and writing with symbols, which match or substitute written words with symbolic images (table 1). table 1: software programs that match or substitute written words with symbolic images software description link news2you content is available online for purchase and includes news stories at four different reading levels with visual supports. samples and demonstrations can also be accessed by following the link provided. n2y.com/news2you/differentiation -accessibility pixwriter uses voice output and pictures to help children struggling to read words learn to write by choosing illustrated buttons in a word bank. documents created with this technology can be saved, printed, or emailed. software subscriptions can be purchased and downloaded from the website of the attainment company or from the apple app store. attainmentcompany.com/pixwriter -software writing with symbols a system produced by widgit, has pictorial symbols in multiple languages and can be used to create differentiated flashcards, worksheets, and books. templates are also available. widgit products can be purchased through the link provided. widgit.com/writing-with-symbols eye-gazing technology and mechanical switches may also support more reliable assessment of students with disabilities that involve complex communication needs. eye-gazing technology enhances participation by providing a response mode for students with cerebral palsy, who may not be able to answer verbally, use a pencil-paper bubble sheet, manipulate a mouse, or push buttons on a keyboard. mechanical switches access devices that can produce digital or synthetic speech. the switches allow students to visually scan the options on a computerized multiple-choice test and then linger at the answer they wish to select. buttons can also be added to allow students to indicate that they would like to change or confirm an answer choice. researchers from australia and the u.s. conducted a study with school-age students in australia comparing standardized assessment results for typical children who took traditional tests with those of students who took assessments modified for use with mechanical switches or eye-gazing technology (karlsson et al., 2022). the study’s authors hypothesized that the two groups would not have a significant variation in test scores. findings have not yet been published but are expected to be shared in peer-reviewed journals (karlsson et al., 2022). equipment used in the karlsson et al. (2022) study included switch access, tobii pceye mini eye-gaze control technology, and grid 3 software: https://www.n2y.com/news2you/differentiation-accessibility https://www.n2y.com/news2you/differentiation-accessibility https://www.attainmentcompany.com/pixwriter-software https://www.attainmentcompany.com/pixwriter-software https://www.widgit.com/writing-with-symbols/index.htm 70 georgia journal of literacy 45(2) table 2: eye-gazing technology and mechanical switches item description link switch access these interface products, such as eyewear and remotecontrol buttons, are available at online stores that serve individuals with disabilities. google also provides instructions for switch access on android devices. shorturl.at/oqmsw tobii pceye the tobi pceye mini has been discontinued, but tobii dynavox’s latest eye-tracking products and accessories can be purchased through the first link provided on the right. the second link listed provides information about how to fund a device. tobiidynavox.com/products/pceye tobiidynavox.com/pages/funding grid 3 software packages with switches and eye-gazing devices can be purchased at the smartbox website following the provided link. some functions include environmental control, school and work tools, and interactive learning activities. thinksmartbox.com/product/grid-3 speech-generating devices (sgd) are another form of technology that can increase participation for students who are not able to vocalize communication. these devices produce speech by recording the human voice and creating digitized or synthesized speech. researchers from several american universities collaboratively performed a scoping review of how sgd technology affects communication outcomes for people with developmental disabilities. results indicated that these devices might effectively support word identification, syntax, literacy, and beginning communication skills of people with developmental disabilities (chavers et al., 2022). this technology would help assess students who cannot respond verbally to test prompts. three of the many sgd products used in the chavers et al. (2022) study are easy chat, nova chat, and vantage lite with unity (table 3). table 3: speech-generating devices device description link easy chat a trademark of zygo usa, easy chat is a digital recording device with a static picture overlay. messages and vocabulary can be stored in multiple languages. the provided link provides a product-description flyer with pricing and contact information. zygo-usa.com/usa/images/ chatter/easytalk description.pdf nova chat trademarked by saltillo, nova chat can be used with wired and wireless switches for scanning and includes a variety of voices in english and spanish. messages can also be sent to social media platforms. more information about the specifications of this product and how to purchase it is available through the link provided store.prc-saltillo.com/novachat vantage light a prentke romich company trademark. the company’s latest sgd and other aac technology can be purchased through the first link listed on the right. there is a tab leading to information about requesting medicaid and other insurance funding is available. a vantage light with unity user manual with a detailed description, visuals, and company contact information can be accessed by selecting the second link listed on the right. prentrom.com/products file.prentrom.com/104/vantagelite-unity-manual.pdf https://shorturl.at/oqmsw https://us.tobiidynavox.com/products/pceye https://us.tobiidynavox.com/pages/funding https://thinksmartbox.com/product/grid-3/ http://www.zygo-usa.com/usa/images/chatter/easytalk%20description.pdf http://www.zygo-usa.com/usa/images/chatter/easytalk%20description.pdf https://store.prc-saltillo.com/novachat-8-active-f19015-30 https://www.prentrom.com/products http://file.prentrom.com/104/vantage-lite-unity-manual.pdf http://file.prentrom.com/104/vantage-lite-unity-manual.pdf riddle 71 conclusion multiple assessment formats and assistive technologies are becoming more available to schools. some of the products described in this article can be found on amazon or ebay. easy access creates additional opportunities to make assessment more inclusive for students with developmental delays and complex communication needs. assessing literacy skills is imperative to be able to provide an appropriate education based on students’ identified needs and abilities. using multiple presentation and response types and incorporating aac technology allows students to show their literacy skills, so that instruction can be tailored to their ability and lead to positive outcomes and gains in literacy. literacy is essential for academic achievement, community involvement, personal autonomy, and meaningful interactions with others (caron et al., 2018). without accurate assessment, children with physical and cognitive difficulties may experience delays in receiving early intervention or be denied sufficient instructional support and academic opportunities at school (karlsson et al., 2022). as educators, we must assess our students with disabilities in ways that allow them to show us more than deficits. it is also important to document their abilities so they can continue to make gains that will lead to both independence and community connectedness, which the ability to read and write sustains. had i known about alternative assessments with multiple presentation and response types or had access to technology that helped with communication, i may have been able to gather much more information to guide instruction for my student who did not speak at school. with more data, i may have been able to either help her speak more or to be able to communicate in alternative ways that showed how smart she truly was! if i could go back in time and take these resources with me, i believe there would have been better outcomes. since there is no technology available at this time to go back in time, i will have to move forward with new knowledge to create a better future for students with developmental disabilities and complex communication needs. steps literacy teachers can take to improve assessment for students with developmental disabilities and complex communication needs are listed in table 4. table 4: steps literacy teachers can take to improve assessment step 1 look for what your students can do and use that as valuable data. step 2 find out what limitations keep your students from communicating all that they know. overcome the limitations with alternative presentation and response formats. step 3 explore what technology is already available at your school that would help your students better communicate their knowledge. discuss any needs with your school administrators to see if funding is available to purchase additional technology. also, check with vendors to see what other funding might be available through medicare or private insurance. step 4 collaborate with administrators, special educators, service providers, and caregivers to find alternative assessments that could be used or to brainstorm different ways to formatively assess children each day. step 5 decide how you will equitably assess your students with developmental disabilities and complex communication needs. implement your plan right away! 72 georgia journal of literacy 45(2) references ahlgrim-delzell, l., browder, d., flowers, c., & baker, j. (2011). proposal for the nonverbal literacy assessment (nvla): an assessment of early literacy skills for students with significant developmental disabilities who are nonverbal. https://access.charlotte.edu/sites/ access.charlotte.edu/files/media/pdflinks/nvla%20whitepaper%2011-27.pdf aidonopoulou-read, r. t. (2020). the conceptualisation of a modified formative assessment model for non‐verbal students with autism and severe learning difficulties. british journal of special education, 47(1), 88–109. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8578.12290 caron, j. g., light, j., holyfield, c., & mcnaughton, d. (2018). effects of dynamic text in an aac app on sight word reading for individuals with autism spectrum disorder. augmentative and alternative communication, 34(2), 143–154. https://doi.org/10.1080/ 07434618.2018.1457715 chavers, t. n., schlosser, r. w., cheng, c., & koula, r. (2022). effects of interventions involving speech output technologies on communication outcomes for individuals with developmental disabilities: a scoping review. american journal of speech-language pathology, 31(5), 2248–2268. https://doi.org/10.1044/2022_ajslp-22-00039 fleming, d., wilson, m., & ahlgrim-delzell, l. (2018). using item response theory to describe the nonverbal literacy assessment (nvla). psychology in the schools, 55(4), 341–349. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.22110 karlsson, p., honan, i., warschausky, s., kaufman, j. n., henry, g., stephenson, c., webb, a., mcewan, a., & badawi, n. (2022). a validation and acceptability study of cognitive testing using switch and eye-gaze control technologies for children with motor and speech impairments: a protocol paper. frontiers in psychology, 13. https://doi.org/10.3389/ fpsyg.2022.991000 prahl, a., & schuele, c. m. (2022). a pilot study assessing listening comprehension and reading comprehension in children with down syndrome: construct validity from a multi-method perspective. frontiers in psychology, 13, 1–19. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022. 905273 u.s. department of education. (2023, january 11). a history of the individuals with disabilities education act. https://sites.ed.gov/idea/idea-history#pre-eha-idea received: may 1, 2023 | accepted: july 16, 2023 | published: november 13, 2023 https://access.charlotte.edu/sites/access.charlotte.edu/files/media/pdflinks/nvla%20whitepaper%2011-27.pdf https://access.charlotte.edu/sites/access.charlotte.edu/files/media/pdflinks/nvla%20whitepaper%2011-27.pdf https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8578.12290 https://doi.org/10.1080/07434618.2018.1457715 https://doi.org/10.1080/07434618.2018.1457715 https://doi.org/10.1044/2022_ajslp-22-00039 https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.22110 https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.991000 https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.991000 https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.905273 https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.905273 https://sites.ed.gov/idea/idea-history#pre-eha-idea multiple assessment formats augmentative and alternative communication technologies conclusion references georgia journal of literacy 2025, vol. 47(1), pp. 66–78 https://doi.org/10.56887/galiteracy.183 issn: 2833-7611 practitioner article contact alexis lawton, speech-language pathologist, ms+30, ccc-slp, walterboro, sc; email alexis.lawton1@gmail.com. leveraging ai to enhance literacy in students with asd: insights and applications alexis lawton speech-language pathologist, walterboro, sc abstract students with autism spectrum disorder (asd) face unique challenges in literacy development, often requiring more individualized support than traditional interventions can provide. this paper explores the potential of generative artificial intelligence (ai) tools, such as ai-powered notetaking, natural language processing (nlp) applications, image generation, and ai-powered tutoring, to enhance literacy outcomes for students with asd. drawing on both research evidence and clinical practice, the paper highlights how ai tools can offer personalized, adaptive learning experiences that promote key literacy skills such as reading fluency, vocabulary acquisition, and writing organization. these tools provide a flexible and engaging approach to learning that can increase confidence and reduce anxiety, particularly for students who struggle with traditional methods. the paper also offers practical strategies for educators, therapists, parents, and policymakers to effectively integrate ai tools into educational and therapeutic settings, ensuring a collaborative approach to supporting students with asd. however, the author stresses that while ai offers promising support, it is most effective when used alongside traditional literacy strategies and continually assessed to ensure it meets the evolving needs of students with asd. keywords autism spectrum disorder; literacy; artificial intelligence; interventions; educational settings utism spectrum disorder (asd) is a neurodevelopmental difference characterized by persistent challenges in social communication, restrictive behaviors, and repetitive patterns of activity (american speech-language-hearing association, 2020). this definition was selected as it emphasizes the communication aspects of asd, which are directly related to literacy development and central to my work as a speech-language pathologist. students with asd, regardless of age, often face unique literacy challenges, including difficulties with reading comprehension, summarizing information, and understanding text (american speechlanguage-hearing association, 2020). these challenges can significantly impact their learning, particularly in the areas of literacy development. this paper specifically focuses on preschool-aged (ages 3–5) and school-aged children (ages 6–18) with asd as they navigate literacy in educational settings. traditional literacy strategies—such as phonics-based programs, comprehension drills, and small group instruction—have long been employed. however, these approaches may not always align with the needs of students with asd, as they often do not address sensory sensitivities, rigid thinking, or challenges with social communication (iannone, 2023). generative artificial intelligence (ai) has recently emerged as a promising tool for enhancing literacy instruction. unlike traditional ai, which focuses on tasks like data analysis, generative ai can create human-like text, engage in dynamic conversations, and adapt to learners’ needs, making it especially suited for environments where individualized support is critical (solari a mailto:alexis.lawton1@gmail.com lawton 67 et al., 2021). in education, generative ai holds the potential to reshape how students interact with content by offering flexible, adaptive learning experiences (arciuli & bailey, 2021). for students with asd, this technology offers the potential to address specific literacy development challenges. while promising, the empirical research on the effectiveness of generative ai tools for students with asd is still limited. most existing studies focus on general education contexts, with little research exploring how these tools impact literacy outcomes for students with asd (yim, 2024). moreover, concerns about biases in ai models exist, which could unintentionally reinforce stereotypes or fail to meet the diverse learning needs of students with asd (li et al., 2024). these gaps highlight the need for further research into how ai tools can be effectively designed and implemented to support literacy development in students with asd. this paper explores the potential of generative ai tools in addressing these challenges and provides practical strategies for educators and therapists to implement them effectively. author’s perspective as a school-based speech-language pathologist, i have worked with students with autism spectrum disorder (asd) for many years and have observed firsthand the difficulties they face in literacy development. traditional literacy methods often fall short because they do not consider the unique cognitive and social-emotional needs of these students. for instance, some students struggle to connect text to their personal experiences, while others find it challenging to process complex language or abstract concepts. in my practice, i’ve begun incorporating generative ai tools to support literacy development, and i have observed promising results. ai offers a personalized, adaptive learning experience that traditional methods often cannot provide. these tools help students remain engaged, practice literacy in dynamic ways, and receive immediate, contextspecific feedback, essential for students with asd. this isn’t just about innovation for its own sake—it’s about finding real, effective solutions to the literacy challenges my students face every day. i am eager to share these insights and help others in the field explore how generative ai can transform literacy education for students with asd. target audience and relevancy this paper is intended for professionals working with students with autism spectrum disorder (asd), including educators, therapists, parents, and policymakers. it provides valuable insights into the integration of generative ai tools to support literacy development in these students. general and special education teachers will find practical guidance for implementing these tools in classrooms, while therapists, such as speech-language pathologists, can explore how ai enhances therapy sessions. parents and caregivers will receive strategies for reinforcing literacy skills at home, ensuring consistent support beyond the classroom. policymakers will benefit from evidence-based recommendations on incorporating ai into educational settings for students with special needs. the literature review offers a comprehensive overview of ai tools in education and their potential to address literacy challenges for students with asd. it identifies existing gaps in research while exploring ai’s benefits, limitations, and practical applications. the review first discusses the context of asd and literacy challenges, then examines ai’s role in education, including specific tools like grammarly, chatgpt, and otter.ai. it concludes with evidence and recommendations for how educators, therapists, and policymakers can effectively utilize these tools to meet the needs of students with asd. by addressing the research gaps, this paper aims to 68 georgia journal of literacy 47(1) guide future studies and practices that can enhance educational experiences and outcomes for these students. method i used a comprehensive and systematic approach to identify relevant studies on ai tools in literacy interventions for students with autism spectrum disorder (asd). i searched academic databases such as google scholar, pubmed, and eric, using keywords like “ai in education,” “literacy interventions for asd,” “generative ai tools,” and “technology in special education.” selection criteria focused on peer-reviewed articles published within the past ten years, prioritizing research on the impact of ai on literacy outcomes for students with asd and the efficacy of specific tools (e.g., grammarly, chatgpt, otter.ai). additionally, i included studies on personalized learning and data-driven instructional strategies in special education. after screening, i narrowed down sources based on relevance, methodological rigor, and empirical data to ensure a comprehensive and up-to-date review. ai tools for literacy development in students with autism spectrum disorder: literature review and practical applications artificial intelligence (ai) technologies have garnered attention in educational settings for their potential to provide personalized learning experiences, especially for students with autism spectrum disorder (asd; see table 1 below) students with asd often face unique challenges in communication, social interaction, and academic performance, which traditional literacy instruction may not fully address (popenici & kerr, 2017). ai tools, by offering customized interventions and real-time feedback, present a promising solution for enhancing literacy outcomes (gillon et al., 2017). research highlights their potential in improving reading fluency, vocabulary acquisition, and writing skills (solari et al., 2021), although research on their effectiveness in special education remains in the early stages (rose et al., 2016). this paper explores how various ai tools—such as otter.ai, microsoft word, grammarly, turnitin, chatgpt, dall-e 2, and khanmigo—can be implemented to support literacy development in students with asd. ai-powered notetaking tools ai-powered notetaking tools like otter.ai and microsoft word offer significant benefits for students with asd. these tools can improve engagement and participation, particularly for those with learning difficulties (provenzani et al., 2019). for example, otter.ai’s speech recognition system aids with reading fluency by providing real-time feedback on pronunciation and sentence structure (knight et al., 2019). in one case, an eighth-grade student of mine with asd, who experiences fine motor difficulties and struggles with handwriting, uses otter.ai to transcribe spoken content during our virtual therapy sessions. not only does the tool capture the verbal information, but it also summarizes key takeaways and breaks down the material into manageable sections (bannur, 2023). this feature is particularly helpful for students with asd, who often experience information overload and may struggle to prioritize essential details by organizing the material into clear, digestible segments, ensuring better comprehension and sustained engagement (pangriptaningrum & hermanto, 2022). the improvements in my student’s ability to recall and apply key points were evident after a semester of using otter.ai. the student showed a 25% increase in their ability to summarize and recall reading comprehension material, as measured by preand post-reading comprehension probes. additionally, the student and their parent expressed increased independence in the sessions. lawton 69 educators can allow upper elementary to high school students to use otter.ai during writing assignments to help them dictate their thoughts, which are then transcribed into text. as students become more comfortable using otter.ai, they can gradually take on more independent tasks, completing writing assignments alongside their peers. during therapy sessions, therapists can provide a series of prompts, and the student dictates their responses to otter.ai. the therapist can then review the text with the student, focusing on ways to improve clarity, organization, and grammar. by focusing on improving the quality of the written output, the therapist helps the student become more aware of how to structure and organize their ideas more effectively. parents can also use otter.ai to assist their child with dictation exercises, such as short stories or journaling. the child can dictate their thoughts aloud, focusing on generating ideas and expressing themselves verbally, rather than struggling with the mechanics of handwriting. this helps alleviate stress around writing and allows the child to feel more confident in their ability to communicate. however, challenges related to background noise, unclear speech, and specialized vocabulary remain. despite these limitations, the overall impact of otter.ai on the student’s literacy development has been positive. similarly, microsoft word offers several ai-powered tools like editor and dictation, which are invaluable for students of various grade levels with asd who have difficulty with writing composition, grammar, and organization. a sixth-grade student of mine, who struggles with writing structure, finds the editor tool especially helpful for restructuring sentences for clarity and flow. the dictation feature also eliminates the physical challenge of typing, allowing the student to focus more on generating ideas rather than on the motor difficulties associated with writing (mukherjee et al., 2022). over the course of two months, this student demonstrated a 40% improvement in writing organization and clarity, as evidenced by preand post-intervention writing samples. the student also reported feeling more independent in her writing process and less anxious about spelling and grammar. teachers observed increased assurance and a reduction in avoidance behaviors typically associated with writing tasks. like otter.ai, educators can use dictation to help students express their ideas verbally, allowing them to focus on content rather than the mechanics of writing, and then refine their work using editor for grammar and clarity. therapists can incorporate dictation for students who struggle with writing by transcribing their verbal responses, while editor can guide students through grammar corrections and improve written expression. at home, parents can use these tools to assist with homework and creative writing activities, helping their child express ideas freely without the stress of writing by hand. by reviewing the editor’s feedback, stakeholders can reinforce grammar lessons in a supportive, non-judgmental way. while microsoft’s ai tools are beneficial, challenges remain. over-reliance on ai suggestions can sometimes hinder the development of critical thinking skills and an understanding of writing conventions (chen et al., 2022). additionally, ai-generated feedback may not always be contextually appropriate, which emphasizes the importance of teacher or therapist oversight to ensure that students’ intended meaning is preserved (barrios-fernandez et al., 2020). natural language processing (nlp) natural language processing (nlp) tools, which use machine learning techniques to understand and generate human language, have become increasingly important in literacy development. they have often been integrated into literacy platforms to support comprehension and text analysis (ghilain et al., 2016). these tools, including grammarly, turnitin, and chatgpt, offer personalized, real-time feedback that helps students improve their writing skills (dai et al., 2020). 70 georgia journal of literacy 47(1) for instance, grammarly is an ai-powered writing assistant that provides feedback on grammar, syntax, vocabulary, and overall clarity. it helps students refine their writing by suggesting improvements in sentence structure, word choice, and punctuation (cardon et al., 2021). another sixth-grade student of mine with asd, who struggles with grammar and sentence construction, showed significant improvement after using grammarly. over the course of their individualized education plan (iep), this student exhibited a 30% improvement in syntactical accuracy and a 40% improvement in overall clarity, as measured by preand post-assessments. the student reported feeling more confident in writing tasks, citing that immediate feedback helped them feel in control of their work (fiok et al., 2021). educators can incorporate grammarly to assist students with asd across various grade levels who struggle with grammar, sentence structure, and writing organization. students can type their thoughts into a word processor, and grammarly will automatically highlight errors, offering suggestions for corrections. therapists can use grammarly to identify areas for improvement in grammar, punctuation, and sentence structure. at home, parents can integrate grammarly into the child’s daily homework routine. as the child writes their assignments, they can use grammarly to revise their work, receiving immediate, receptive feedback on grammar, spelling, and sentence structure. similarly, turnitin—known for its plagiarism detection capabilities—also offers powerful nlp tools that assist students in improving writing coherence and syntax. the platform’s feedback encourages students to focus on clarity and flow, which are essential components of literacy development (hemment, 2023). my twelfth-grade student with asd, who struggles with writing organization, improved in both overall organization and coherence of his writing, showing a 35% improvement in writing structure, as observed in teacher assessments and writing samples. for middle and high school students, teachers can assign essays and encourage students to submit drafts to turnitin for feedback. the tool will check for plagiarism and originality and offer writing suggestions, helping students refine their work before final submission. this encourages students to engage with their writing more critically and become more aware of the importance of academic integrity. chatgpt, a generative ai tool, further supports students in creative and conversational contexts. research suggests that ai models like chatgpt can improve writing skills and reading comprehension (zhou et al., 2020). i used chatgpt with a student who struggles to write cohesive stories. the tool helped him generate ideas for characters, settings, and plot development, ultimately producing more structured narratives. engaging in this interactive writing process allowed him to expand his vocabulary and improve the quality of his writing drafts. this approach is particularly effective for students with asd, who often struggle with traditional social interactions and written communication (kreinsen & schulz, 2023). educators can allow students in middle and high school with asd who struggle with organizing their thoughts to use chatgpt to help them with narrative writing. for example, the tool can provide structured guidance by asking questions like, “tell me about the main character,” or “describe the setting of your story.” this interaction helps students generate coherent narratives while fostering independent thinking and creativity. in a therapy session, if a student struggles with generating ideas for a story, the student can provide a brief description of the story they want to write, and chatgpt will offer suggestions for plot twists, character development, and settings. parents can work alongside the child, using chatgpt to refine ideas and guide them through the writing process. over time, as the child becomes more comfortable with the tool, they can begin using chatgpt independently to brainstorm and develop future writing assignments. this gradual lawton 71 increase in autonomy helps build confidence in the child’s writing abilities. however, while nlp tools like chatgpt are effective in generating contextually relevant responses, they sometimes fail to provide detailed, targeted feedback on grammar and syntax unless specifically prompted by the user (song, 2023). therefore, these tools are best used as part of a broader curriculum that includes direct language instruction and teacher or therapist guidance (lund, 2023). image generation image generation tools, such as dall-e 2, can also enhance literacy development, particularly for students who benefit from visual aids. research shows that combining visual and textual learning can improve comprehension and recall, especially for students with asd who may struggle with abstract concepts or verbal expression (lurtz, 2021). these tools allow students to generate images from text prompts, bridging the gap between abstract and concrete thinking. for instance, my kindergarteners love using image generation, and one student in particular, with whom i worked, generated an image of a forest described in a story passage. this exercise helped her connect the details in the text to a visual representation, which improved her comprehension of the key story elements. after using dall-e 2, the student demonstrated a 20% improvement in her ability to describe key elements of the story and an increase in vocabulary usage as she described the images she created. educators can ask students of any age to write descriptive passages about an imaginary scene or character and then use dall-e 2 to generate images based on their descriptions. this visual representation of their writing helps students connect words to imagery, improving comprehension and stimulating creative thinking. in therapy, the therapist can prompt the student to describe their favorite place or a dream vacation and then use dall-e 2 to generate images based on the student’s descriptions. parents can prompt the child to write a short story or describe a scene in detail and then use dall-e 2 to generate images based on the child’s descriptions. incorporating both writing and visual elements into storytelling makes the writing process for students more interactive, enjoyable, and effective. while this tool can support comprehension, they do not directly address writing structure or grammar, making it important to integrate it with other literacy tools. additionally, the quality of generated images depends heavily on the specificity of the prompt, which may require guidance to ensure the output aligns with the student’s understanding (derevyanko, 2023). ai-powered tutoring khan academy’s khanmigo is another ai tool that tailors responses based on student input, offering personalized feedback to support literacy development. research suggests that ai tutors can improve engagement and learning outcomes by delivering immediate, context-specific feedback (mcdowell, 2024). khanmigo has helped my students break down complex passages by prompting them with questions that encourage critical thinking about the text. for example, my first-grade student with asd, who struggled with analyzing character motivations, benefited from khanmigo’s guidance to explore character choices and their broader implications. after using the tool for several months, the student showed steady improvement in writing structure and the ability to articulate ideas more clearly. despite its strengths, khanmigo has limitations. it does not address non-cognitive barriers, such as drive or emotional regulation, which are often present in students with asd (pitt & carless, 2021). although khanmigo helped one student improve his reading fluency and engagement by 18% over six weeks, the student still required additional support to manage emotional responses and build classroom confidence. ai tools like khanmigo can play a 72 georgia journal of literacy 47(1) crucial role in fostering academic progress. however, they should be considered part of a broader, more comprehensive learning plan that includes teacher or therapist support (rovagnati et al., 2021). educators can use khanmigo for any grade level to tailor assignments to provide step-bystep guidance, breaking tasks and readings into smaller, manageable pieces. therapists can use khanmigo as a self-paced learning tool. if the student encounters difficult vocabulary or has trouble understanding key concepts in a passage, they can ask khanmigo for explanations or clarifications. for practicing both math and reading skills at home, parents can use khanmigo to work through practice problems in math or reading exercises. this individualized support allows the child to learn at their own pace, building confidence in their abilities while reinforcing foundational skills in a way that feels engaging and supportive. table 1: overview of generative ai tools for literacy ai tool description key features potential benefits for asd students studies/references otter.ai speech-to-text transcription and note-taking tool real-time transcription, customizable vocabulary, supports multilingual inputs provides students with asd a way to transcribe speech to text, aiding in writing tasks, improving comprehension, and notetaking positively received by educators and therapists, who note its effectiveness in supporting children with neurodevelopmental disorders, including asd (barua et al., 2022). microsoft ai a suite of aipowered educational tools for reading support text-to-speech, translation, syllable highlighting, customizable fonts, and backgrounds assists students with reading fluency and comprehension; helps those with dyslexia or attention difficulties can facilitate a more inclusive learning environment, allowing educators to tailor their instruction to meet the unique needs of each student (barua et al., 2022). grammarly ai-powered writing assistant for grammar and style improvements grammar checks, writing style suggestions, tone detection, translation supports students with writing challenges; helps students with asd improve their grammar, clarity, and expression research indicates that the use of such tools can lead to improved writing outcomes, as students become more aware of their writing mechanics and develop greater confidence in their abilities (wiggins et al., 2019). turnitin plagiarism detection and writing feedback tool grammar checks, originality reports, and feedback from instructors helps students with asd improve writing through feedback; teaches proper citation practices helps students understand the importance of proper citation and ethical considerations, which is particularly relevant for children with asd who may require additional support in these areas (barua et al., 2022). chatgpt ai chatbot for personalized tutoring and conversation text generation, language comprehension, and problemsolving capabilities can engage students with asd in personalized learning, offer real-time feedback, and adapt to different literacy levels can be used to facilitate low-pressure writing tasks, allowing children with asd to generate and refine their ideas in a structured manner (dixon et al., 2019). lawton 73 limitations and future directions while integrating ai tools into literacy instruction for students with autism spectrum disorder (asd) holds significant potential, several limitations must be addressed to optimize effectiveness (see table 2 for a concise summary of these generative ai tools). technological challenges include the varying quality, accessibility, and adaptability of ai tools and the requirement for stable internet and hardware, which may not be available in all educational settings. many tools are not explicitly designed for asd students, limiting their applicability for certain needs. moreover, the implementation of these tools can differ widely across educational contexts due to factors such as classroom size, teacher familiarity, and support staff availability. ai tools may not be equally effective for all students with asd, as their cognitive and emotional profiles vary widely, necessitating research into how these tools can be more effectively tailored to individual needs. ethical and privacy concerns are also significant, as ai tools often require the collection of sensitive student data, raising questions about data security, consent, and privacy. since students with asd may be particularly vulnerable to misuse of their data, clear guidelines for safeguarding privacy while utilizing the benefits of ai tools are crucial. policymakers play a critical role in advocating for equitable access to these tools, ensuring adequate school funding, and training for educators and therapists. moreover, they must address data privacy issues by implementing robust safeguards to protect students’ sensitive information and ensure the development of best practices accessible to all students, regardless of socioeconomic status or disability. future research should focus on several areas: longitudinal studies to track the long-term effects of ai on literacy, academic progress, and social-emotional development; comparative research to identify the most effective ai tools for specific subgroups within the asd population; and research into customizing ai systems to accommodate individual student strengths, challenges, and learning preferences. additionally, ethical guidelines for data security and the integration of ai tools in educational settings need further exploration. training programs for educators and therapists will be crucial for effective tool integration, while studies on integrating ai into holistic educational frameworks that blend traditional methods with ai interventions will help support both literacy and social-emotional growth. table 2: summary of generative ai tools ai tool type of tool age/grade level applicability for asd literacy limitations dall-e 2 image generation preschool to high school (prek-12th grade) assists in visualizing abstract concepts in reading or writing the images generated may not accurately represent the intended concepts, which can be problematic for children with asd who rely on visual aids for understanding (saharia et al., 2022). khanmigo ai-powered tutoring preschool to high school (prek-12th grade) provides oneon-one tutoring, including literacy skills potential to suppress critical thinking and communication skills by providing answers without encouraging deeper engagement with the material (huang, 2023). otter.ai speech-to-text elementary to high school (grades 312) supports students in converting speech to text for written assignments reliance on clear audio input; background noise or unclear speech can lead to inaccuracies in transcription, which may confuse students who depend on accurate text representation for learning (abouammoh et al., 2023). additionally, it does not inherently teach 74 georgia journal of literacy 47(1) social skills or contextual understanding, which are crucial for children with asd (sallam, 2023). microsoft ai reading support elementary to high school (grades 312) enhances reading fluency, comprehension, and engagement suggestions may not always align with the individual learning styles or needs of children with asd, potentially leading to frustration or disengagement (sallam et al., 2023). furthermore, students may become overly dependent on technology for generating ideas and structuring their writing (hung, 2023). grammarly writing assistant middle school to college (grades 612, higher education) helps improve writing quality for students with asd children with asd may struggle with nuanced language use, and grammarly’s algorithms may not fully grasp the subtleties of their writing intentions (derevyanko, 2023). additionally, the tool does not address the emotional or social aspects of writing, which are particularly important for children with asd who may need support in expressing their thoughts and feelings effectively (truong, 2023). turnitin plagiarism detection middle school to college (grades 612, higher education) supports writing improvement through feedback this emphasis on compliance with academic standards can lead to anxiety and may stifle the creative expression that is essential for students’ engagement and learning (alneyadi & wardat, 2023). chatgpt conversational ai middle school to college (grades 612, higher education) personalized tutoring, helps with communication and comprehension additionally, the quality of responses generated by chatgpt can vary, and it may not always provide accurate or contextually appropriate information, leading to confusion (choudhry, 2023). conclusion integrating ai tools into literacy interventions for students with autism spectrum disorder (asd) offers significant promise for enhancing educational outcomes. both research and clinical experience highlight ai’s potential to address the literacy challenges faced by students with asd, particularly in areas such as reading fluency, vocabulary acquisition, and comprehension. ai tools provide personalized, adaptive learning experiences that engage students in ways traditional methods may not fully achieve. however, it is essential that ai complements, not replaces, established intervention methods. while ai can enhance traditional approaches, human interaction, direct literacy instruction, and ongoing assessments remain foundational for success. a key takeaway from the literature is the necessity for customization and personalization in ai tools. given the diversity within the asd population, ai tools must adapt to individual learning profiles to be effective. this calls for dynamic systems capable of meeting students’ unique needs. moreover, the collaborative role of educators, therapists, and parents is crucial for ensuring the effective use of these tools and alignment with students’ evolving needs. ai’s ability to analyze large datasets is another promising aspect for improving literacy outcomes. by tracking student performance in real-time, ai tools can identify specific literacy challenges and offer data-driven insights, helping educators and therapists tailor instructional strategies accordingly. this approach ensures that interventions remain personalized and responsive, fostering long-term literacy growth. for educators, therapists, and policymakers, the lawton 75 next step is to adopt a holistic approach that integrates ai tools with traditional methods. by continuously adapting and refining ai-driven strategies, we can create more equitable, engaging learning environments for students with asd, helping them overcome literacy challenges and improve 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(2020). designing ai learning experiences for k–12: emerging works, future opportunities and a design framework [preprint]. arxiv. https://doi.org/10.48550/arxiv.2009.10228 received: november 30, 2024 | accepted: april 6, 2025 | published: may 20, 2025 https://doi.org/10.48550/arxiv.2205.11487 https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare11060887 https://doi.org/10.2196/37576 https://doi.org/10.1177/13623613211025904 https://doi.org/10.1177/13623613211025904 https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1260843 https://doi.org/10.35542/osf.io/r4uhd https://doi.org/10.1002/aur.2255 https://doi.org/10.1007/s40692-023-00304-9 https://doi.org/10.1007/s40692-023-00304-9 https://doi.org/10.48550/arxiv.2009.10228 author’s perspective target audience and relevancy method ai tools for literacy development in students with autism spectrum disorder: literature review and practical applications ai-powered notetaking tools natural language processing (nlp) image generation ai-powered tutoring table 1: overview of generative ai tools for literacy limitations and future directions table 2: summary of generative ai tools conclusion references georgia journal of literacy 2024, vol. 46(1), pp. 64–77 https://doi.org/10.56887/galiteracy.130 issn: 2833-7611 practitioner article contact dr. william p. bintz, professor of literacy education; college of education, health, and human services; school of teaching, learning, and curriculum; kent state university, kent, oh; email wbintz@kent.edu. reading-aloud as complex art, not simple activity: a cautionary tale, part ii william p. bintz school of teaching, learning, and curriculum; kent state university, kent, oh abstract this article explores the nuanced art of reading aloud, positioning it as a complex, multifaceted practice rather than a mere activity. drawing on a personal vignette involving a read-aloud session gone awry, the author, a literacy educator with a deep affinity for picturebooks and reading-aloud strategies, delves into the curricular and instructional implications of reading aloud. the discussion extends into a comprehensive review of literature across five major categories, including the significance of picturebooks and their role in engaging diverse readers like emergent bilingual students and special needs students. through reflective analysis, the author shares insights on selecting picturebooks, employing effective read-aloud strategies, and the overall impact of reading aloud on children’s literacy development. concluding with practical tips for educators and caregivers, the article underscores reading aloud as a sophisticated art that enriches the educational experience, advocating for its thoughtful integration into literacy instruction. keywords reading aloud; picturebooks; science read alouds; emergent bilingual students; special needs students harles darwin, the famous 19th-century scientist, once stated, “if i had my life to live over again, i would have made a rule to read some poetry and listen to some music at least once every week.” unlike darwin, i am not a scientist. i am a teacher educator in literacy education with professional interests in picturebooks and reading aloud strategies. like darwin, i also like to listen to music and read poetry, especially poems about fathers, grandfathers, and teachers. one of my favorite poems is “what is it you like to do.” what is it that you like to do with someone you care about in a comfortable place with a lot of expression and with no interruptions? read aloud! (of course) (layne, 2001, p. 53) as a teacher, father, and now grandfather, i have always loved to read aloud to my children, my granddaughter, and my students, be they undergraduate, graduate, or doctoral students. in fact, i conduct a read aloud at the beginning of each class, and students always state that it was one of the most beneficial experiences in the course. c mailto:wbintz@kent.edu bintz 65 recently, i spent time reading, rereading, and reflecting on “what is it that you like to do” for a special occasion. i planned to take my 5-year-old granddaughter to a read-aloud session for young children at a local university. i was excited to take her to this session, if only for her to experience a read-aloud from somebody other than her grandfather. unfortunately, the read-aloud session did not go as expected. what it did was inspire this article. i begin by sharing a vignette about my experience observing an adult read aloud to a small group of young children, including my granddaughter. next, i describe several literacy lessons i learned from the whole experience about the process of reading aloud, and the curricular and instructional implications for reading aloud to children. then, i briefly review research on reading aloud, highlighting five major categories: picturebooks, picturebooks and reading aloud, research on reading aloud, reading aloud picturebooks to older readers, and reading aloud to emergent bilingual students and special needs students. i share tips for selecting picturebooks, tips for using instructional strategies to read aloud, and tips for reading aloud in general. i end with some final thoughts. vignette recently, i took my 5-year-old granddaughter to a read-aloud session for young children. the session was sponsored by scholastic publication and took place in a library/media center at a local university. a total of 9 children attended, each accompanied by at least one parent, grandparent, or caregiver. the guest speaker was an educational administrator. the children sat in a semi-circle in front of the administrator, who sat in a soft, cozy chair. he introduced himself and his 9-year-old son and identified the picturebook he selected to read that morning. it was the good egg (john, 2019). here is a precis. a good egg is both an idiom and a description of the main character. it tells the story of a verrrrrrry good egg who is kind to, generous with, and thoughtful of other eggs. he is perfect and that is the challenge. the good egg lives in a recycled carton with 11 other eggs, all of whom, except for the good egg, get into mischief and trouble. his carton-mates behave rotten. metaphorically, the good egg starts to crack from the pressure of feeling like he, unlike the other eggs, must be perfect. he decides it’s time for a change. the good egg makes time for himself, goes on a road trip, and learns the value of caring for self is as important as caring for others (even if they are rotten). before starting, the administrator invited his young son to sit next to him and be his coreader. then, he started to read aloud the picturebook, but soon invited his son to take over. his son read the rest of the story aloud to the children in a simple, word-by-word, monotone way. the administrator interjected comments at different points in the story, such as, “see, boys and girls, how well-behaved the good egg is and how all the other eggs behave badly.” however, at one point in the story, one child interrupted the son and interjected her own question, asking, “can i come up and read now?” politely, the administrator stated that his son needed to first finish reading the whole story. implications for curricular and instructional decisions i was a grandfather at the read-aloud session. however, i am also a literacy educator specializing in reading education and am familiar with the power and potential of reading aloud to children. 66 georgia journal of literacy 46(1) reading aloud is universally recognized and commonly practiced around the world. the practice is a good thing for teachers and students to do at school and for parents and children to do at home. at the same time, many adults, including teachers and parents, all too often see reading aloud to children as a simple thing to do. in many ways, this is understandable. reading aloud only requires one adult (teacher, parent, grandparent, or caregiver) and one picturebook to read to young children. this read-aloud session, however, reminded me that reading aloud is anything but a simple activity; rather, it is a complex art, requiring adults to make important curricular and instructional decisions as part of the process. to start the process, a curricular decision must be made. this decision is based on the question: what gets read? will it be a picturebook, chapter book, short story, poem, etc.? in this instance, a picturebook was a good curricular decision for this small group of children, all of whom were at or under the age of five years old. at the same time, during and after the read-aloud, i found myself questioning whether the good egg was a good curricular decision for this session. here’s why. the major theme of the picturebook is how the good egg has difficulty dealing with being perfect, exacerbated by the fact that his carton-mates are just the opposite. during the reading by both the administrator and his son, the children sat quietly but did not appear highly engaged. the administrator kept pausing his son and reminding the children about how important it is for the bad eggs to be more like the good egg. they need to be perfect, not bad. i suspect the lack of engagement was because this theme was not highly interesting to this group of children. moreover, the overall tone of the picturebook was didactic, almost moralizing, because of the importance it placed on behaving like the good egg and not like the mischievous eggs. in addition to curricular, an instructional decision must be made. this decision is based on the question: how will this book be read? many before, during, and after instructional strategies can be used to conduct enjoyable and effective read-alouds. before reading strategies are particularly important because they are designed to create interest, spark curiosity, and promote inquiry. let’s look at the front cover is one such before-reading strategy. before reading, the adult displays the front cover of the book to the children. next, the adult states, “this page is called the front cover of the book. let’s look at the front cover.” silently, the adult slowly shows the front cover so all the children can see it. then, the adult says, “let’s look at it again. this time, though, let’s share with others what you notice or what really catches your eye.” once again, the adult slowly shows the front cover and encourages the children to share what they noticed. finally, the adult continues to display the front cover but asks the children, “so now, what do we think the story will be about?” once children share their story predictions, the adult says, “let’s find out!” and begins to read aloud. unfortunately, there were no before, during, or after reading strategies used in the readaloud session i attended with my granddaughter. the administrator provided no engaging introduction to the read-aloud experience other than quickly displaying the front cover and then immediately starting to read. there was no attempt to generate curiosity, no invitation for the children to ponder the front cover and make inferences and predictions about the story, no connection to children’s personal experiences, and no wondering about what the title, characters, or story meant. lastly, i noticed the son read aloud most of the book but was not prepared to do so. it was clear he had not rehearsed reading aloud the picturebook before his father invited him to join him as a co-reader. for example, at one point in the story, the good egg returns to see his carton-mates, greeting each of them by their first name, e.g., “hey, greg.” when the son got to the text, which bintz 67 read, “aloha, shelly,” he struggled to read the word aloha. he tried to decode the word several different ways but was not sure which, if any, were correct. finally, a grandparent in the group helped, offering the correct reading and pronunciation of the word. the son smiled and continued to read. i share this vignette for two reasons. one, i want to emphasize that reading aloud to children is one of the most important and effective strategies for all readers, especially beginning readers. two, i want to promote the idea that reading aloud is not a simple activity but a complex art that requires attention to what book gets read (curriculum) and how a book gets read (instruction). i did not share this vignette to criticize an administrator, much less his son, for the way they read aloud the good egg to other people’s children. on the contrary, i recognize that they kindly and generously volunteered their time and energy to a community event and asked for nothing in return. i was truly grateful to both of them for their time and commitment to the community. picturebooks historically, a picturebook has been defined in different ways. almost fifty years ago, sutherland and hearn (1977) defined a picturebook as “one in which the pictures either dominate the text or are as important” (p. 158). similarly, marantz (1977) stated that “a picturebook, unlike an illustrated book, is properly conceived of as a unit, a totality that integrates all the designated parts in a sequence in which the relationships among them—the cover, endpapers, typography, pictures—are crucial to understanding the book” (p. 149). since then, definitions have continued to change but still emphasize that “a picturebook is the inextricable connection of words and pictures and the unique qualities of the form, always rejecting the notion that a picturebook is not simply a book that happens to have pictures” (wolfenbarger & sipe, 2007, p. 273). from a semiotic perspective, a picturebook is an aesthetic object that involves three sign systems (language, illustration, design), and each system has meaning potential by itself and with each other (sipe, 2002). here, i advocate and use the following most cited definition of a picturebook: a picturebook is text, illustrations, total design; an item of manufacture and a commercial product; a social, cultural, historic document; and foremost, an experience for a [reader]. as an art form it hinges on the interdependence of pictures and words, on the simultaneous display of two facing pages, and on the drama of the turning page. (bader, 1976, p. 1) picturebooks and reading aloud traditionally, reading aloud has been associated with picturebooks, often referred to as children’s literature. picturebooks are a staple in most if not all, elementary schools as well as public and private libraries. recently, they have also become increasingly popular and visible in middle school libraries, as well as in middle school teachers’ classroom libraries. there are many benefits to using picturebooks as instructional tools to read-alouds. first, they are short in length, only having an average of 32 pages. while some picturebooks are quantitatively sophisticated and have many words per page, the majority are sparse in words when compared to other forms of literature. thus, most picturebooks are deemed as having a lower text complexity when assessed quantitatively compared to short stories, essays, and novels. because picturebooks are often short in length, they are excellent tools to provide readers with opportunities to monitor their ongoing comprehension and make sense of their thinking. 68 georgia journal of literacy 46(1) second, picturebooks have deep and multiple meanings. often, this is shown in their qualitative text complexity and text potential. qualitative text complexity includes the levels of meaning, structure, language conventionality, and knowledge demands. picturebooks may be less quantitatively complex, but they have the potential to be complex qualitatively and thus engage readers in high levels of thinking as they create sophisticated meanings. third, picturebooks provide opportunities for teachers and students to create a community of learners. they are instructional tools that help students feel connected, valued, and respected. in large part, this is due to the fact that many children personally connect with the characters in picturebooks and also with each other. fourth, picturebooks support the process of making intertextual connections. since these books are shorter in length, teachers can read two or more picturebooks that are related in some way. text sets are one way to combine picturebooks that are connected in some way, e.g. topic, theme, main character, problem, etc. afterward, students spend time thinking, recording, and discussing the intertextual connections they see between the picturebooks. fifth, despite specific grade levels and grade bands, reading aloud picturebooks provides opportunities that reading other materials cannot do, e.g., basal stories, commercially produced program texts, or textbooks. sixth, picturebooks not only can increase student engagement in reading, but also foster a positive disposition about reading (bintz, 2015). lastly, picturebooks have much potential for students of all ages and across all content areas. braun (2010) states that “picturebooks serve to help middle grade students visualize concepts, become familiar with vocabulary, connect to content, and get excited about science” (p. 46). research on reading aloud according to fox (2008), “reading aloud to children of any age improves their literacy” (p. 5). this assertion is based on an extensive body of research. in this section, i briefly review research on reading aloud across five categories: reading aloud picturebooks across the curriculum, reading aloud picturebooks to older readers, and reading aloud to emergent bilingual students and special needs students. reading aloud picturebooks across the curriculum reading aloud nonfiction picturebooks is also important (hoyt, as cited in oczkus, 2004; oczkus, 2012). specifically, reading aloud nonfiction picturebooks is beneficial when introducing complex content area material across the curriculum. wadsworth and laminack (2006) use the idea of a bridge as a metaphor for the role picturebooks can play across the curriculum: picturebooks have the very real potential for bringing together ideas, images, content, vocabulary, language, and art in the minds of any learner. picturebooks often do become a bridge to span the curriculum, connecting each subject and each topic into one interconnected entity. this makes it possible for both teaching and learning to travel freely in the territory of ideas and information. (p. 208) picturebooks can be used to introduce a new topic or generate interest in a concept across the curriculum. science is a good example. reading aloud nonfiction picturebooks in science helps students better understand scientific ideas (webster, 2009). they can also “help students develop an interest in science, as well as help them read better” (lee, 2010, p. 424). reading aloud bintz 69 picturebook biographies of scientists can help students understand how scientists think, observe, infer, formulate, and test hypotheses, and draw conclusions (zarnowski & turkle, 2011, 2012). reading aloud picturebooks in mathematics is also important. reading aloud nonfiction picturebooks in mathematics can “provide students with opportunities to explore ideas, discuss mathematical concepts, and make connections to their own lives” (hintz & smith, 2022, p. 104). making personal connections in math class helps make mathematics accessible for students. integrating literature and mathematics also helps students make sense of their lives. social studies is yet another good example. columba et al. (2009) state, “events in the past are told in stories; we learn about others in remote places through stories; and myths and legends from ancient civilizations are passed down as stories” (p. 21). nonfiction picturebooks are also ideal for integrating literacy and social studies. they can be used “to promote civic competence, the underlying reason for teaching social studies” (balantic et al., 2011, p. 2). lastly, reading aloud picturebooks across the content areas can also increase word knowledge, syntax knowledge, and genre knowledge, and thus motivation to read (allen, 2000), as well as support student conceptual understanding (hoffman et al., 2015). reading aloud with older readers compared to younger readers, less research has been conducted on reading aloud with older readers. and yet, in becoming a nation of readers, the commission on reading states: “[reading aloud] is a practice that should continue throughout the grades” (anderson et al., 1985, p. 51), including middle grades education. despite this emphasis, little is known about the effectiveness of read-aloud practices beyond elementary school (ariail & albright, 2006). this may be because students are exposed to read-alouds less frequently as they move from primary through intermediate grades (brooks, 2011; jacobs et al., 2000), and in middle and high school, the practice of reading aloud has all but disappeared (delo, 2008). and yet, reading aloud is an instructional strategy teachers can use to encourage literacy for students regardless of their age. in fact, it is one of the most preferred instructional strategies by middle grades teachers (harvey & goudvis, 2017). for middle grades students, reading aloud can have positive outcomes for motivation, interest, engagement, and learning (ariail & albright, 2006; ivey & broaddus, 2001). mccormick and mctigue (2011) state that “because students can often comprehend orally presented texts that are normally above their own reading level, teacher read-alouds allow middle school students to experience texts that may be otherwise inaccessible” (p. 46). similarly, for middle grade teachers, it allows them to model aspects of fluent reading, such as pronunciation, intonation, rhythm, and style, and it makes texts more accessible to students (ariail & albright, 2006). it also helps teachers enhance student vocabulary development, especially when teachers pause to go over difficult words and then have conversations with students using the new words after reading (reutzel & cooter, 2008). reading aloud benefits students at all grade levels including middle grades and high school (routman, 1994; zehr, 2019). jim trelease, author of the read-aloud handbook (2019), believes that continuing to read aloud to learners at any age is beneficial. similarly, routman (2002) notes that “reading aloud—in all grades—has long been viewed as a critical factor in producing successful readers as well as learners who are interested in reading” (p. 20). in particular, older students who are less fluent readers receive the greatest benefits from teachers reading aloud (herrold et al., 1989; meloy et al., 2002). trelease states that “the first reason to read aloud to older kids is to consider the fact that a child’s reading level does not catch up to his listening level 70 georgia journal of literacy 46(1) until about the eighth grade . . . you have to hear it before you can speak it, and you have to speak it before you can read it. reading at this level happens through the ear” (as cited in korbey, 2013, pp. 1-2). in addition to children and adolescents, pitts states that even “college students read more and better books when they are read to” (as cited in krashen, 2004, p. 78). reading aloud to emergent bilingual students and special needs students reading aloud helps emergent bilingual students develop english fluency, word meanings, oral language, and thinking skills (hickman & pollard-durodola, 2004). interactive read-alouds help emergent bilingual students’ language development, curiosity, vocabulary development, particularly incidental vocabulary acquisition (hoyt, 2009; layne, 2001), learning, and comprehension, especially making connections with and across texts (giroir et al., 2015, p. 647). similarly, reading aloud is beneficial with special needs students. the practice helps “build a sense of community in any class that experiences the same shared, secret joy of listening to the same great pieces of literature, be they brief or much longer. the class bonds in such a way that it becomes more like a family than a class” (fox, 2008, p. 6). tips for selecting read-aloud texts in real life, selecting anything for the purpose of entertainment, enjoyment, or information is a subjective, if not risky, process. it is not as easy as it sounds. the traditional practice of returning christmas gifts is a yearly reminder. selecting picturebooks to read aloud is also a subjective process, and it, too, is not as easy as it sounds. fortunately, there has been and continues to be, much professional literature on tips for selecting texts to read aloud (see trelease, 1992). the following tips and rationales are based on the literature included after the reference section of this article. table 1: tips for selecting read-aloud texts tip 1 select picturebooks that are likely to be personally relevant and potentially meaningful to the age and background of the children; that is, select picturebooks that mean more to the children than they do to the reader; tip 2 select familiar and popular picturebooks geared for a particular group of children. children need to see children like themselves in the books they read and are read to them; tip 3 select picturebooks with colorful and evocative illustrations. picturebooks integrate, not separate, language and illustrations. children do not privilege language over illustration. they use both to make sense of the picturebook; tip 4 select picturebooks that reflect examples of good writing. children internalize story structures from reading and use them in their own writing; tip 5 select picturebooks that introduce different kinds of genres, e.g., stories, biographies, poetry, etc. it is important that children read deeply and broadly; tip 6 select picturebooks that provide natural stopping points to pause during a read-aloud. at each stopping point, share ongoing understanding of the story. children need to hear not only what good reading sounds like, but also hear how good readers understand stories. bintz 71 tip 7 select picturebooks in which the author uses authentic, patterned, and predictable language. these three characteristics are fundamental to language and language learning. patterned picturebooks and predictable picturebooks are two genres that offer a wealth of high-quality and award-winning picturebooks to meet these tips for selecting read-aloud texts. based on my personal experience, young children find the following patterned and predictable picturebooks enjoyable, engaging, and memorable. who sank the boat (allen, 1996), the important book (brown, 1999), fortunately (charlip, 1993), mrs. wishy washy’s farm (cowley, 2006), tough boris (fox, 1998), it didn’t frighten me (goss & harste, 1984), don’t forget the bacon (hutchins, 1989), dog in, cat out (rubinstein, 1993), gotta go, gotta go (swope, 2000), no baths for tabitha (thomas & siegal, 1982), noisy nora (wells, 1999), and grandpa’s slippers (watson, 1989). tips for using read-aloud strategies there are many strategies adults can use to read aloud. here, i share several popular and different ways for reading aloud to students. traditional read-aloud this is an instructional strategy in which an adult reads aloud a picturebook to a large or small group of children but also to an individual child. in this strategy, the primary role of children is to listen to the story and view the illustrations which are shared visually by the adult. the primary goal of the practice is for the adult to model proficient reading, share rich and authentic language, promote conversation, motivate readers, and support comprehension (see international literacy association, 2023). interactive read-aloud this is an instructional strategy in which an adult reads aloud a picturebook to a whole group or small group of children. while reading, the adult pauses at predetermined, selective, and strategic places in the picturebook. at these places, the adult invites children to respond to the picturebook and share their responses with others (fountas & pinnell, 2019) turn & talk this is an instructional strategy that can be used with an interactive read-aloud (see routman, 2002). children are placed in pairs. then, the adult starts to read aloud a picturebook, pausing at strategic places. at these places, the adult invites children to turn and talk for a minute or two with their partner about what they are understanding about the picturebook. the talk is informal, conversational, and open-ended. afterward, pairs of children are invited to share what they talked about. echo reading this is an instructional strategy that, like turn and talk, can be used with an interactive readaloud. the adult reads a short segment of text, e.g., line by line, sentence by sentence, etc. after 72 georgia journal of literacy 46(1) each line, the adult pauses, and a student(s) echoes the line or sentence back. this strategy helps children develop expressive, fluent reading. choral reading this is an instructional strategy in which the adult reads aloud but pauses at places when students can read aloud a repeated choral line in unison as a whole class or as a small group. daisy, eat your peas (gray & sharratt, 2000) is a good example of a picturebook that has a repeating choral line. think aloud this is an instructional strategy in which an adult reads aloud strategic sections of a picturebook, pausing after each section to share with children what s/he is understanding up to that point and what strategies s/he is using to maintain and extend understanding of the picturebook. this strategy allows adults to share what they understand and what strategies they are using to broaden and extend their understanding. simply put, this strategy is like adults allowing children to eavesdrop on their reading and thinking. it allows adults to share with children what is going on behind their eyes and demonstrate what is going on in the minds of good readers. reverse think aloud like the think aloud, this is an instructional strategy in which an adult reads aloud strategic sections of a picturebook, pausing after each section. unlike the think aloud, when pausing after each section, the adult invites children to make comments and ask questions to the adult about the picturebook. for example, based on my own experience with this strategy, children make simple comments like, “i really like the way you read. you sound my dad when he reads to me.” they also ask questions like, “i’m liking this book. are you liking it?” “i love the illustrations. do you love them?” “what is your favorite part of the story so far?” “why is that your favorite part?” “are there any parts of the story you don’t like?” one of my favorite questions was from a little boy who asked me, “do you ever read stories and not know all of the words?” tips for reading aloud much professional literature exists on tips for effectively reading aloud (see table 2). like many other reading teachers, i have been influenced by much of this literature, specifically the work of two authors, jim trelease (1992; 2019) and mem fox (2008). these authors have informed not only my own beliefs and practices on reading aloud but also those of parents and teachers around the world. table 2: tips for reading aloud tip 1 practice, practice, practice. reading aloud is not a simple activity but a complex art; tip 2 preview the picturebook yourself. look for sections of the story you want to shorten or emphasize; tip 3 do not rush into the read-aloud. allow children time to get comfortable and ready for the read-aloud; bintz 73 tip 4 allow yourself time to get comfortable. your head should be above the heads of your listeners so all children can hear your voice; tip 5 set the stage for reading. display the cover page, read the title, and introduce the author and illustrator. if applicable, note any special features on the front cover, e.g., won an award, written in interesting and/or multiple font(s), includes unusual colors, etc.; tip 6 don’t privilege language over illustrations. both are integral parts of the process, so make sure the children can see the pictures easily; tip 7 use prosody and reading with expression when reading aloud (see rasinski & smith, 2018; rasinski & young, 2023). read fluently and change your tone of voice to fit the language and dialogue; tip 8 don’t read too fast or too slow. adjust your pace to fit the story and the comfort of the children; tip 9 don’t be unnerved by questions during the reading. foster curiosity with patient answers, then resume reading; tip 10 allow time for discussion after reading a picture book. ask open-ended questions like, how did you like our story? what part of the story did you like the most? how did i do as a reader? what did i do as a reader that you really liked? do not turn discussions into quizzes. tip 11 most importantly, relax and have fun! final thought as noted earlier, the purpose of this article was not to critique one read-aloud session. rather, it was to offer a cautionary tale. i hope this tale will help promote a big idea; namely, that reading aloud is a complex art, not a simple activity. the fact that it is complex is what makes it such a powerful instructional teaching and learning tool. the fact that it is an art is what makes it such an effective instructional practice, provided it is planned thoughtfully. i also hope that sharing tips for selecting picturebooks, using instructional strategies to read aloud, and reading aloud will help all adults, especially teachers, put this idea of reading aloud into practice. let’s start reading aloud and having lots of fun. references allen, j. 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(2019). the artful read aloud: 10 principles to inspire, engage, and transform learning. heinemann. fox, m. (2008). reading magic: why reading aloud to our children will change their lives forever. harper paperbacks. gurdon, m.c. (2020). the enchanted hour: the miraculous power of reading aloud in the age of distraction. harper paperbacks. jennings, j., caldwell, j., & lerner, j. (2013). reading problems: assessment and teaching strategies. pearson. serafini, f., & giorgis, c. (2003). reading aloud and beyond: fostering the intellectual life with older readers. heinemann. trelease, j. (1992). hey! listen to this: stories to read aloud. penguin books. trelease, j. (2019). jim trelease’s read-aloud handbook (8th ed.). penguin books. https://edweek.org/treading-aloud-to-teens-gains-favor-among-teachers/2010/01 bintz 77 wadsworth, r. m., & laminack, l. l. (2006). reading aloud across the curriculum: how to build bridges in language arts, math, science, and social studies. heinemann. walther, m. p. (2019). the ramped-up read aloud: what to notice as you turn the page. corwin. walther, m. p. (2022). shake up shared reading: expanding on read alouds to encourage student independence. corwin. received: october 4, 2023 | accepted: november 13, 2023 | published: may 15, 2024 vignette implications for curricular and instructional decisions picturebooks picturebooks and reading aloud research on reading aloud reading aloud picturebooks across the curriculum reading aloud with older readers reading aloud to emergent bilingual students and special needs students tips for selecting read-aloud texts tips for using read-aloud strategies traditional read-aloud interactive read-aloud turn & talk echo reading choral reading think aloud reverse think aloud tips for reading aloud final thought references literature cited georgia journal of literacy 2025, vol. 47(2), pp. 22–38 https://doi.org/10.56887/galiteracy.200 issn: 2833-7611 practitioner article contact dr. sarah w. sharpe, assistant professor, department of teacher education, leadership & counseling, columbus state university, columbus, ga; email sharpe_sarah@columbusstate.edu (https://orcid.org/0000-00015529-5334). teaching thinking for reading: merging executive function, structured literacy, and asset-based practices sarah w. sharpe columbus state university, columbus, ga abstract reading comprehension requires more than decoding; it requires strategic thinking. yet many students, particularly those from historically marginalized backgrounds, are often labeled as struggling readers without attention to their cognitive assets or instructional gaps. this practitioner-based article explores how educators can intentionally teach thinking for successful reading by modeling executive function skills and comprehension strategies, fostering metacognition, and affirming students’ cultural knowledge and assets. grounded in the science of reading and learning, this work draws on research on executive function, purposeful think-alouds, and assetbased frameworks. this article offers practical, classroom-ready strategies for implementing structured literacy in ways that support comprehension, center student voice, and affirm diverse ways of knowing. through teacher think-alouds, culturally responsive approaches, and student strategy reflection routines, this piece will show how educators can bridge the gap between decoding and comprehending while honoring the assets and brilliance students bring to the classroom. keywords reading comprehension; executive function; structured literacy; science of reading; assetbased teaching; teacher thinkalouds; metacognitive reading strategies common issue educators observe is that some students demonstrate strong decoding skills but struggle to comprehend what they read (oakhill et al., 2019). research suggests that despite having adequate decoding skills, approximately 10% of students still struggle with reading comprehension (landi & ryherd, 2017; taboada barber et al., 2022). these students may read fluently (at a steady, conversational pace), yet be unable to explain the main idea or key details of the text. this pattern of performance is a characteristic of students with a specific reading comprehension deficit (s-rcd; landi & ryherd, 2017). s-rcd can result from several underlying factors, including limited background knowledge, poor vocabulary development, or underdeveloped executive function skills such as inferencing and monitoring for understanding. regardless of the cause, it is critical for educators to focus on effectively modeling how to think while reading through explicit instruction and rich discussions. reading skills and strategies can be taught efficiently and successfully in early childhood and elementary settings when instruction is delivered in a clear, structured, and intentional manner (rupley et al., 2009). however, while phonological awareness and phonics are often taught through explicit instruction, reading comprehension is not always approached with the same level of intentionality. reading comprehension requires the integration of multiple linguistic and cognitive processes (landi & ryherd, 2017), necessitating explicit instruction for students. this article integrates the science of reading with the science of learning, emphasizing explicit, structured instruction paired with cognitive and metacognitive strategic teaching. teachers can a mailto:sharpe_sarah@columbusstate.edu https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5529-5334 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5529-5334 sharpe 23 model executive functions through think-alouds and affirm students’ backgrounds as they teach students how to think while reading. thinking for reading refers to the cognitive and metacognitive processes that readers engage in to make meaning from text. it goes beyond decoding individual words and involves strategic actions such as making inferences, generating predictions, asking questions, clarifying misunderstandings, and summarizing key ideas. these are processes that skilled readers use flexibly and intentionally (keene & zimmermann, 1997; pressley, 2006). these strategies are closely tied to executive function, which encompasses a set of self-regulatory skills including working memory, cognitive flexibility, and inhibitory control. these skills are essential for monitoring comprehension, adjusting strategies, and sustaining focus while reading (baker, 2005; cartwright, 2015). complementing executive function, structured literacy refers to a systematic and explicit approach to reading instruction, rooted in the science of reading (moats, 2020). it emphasizes foundational skills such as phonological awareness, decoding, and word recognition, along with explicit instruction in syntax, morphology, and background knowledge to support language comprehension. to fully support all readers, particularly those who can decode fluently but struggle with meaning, structured literacy must be intentionally paired with instruction that cultivates executive function and thinking for reading. this integration is what enables students to become strategic, metacognitive, and self-regulated readers. why this matters for equity teaching students how to think while reading through an asset-based approach is a matter of educational fairness. too often, students from historically marginalized backgrounds are overrepresented among those struggling with reading (u.s. department of education, institute of education sciences, national center for education statistics [nces], 2022). although direct studies on marginalized students with s-rcd (poor comprehension despite good decoding) remain limited, these broader reading disparities suggest a likely overrepresentation of marginalized students within the s-rcd category. students’ reading disparities, as revealed in reports such as nces (2022), are not necessarily due to innate deficits, but rather because instruction fails to honor their cultural knowledge or provide access to deeper meaning-making strategies. when teachers use thinkalouds to model executive functioning and engage students in rich, meaningful discussions related to their reading that build on their lived experiences, they empower all learners to become strategic, reflective readers. this work ensures that comprehension instruction is not a privilege reserved for high-achieving or affluent students, but a right for every learner. equitable reading instruction affirms students’ identities and equips them with the cognitive tools to not only read text but to analyze, critique, and transform the world around them. addressing the comprehension crisis requires a shift in how we view reading success. teaching phonics and decoding is necessary, but not sufficient. students must also be taught how to think actively and strategically while reading. when comprehension is left to chance, or reserved for students with strong oral language or academic support at home, we risk widening opportunity gaps. opportunity gaps reflect the systemic inequities in access to high-quality instruction, resources, and expectations that shape student achievement (ladson-billings, 2006). ladsonbillings (2006) further argues that these disparities stem from a long-standing education debt— the accumulated historical, economic, and sociopolitical disadvantages that continue to undermine equitable outcomes for marginalized students. addressing comprehension explicitly is one step 24 georgia journal of literacy 47(2) toward repaying that debt. all students deserve explicit instruction in the cognitive processes that underpin understanding: making inferences, asking questions, monitoring comprehension, and drawing connections. by combining structured literacy with rich, asset-based comprehension instruction, every child can become not just a reader, but a thinker. the science of reading meets the science of learning in recent years, the science of reading has gained significant attention, with several states (including georgia) mandating that k–5 educators utilize universal assessments and implement instructional strategies that align with structured literacy and the five fundamental pillars of reading. in fact, 40 states and the district of columbia have enacted legislation or policies requiring evidence-based reading instruction that emphasizes phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary, and comprehension, including regular universal screening and the adoption of structured literacy curricula since 2013 (schwartz, 2025). the science of reading refers to the body of research on best practices for teaching reading, specifically related to brain activities while reading (moats, 2020). technological advancements in brain imaging and statistical analysis have deepened our understanding of how students learn to read and respond to instruction. similarly, the science of learning is the body of research that studies learning from a multidisciplinary perspective, mainly drawing from neuroscience, psychology, and education. it investigates how people learn and how to design more effective learning environments, uncovering evidence-based principles that support long-term retention, conceptual understanding, knowledge transfer, and learner motivation (national academies of sciences, engineering, and medicine, 2018). the science of reading and the science of learning highlight the importance of explicit, evidence-based instruction. while the science of reading focuses on how the brain learns to read, the science of learning explains how knowledge is retained, transferred, and applied. together, they emphasize intentional instruction that supports deep comprehension and long-term learning. researchers such as cartwright and palian (2024) have demonstrated through metaanalytic reviews that students with stronger reading-specific executive functions (including working memory, planning, organization, and cognitive flexibility) involved in shifting between ideas and integrating prior knowledge demonstrate significantly better outcomes in reading comprehension and fluency. similarly, berninger et al. (2017) found that abilities like inhibition (suppressing irrelevant information, impulses, or distractions when reading) and sustained switching attention (shifting attention between different aspects of reading and language in a literacy task) within language contexts uniquely support reading comprehension, indicating that students with stronger executive control are better able to manage competing cognitive demands during reading and writing. equally crucial as executive functions is self‑regulation, which is the ability to set goals, monitor progress, and persist through challenging tasks. baker (1979) defines self-regulation as readers’ use of metacognitive strategies to monitor comprehension, detect confusion, and correct misunderstanding proactively, showing that such regulation supports effective reading behaviors. guthrie and wigfield (2004) demonstrate through their concept-oriented reading instruction framework that teaching students to set goals, self-initiate strategies, and sustain engagement significantly enhances strategy use, reading motivation, and comprehension outcomes. finally, metacognition, or thinking about one’s own thinking, plays a foundational role in reading proficiency. metacognition includes metacognitive knowledge (awareness of strategies) and metacognitive regulation (planning, monitoring, and evaluating one’s cognitive activity) during learning tasks (flavell, 1979). when teachers explicitly model these processes through sharpe 25 think-aloud demonstrations and scaffolded support, they enable students to internalize the cognitive habits of skilled readers (pearson & gallagher, 1983). meta‑analyses and classroom studies demonstrate that explicit instruction in planning, monitoring, and adjusting reading strategies leads to measurable gains in comprehension and vocabulary (boulware‑gooden et al., 2007). one essential instructional strategy for developing students’ executive functions, selfregulation, and metacognition is explicit, teacher-led think-alouds. think-alouds are an evidencebased approach in which teachers verbalize their cognitive processes during reading to model the strategic thinking skilled readers use (ness, 2016). this modeling provides students with clear, concrete demonstrations of how and when to apply comprehension strategies such as predicting, clarifying, questioning, and summarizing. according to ness (2016), think-alouds are especially powerful because they reduce students’ cognitive load by externalizing the mental routines that proficient readers perform silently and automatically. by making the invisible work of reading visible, teacher think-alouds reduce ambiguity and help learners internalize purposeful reading behaviors (woods, 2020). for example, while reading a nonfiction passage, a teacher might pause and say, “hmm, the heading says ‘causes of hurricanes,’ so i predict this section will explain how hurricanes form. i’ll keep reading to confirm whether that’s true.” this simple statement models the strategy of predicting, drawing on text features and prior knowledge, while also inviting students to adopt that same habit in their independent reading. over time, with consistent exposure and guided practice, students begin to mirror these metacognitive behaviors, gaining greater control over their comprehension processes. in reading instruction, it is critical to distinguish between skills and strategies. skills such as decoding and recognizing high-frequency words are foundational and typically become automatic with repeated practice. these automatic processes are essential for fluent reading, but they do not guarantee comprehension. in contrast, strategies are deliberate, goal-oriented actions that readers actively choose and apply when they encounter a challenge or want to deepen understanding. these include actions like questioning the text, visualizing content, rereading, making inferences, and summarizing meaning. skilled and proficient readers don’t rely on a single strategy—they draw from a flexible repertoire of strategies based on the demands of the text and their reading goals. understanding this distinction is vital because it clarifies the teacher’s role in comprehension instruction. while students often acquire skills through modeling and practice, strategies must be explicitly taught, modeled, and practiced in varied contexts. teachers play a central role in developing students’ strategic reading behaviors by making their own thinking visible through think-alouds, providing guided practice, and gradually releasing responsibility to students. when teachers create environments that encourage students to monitor their thinking, select appropriate strategies, and reflect on their use, they empower students to become independent, metacognitive readers who can navigate complex texts with confidence and purpose. as keene and zimmermann (1997) highlight, strategic reading involves intentional meaning-making rather than rote processing. duke and pearson (2002) also emphasized the teaching of “good reader” strategies through scaffolded, interactive instruction. palincsar and brown’s (1984) work on reciprocal teaching further supports this approach by advocating for structured strategy instruction through a gradual release model: the teacher first models the strategy, then supports students as they take increasing responsibility. baker’s (1979, 2005) research also connects these strategies to self-regulation, showing that strategic readers are better able to monitor, adjust, and sustain engagement while reading. 26 georgia journal of literacy 47(2) table 1 highlights key comprehension strategies every student should know. the table includes definitions, why the strategy matters, and classroom-based examples for each. table 1: key comprehension strategies and classroom examples comprehension strategy definition why it matters classroom examples predicting making informed guesses about what will happen next based on text clues, prior knowledge, or text structure. predicting sets a purpose for reading and keeps students actively engaged. ● before reading a historical fiction text, a student says, “i think the main character will join the civil rights protest because she’s angry about injustice.” ● while reading a science article, a student predicts the outcome of an experiment based on prior knowledge. ● a teacher models predicting by saying, “the author just described storm clouds rolling in. i predict something dramatic is about to happen.” questioning asking questions before, during, and after reading to clarify understanding and promote deeper thinking. questioning fuels curiosity and promotes metacognition. ● a student wonders, “why did the character leave the house in the middle of the night?” ● while reading an informational text, a student asks, “how does this relate to what we learned in science?” ● during a think-aloud, the teacher models asking, “what is the author’s purpose in using this example?” clarifying pausing to resolve confusion by rereading, using context clues, or consulting outside resources. clarifying empowers students to independently tackle challenging parts of a text. ● a student rereads a paragraph slowly to understand unfamiliar vocabulary. ● a teacher models clarifying by saying, “i’m not sure what ‘photosynthesis’ means, but the next sentence gives an explanation.” ● a student uses a glossary or dictionary to clarify the meaning of a technical term. summarizing identifying and restating the most important ideas or events in a concise way. summarizing builds comprehension, memory, and the ability to distinguish main ideas from details. ● after reading a chapter, a student summarizes: “the main point was that pollution harms marine life.” ● a teacher models summarizing a paragraph using a “somebody-wanted-but-so-then” framework. ● students work in pairs to summarize a nonfiction article using sentence starters. making inferences using text evidence and prior knowledge to draw conclusions not directly stated in the text. inference-making is essential for understanding characters, themes, and author intent. ● a student infers that a character is jealous even though it’s never directly stated. ● while reading, the teacher thinks aloud: “the author didn’t say she was scared, but the way she clutched her bag tells me she was nervous.” ● a student infers a cause-and-effect relationship between two events in a science article. visualizing creating mental images of the scenes, characters, or information described in the text. visualizing enhances engagement and memory, particularly for narrative and descriptive texts. ● a student says, “i can picture the forest in my mind—it’s dark and full of strange sounds.” ● while reading poetry, students draw what they visualize based on sensory language. ● a teacher models visualizing by saying, “i see a crowded market filled with bright colors and music.” sharpe 27 monitoring comprehension being aware of one’s understanding during reading and adjusting strategies when confusion occurs. skilled readers monitor their own comprehension and take action when meaning breaks down. ● a student realizes they don’t understand a section and decides to reread it more slowly. ● a teacher models, “wait—i lost track of who’s speaking. let me go back and clarify.” ● a student switches strategies, like summarizing or visualizing, when comprehension falters. metacognitively developed readers are intentional and deliberate with the use of these strategies (woods, 2020). by modeling these strategies through explicit think-alouds and gradually releasing responsibility, teachers support the development of students’ executive function, selfregulation, and metacognitive awareness, all of which are critical for becoming independent, proficient readers. think-alouds make the invisible cognitive processes of skilled readers visible, offering students concrete examples of how to plan, monitor, and adjust their thinking while reading. as woods (2020) and palincsar and brown (1984) emphasize, these metacognitive strategies are more than tools for comprehension; they are essential for cultivating students’ ability to regulate their own learning, make purposeful decisions about strategy use, and sustain deep engagement with text. ultimately, instruction that emphasizes strategic thinking through modeled practice helps students build the cognitive flexibility, focus, and confidence necessary for lifelong reading success. asset-based teaching: centering students’ cultural knowledge although teacher-led think-alouds are widely recognized as an effective instructional strategy for modeling metacognitive processes and supporting reading comprehension, there is a limited body of research on this instructional approach that centers on diverse student populations, particularly black students, emergent bilinguals, and other historically marginalized learners. woods (2020) notes in her examination of teacher think-aloud instruction that few studies have explored how these practices are implemented in classrooms serving culturally and linguistically diverse students. similarly, lindo (2006) found that black students are significantly underrepresented in reading intervention research, highlighting a critical gap in the literature and underscoring the need for more inclusive, equity-centered inquiry. to maximize their effectiveness, think-alouds should not be delivered as decontextualized scripts, but instead should reflect and incorporate students’ cultural knowledge and lived experiences. embedding students’ assets into teacher-led thinkalouds not only makes instruction more meaningful but also affirms their identities and promotes equity in literacy learning. asset-based teaching (abt) focuses on harnessing students’ innate strengths and community resources, rather than centering on deficits or remediation (kretzmann & mcknight, 1993). in educational settings, abt has been linked with improvements in student confidence, agency, and motivation (flint & jaggers, 2021). furthermore, core characteristics of effective abt include inclusive, culturally informed, linguistically responsive, and reflective instructional practices (mein, 2018). across broader community development and educational paradigms, abt aligns with principles of appreciative inquiry, social capital, and participatory development by emphasizing community assets as bases for growth (mathie & cunningham, 2003). when classrooms emphasize strengths and cultural wealth over deficits, they foster more engaged, empowered, and equitable learning environments for diverse learners (flint & jaggers, 2021; mein, 2018). within education, abt is not a singular approach, but instead reflected in multiple pedagogical frameworks, such as culturally responsive teaching, culturally relevant pedagogy, and 28 georgia journal of literacy 47(2) culturally sustaining pedagogy, which each interpret and enact asset-based principles in distinct yet overlapping ways. abt aligns with frameworks such as culturally relevant pedagogy (ladson-billings, 1995), culturally responsive teaching (gay, 2018), and culturally sustaining pedagogy (paris, 2012). while each one has unique components and emphases, they all share the goal of affirming students’ identities and leveraging their cultural knowledge as academic resources in students’ learning. readers seeking deeper theoretical distinctions between each framework can refer to the original works. particularly, culturally responsive teaching (crt) highlights using students’ cultural knowledge, prior experiences, and learning styles to make instruction more meaningful and effective. gay (2018) identifies five essential elements of crt: (1) developing a strong knowledge base about cultural diversity, (2) integrating diverse cultural perspectives and content into the curriculum, (3) demonstrating genuine care and cultivating inclusive learning communities, (4) communicating effectively with students from a variety of cultural backgrounds, and (5) adapting instructional practices to be responsive to students’ cultural experiences. the instructional framework (sharpe, 2022) introduced in this article draws on crt principles to ensure that comprehension strategy instruction is both culturally affirming and cognitively rigorous. while teacher-led think-alouds are widely recognized as a powerful approach to support reading comprehension and model metacognitive thinking (ness, 2017; pressley & afflerbach, 1995), they are often implemented in ways that overlook the diverse cultural and linguistic experiences students bring to the classroom. findings from a mixed-methods study examining teacher think-aloud practices (woods, 2020), along with the development of a practitionerinformed framework for culturally responsive think-aloud instruction (sharpe, 2022), indicate that while many educators value think-alouds, they often use them as scripted walkthroughs of strategies rather than as authentic opportunities to connect with students’ identities and lived experiences. the framework proposes that teachers must be intentional, not only in how they model strategies such as predicting, inferring, and clarifying, but also in how they embed students’ cultural knowledge, home language, and prior experiences into their verbal reasoning. when delivered in this way, think-alouds shift from procedural tools to relational and cognitively engaging practices that foster affirmation and deeper comprehension. research consistently demonstrates that students benefit from hearing how skilled readers think aloud in real time to make sense of texts (pearson & gallagher, 1983), as well as from adequate opportunities to practice reading and applying taught strategies (duke & pearson, 2002). however, as gay (2018) argues, cognition and learning are inherently shaped by cultural context. thus, reading strategies must be taught in ways that reflect students’ discourse patterns, values, and meaning-making processes. hammond (2015) extends this notion by advocating for “culturally responsive information processing,” which invites teachers to support students’ higherorder thinking by leveraging cultural schema and linguistic assets. when think-alouds are grounded in this asset-based stance, students are more likely to engage deeply and internalize strategic behaviors (sharpe, 2022; woods, 2020). in contrast, generic or decontextualized thinkalouds, while technically accurate, often fail to resonate with learners, limiting their impact. sharpe’s (2022) culturally responsive think-aloud instructional model (see figure 1) addresses this gap by blending explicit strategy modeling with components of metacognition, cognition, self-regulation, and culturally responsive teaching. the model emphasizes metacognition by making students’ thinking visible and reflective, guiding them to monitor their comprehension, adjust strategies, and plan ahead. cognition is addressed through the intentional sharpe 29 modeling of strategy use, such as predicting, questioning, and summarizing, embedded within meaningful, grade-appropriate texts. self-regulation is cultivated through opportunities for students to set goals, evaluate their understanding, and persist through complex texts. just as important, the culturally responsive component ensures that texts, language, and modeled thinking reflect and affirm students’ identities, experiences, and cultural knowledge. this integrated approach supports not only what students learn, but also how and why they engage with reading in purposeful, personally meaningful ways. figure 1: culturally responsive think-aloud instructional model (crtaim) note. from “think-aloud reading instruction through a culturally responsive teaching lens” (sharpe, 2022). while the present author could not locate empirical studies involving direct observation or data collection on the impact of integrating asset-based approaches with structured literacy, there is emerging literature that supports this conceptual blending. for example, sanchez et al. (2024) examine culturally sustaining pedagogy within the context of early literacy instruction and the science of reading. they provide theoretically grounded, practice-based strategies for integrating multilingual learners’ linguistic and cultural assets into foundational literacy instruction. their work illustrates how structured literacy principles can be aligned with culturally sustaining approaches to better serve diverse learners. similarly, gunner (2023) outlines a classroom model that incorporates culturally responsive practices, such as student-authored sentences and texts tied to students’ interests, within explicit phonics and phonemic awareness instruction. while not a formal study, gunner shares anecdotal evidence pointing to increased student engagement, enjoyment, and ownership of learning. additionally, pittman et al. (2024) present an empowered language approach, a culturally responsive framework designed to support african american students’ oral and written expression through bidialectal awareness. the article offers pedagogical guidance grounded in sociolinguistic research and classroom application. by affirming students’ linguistic identities and explicitly teaching standard american english as a secondary dialect, the authors advocate for instruction 30 georgia journal of literacy 47(2) that is both academically rigorous and culturally affirming, principles that align with asset-based, strategic reading instruction. clausen‑grace and kelley (2008) describe the metacognitive teaching framework (mtf) as a four‑stage, apprenticeship model for building strategic, reflective readers. beginning with explicit teacher think‑alouds and structured strategy instruction, the framework transitions through guided practice toward students’ independent application of comprehension strategies, specifically, predicting, making connections, questioning, visualizing, and summarizing. critically, the mtf embeds self-assessment, goal-setting, and metacognitive reflection, enabling students to monitor and control their own reading development. the mtf components align with the culturally responsive think-aloud instructional model (crtaim) shown in figure 1 (sharpe, 2022), which focuses on metacognitive modeling through think-alouds. however, it is missing culturally responsive teaching that affirms students’ identities and promotes agency. while the mtf is not explicitly framed within asset-based pedagogy, its intentional support for student reflection, discussion, and strategic independence reinforces the premise that structured literacy instruction can be enriched when paired with practices that center the learner’s voice, culture, and thinking processes. the successes and discoveries in the aforementioned literature relied on key instructional components: metacognition, where students reflect on their thinking processes; cognition, where students actively process and make sense of information; and self-regulation, where students plan, monitor, and adjust their reading behaviors. culturally responsive teaching (crt) principles, such as validating cultural schema, providing cognitive scaffolds, and creating opportunities for dialogic learning, enhance these processes by making learning relevant, relational, and rigorous (gay, 2018; hammond, 2015). when instruction weaves together structured literacy’s systematic supports with crt’s emphasis on cultural affirmation and cognitive engagement, educators create conditions for all students, not just a select few, to become empowered, strategic readers. by integrating explicit comprehension strategy instruction with culturally responsive pedagogy, crtaim positions think-alouds as tools for both academic development and identity affirmation. rather than solely demonstrating how to monitor understanding, well-designed thinkalouds reveal to students that their ways of speaking, thinking, and interpreting are meaningful in academic spaces. this approach reframes reading as a process that draws from and builds upon who students are, not just what they know. when enacted with intentionality and cultural relevance, think-aloud instruction becomes more than a literacy technique; it becomes a pathway toward equity, engagement, and empowered learning. strategies for teaching thinking while reading the following instructional strategies are essential components of a comprehensive framework for promoting metacognition and strategic reading among all learners. each is grounded in evidencebased practice and contributes to the development of self-aware, engaged readers capable of monitoring and regulating their own comprehension. ranging from explicit teacher modeling to peer collaboration and culturally affirming text selection, these strategies work together to support both the cognitive and affective dimensions of reading. by intentionally integrating these approaches into daily instruction, educators can scaffold student thinking, foster independence, and build stronger connections between learners and the texts they encounter. sharpe 31 teacher think-alouds teacher think-alouds are an evidence-based instructional strategy in which educators verbalize their cognitive processes before, during, and after reading to model how skilled readers make meaning from text (ness, 2016; woods, 2020). this practice makes metacognitive strategies, like predicting, clarifying, and monitoring comprehension, visible and accessible, helping students internalize the habits of proficient, strategic readers (palincsar & brown, 1984). context example: while reading aloud, the teacher pauses and says, “when the author describes the character as standing tall and smiling, i’m thinking that she feels proud and confident. that helps me understand how she is changing in this part of the story.” cognitive scaffolds cognitive scaffolds are tools that support students’ strategic thinking by providing visual or verbal cues to guide comprehension (moats, 2020; pressley, 2006). examples include question stems, anchor charts, and graphic organizers, which help students organize their thoughts, monitor their understanding, and engage more independently with complex texts. context examples: the teacher provides a bookmark with a list of question stems such as “i wonder…” and “this reminds me of…”. during independent reading, a student uses the prompt “i wonder…” to write, “i wonder why the main character didn’t tell anyone about the problem.” student self-talk & reflection promoting student self-talk and reflection helps cultivate metacognition and self-regulation—key components of executive function (baker, 2005; woods, 2020). through practices such as reflective journaling and “what was i thinking?” protocols, students learn to monitor their comprehension, articulate their thinking processes, and adjust strategies when meaning breaks down. context example: after reading, students write in their journals: “when the character ran away, i thought about what i would do in that situation. that helped me realize why he was so nervous.” culturally responsive texts culturally responsive texts affirm students’ cultural identities and experiences, making comprehension more meaningful and accessible (gay, 2018; ladson-billings, 1995). when students see themselves and their communities reflected in what they read, they are more likely to engage with the text, activate background knowledge, and connect strategically to content. context example: a teacher selects a text that reflects her students’ family and community experiences. during discussions, students share how their own traditions or challenges connect to the characters, deepening their understanding of the text and the author’s purpose. collaborative reading tasks collaborative reading tasks promote comprehension through peer dialogue and shared strategy use (palincsar & brown, 1984; paris, 2012). when students engage in activities like partner reading 32 georgia journal of literacy 47(2) or explaining strategies to a peer, they deepen understanding through social interaction, clarify misunderstandings, and practice metacognitive talk in an authentic context. context example: students work in pairs to reread a paragraph and ask each other, “what do you think the author meant here?” one student says, “i think the character felt left out because nobody listened to her,” while the other adds, “yeah, and that’s why she decided to speak up.” classroom vignettes and examples below are three classroom vignettes that illustrate practical ways teachers can implement the culturally responsive think-aloud instructional model (crtaim; sharpe, 2022), using selected strategies to teach students how to think while reading. as you read each scenario, consider how the teacher makes cognitive processes visible, affirms students’ identities, and models strategic reading behaviors. each vignette offers a glimpse into how intentional, asset-based instruction can foster deeper comprehension and more engaged, reflective readers. vignette 1: ms. torres and the power of prediction ms. torres, a white, monolingual fifth-grade teacher, teaches in a culturally and linguistically diverse classroom with many latinx and multilingual students. she’s intentionally selected the first rule of punk by celia c. pérez for today’s read-aloud, having spent time learning about her students’ interests and identities through classroom surveys and family connection letters. “before we start,” she says, holding the book and pointing to the cover, “i want to share why i chose this story. i know some of you have shared during morning meetings that your families value both tradition and self-expression, and that sometimes those can feel at odds. this book reminded me of your stories.” she directs students’ attention to the anchor chart labeled “what good readers do before reading”, which includes sentence stems like “i wonder if…” and “i predict…” then, she models her thinking: “looking at this cover, i see a girl wearing a punk outfit, skulls in the background, and the words, always remember to be yourself. i predict she’s going to find her own voice, even if others don’t always understand it.” as ms. torres reads aloud, she pauses to verbalize her reasoning: “when malú says her mom wants her to be a ‘proper senorita,’ i think about how hard it must feel to balance family expectations with wanting to be yourself. i don’t share malú’s cultural background, but this part helps me imagine what it’s like.” students then engage in a collaborative reading strategy, using their own experiences to connect to the text. later, they respond in journals using the prompt: “what was i thinking when...?” one student writes, “when malú’s mom said she should be more proper, i thought about when my mom tells me to speak spanish with my cousins. it’s hard sometimes, but i get it.” by listening carefully and choosing texts and language that resonate with her students, ms. torres models both strategic thinking and cultural humility, allowing her students to see their identities reflected and honored in the literacy space. her teaching approach illustrates how teaching thinking while reading can go beyond comprehension strategy instruction to include cultural empathy. additionally, she bridges metacognitive awareness with asset-based teaching, demonstrating that thinking about reading can also involve thinking about whose stories, experiences, and backgrounds are valued and made visible. sharpe 33 vignette 2: mr. johnson and the anchor chart for questioning mr. johnson is a black fourth-grade teacher, serving a predominantly black american student population in the community in which he grew up. during a lesson, he stood beside a large anchor chart labeled “thinking while we read: during reading questions.” it featured question stems like, “why might the character feel this way?” and “what is the author really trying to show?” today’s text was crown: an ode to the fresh cut by derrick barnes. before reading, mr. johnson said, “y’all remember how we talked about barbershop culture and how important that is in many of our communities? well, this book celebrates that, and i’m going to model how i ask questions that help me really understand what the author is trying to say beneath the surface.” as he read the first page, he paused: “it says, ‘you came in as a lump of clay, a blank canvas, a slab of marble.’ that’s some powerful language. i’m thinking, why does the author use art metaphors to describe the boy?” he pointed to the chart. “that’s me asking a question to dig deeper.” after reading, mr. johnson asked students to work in pairs for a dialogic conversation, using the sentence stem, “this part made me think…” and to practice asking questions as they read the text. as students shared, he circulated the classroom and encouraged them to connect the text to their lived experiences. while reading, one student asked herself, “why does the author describe the haircut as ‘fresh’?” in a separate student pair, another student reflected on his similar lived experiences, saying aloud, “when the boy felt fresh after his haircut, it made me think of when my uncle says, ‘look good, feel good.’” to close the lesson, mr. johnson asked students to share one to two thoughts or questions that occurred to them as they read the text. a student shared, “while reading, i was thinking that this book made me feel proud. i didn’t know books talked about stuff like this.” by modeling how to ask questions during reading tasks, prompting students to pause and reflect on their thinking while reading, and encouraging students to make connections with the text, mr. johnson demonstrates to students that reading should be a mentally engaging task. he also reaffirms his students’ culture and experiences by using a text that reflects their identities. through the questioning strategy, not only does this strengthen students’ comprehension, but it also further develops their critical thinking skills by learning to make meaning beyond the surface level of texts. the collaborative inquiry enables students to connect their lived experiences with their peers and the book characters, transforming reading into an act of reflection, connection, and cultural pride. vignette 3: mr. halbrook and reading with a plan mr. halbrook, a white, mid-career third-grade teacher, teaches in a school where the majority of students are multilingual and learning english as a second language. he has been working on strengthening his culturally responsive practice by attending professional development sessions, engaging in community events, and reading student-authored reflections about identity. today, he’s reading the name jar by yangsook choi and plans to model both comprehension strategies and executive functioning. he begins by pointing to the board, where the day’s goal is written: “today, i will monitor my thinking while reading to understand the character’s decisions and identity.” “i want to show you how i make a plan for reading and what i do when i feel distracted or stuck,” he tells the class. 34 georgia journal of literacy 47(2) before opening the book, he reflects aloud: “i’ve never moved to a new country or had people mispronounce my name, but i’ve read your family stories and learned how important names and identity are to many of you. i’m going to read this book with the goal of understanding how unhei feels, and i’ll stop to check my understanding along the way.” he gestures toward a class anchor chart titled “plan → monitor → adjust” and begins reading. “okay, unhei’s classmates are teasing her name. that would make anyone feel upset. i’m going to pause and ask myself, ‘what is she thinking right now, and why might she consider changing her name?” he writes his thoughts on a sticky note: she wants to fit in, but what will she lose if she hides her name? later, students complete a graphic organizer that tracks the character’s feelings and decisions. mr. halbrook encourages them to use the “what was i thinking?” protocol in their reflections. one student writes, “i was thinking how i feel when people mess up my name, too. i liked how the teacher understood how names can be hard but still important.” even though mr. halbrook does not share his students’ cultural or linguistic backgrounds, he models curiosity, intentionality, and respect towards the diversity in his classroom. by using cognitive scaffolds, goal setting, and identity-centered reading, he demonstrates how any teacher can make strategic, culturally responsive instruction meaningful for every learner. using students’ lived experiences as both cognitive and cultural tools for meaning-making, he transforms his comprehension instruction into both an intellectual and identity-affirming activity. conclusion teaching students how to think while reading is ultimately an act of empowerment. when we shift our literacy practices from a focus on compliance, answering surface-level questions, or completing reading tasks, to a focus on cognition, we invite students to engage deeply, question critically, and make meaning on their own terms. as geneva gay (2018) reminds us, culturally responsive teaching is not just about content, but about cultivating intellectual capacity and agency. zaretta hammond (2015) builds on this by asserting that instruction must develop independent learners who can process, analyze, and act on information. by teaching thinking as a core part of reading instruction, we move beyond rote performance and toward liberatory, equity-centered pedagogy, one where all students are equipped not just to read the word, but to read and reshape the world. implications for future research the integration of structured literacy, executive function, and asset-based practices into a unified instructional framework offers a promising direction for equitable reading comprehension instruction. however, the effectiveness of this integrated approach, particularly the culturally responsive think-aloud instructional model (crtaim; sharpe, 2022), has not yet been examined through rigorous, empirical research. while current literature supports each component independently, few studies investigate their combined impact on student outcomes, especially in culturally and linguistically diverse classrooms. to address this gap, the author plans to implement the framework in teacher preparation and k–5 classroom settings to examine how it supports student engagement, strategy use, and comprehension development. mixed-methods studies will be designed to gather insight into both student outcomes and the instructional experiences of teachers. for example, quantitative data may track changes in students’ reading strategy use, comprehension performance, and executive functioning, while qualitative data may help explain how teachers adapt and enact the model. sharpe 35 action research conducted in collaboration with classroom teachers will also provide valuable, practice-centered feedback for ongoing refinement. longitudinal research could further explore the lasting effects of culturally responsive comprehension instruction, particularly in supporting students’ self-regulation, cognitive flexibility, and higher-order thinking over time. given the underrepresentation of historically marginalized students in reading comprehension intervention studies, future research must intentionally center the voices and experiences of black students, emergent bilinguals, and other groups who have often been excluded from such work. ultimately, sustained inquiry and practitioner collaboration will be critical to determining how models like this can be scaled, sustained, and adapted across contexts. this work represents not only an instructional shift but a broader 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(2022). naep report card: 2022 naep reading assessment—highlights from the 2022 assessment. the nation’s report card. https://www.nationsreportcard.gov/ highlights/reading/2022 received: august 12, 2025 | accepted: october 9, 2025 | published: december 12, 2025 https://user-23310503727.cld.bz/literacy-matters-winter-2022/32/ https://doi.org/10.1177/0022219420983247 https://doi.org/%e2%80%8c10.1177/0022219420983247 https://doi.org/%e2%80%8c10.1177/0022219420983247 https://www.nationsreportcard.gov/%e2%80%8chighlights/reading/2022 https://www.nationsreportcard.gov/%e2%80%8chighlights/reading/2022 why this matters for equity the science of reading meets the science of learning table 1: key comprehension strategies and classroom examples asset-based teaching: centering students’ cultural knowledge figure 1: culturally responsive think-aloud instructional model (crtaim) strategies for teaching thinking while reading teacher think-alouds cognitive scaffolds student self-talk & reflection culturally responsive texts collaborative reading tasks classroom vignettes and examples vignette 1: ms. torres and the power of prediction vignette 2: mr. johnson and the anchor chart for questioning vignette 3: mr. halbrook and reading with a plan conclusion implications for future research acknowledgments references 17717f45-dfcd-4d27-862f-df525cf79a9b ���������� � ��������� � �� ��� ��� ������� ������������� �������� !"#�#$%&'�()*+",(&�*,�",#$-%.$"/,*0�+($!/&�$!*$�./+1",(&�#.*22/0&",3�*,&�4.!(+*� 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2=8/.�239�̀.6?s�.60231.c�̀031.��-./g53�72g�569./��:.�b.12-.�g5-.=:03<�5?�2�-.3=5/�239�=.21:./�=5�i:5/.28c��8=�7:06.��-./g53�60;.9�2�/.62=0;.6@��[pl����$%[�d�!$����"�� ����+%d�#��� !���"�#+%$�d�#+!�03�15-?5/=�5?�:0g�301.�:5-.��i:5/.28�=/0.9�=5�60;.�=:.�72@�:0g�4:065g54:@�6.9�:0-�=5s�455/��2653.��03�2�g-266�:58g.�03�=:.�7559g�:.�b806=�:0-g.6?�?/5-�g1/2=1:c�i:5/.28�72g�2�g=/53<�54453.3=�5?�g62;./@�239�=:.�72/�=:2=�=:.� c̀c�72g�72<03<�2<203g=��.>015c�m.�/.?8g.9�=5�42@�:0g�=2>.g�b.128g.�:.�=:58<:=�=:2=�b@�9503<�g5��:.�75869�b.�g8445/=03<�g62;./@�239�=:.��.>0123�72/c�m.�72g�j206.9�?5/�35=�42@03<�:0g�=2>.g�239�7/5=.�=:.�.gg2@��.g0g=231.�=5�a0;06��5;./3-.3=�03�/.g453g.�=5�:0g�.>4./0.31.�=:./.ci75�;./@�?2-58g�-.3���5:2392g��239:0�239��2/=03�tl�+� �u%�'�v (� ��"�o+� ��l*d��dd�!�w�d%d���&�����x%f%$�y�f� ��������"��� ��+%'+$!�%�pl��&�"����ld��:0g�09.2g�03�=:.0/�573�60;.gc��239:0�9.;.654.9�2�#+%$�d�#+!�d%�%$� ����o+� ��l*d��+���+����d�+�$#%�'�+%d�[�$$���&%�%z��d�%��{�"%�����'�%��%�"�#��"��&��[ ����3<6239c��2/=03��8=:./�n03<��/c�8g.9�2�4:065g54:@�d%�%$� ����o+� ��l*d��+���+��# ���d��"�[� � �&%�$�.c8260=@�03�=:.� c̀c�239�6.9�=:.�10;06�/0<:=g�-5;.-.3=c georgia journal of literacy 2025, vol. 47(2), pp. 46–51 https://doi.org/10.56887/galiteracy.198 issn: 2833-7611 teaching tips contact dr. jolene reed, associate professor, school of teaching and learning, sam houston state university, huntsville, tx; email jreed@shsu.edu. dr. melinda miller, professor, school of teaching and learning, sam houston state university, huntsville, tx; email mmmiller@shsu.edu. mentor texts as a bridge to independent writing: supporting young writers through sentence imitation and craft study in the elementary classroom jolene reed sam houston state university, huntsville, tx melinda miller sam houston state university, huntsville, tx abstract this article explores the use of mentor texts as a powerful strategy for developing independent writing skills in elementary students. drawing on classroom experience and inspired by the sentence composing approach of don and jenny killgallon, the authors demonstrate how mentor texts can be used to support craft study and sentence imitation across a range of writing skills--from prepositional phrases and parallel structure to adjective and adverbial clauses. the article provides practical, developmentally appropriate examples for teaching students how to analyze and mimic writing moves of professional authors. it also illustrates how mentor texts can be used to teach students to craft engaging leads and build narrative depth. through a gradual release of responsibility, students gain confidence and independence as they begin to internalize sophisticated writing techniques. the authors conclude by emphasizing the importance of thoughtful scaffolding, patience, and high expectations in helping students of all levels grow as confident, capable writers. keywords mentor text; elementary writing instruction; gradual release of responsibility common frustration of the classroom teacher when trying to elicit good writing from students is helping the student understand how to hone their craft. this is consistent from the beginning kindergartener to the student on the university campus. an effective and practical approach is to use mentor texts that model professional writing, allowing students to analyze and practice diverse styles found in published works. this can be done not only at the sentence level, but also at a larger level to add interest to the writing and engage the reader. mentor texts provide examples of well-crafted writing, allowing students to observe how authors use different writing techniques. by analyzing these techniques, students can learn how to incorporate that craft into their own writing. when students see what is possible in writing, they are more likely to experiment with their own ideas and styles. mentor texts can serve as springboards for creative writing activities, encouraging students to explore their own imaginations. our work regarding the use of mentor text was highly influenced by don and jenny killgallon’s (2008) story grammar for elementary school: a sentence-composing approach. in this book, the authors give multiple examples from texts that are familiar to the students, then a mailto:jreed@shsu.edu mailto:mmmiller@shsu.edu reed & miller 47 break down the structure of the professional sentence, and finally ask the students to create an original sentence using a similar structure. in this article, we will illustrate the same process beginning with some simple examples and moving to more complex sentences. we have experienced great success with this approach with students of various ages and abilities, beginning in the third grade and continuing through university courses. we have been able to help students learn to imitate sentences written by professional writers. in addition, we have helped students realize that different placements of prepositional phrases can make their writing more interesting, and that moving prepositional phrases around creates a more pleasing flow to their writing piece. finally, we were able to introduce the concept of incorporating adjective and adverbial clauses through the context of literature, a more interesting approach than isolated “drill and kill” instruction. teaching with mentor text using gradual release of responsibility this section describes examples of teaching different types of sentences and clauses using excerpts from literature. working with students on the following examples requires patience, support, and a belief that the students will perform. in reflecting on our use of mentor texts, we realize how nicely this technique fits into the gradual release of responsibility (pearson & gallagher, 1983). we start with the author’s text, we model with our own writing, and then we work through examples with the class as a whole or in small groups. over time, students develop independence. in the beginning, students need us to show our thought process as we delineate the “formula” used by the author. eventually and gradually, we pull back, and progressively, students take control of more and more of the process of looking closely at how the author developed their craft. they are eventually able to easily (sometimes not so easily) emulate the style of the author. the process takes patience and perseverance on the part of both teacher and students. however, the process should always be underscored by our belief in their ability to succeed. sentence imitation in our first example, we give a very specific illustration of the process we went through to guide children through the procedure of using a mentor text to write a more precise sentence. the remaining examples can follow the same general steps. we begin with an example of a third-grade class using a sentence taken from stuart little (white, 1945): “when the people in central park learned that one of the toy sailboats was being steered by a mouse in a sailor suit, they all came running” (p. 43). we selected this sentence because the book was being used as the read aloud to the class and was meaningful to the children. we displayed the model sentence using the document camera. we then demonstrated to the students how to analyze this sentence by thinking of it as the following: when the (who) (where) (learned/saw) that (what) (doing what/where) (what was he wearing?) (what did they do?). we gave an example of a sentence written in the same format. using a think-aloud process, we wrote our own sentence as a model for the students: when the mother saw that the child was playing in the mud while still wearing his best sunday clothes, she screamed at the top of her lungs. once the children saw the process modeled, the class, as a whole, created a different sentence following the same pattern. together, the class came up with the sentence: 48 georgia journal of literacy 47(2) when the piano student at the recital learned that one of the other piano students had spilled punch all over her recital music, she burst into tears and ran out of the room. notice that even though we did not follow the exact planning format, we were given the opportunity to discuss how they do not always have to follow the pattern precisely. they can make it their own. this realization helps the students not to be intimidated by the process. next, we had each student (or pairs of students) write their own sentences based on the pattern. students volunteered to share their example sentences with the whole class. the final step was for the students to find a sentence in their own creative writing pieces and revise it to follow the pattern they had been working on. mimicking this example, one student wrote the following to be incorporated in their piece: when the dogs in the schoolyard saw that the children had treats in their outstretched hands, they all ran to get their share. notice that this example does not exactly follow the guide that the students were given. the student made it their own. to follow it verbatim and talk about what the dogs were wearing would have detracted from the beauty of what they did write. another craft utilized in writing is that of parallelism. parallelism in writing is a powerful technique that enhances clarity, balance, and rhythm, making sentences more engaging and easier to read. it can be introduced and modeled for students by beginning with examples from professional writing. one such example can be found in flight 116 is down! (cooney, 1992). “pieces of tree, pieces of metal, pieces of seat and airplane wing gleamed in the moonlight” (p. 48). students can be led to discover that in this example of parallelism, there are three items listed, each of which uses a three-word phrase. the example ends by telling what those items were doing. as instructors, we came up with the following to model parallelism: bowls of peaches, bowls of tomatoes, and bowls of half-eaten spaghetti were spread across the table. imagine our delight when the students came up with this sentence: fans dressed in purple, fans dressed in red, and fans waving banners poured down the streets to the playing field. prepositional phrases our students were very familiar with prepositions and prepositional phrases because we had discussed and identified them previously through the context of reading and writing. prepositional phrases can occur at multiple points within a sentence. you will find them at the beginning, in the middle, and at the end. using mentor texts, we were able to demonstrate examples of all three locations of prepositional phrases. in addition, we had practiced adding prepositional phrases to simple sentences. we displayed examples of prepositional phrases with subject/verb splits in texts, and we had students practice making their own on sentence strips. as our example of a prepositional phrase at the beginning of a sentence, we used the following from bad boys (palatini, 2003): “with betty’s prodding, they queued up next to each other in back of two long lines of sheep.” when we asked students to begin a sentence with a prepositional phrase using the same process we described earlier by showing examples on the document camera, one animal enthusiast wrote the following sentence: reed & miller 49 like a sloth in its natural state, the boy slowly slid out of bed. we used the witch of blackbird pond (speare, 1958), with its beautifully written text, to introduce the use of a prepositional phrase with a subject/verb split. “captain eaton, in his good blue coat, was shouting orders from the quarterdeck” (p. 3). one student incorporated this technique when they changed an original sentence from: the grizzly bear walked to the lake. into the more stylistic sentence: the grizzly bear, with lumbering movements, made his way down to the lake. the student was extremely pleased with the way this simple change enhanced their writing and seemed to make the grizzly bear come alive. our last work with prepositional phrases focused on placing them at the end of the sentence. we chose the following excerpt from the house on mango street (cisneros, 1984) for our example of this sentence type. sandra cisneros described the sudden development of a teenage girl’s hips by stating, “one day you wake up and they are there. [they are] ready and waiting, like a new buick with the keys in the ignition” (p. 49). notice that this quote ends with three prepositional phrases in a row. the three prepositional phrases are: “like a new buick,” “with the keys,” and “in the ignition.” our students, in following this pattern, created the following: galloping on horses refreshes your mind as the wind blows against your face, through your hair, and down your spine. the house on mango street is adolescent literature. notice, however, that the level of the book from which your examples are derived is not that important. you could also use picture books when teaching at the secondary level or secondary texts as examples for primary children. clauses for sophisticated sentences adjective and adverbial clauses are types of dependent clauses that add depth and detail to writing. they help to create more sophisticated and precise sentences. using these clauses allows writers to connect ideas smoothly, show relationships between thoughts, and add layers of meaning. the clauses make the sentences clearer, richer, and more engaging. an adjective clause contains a subject and a verb but cannot stand alone as a sentence. it is used to modify a noun, just as individual adjectives do. the following quote comes from the polar express (van allsburg, 1985): “we traveled through cold, dark forests, where lean wolves roamed.” “where lean wolves roamed” is the adjective clause describing the forest. after seeing this example, one student wrote: we sat by the lake where the fireflies sparkled. like the adjective clause, an adverbial clause contains a subject and a verb. however, the adverbial clause must play the part of an adverb. the following example is from frog and toad are friends (lobel, 1970): “he ran up the path to toad’s house because he wanted to see toad” (p. 4). “because he wanted to see toad” modifies the verb ran. in describing his family’s trip to tanzania, our student wrote: we rode in the hot air balloon because we wanted to see the serengeti. 50 georgia journal of literacy 47(2) crafting interesting leads in addition to working at the sentence level, mentor text can also be utilized to help students hone their craft in a bigger picture, such as developing provocative leads. in the following examples of using texts as models of leads, we will start simple and move to the more complex. a fun book to begin with is roger the jolly pirate by brett helquist (2004). this book begins as follows, “before anyone had heard of black beard, long john silver, or calico jack, there was a pirate named roger.” to use this text to support students, begin by pointing out the structure of this lead. the text starts by saying “before anyone had heard of . . .” and then it names three individuals who have something in common. it then says, “there was . . .” and names the main character of the story. this is a fairly simple pattern that is easily followed by students. we invited students to follow this format to introduce a story. we received some amazing results. one aspiring rock star thought of her own future career and began as follows: before there was cher, madonna, or even beyoncé, there was eloise! another dog lover wrote about his favorite, using the lead: before there was lassie, rin tin tin, or even benji, there was the best dog of all— max, the black lab. the class could then more fully understand the importance of an attention-grabbing lead that immediately engages the reader and compels them to read on. another book we have used for a model of an interesting lead is albert the bear (butterworth, 2002). this is an excellent text to teach the craft of flashback. the story begins, “from the front, albert the bear looks very sad indeed. he has the saddest eyes you ever saw. which is strange, because albert . . . but wait. let’s tell his story from the very beginning.” notice how the story really begins at the end, and now the author is going to nostalgically recall and tell a reminiscence to continue the story. we encourage students to think about how their story would end so that they can do the same. one young sports fan wrote: the crowd roared and cheered as #19 threw the pass to its intended receiver, who turned and ran for the winning touchdown. which is remarkable, because everyone thought #19 would actually be playing in the world series . . . but wait. let’s start from the beginning and tell this young man’s surprising journey to fame. the young author then proceeded to tell the rest of his hero’s story. you will notice that we started with a somewhat simple lead that was easily replicated, then went to an example that was somewhat more challenging by introducing the flashback. the truth is that any book can have its lead imitated. different leads lend themselves to different stories. children can learn to use the lead from any story they enjoy to create the beginning of their own story. let us look at an example of a lead that might be a little more challenging to deconstruct. zachary’s ball (tavares, 2000) offers a bit more of a challenge. the book begins as follows: i had never been inside a ballpark until that day. everything felt so close to me–the outfield fence, the players warming up, even the man who watered the field. i was jealous of him because he got to walk on the same grass as buck spoonwell and all the other heroes my father talked about so often. let us take a close look at how tavares began this story. the author begins by bringing us into the setting. he then uses a listing technique to describe what he sees. the list is followed by reed & miller 51 a feeling. one student was excited to share her travels to the grand canyon. she began her story with this: this was my first visit to the grand canyon. everything was overpowering, vibrant, and strange–the distance to the wall on the other side, the colors of the rocks, even the knowledge that it creates its own weather! standing at the precipice and gazing out across the horizon, i immediately knew why it was called the grand canyon. conclusion mentor texts are powerful tools that help students internalize the techniques of skilled authors. if teachers carefully select professional examples of craft they would like to see emulated, students can be taught to deconstruct what the writer created. once the deconstruction has occurred, students can learn to produce new writing using the professional writing as a model. if this process is used on a regular basis, students will learn over time to internalize more sophisticated crafting moves. with thoughtful scaffolding, students of all ages and abilities can use these models to enhance their writing. through patience, encouragement, and practice, we can help all students grow as writers. references killgallon, d., & killgallon, j. (2008). story grammar for elementary school: a sentencecomposing approach. heinemann. pearson, p. d., & gallagher, m. c. (1983). the instruction of reading comprehension. contemporary educational psychology, 8(3), 317–344. https://doi.org/10.1016/0361476x(83)90019-x literature cited butterworth, n. (2002). albert the bear. harper collins. cisneros, s. (1984). the house on mango street. random house. cooney, c. (1992). flight 116 is down! scholastic. helquist, b. (2004). roger the jolly pirate. harper collins. lobel, a. (1970). frog and toad are friends. harper & row. palatini, m. (2003). bad boys. harper collins. speare, e. g. (1958). the witch of blackbird pond. dell publishing. tavares, m. (2000). zachary’s ball. candlewick press. van allsburg, c. (1985). the polar express. houghton mifflin. white, e. b. (1945). stuart little. harper & brothers. received: july 10, 2025 | accepted: september 10, 2025 | published: december 12, 2025 https://doi.org/10.1016/0361-476x(83)90019-x https://doi.org/10.1016/0361-476x(83)90019-x teaching with mentor text using gradual release of responsibility sentence imitation prepositional phrases clauses for sophisticated sentences crafting interesting leads conclusion references literature cited georgia journal of literacy 2024, vol. 46(2), pp. 65–71 https://doi.org/10.56887/galiteracy.163 issn: 2833-7611 teaching tips contact dr. lina soares, professor, department of middle and secondary education, georgia southern university, statesboro, ga; email lbsoares@georgiasouthern.edu. ali ameduri, 7th-grade teacher, bryan county schools, richmond hill, ga; email aameduri@bryan.k12.ga.us. authoring counter-narratives: showcasing student voice through critical stance lina b. soares georgia southern university, statesboro, ga ali ameduri bryan county schools, richmond hill, ga abstract in this teaching tip, we provide a method for teaching middle and secondary english language arts (ela) students to assume a critical stance while reading and responding to diverse literature and media. specifically, we address the infusion of critical literacy as a pedagogy to enable students to engage in criticality by identifying negative stereotypes and harmful biases, and then take action by offering counter perspectives. we begin with a brief discussion on critical literacy as a means to promote critical stance, followed by the learning activities for classroom instruction and a student example to illustrate the power of critical stance to promote student agency. our method for critical stance instruction draws upon rosenblatt’s (1978) seminal work on literature-based instruction that reading is a transaction between the reader and the text and leland et al. (2018) who explicated that readers need to engage in critical transactions—a dimension of critical literacy. keywords critical literacy; literature-based instruction; critical transactions; middle and secondary ela eachers and teacher educators in english language arts (ela) share a common goal—we all strive to engage students in critical discussions of texts. we further share an understanding that today’s literature instruction involves more than simply reading and responding to texts. our readers from diverse backgrounds need a forum to analyze multiple perspectives on social justice issues, interrogate texts, and try out new reading identities as they create counter-perspectives (mclaughlin & devoogd, 2010). from this stance, we recognize rosenblatt’s (1978) seminal work on literature-based instruction that reading is a transaction between the reader and the text, both emotionally and intellectually. in other words, a transaction occurs because meaning is created; the meaning made requires the interaction between the text and the reader. additionally, we agree with leland et al. (2018) who explicated that readers need to engage in critical transactions—a dimension of critical literacy. specifically, readers assume a critical stance as they learn to challenge the author’s words, talk back to the text, and provide alternative perspectives by rewriting texts to correct the social injustices encountered while reading. as bean and moni (2003) so aptly stated, “critical literacy takes the reader beyond the bounds of reader response” (p. 643). the purpose of this teaching tip is to share an ela lesson that centers on critical literacy practices to develop critical stance. we begin with a brief discussion on critical literacy as a means to promote a critical stance, followed by the learning activities for classroom instruction and a student example to illustrate the power of a critical stance to promote student agency. the basis t mailto:lbsoares@georgiasouthern.edu mailto:aameduri@bryan.k12.ga.us 66 georgia journal of literacy 46(2) for our method to teach critical stance began in 2022 when the second author, ali ameduri, was a graduate student in the first author’s (dr. lina soares’) course titled young adolescent and adult literacy. the course provides an in-depth study of early adolescent and young adult literature, coupled with pedagogical theory and practices for helping students develop both oral and written personal responses. based on her experiences in the course, ameduri subsequently developed a two-day lesson for her seventh-grade ela grade students to assume a critical stance while reading young adult literature. the two-day lesson is featured in this teaching tip. critical stance to promote student agency incorporating critical literacy pedagogy involves creating opportunities for students to experience ownership, empowerment, agency, and heightened awareness in their communication (craddock & pettit, 2023). through critical literacy practices, teachers will find that students develop a heightened awareness of the world around them, enabling them to analyze texts, media, and events with a more critical eye (craddock & pettit, 2023; gavell, 2021). agency plays a crucial role in critical literacy, empowering students to act as agents of change in their lives and communities (craddock & pettit, 2023). as a result, we encourage teachers to design activities that prompt students to actively question and analyze texts, fostering a classroom ethos where they feel empowered to express their perspectives. teachers can offer thought-provoking prompts, encouraging students to connect a concept or lesson with a current, relevant event and use that knowledge to envision alternate perspectives. in doing so, students learn to take a critical stance when reading and responding to the ideas presented in a text (craddock & pettit, 2023; gavell, 2021). giving students the opportunity to think differently or critically about an issue further gives students a voice and, in turn, promotes student agency (craddock & pettit, 2023). according to benner et al. (2018), voice is important for student agency because it is a manifestation that a student is willing to self-advocate, to be heard, and to speak-up for the rights of others. instructional activities to engage students in a critical stance, we implement an approach to have students confront the author’s implicit messages that are inherent in texts—stereotypes and author biases. the approach requires students to read with a critical lens to dispel the negative stereotypes and author’s biases and challenge them when responding to diverse texts and media. correspondingly, the approach further requires students to take action by presenting alternative perspectives through counternarratives. the ultimate purpose is to provide an instructional context for students to become agents of change through their voices and pens. pre-reading. we recommend giving students time to brainstorm their understanding of stereotypes and biases, and thus, a two-day lesson may be appropriate depending on the time allocated for ela. knowing the importance of activating students’ prior knowledge (reichardt et al., 2023), we begin with a series of minilessons on day one. it is important to keep in mind that students may have some knowledge of stereotypes and biases, but many students may have yet to explore the relationship between the two words in-depth. minilesson one features the stereotypical stepmother in cinderella. because cinderella is a well-known fairytale, we begin with a whole class discussion on stereotyping. we ask students to analyze the stepmother’s behavior and describe her characteristics. specifically, we ask them to describe what they know about the stepmother in the story and how she fits the role of the “ugly stepmother.” as students respond, we talk about how the “ugly stepmother” is generalized, and soares & ameduri 67 we point out that as a group, we have instantly formed our assumptions about another group of people; we have stereotyped them. for minilesson two, we split students into groups of 4–6, give them chart paper and markers, and encourage them to think about stereotypes related to different groups, such as racial, gender, religious, ethnic, or cultural stereotypes. it is important to note that students may have diverse perspectives, and this group discussion time will help amplify students’ voices, which is a protocol for student agency. as students work in groups, we pose the following questions for them to brainstorm:  do you think stereotypes are accurate?  how can stereotypes influence our perceptions of others?  what assumptions do you make about groups of people or individuals? as a concluding activity for minilesson two, we allow each group to share their thoughts on the questions posed during the minilesson. after group responses, it is important to end with a whole class discussion, emphasizing that when there are assumptions about a group of people due to differences in norms of behavior, culture, and even appearance, the assumptions can become stereotypes. stereotyping individuals can lead to discriminatory practices, prejudice, and the potential for bias to form (bourke & titus, 2020). for the final minilesson, we allow time for students’ reflections. we ask them to address: have you ever experienced or witnessed someone being treated unfairly because of a stereotype? students anonymously write one stereotype they have encountered personally or witnessed on a sticky note, drop it in a box, and if time permits, the teacher reads a few aloud. we have found this final minilesson significant because when students share that they have been stereotyped or know someone who has, they become more aware and sensitive to the unwanted consequences that can result from stereotyping. the reading lesson. with a focus on critical literacy practices to develop critical stance, the ela lesson offered in this teaching tip is an actual lesson that ameduri taught to her seventhgrade students over a two-day period (figure 1). on day one, ameduri introduced her students to the concept of critical stance by engaging her students in the three minilessons to develop an awareness of the relationship that can exists between stereotype and bias. on day two, ameduri continued the lesson by having the seventh-grade students read rona maynard’s “the fan club.” while reading, the students engaged in a literacy activity to view the text from a critical stance by responding to the questions posed on the graphic organizer. the final step enabled student agency by permitting the students to actualize their voices and pens through counter-narratives. the work of one seventh-grade student who participated in the lesson on critical stance is shared (figure 2). for purposes of this teaching tip, the following is a brief synopsis of “the fan club”: the main character, laura, is a high school student who is alienated by her popular classmates. they mock laura for being different. despite this, rachel who is another marginalized student shows kindness to laura. in an english class, the students have been asked to present a speech on a topic of their choice. laura speaks about civil rights, but her message is met with laughter. rachel also struggles with her speech about shells and faces ridicule. as the story continues, laura reluctantly joins in the mocking applause directed at rachel, highlighting the harsh realities of 68 georgia journal of literacy 46(2) discrimination and prejudice in high school when students are perceived to be different. this story can foster discussions around peer pressure, conformity, and the internal conflicts young people face when navigating social acceptance. through examining laura’s choices, students are encouraged to reflect on how societal pressures can influence personal values and actions, ultimately shaping one’s sense of identity and integrity. figure 1: assignment instructions directions  you will read the short story, “the fan club” by rona maynard, to analyze the text’s portrayal of characters and events, to identify stereotypes or biases present in the story, and to write a counter-narrative that challenges these stereotypes or biases. a copy of the reading selection is provided. while reading, you will use the graphic organizer given to you to record your responses in the blank spaces under each prompt. after reading, you will write a counter-narrative to offer an alternative perspective to the text’s portrayal of characters and/or events.  for this lesson, you have been given options on the type of counter-narrative you develop. you will post your counter-narrative to present to the class on google classroom. include a written explanation that includes the choices you made and helps the class understand your approach to your counter-narrative. you should also state why you chose the character you did and the importance of this decision. materials needed 1. the short story, “the fan club,” by rona maynard 2. paper and pens or pencils 3. fan club graphic organizer 4. digital tools the fan club graphic organizer perspective: how does the character’s point of view influence the way the story is told? bias: are there any unfair opinions or prejudices affecting the characters’ actions or thoughts? stereotypes: do the characters or situations fit into common stereotypes? how does this affect the story? my perspective: how does reading this make me feel or think about the characters and their situations? challenging bias: how could the story be different if certain biases were not present? alternative perspective: how might the story change if told from a different character’s point of view? options for counter-narrative • pick a counter-narrative medium.  letter: write a letter from one character to another, expressing their feelings and thoughts about the events of the story. soares & ameduri 69  poetry: write a poem from a character’s point of view, expressing their inner thoughts that highlights the biases and stereotypes present.  newspaper article: write a newspaper article reporting on the events of the story, but from a perspective that challenges the original narrative.  essay: write an essay that analyzes the story from a critical perspective, highlighting the biases and stereotypes present and proposing a new interpretation.  play script: write a scene or short play that reimagines a key moment from the story, challenging stereotypes and biases.  fairy tale retelling: retell the story as a fairy tale, incorporating elements of magic and fantasy to explore stereotyping.  storyboard: create a storyboard that visually outlines a scene or series of scenes from the story, reimagined from a different perspective.  written story: write a new version of the story from a different character’s perspective, challenging stereotypes or biases.  comic strip or graphic novel: create a comic strip or graphic novel that tells the story from a different angle, using visuals to support the new narrative. figure 2: one seventh-grader’s responses to “the fan club” “the fan club” graphic organizer perspective: how does the character’s point of view influence the way the story is told? bias: are there any unfair opinions or prejudices affecting the characters’ actions or thoughts? stereotypes: do the characters or situations fit into common stereotypes? how does this affect the story? popular girl diane: diane’s point of view influences the story by showing both sides of the bully and the victim (the grey area). example: spewing ill of laura and seeing the popular kids as antagonists. the characters speaking ill about laura and her background when they aren’t truly aware and fully informed about her father’s job or “greasy little shop,” and rachel’s thoughts about the popular kids that they’re all the same and aren’t unique as individuals when she doesn’t even know them. yes, it affects the story by creating the whole plot and conflict essentially. to add on, the stereotypes of the popular kids bullying, and the stereotypes of “weird kid,” all build up the plot of prejudices and biases. my perspective: how does reading this make me feel or think about the characters and their situations? challenging bias: how could the story be different if certain biases were not present? alternative perspective: how might the story change if told from a different character’s point of view? i feel pity for all of the characters and their situations. i feel pity because all the bullies are likely to be pressured of fitting in, while rachel is struggling with being left out (and the “in” if no biases were present, it would be likely that there would be no negative aspects in the story. example: if rachel wasn’t seen as the “weird kid,” she wouldn’t be teased and the “in” it could show a character’s thoughts and reasoning behind their actions or toward other people’s actions. example: from rachel’s point of view, she 70 georgia journal of literacy 46(2) crowd most likely bully to fit in and not be teased). crowd wouldn’t exist or be the same. could view laura as the same as laura views the “in” crowd. counter-narrative option: apology letter for harassment i approached the counter-narrative, using an apology letter to convey my message because i wanted to find a realistic format, where the bully could speak to the victim on their decisions and views on society. in addition, i chose diane so that it would show how she was not just a soulless bully, but a sympathetic character who had to realize what’s wrong with both her choices and the choices of society (diane’s friends, laura, and the counselor, who wasn’t in the original story): drip. drip. tears stained my paper, smudging my insincere words of “sorry.” my face felt hot of anger and sadness. i don’t regret what i did, i tell myself. even when such a claim is just as untrue as my “sorry.” this empty classroom felt so suffocating, i felt like i was drowning in guilt. was this letter enough to atone for what i did? i already apologized to you in front of that dopey counselor and terri, carol, steve, bill, nancy, even laura… and you, who deserved more than an apology of just guilt. suddenly, i felt a throng of tears, cooling down my burning face. “diane goddard,” i suddenly remembered ms. harris, saying my name. i looked up from my shiny, new shoes to see terri, carol, steve, bill, and nancy, sitting across from me, and then, the little, gaudy duo: you and laura. “i have been concerned with the matter of persecution at our school,” ms. harris said, firmly. “wait, me?” i asked, scoffing. “yes, you, diane. we had observed bullying in our school; look at this card. many students also reported to me as witnesses.” ms. harris said, glancing calmly at my group of “friends,” while i felt betrayed with anger. i could feel tears, crawling out of my eyes; i felt so sad and betrayed. “terri, don’t act innocent! you bullied rachel too! those cards, you also made them!” i shrieked, pulling out the crumpled cards from my plastic purse. “no, i didn’t! you started it! i just wanted to be friends with you, so i did what you told me to do!” tears started to fall on terri’s candy-pink sweater. “yeah, it was all your idea, diane!” bill suddenly chimed in. i could feel my hot face, when i caressed my soft skin with cold, guilty hands. i wonder if terri’s hands were just as cold, and if any of them in that forsaken room felt an ounce of guilt. “diane, don’t try to blame it on us!” carol shouted. steve started shouting at me too, even nancy, and laura, whose stringy hair that covered her eyes, couldn’t cover her tears and anger, while you just sat there, quietly, with pitiful eyes. “i’m sorry,” i managed to spit out, with tears that should have just hanged from my eyes, but eventually, started to creep down towards my chin in an absurd path. still, you sat there, quietly. i don’t know how you were just sitting there quietly. i admit i did something– no, i admit everything i did was wrong. but, rachel, you knew they bullied you, you knew! i’m not angry that you didn’t defend me, i know i deserved it, but no one defended you, they didn’t apologize to you, they didn’t realize what they did wrong. your “friend” too, all she did was watch your embarrassment, and deep inside you, you always knew that she was always ashamed of you and your gaudy sweater. even, ms. harris knew about everything, but she didn’t think much of it. that’s just what kids do, is what she thought. she only cared about you when the school’s image was in jeopardy. it’s cruel. after the day when we were all grouped together in such a suffocating room with such shameless people, i understood how you felt. they laughed and giggled at me when i had a speech, they talked behind my back, my “friends” didn’t care about me, and they made cards of me too. i finally felt what it’s like to be in your shoes, not my shiny, new shoes, but the shoes that were deemed peculiar by society, and the shoes that everyone judged and didn’t want to wear, or even be near. i wonder if you can even call this an apology, if this is what it takes for me to apologize. i wouldn’t say so. this isn’t a satisfying apology that heals all your wounds, but even if it’s a feeble, little bandaid that you want to cover your scars with, then, i’m sorry. soares & ameduri 71 concluding thoughts the infusion of critical literacy in an ela classroom for middle and secondary students can be a powerful mechanism to promote a critical stance. teaching students to dispel negative stereotypes, identify the biases in texts, and create alternate texts through alternate points of view (lewison et al., 2015) are strategic classroom practices that embrace a critical stance. the fact that the seventhgrade student whose work is shared in this teaching tip took a critical stance was evidenced in her written counter-narrative. the response demonstrated not only her social consciousness but also her need to speak out against the unwanted and harmful consequences when students are stereotyped and then bullied for being different. subsequently, the student’s responses may offer a compelling reason for critical stance instruction. a critical stance puts power in the hands of students to change the realities they read by using their agency to write alternative perspectives. references bean, t., & moni, k. (2003). developing students’ critical literacy: exploring identity construction in young adult fiction. journal of adolescent & adult literacy, 46(8), 638– 648. benner, m., brown, c., & jeffery, a. (2019). elevating student voice in education. center for american progress. bourke, j., & titus, a. (2020). the key to inclusive leadership. harvard business review. craddock, c., & pettit, s. (2023). never too old for a field trip: exploring community assets for middle grades literacy integration. current issues in middle level education, 27(2), 29– 38. https://doi.org/10.20429/cimle.2023.270203 gavell, m. (2021). task-based reading activities using authentic materials and skills. english teaching forum, 59(2), 2–9. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ej1309867.pdf leland, c. h., lewison, m., & harste, j. c. (2018). teaching children’s literature: it’s critical! (2nd ed.). routledge. lewison, m., leland, c., & harste, j. c. (2015). creating critical classrooms: reading and writing with an edge (2nd ed.). routledge. maynard, r. (n.d.). the fan club. commonlit. https://www.commonlit.org/en/texts/the-fan-club mclaughlin, m., & devoogd, g. (2010). critical literacy as comprehension: understanding at deeper levels. in d. lapp, & d. fisher (eds.), handbook of research on teaching the english language arts (pp. 278–282). routledge. reichardt, r., polner, b., & simor, p. (2023). influencing prior knowledge through a short reading impacts curiosity and learning. applied cognitive psychology, 37(2), 458–464. https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.4047 rosenblatt, l. m. (1978). the reader, the text, and the poem: the transactional theory of the literary world. southern illinois university press. received: june 20, 2024 | accepted: august 7, 2024 | published: november 15, 2024 https://doi.org/10.20429/cimle.2023.270203 https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ej1309867.pdf https://www.commonlit.org/en/texts/the-fan-club https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.4047 critical stance to promote student agency instructional activities figure 1: assignment instructions figure 2: one seventh-grader’s responses to “the fan club” concluding thoughts references georgia journal of literacy 2024, vol. 46(2), pp. 38–45 https://doi.org/10.56887/galiteracy.171 issn: 2833-7611 teaching tips contact dr. shannon tovey, associate professor of reading and literacy education, department of elementary and early childhood education, kennesaw state university, kennesaw, ga; email showrey@kennesaw.edu. (https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4225-9152). ssslide into reading big words! a strategy for decoding multisyllabic words shannon tovey kennesaw state university, kennesaw, ga abstract the ability to decode multisyllabic words significantly impacts fluency, automaticity, vocabulary, and comprehension ability. as students advance to the intermediate grades, this skill becomes increasingly critical as they are exposed to a greater volume of informational text containing a higher frequency of multisyllabic and unfamiliar words. given the rising number of older children reading below grade level, it is essential for intermediate-grade teachers to employ effective and efficient strategies to teach multisyllabic word decoding. this article introduces ssslide, a straightforward strategy that can be taught in just twelve 30-minute lessons, empowering students to decode most multisyllabic words and ultimately to make sense of what they read. keywords syllables; syllabication; structural analysis; phonics; struggling readers; wordsolving strategies; science of reading; covid19 eading tutors in georgia are seldom short of work these days: only 61% of georgia fourth graders demonstrated reading ability at above the basic level in 2022. this was 2% lower than in 2019 (national assessment of educational progress, n.d.), most likely due to the interruption in early grades education during the covid-19 pandemic (gray et al., 2023). with 39% of fourth-graders unable to read words well enough to identify simple, literal details in text, illiteracy is at a crisis level in our state. chall et al. (1990) used the term fourth-grade slump to explain the critical transition in reading skills as children progressed through school. she pointed to the greater number of multisyllabic words in non-fiction text, particularly as a possible reason for this trend. other researchers have validated the importance of multisyllabic word reading in student success in the upper elementary grades (ehri, 2005; nagy et al., 2006). one reason students may struggle to read multisyllabic words well is that they have not been systematically taught to do so. this is not surprising, given that the guidelines on teaching syllabication are more general than structured series of steps (see bear et al., 2015; fountas & pinnell, 2017; juel, 1988; pressley, 2006). a recent ebso search of peer-reviewed and non-peer-reviewed articles within the last five years containing “syllabication” or “multisyllabic words” in the title yielded no results in the first case and only rationale for teaching the skill, but with no specific methods for doing so, in the latter. caleb (pseudonym) represented a typical striving reader. his parents explained that caleb had spent his entire first-grade year and part of second grade online, with inconsistent instruction in reading, and that he was now struggling to read at grade level. like many fourthand fifth-grade struggling readers with whom i’ve worked in the past, an assessment of caleb’s oral reading ability quickly revealed the problem: although he could decode most single-syllable words, he had few strategies for decoding multisyllabic words. as is r mailto:showrey@kennesaw.edu https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4225-9152 tovey 39 common with children facing this challenge, caleb would skip unfamiliar words or read the first part of the word and guess at the rest. what science tells us about learning to read the ability to make meaning from text—to elicit information and make personal connections (rosenblatt, 1978)—underlies success in every subject area. however, to make meaning from text, the reader must possess the ability to decode text and read with automaticity (adams, 1990; ehri, 1995). for word reading to become automatic, children need to know not only how to map graphemes (letter patterns) to phonemes (letter sounds) but also how to break larger words into the smaller parts to facilitate reading. instruction on how to do this is crucial for struggling readers (bhattacharya & ehri, 2004; moats, 2004; moats & foorman, 2003; shelfelbine, 1990), including english language learners (vaughn et al., 2005). in this article, i will explain a strategy i developed to help caleb decode multisyllabic words quickly and accurately in just a few weeks. for caleb and other students experiencing the fourth-grade slump (chall et al., 1990), such strategies may be key to advancing their reading abilities and future academic success. the ssslide strategy like many post-pandemic teachers currently teaching the intermediate grades, i had limited time to help caleb catch up to grade level. it made sense, then, to develop an approach that was not only sequenced from simplest to more difficult word-solving skills (moats, 2004) but also focused on the grapheme patterns that would help him solve the most words as quickly as possible. in each 30-minute lesson, i used explicit instructional methods (archer & hughes, 2011; mesmer & griffith, 2005/2006). i explained and modeled, then had caleb work with my assistance, and finally had him demonstrate independently what he had learned. to make the task of dividing words easier, i provided lists of words in large font and with spaces between each letter. i set mastery at the ability to decode 80% of multisyllabic words within each category (black & wiliam, 1996). the sequence of my lessons, all which built upon each other, formed the acronym of ssslide: search for word parts that you already know. search for vc-e, cv-r, and c-le syllables. swoop together common consonant digraphs, diphthongs, and vowel teams. label vowels and consonants beginning with the first vowel. identify if the pattern is vccv or vcv. divide the word according to the most common pattern: vc/cv or v/cv. evaluate the word. step 1: search for word parts that you already know the easiest way to divide long words is by separating the recognizable word parts within them. these word parts may be compound or derivational. compound words like hotdog or mailbox are easy to divide without needing knowledge of syllable rules. according to mcgregor et al. (2010), these words make up as much as 30% of the english language. the same study found that 28% of words are derivational, containing recognizable roots flanked by affixes on one or both sides, such as uncomfortable, swimming, and playful. generally, these words can be easy solved by separating 40 georgia journal of literacy 46(2) the prefixes and suffixes from the base word. just 20 prefixes make up 97% of english words with prefixes, and 20 suffixes account for 93% of words with suffixes (white et al., 1989). it made sense to review or teach on the spot, if necessary, the most common prefixes and suffixes, as they often indicate where a word can be divided at the beginning (prefixes) or the end (suffixes). i provided caleb with a list of some of the most common prefixes and suffixes (lane et al., 2009; see figure 1) to scaffold this process and, in our first lesson, had him draw a box around the small words, prefixes, and suffixes that he saw. recognizing compound words and derivative prefixes or suffixes became the first step of the ssslide strategy: search for word parts you already know. figure 1: common prefixes and suffixes (lane et al., 2009) common prefixes in re de dis en ex un pre non common suffixes al tion sion ate ly able ment er ent step 2: search for vc-e, cv-r, and c-le patterns i found that step 1 alone seemed to help caleb to solve most long words. however, there are other rule-governed ways of dividing syllables, and some students need to understand these patterns to decode multisyllabic words (blevins, 2017; moats & tolman, 2009; yampolky & waters, 2002). teaching caleb to spot vc-e, cv-r, and c-le patterns made up the next three lessons. if searching for compound and derivational words does not solve the word, the next step for a student is to identify the syllable type and follow its most common division pattern. there are six syllable types: vowel-consonant-e (vc-e), consonant-vowel-r (cvr), and consonant-le (cle), closed, open, and vowel teams. each syllable type should be taught separately until mastery before going on to the next type (bhattacharya & ehri, 2004). vc-e, cvr, and c-le are all syllable types that mostly follow regular pronunciation and division rules (gates & yale, 2011). multisyllabic words that end with the vc-e syllables are divided before the consonant preceding the vowel sound, such as in the word a/live. if the vc-e syllable is in the middle of the word, then it is divided after the e, as in the word ab/so/lute/ly. i told caleb to think of vc-e words as mini silent e words that he could search for and draw boxes around to divide the word. cvr syllables, also called r-controlled vowels, are divided before the consonant, such as in the word con/duc/tor, and, when the pattern occurs in the middle, after the r, such as in the word mi/ser/ly. like with vc-e words, i told caleb to look for mini r-controlled words to box. in c-le syllables, such as the final syllable in can/dle, the division pattern is before the first consonant. this pattern occurs only at the end of words, and i taught caleb to draw boxes around them as well. the second step in the ssslide strategy became to search for vc-e, cvr, and c-le word parts. tovey 41 step 3: swoop together common consonant digraphs, diphthongs, and vowel teams closed syllables are the most common orthographic unit in english, making up about 43% of words (stanback, 1992). closed syllables have one vowel sound, pronounced as a short vowel, followed by a consonant sound, and most closed syllable words are divided after the consonant following the first vowel (vc/cv), such as in the word plas/tic. open-syllable words also follow a regular division pattern. these syllables end with a vowel and can be recognized by a pattern of vcv sounds. about seventy-five percent of the time, these syllables are divided after the first vowel (v/cv), such as in the word to/ma/to (stanback, 1992). both closed and open syllable patterns work by coding the vowel and consonant sounds, starting with the first vowel sound in the word. whether open or closed, children need to understand that syllable rules are based on vowel and consonant sounds not on vowel or consonant letters. therefore, i teach them to “swoop” together two or more graphemes that represent one phoneme before applying the syllable rule. this applies to sounds that are made by consonant digraphs, diphthongs, and vowel teams. for example, in the word mushroom, the sh is a digraph which counts as one consonant sound and must be swooped together for the closed syllable pattern (vc/cv) to work in dividing the word. in the word season, the ea needs to be swooped together for the most common open syllable pattern to work (v/cv). in the word allowance, the ow diphthong needs to be swooped together for the v/cv open syllable division to work in the second syllable. given our limited time and the need for efficient word-solving, i provided caleb with a list of all the consonant digraphs and diphthongs and only the most common vowel teams (fry, 2004; see figure 2). this served as a scaffold as he implemented this step. figure 2: common consonant digraphs, diphthongs, and vowel teams (fry, 2004) consonant digraphs ch sh th wh ph diphthongs ow oo ou oi oy vowel teams ai ay ee ea oa when considering vowel team syllables, i realized there was no need to teach these separately from the other syllable types. nor was there any reason to teach complicated patterns like vcccv patterns and the like. if caleb remembered to swoop consonant digraphs, diphthongs, and vowel teams together, the division patterns of vc/cv and v/cv almost always worked. thus, “s” for “swoop” became the third step in the ssslide strategy: swoop together consonant digraphs, diphthongs, and vowel teams. swooping common digraphs, diphthongs, and vowel teams made up three more lessons. after nine thirty-minute lessons (one each on identifying words inside of words, common prefixes, common suffixes, vc-e, cv-r, c-le patterns, and swooping common digraphs, diphthongs, and vowel teams), caleb was quickly gaining confidence in his ability to tackle big words. however, there were still a few more strategies needed to ensure his ability to solve every multisyllabic word he might encounter. 42 georgia journal of literacy 46(2) step 4: label vowels and consonant sounds beginning with the first vowel sound and step 5: identify if the pattern is vccv or vcv i began by teaching caleb to label vowels and consonants by writing a v or a c under each grapheme beginning with the first vowel and note which of the two patterns he saw. both steps were taught in the same lesson. step 6: divide the word according to the most common pattern: vc/cv or v/cv to complete the word-solving process, i taught caleb that if the pattern is vccv, it generally divides after the first consonant. if it is vcv, it will generally divide after the first vowel, and, if not, after the first consonant. if other syllables need to continue to be divided to solve the word, the student can repeat these steps beginning with the second vowel. this step made up another lesson. i followed this with one last lesson in which he practiced solving several examples of multisyllabic words by employing all the strategies he had learned. see examples of the ssslide strategy in action in figure 3. figure 3: examples of ssslide in action tovey 43 step 7: evaluate the word no matter what strategy is employed, the student will “evaluate” the word by putting each part of the word together in one whole word aloud and noting if it makes sense. this step is important as the whole purpose of the ssslide strategy is not to solve a word, per se, but to make meaning of print. conclusion reading researcher linnea erhi (2005) said, “given that there are multiple ways to read words, consider which way makes text reading most efficient” (p. 170). i similarly explain to children that they have many tools available to them to solve a word and that it really doesn’t matter how they divide it as long as they can read the word. for example, whether the word capable is divided cap/a/ble or cap/able, the word will still be recognizable. i also reminded caleb that he did not have to divide syllables from the beginning of the word to the end. rather he could start at the end of the word or even in the middle. while the process of ssslide may seem daunting at first, children need to understand that they do not need to go through every step of ssslide every time. if they find word parts they know (step 1) or the simple vc-e, cvr, or c-le patterns (step 2) those steps are usually sufficient. children also need to understand that they will not have do ssslide every time they try to decode a long word, because once they do it a few times, those words, and others like them, will become part of their sight word vocabulary. if i had had more time with caleb, i might have taught him to recognize some of the less common vowel teams and to use less common syllable division patterns. however, i predict that his increased time spent reading will provide more opportunities to practice decoding long words and that, through practice, those words will eventually become automatic and part of his sight word vocabulary (ehri, 2005). teachers of struggling readers like caleb need practical and efficient solutions for catching children up to grade level. strategies like ssslide have the potential to pull caleb and other struggling readers out of the “slump” and set them on their way to academic success. references adams, m. j. (1990). beginning to read: thinking and learning about print. mit press. archer, a. l., & hughes, c. a. (2011). explicit instruction: effective and efficient teaching. guilford press. bear, d. r., invernizzi, m., johnsong, f., & templeton, s. (2015). words their way: word study for phonics, vocabulary, and spelling instruction. pearson. bhattacharya, a., & ehri, l. c. (2004). graphosyllabic analysis helps adolescent struggling readers read and spell words. journal of learning disabilities, 37(4), 331–348. https://doi.org/10.1177/00222194040370040501 black, p., & wiliam, d. (1998). assessment and classroom learning. assessment in education: principles, policy & practice, 5(1), 7–74. https://doi.org/10.1080/0969595980050102 blevins, w. 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(2004). phonics: a large phoneme-grapheme frequency count revised. journal of literacy research, 36(1), 85–98. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15548430jlr3601_5 gray, j. s., powell-smith, k. a., & good, r. h. (2023). the impact of covid-19 on student reading development. the elementary school journal, 123(4), 583–598. https://doi.org/ 10.1086/723301 gates, l., & yale, i. (2011). a logical letter-sound system in five phonic generalizations. the reading teacher, 64(5), 330–339. https://doi.org/10.1598/rt.64.5.3 juel, c. (1988). learning to read and write: a longitudinal study of 54 children from first through fourth grades. journal of educational psychology, 80(4), 437–447. https://doi.org/ 10.10370022-0663.80.4.437 lane, h. b., gutlohn, l., & van dijk, w. (2009). morpheme frequency in academic words: identifying high-utility morphemes for instruction. literacy research and instruction, 58(3), 182–209. https://doi.org/10.1080/19388071.2019.1617375 mesmer, h. a. e., & griffith, p. l. (2005/2006). everybody’s selling it: but just what is explicit, systematic phonics instruction? the reading teacher, 59(4), 366–376. https://eric.ed.gov/ ?id=ej738020 moats, l. c. (2004). efficacy of a structured, systematic language curriculum for adolescent poor readers. reading & writing quarterly, 20(2), 145–159. https://doi.org/10.1080/105735604 90262082 moats, l. c., & foorman, b. r. (2003). measuring teachers’ content knowledge of language and reading. annals of dyslexia, 53, 23–45. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11881-003-0003-7 moats, l. c., & tolman, c. (2009). six syllable types. https://www.readingrockets.org/article/sixsyllable-types mcgregor, k., rost, g., guo, l., & sheng, l. (2010). what compound words mean to children with specific language impairment. applied psycholinguistics, 31(3), 463–487. https://doi.org/10.1017/s014271641000007x nagy, w., berninger, v., & abbott, r. 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(n.d). the nation’s report card. https://www.nationsreportcard.gov/reading/nation/achievement/?grade=4 https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.4159/9780674029354 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9817.1995.tb00077.x https://doi.org/10.1207/s1532799xssr0902_4 https://doi.org/10.1207/s15548430jlr3601_5 https://doi.org/10.1086/723301 https://doi.org/10.1086/723301 https://doi.org/10.1598/rt.64.5.3 https://doi.org/10.10370022-0663.80.4.437 https://doi.org/10.10370022-0663.80.4.437 https://doi.org/10.1080/19388071.2019.1617375 https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ej738020 https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ej738020 https://doi.org/10.1080/10573560490262082 https://doi.org/10.1080/10573560490262082 https://doi.org/10.1007/s11881-003-0003-7 https://www.readingrockets.org/article/six-syllable-types https://www.readingrockets.org/article/six-syllable-types https://doi.org/10.1017/s014271641000007x https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.98.1.134 https://www.nationsreportcard.gov/reading/nation/achievement/?grade=4 tovey 45 pressley, m. (2006). reading instruction that works: the case for balanced teaching. guilford press. rosenblatt, l. (1978). the reader, the text, the poem: the transactional theory of the literary work. southern university press. shelfelbine, j. (1990). a syllable-unit approach to teaching decoding of polysyllabic words to fourthand sixth-grade disabled readers. in j. zutell & s. mccormick (eds.), literacy theory and research: analysis from multiple paradigms (pp. 223–230). national reading conference. stanback, m. l. (1992). syllable and rime patterns for teaching reading: analysis of a frequencybased vocabulary of 17,602 words. annals of dyslexia, 42, 196–221. https://www. jstor.org/stable/23768001 vaughn, s., mathes, p. c., linan-thompson, s., & francis, d. j. (2005). teaching english language learners to read: putting research into practice. learning disabilities research and practice, 20(1), 58–67. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-5826.2005.00121.x white, t. g., sowell, v., & yanagihara, a. (1989). teaching elementary students to use wordpart clues. the reading teacher, 42(4), 302–308. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ej381885 yampolky, s., & waters, g. (2002). treatment of single word oral reading in an individual with deep dyslexia. aphasiology, 16(4–6), 455–471. https://doi.org/10.1080/0268703024400 0068 received: september 16, 2024 | accepted: october 13, 2024 | published: november 15, 2024 https://www.jstor.org/stable/23768001 https://www.jstor.org/stable/23768001 https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1111/j.1540-5826.2005.00121.x https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ej381885 https://doi.org/10.1080/02687030244000068 https://doi.org/10.1080/02687030244000068 what science tells us about learning to read the ssslide strategy step 1: search for word parts that you already know figure 1: common prefixes and suffixes (lane et al., 2009) step 2: search for vc-e, cv-r, and c-le patterns step 3: swoop together common consonant digraphs, diphthongs, and vowel teams figure 2: common consonant digraphs, diphthongs, and vowel teams (fry, 2004) step 4: label vowels and consonant sounds beginning with the first vowel sound and step 5: identify if the pattern is vccv or vcv step 6: divide the word according to the most common pattern: vc/cv or v/cv figure 3: examples of ssslide in action step 7: evaluate the word conclusion references georgia journal of literacy 2024, vol. 46(1), pp. 4–19 https://doi.org/10.56887/galiteracy.133 issn: 2833-7611 research article contact dr. lindee morgan, executive director, sandra dunagan deal center for early language and literacy, professor of education, department of professional learning and innovation, georgia college and state university, milledgeville, ga; email lindee.morgan@gcsu.edu. joseph wenke, data analyst i, sandra dunagan deal center for early language and literacy, milledgeville, ga; email joseph.wenke@gcsu.edu. dr. kristina dandy, professor of psychology, department of psychological science, georgia college and state university, milledgeville, ga; email kristina.dandy@gcsu.edu. a psychometric review of universal reading screeners approved by the state board of education lindee morgan sandra dunagan deal center for early language and literacy, milledgeville, georgia and department of professional learning and innovation, georgia college and state university, milledgeville, ga joseph wenke sandra dunagan deal center for early language and literacy, milledgeville, ga kristina dandy department of psychological science, georgia college and state university, milledgeville, ga abstract in 2023, the georgia legislature passed the georgia early literacy act (hb 538), representing a sweeping reform effort to improve the quality of early reading instruction in the state. hb 538 requires schools to screen children in kindergarten through third grade three times yearly. related to this requirement, hb 538 requires that the state board of education (sboe) approve a list of universal reading screeners that can: 1) provide relevant information to target instruction, 2) measure foundational literacy skills, 3) identify students who are struggling to acquire reading skills, and 4) be used to monitor progress. the purpose of this review is to provide a supplement to the sboe’s approved list so that local education agencies (leas) can assess the relative psychometric strength of each screener as they select the most appropriate screener for the students they serve. we compiled information regarding each screener’s reliability, validity, sensitivity, and specificity to create an exposition of their strengths and weaknesses. we found that gadoe’s approved list contains numerous tools with acceptable psychometric properties; however, large variability in the amount of psychometric data available for each screener is problematic. leas are recommended to consider psychometric strength as a critical factor when selecting an early literacy screener. keywords psychometric review; universal reading screeners n 2023, the georgia legislature passed the georgia early literacy act (hb 538), representing a sweeping reform effort to improve the quality of early reading instruction in the state. among other aspects of the law, hb 538 requires schools to screen children in kindergarten through third grade three times yearly. related to this requirement, hb 538 requires that the state board of education (sboe) approve a list of universal reading screeners that can: 1) provide relevant information to target instruction, 2) measure foundational literacy skills, 3) identify students who are struggling to acquire reading skills, and 4) be used to monitor progress. i mailto:lindee.morgan@gcsu.edu mailto:joseph.wenke@gcsu.edu mailto:kristina.dandy@gcsu.edu morgan et al. 5 the georgia department of education’s (gadoe) policy division coordinated a request for information (rfi) process beginning in may 2023. the rfi application required vendors to include evidence in several areas, including how their screener addresses the requirements listed in hb 538 as indicated above. following this, publishers of screeners prepared and submitted information about their screener to the sboe. the sboe approved a list of 16 screeners on july 19, 2023, and shortened this list on february 22, 2024. the current approved list can be found here. the purpose of this psychometric review is to provide a supplement to the sboe’s approved list so that local education agencies (leas) can assess the relative psychometric strength of each screener as they select the most appropriate screener for the students they serve. this independent review is meant to clarify several psychometric properties of each approved screener and provide leas with additional context regarding the tools included in this list. literature review understanding the psychometric composition of a screener is critical when determining what populations a screener will effectively target. psychometrics enables us to analyze the instruments we use to measure behaviors and traits; it also provides us with objective rules for scoring the results of tests (raykov & marcoulides, 2011). it is important to note that screeners differ from childhood assessments. universal reading screeners identify students in need of additional evaluation, while assessments give insight into specific abilities and competencies (moodie et al., 2014). psychometric constructs reliability. reliability is an index of whether students’ scores on the screener will be stable despite extraneous factors, including when, who administers it, and where it is administered (moodie et al., 2014). reliability is impacted by variables such as test length, homogeneity of items, test-retest interval, variability of scores, student guessing, testing situation variance, and sample size (sattler, 2020). for a psychometric test to be supported by evidence of reliability, the measure must be consistent across raters, time, and items (white et al., 2022). while many reliability indices are available, the most common types used in our review were interrater reliability, test-retest, and internal consistency. interrater reliability indicates whether the test’s scores will vary when assessed by different raters (cook & beckman, 2006). interrater reliability can demonstrate the objectivity of an assessment’s scores (sattler, 2020). testretest reliability demonstrates that an assessment yields stable results when administered to an individual at two or more time points (sattler, 2020). internal consistency demonstrates that the items in a test measure the same construct or concept or that the items in the test are homogenous (cronbach, 1951; tavakol & dennick, 2011). validity. validity is a measurement of “the degree to which evidence and theory support the interpretations of test scores entailed by the proposed uses of tests” (american educational research association [aera], 1999, p. 9). that is, validity must be inferred from multiple sources of evidence and stated within the context of a specific purpose (cronbach & meehl, 1955). a screener may have strong evidence of validity for identifying dyslexia but weak validity in screening for difficulty in acquiring reading skills or vice-versa. at the same time, a screener may obtain perfect sensitivity by flagging every student it assesses as at-risk for reading difficulty. however, its specificity would become incredibly weak for the number of false positives. thus, https://drive.google.com/file/d/1fzem0qxbo3o6dcte1ivsmcdomevenp7v/view?usp=sharing 6 georgia journal of literacy 46(1) multiple sources for evidence of validity are required to state that a tool has evidence of validity (cronbach & meehl, 1955). criterion validity demonstrates that a screener is accurate and precise by measuring it against an already accepted assessment. using accepted assessments as our criterion measure allows us to advance the field by expediting the review of new tools. concurrent validity indicates the accuracy of an assessment by comparing its results to another well-tested assessment administered at about the same time. predictive validity demonstrates a screener’s ability to predict a child’s scores on another well-tested assessment at a later date. sensitivity and specificity. sensitivity and specificity are additional forms of validity that indicate a measure’s capacity to correctly identify which students are at risk and which are not (council on children, 2006; swift et al., 2020). the sensitivity indicates a tool’s accuracy in identifying students with or at risk for a condition (i.e., true positives), in this case, reading difficulty or dyslexia (parikh et al., 2008). specificity demonstrates the tool’s capacity to accurately rule out students who are not at risk for a specific condition (i.e., true negatives). it is essential to acknowledge that sensitivity and specificity only apply to the tested group. sensitivity and specificity do not provide the probability of an individual student’s test result being correct; that probability is more appropriately assessed by positive predictive values and negative predictive values (trevethan, 2017). sensitivity focuses entirely on the percentage of the population with the condition caught by the screener; it is not impacted by false positives. positive predictive values, on the other hand, show the percentage of true positives out of all positive test results (trevethan, 2017). false positives are less concerning than false negatives when evaluating reading screeners because a false positive will only result in a student receiving extra assistance, while a false negative results in a student who needs assistance not receiving it (classification accuracy, n.d.). adequate sensitivity and specificity are crucial to show that a screener appropriately identifies the students who need extra assistance without overburdening the screening and response system by flagging children who are not indeed at risk for reading difficulties. psychometric review process the authors reviewed all 16 screeners approved by the sboe to provide leas with an answer to the question: what are the relative psychometric strengths of the universal reading screeners approved by the georgia sboe? the review used data published by independent experts when available and information provided by the screeners’ publishers. the publishers of each screener submitted a report to gadoe in response to a call for universal reading screening tools for students k–3. these reports contained information about how each screener works, the domains it assesses, and evidence of its efficacy. the national center for intensive intervention’s (ncii) academic screening technical review committee (trc) reviewed eleven of the sixteen screeners. the trc comprises individuals with expertise in measurement and research methodology in academic screening. in addition, the trc included committee members with expertise in culturally and linguistically diverse groups. members of the trc evaluated screeners for classification accuracy, reliability, and validity. screeners not evaluated by ncii’s trc included amira, battelle early academic survey, aimswebplus, predictive assessment of reading, mindplay universal screener, and exact path diagnostic assessment. for each screener, we utilized reports submitted to gadoe by the publishers of each screener as part of the rfi process and searched for additional studies on the screeners. although several screeners on our list were developed for use beyond the third grade (e.g., as high as grade 8 or 12), we restricted our review to grades k–3 to align with the requirements of hb 538. morgan et al. 7 method when evaluating each screener’s psychometric strength, we focused specifically on metrics of reliability, validity, sensitivity, and specificity. these metrics provide robust indicators of a tool’s value in educational settings, enabling the communication of meaningful information through precise psychological measurements (sattler, 2020). we identified statistical tests performed in evaluating each screener and reported the strength of evidence each statistical test provided. together, these metrics provide insight into whether an early literacy screener can accurately and consistently indicate a child’s reading status. each screener is a norm-referenced tool (i.e., these tools compare each student to a sample population) using grade-level norms (ornstein, 1993). ncii was the first source of information used for our evaluation. for screeners not evaluated by ncii, the primary source of information was publisher reports submitted to gadoe. additional information from publishers’ websites, journal articles, and technical manuals was also used. in their reports to gadoe, each screener’s publisher determined acceptable cutoff scores for the psychometric tests they used. the cutoffs used in our review are applied to all screeners based on relevant literature and standard research guidelines. thus, they may vary from what was used by the publisher and generally provide a more conservative assessment of each tool’s performance. reliability for reliability, this review focused on interrater reliability, test-retest reliability, and internal consistency metrics. ncii gave ratings of convincing evidence of reliability to each screener that demonstrated the following: a model-based approach to reliability, at least two types of reliability that are appropriate to the tool, and for each type of reliability, the median lower bound of the confidence interval around the estimate had to meet or exceed 0.70 (academic screening tools, n.d.). ncii’s ratings were applied separately for each grade level targeted by the tools evaluated. interrater reliability. interrater agreement was only reported on screeners evaluated by ncii. therefore, our determination of acceptable levels of interrater agreement corresponds with that deemed by ncii. interrater reliability can be demonstrated by percentage agreement, kappa, intraclass correlation coefficient, or product-moment correlation coefficient (sattler, 2020). test-retest. correlation coefficients calculated from the test-retest reliability depend on the type of data used and can include pearson’s r or spearman’s p correlation coefficients. a testretest coefficient below 0.5 is considered weak, 0.5 to 0.7 is moderate, while above 0.7 is strong, and above 0.9 is very strong (mcdaniel & ziniel, 2023). internal consistency. internal consistency can be shown using cronbach’s alpha, omega, or split-half reliability; scores of 0.7 are considered good, and scores of 0.8 are considered excellent, but 0.9 or higher may suggest redundancy more than consistency (mcdaniel & ziniel, 2023). a score between 0.6 and 0.7 could be considered adequate in limited situations, but anything below 0.6 is considered poor reliability. other reliability tests used in reviewing the screeners but not included in our results include irt-score-based reliability and efa/cfa model-based coefficient omega. while both tests are acceptable ways to measure reliability, too few screeners used these tests to justify including them in our results table. 8 georgia journal of literacy 46(1) validity for the current review, we include metrics of criterion validity: concurrent and predictive. a correlation between the two measures evaluates both. for predictive and concurrent validity, a median coefficient of 0.49 or less is considered weak, 0.5 to 0.69 is considered moderate, and anything over 0.7 is considered strong (mcdaniel & ziniel, 2023). sensitivity and specificity. acceptable sensitivity and specificity depend on what is being assessed and the population in which it is being assessed. sensitivity and specificity are expected to vary with changes in the prevalence of the condition being screened for (parikh et al., 2008). for example, the sensitivity of a screener meant to detect reading difficulty should be higher than a screener meant to detect dyslexia because reading difficulty is more prevalent than dyslexia (catts et al., 2012; yang et al., 2022). scoring systems must attempt to minimize under-referring or over-referring, which is why sensitivity and specificity scores of 0.7–0.8 are generally acceptable (council on children, 2006). sensitivity and specificity are reported with a range from 0 to 1, with 1 indicating perfect measurement (swift et al., 2020). given that ncii gives high ratings to sensitivities of 0.7 or greater and to specificities of 0.8 or greater (classification accuracy, n.d.), we modified the rating scale for the current review, citing sensitivity and specificity ratings of 0.8 and above as acceptable; this modification was made to highlight the importance of accurately identifying reading difficulties in k–3 children. given the interdependence of these measures within the context in which they are assessed, interpretation of specific scores should be made with consideration for the purpose of the assessments. screener ranking based on the information available to us and in examination of screener features and psychometric indices, we derived an informal coding system to generate relative rankings of the approved screeners. in this coding system, we ascribed weighted points for each area to derive a total score so that these tools could be considered relative to one another. seven aspects were included in the coding system, including: (1) screener scope, (2) psychometric breadth, (3) reliability, (4) criterion validity, (5) sensitivity, (6) specificity, and (7) sensitivity and specificity composite. the screener scope, determined by the domains that each screener assessed, was rated as a 0 or 1. the domains assessed by each screener were indicated by publishers in their reports to gadoe; details can be found in table 2. screeners that assessed at least 12 domains received a score of 1. psychometric breadth also rated a 0 or 1, was based on the range of grades psychometric data were provided for each screener. screeners that provided data for at least three grades between k–3 received a score of 1. reliability was also rated a 0 or 1, based on the abundance of assessments supported by evidence of reliability. screeners that tested at least two types of reliability received a score of 1. due to the nature of the data and its intended use in correctly identifying children with reading delays accurately, criterion validity was weighted more heavily than reliability at a maximum of 3 points. points given for criterion validity were based on the cutoffs described above. sensitivity weighting was calculated as a factor of the screener’s reported sensitivity across k–3. we multiplied each screener’s mean sensitivity by 6 to give it heavier weighting due to the relative importance of sensitivity as a psychometric feature for screeners in early education. specificity was rated from 0–3, with 3 points for a specificity of 0.9 or more, 2 points for a specificity between 0.8 and 0.9, 1 point for a specificity between 0.7 and 0.8, and 0 points for a specificity of less than 0.7. a score of 0 was also given if specificity data were not provided. finally, we calculated a mean sensitivity score and a mean specificity score and created morgan et al. 9 a composite score by adding them together for each screener. the exact composite score was added to the ranking score of each screener, for a minimum of 0 and a maximum of 2. using each of the aspects described above, we summed scores to rank each screener relative to one another and organized them into three categories: strong, moderate, and weak. the maximum possible score was 17 points. scores above the median were categorized as strong. scores below the median were categorized as moderate or weak. screeners that received less than 60% of the maximum score were categorized as weak. results the results of our review are presented in tables 1–4. table 1 provides an alphabetical listing of each screener, its publisher, and the grades for which the tool is intended. table 1 also indicates whether the tool shows convincing evidence of reliability and validity for each grade analyzed. an acceptable reliability rating was required for a tool to be determined to have convincing evidence of reliability in each grade, and a moderate validity coefficient was required for a tool to be determined to have convincing evidence for validity. when possible, ncii’s judgment on evidence was used. for screeners not evaluated by ncii, cutoff points for reliability and validity were used, as indicated in the section above. two screeners (isteep and mindplay universal screener) did not provide grade-specific metrics of reliability and validity. one notable finding is that nine of the sixteen tools do not have convincing evidence for either reliability or validity at kindergarten. four of these tools do not have strong evidence for both reliability and validity at kindergarten. additional information on each screener’s supporting evidence can be found in table 3. it is also worth noting that for reliability and validity to have real meaning, the intended population must be the same as the group tested in the tool’s development (moodie et al., 2014); however, an assessment of the test population was beyond this review’s scope. generally, this information can be found on publisher’s websites or in screener technical manuals. table 1 also states whether a screener requires administrator/teacher training or technology to administer, with most tools requiring both. table 1: overview of literacy screeners approved by the sboe measure name vendor grades developed for convincing evidence of reliability by grade convincing evidence of validity by grade administrator training required technology required for administration acadience reading k–6 acadience learning, inc. k–6 k–6 1, 2, 4, 5, 6 yes no aimswebplus pearson k–8 k–8 k–8 yes yes amira houghton mifflin harcourt k–3 k–3 k–3 no yes battelle early academic survey riverside assessments k–2 k–2 k–2 yes yes classworks reading universal screener classworks k–10 2–8 2–8 yes yes 10 georgia journal of literacy 46(1) easycbm for reading riverside assessments k–8 k–5 2, 3, 4, 5 yes yes exact path diagnostic assessment edmentum k–3 k–3 k–3 yes yes fastbridge areading renaissance learning k–8 k–8 2–8 yes yes i-ready assessment for reading curriculum associates k–8 k–8 k–8 yes yes isip reading with ran and orf istation k–8 k–8 k–8 yes yes isteep isteep, llc k–12 n/a* n/a* no yes map reading fluency nwea k–3 k–3 1, 2, 3 yes yes mclass amplify education, inc. k–8 k–8 k–5 yes no mindplay universal screener mindplay k–12 n/a* n/a* no yes predictive assessment of reading red e set grow k–3 k–3 1–3 yes yes star assessments renaissance learning k–3 1–3 k–3 yes yes note. *not specified by grade. table 2 (a & b) lists the domains assessed by each screener. table 2 is split into two parts for readability, with each part including eight screeners. screener domains are sets of related skills or information classified together for assessment purposes. gadoe provided two categories of screener domains: foundational literacy skills and characteristics of dyslexia. gadoe provided these for publishers to indicate what screeners purportedly assess. the grades at which each domain is assessed are also indicated. although gadoe has listed each of these domains separately, the domains are not necessarily mutually exclusive. with very few exceptions, this group of screeners assesses each of the domains listed at k–3. it is worth noting that the predictive assessment of reading evaluates only one out of the seven domains of dyslexia. morgan et al. 11 table 2(a): domains assessed predictive acadience aimsweb plus amira battelle class works easy cbm exact path foundational literacy skills phonological awareness k–3 k–1 k–1 k–3 k–2 k–2 k–1 k–1 phonemic awareness k–3 k–1 k–1 k–3 k–2 k–2 k–1 k–1 phonics k–3 k–3 k–1 k–3 k–2 k–3 k–1 k–3 fluency k–3 1–3 k–3 k–3 k–2 not assessed k–3 k–3 vocabulary k–3 k–3 k–3 k–3 not assessed 2–3 2–3 k–3 reading comprehension k–3 1–3 2–3 k–3 not assessed 1–3 2–3 k–3 spelling k–3 k–1 k–3 k–3 not assessed 3 not assessed k–3 oral language k–3 k–3 k–3 k–3 k–2 k–3 k–3 k–3 intersection of reading and writing k–3 k–1 1–3 not assessed k–2 1–3 3 k–3 characteristics of dyslexia sound symbol recognition not assessed k–2 k–1 k–3 k–2 k–2 k–1 k alphabet knowledge not assessed 1,2 k–3 k–3 k–2 k–3 k k–3 decoding skills not assessed k–3 k–1 k–3 k–2 k–3 k–1 k–3 encoding skills not assessed k–1 k–3 k–3 not assessed k–3 k–1 k–3 ran k–3 k–1 k–3 k–3 k–2 not assessed k–1 k–3 accuracy of word reading not assessed 1–3 k–3 k–3 k–2 k–3 1–3 k–3 sight word reading efficiency skills not assessed 1–3 k–3 k–3 k–2 k–2 k–1 k–1 12 georgia journal of literacy 46(1) table 2(b): domains assessed fastbridge areading i-ready assess ment for reading isip readingwi th ran and orf isteep map reading fluency mclass mindplay universal screener star assessments foundational literacy skills phonological awareness k–1 k–3 k–3 k–3 k–3 k–3 k–3 k–3 phonemic awareness k–1 k–3 k–3 k–3 k–3 k–3 k–3 k–3 phonics k–3 k–3 k–3 k–3 k–3 k–3 k–3 k–3 fluency k–1 k–3 k–3 k–3 k–3 k–3 k–3 k–3 vocabulary k–3 k–3 k–3 k–3 k–3 k–3 k–3 k–3 reading comprehension k–3 k–3 k–3 k–3 k–3 k–3 k–3 k–3 spelling k–3 1–3 k–3 k–3 k–3 k–3 k–3 k–3 oral language k–1 1–3 k–3 k–3 k–3 k–3 k–3 k–3 intersection of reading and writing k–3 k–3 k–3 k–3 k–3 k–3 k–3 k–3 characteristics of dyslexia sound symbol recognition k–1 k–3 k–3 k–3 k–3 k–3 k–3 k–3 alphabet knowledge k k–3 k–3 k–3 k–3 k–3 k–3 k–3 decoding skills k–1 k–3 k–3 k–3 k–3 k–3 not assessed k–3 encoding skills k–3 k–3 k–3 k–3 k–3 k–3 k–3 k–3 ran k k–3 k–3 k–3 k–3 k–3 k–3 k–3 accuracy of word reading 1–3 k–3 k–3 k–3 k–3 k–3 k–3 k–3 sight word reading efficiency skills k–1 k–3 k–3 k–3 k–3 k–3 k–3 k–3 table 3 summarizes the strength of each psychometric index evaluated as well as the source of information for these metrics. specifically, table 3 identifies the reliability, criterion validity, sensitivity, and specificity of each screener, specifically in grades k–3. while publishers may have reported these results for specific grade levels, the metrics in table 3 are based on an average of morgan et al. 13 scores provided from k–3. these metrics provide insight as to whether a screener can accurately and consistently indicate children’s performance in the domains listed in table 2. the metrics in table 3 were analyzed against specific cut points to represent varying levels of reliability, criterion validity, sensitivity, and specificity. our classifications represent the inferred strength of available evidence for each of the aforementioned psychometric indices. these are not absolute judgements; thus, exact values are not included in table 3. a key is provided in the table that indicates these cut points, from low to acceptable, weak to strong, and weak to acceptable. table 3: reliability, criterion validity, sensitivity, and specificity of screeners at grades k–3 screener name source reliability validity interrater test-retest internal consistency criterion sensitivity specificity acadience reading k–6 intensive intervention acceptable acceptable acceptable strong weak acceptable aimswebplus pearson not assessed acceptable* acceptable moderate acceptable acceptable amira hmhco amira learning: research evidence base not assessed acceptable acceptable strong acceptable acceptable battelle early academic survey riverside not assessed acceptable acceptable strong ** ** classworks reading universal screener intensive intervention not assessed acceptable acceptable strong weak acceptable easy cbm for reading intensive intervention not assessed acceptable not assessed moderate weak acceptable exact path diagnostic assessment edmentum research not assessed not assessed acceptable* strong acceptable acceptable fastbridge areading intensive intervention not assessed acceptable not assessed strong acceptable acceptable i-ready assessment for reading intensive intervention not assessed acceptable acceptable* strong acceptable acceptable isip reading with ran and orf padlet not assessed acceptable acceptable* strong acceptable weak isteep intensive intervention acceptable acceptable not assessed moderate weak acceptable map reading fluency intensive intervention not assessed acceptable acceptable* moderate weak weak mclass intensive intervention not assessed acceptable* not assessed strong weak acceptable https://charts.intensiveintervention.org/screening/tool/?id=f24c475dd429f546#reliability https://charts.intensiveintervention.org/screening/tool/?id=f24c475dd429f546#reliability https://charts.intensiveintervention.org/screening/tool/?id=6bb28436834289bd#reliability https://charts.intensiveintervention.org/screening/tool/?id=6bb28436834289bd#reliability https://charts.intensiveintervention.org/screening/tool/?id=73dbc45489472b59#reliability https://charts.intensiveintervention.org/screening/tool/?id=73dbc45489472b59#reliability https://charts.intensiveintervention.org/screening/tool/?id=d37b9bdf494b97b4#reliability https://charts.intensiveintervention.org/screening/tool/?id=d37b9bdf494b97b4#reliability https://charts.intensiveintervention.org/screening/tool/?id=9843b4c94698bc82#reliability https://charts.intensiveintervention.org/screening/tool/?id=9843b4c94698bc82#reliability https://padlet.com/istation_proposals/georgia-department-of-education-w7u7jpr4tw5pk6u1/wish/2628510522 https://charts.intensiveintervention.org/screening/tool/?id=2b3f7bb3343b6f6f#reliability https://charts.intensiveintervention.org/screening/tool/?id=2b3f7bb3343b6f6f#reliability https://charts.intensiveintervention.org/screening/tool/?id=83426678426286bf#reliability https://charts.intensiveintervention.org/screening/tool/?id=83426678426286bf#reliability https://charts.intensiveintervention.org/screening/tool/?id=cf893d2246db95c3#reliability https://charts.intensiveintervention.org/screening/tool/?id=cf893d2246db95c3#reliability 14 georgia journal of literacy 46(1) mindplay universal screener mindplay education not assessed acceptable not assessed moderate ** ** predictive assessment of reading par technical manual not assessed acceptable acceptable strong acceptable acceptable star assessments star assessment not assessed acceptable acceptable moderate acceptable acceptable note. numerical ratings below represent median coefficient/alpha ratings. cells showing the highest rating in each category are highlighted. *marginal reliability was used as a metric of internal consistency, or alternate form or delayed alternate form reliability was used as a metric of retest reliability. acceptable level of interrater, test-retest, and internal consistency was identified as acceptable (> 0.7); low (< 0.7). ratings of criterion validity: strong (> 0.7), moderate ( > 0.5, < 0.7), weak (< 0.5). ratings of sensitivity and specificity: acceptable (> 0.8), weak (< 0.8). **sensitivity and specificity were not tested for this screener. it is important to note that several screeners did not assess two or more of the metrics examined in our review (see battelle early academic survey, exact path, fastbridge, mclass, and mindplay universal screener). of all of these, mindplay universal screener provided the least evidence with information for only two out of six psychometric indices. two of the sixteen tools (battelle early academic survey and mindplay universal screener) did not publish information on sensitivity or specificity. all screeners reporting indices of reliability performed within acceptable levels, and all screeners reporting criterion validity had either moderate or strong ratings. regarding criterion validity, it is worth noting that multiple screeners used map growth and map as their measure of comparison, which have been shown to be valid tools and as a result are acceptable criterion measures. map growth and map are not the same tool as map reading fluency included in our review. of the fourteen screeners reporting sensitivity, six received a determination of weak (acadience, classworks, easy cbm, isteep, map reading fluency, and mclass). only two screeners were determined to have weak specificity (isip reading and map reading fluency). inconsistencies in reporting were apparent for two screeners. two screeners appear to have been developed and normed at a narrower grade range than their report to gadoe suggests. according to the ncii report, classworks was normed on 2nd-8th grade. however, their reporting to gadoe indicated that their screener is appropriate for k–10th grade. similarly, easycbm was reportedly normed on 3rd-5th grade, but their reporting to gadoe indicated that their screener is appropriate for k–8th grade. caution is suggested in using tools where publishers may have used reduced rigor in evaluating and reporting. relative screener rankings are provided in table 4. it is important to note that these rankings only compare the screeners approved by the sboe. for example, a ‘weak’ designation indicates a tool’s relative psychometric standing to the other screeners on the approved list. it does not provide a comparison to all literacy screeners available on the market, including those submitted to gadoe that were not approved for use. http://onlinepar.net/wp-content/uploads/2013/10/par2btechmanual.pdf http://onlinepar.net/wp-content/uploads/2013/10/par2btechmanual.pdf http://onlinepar.net/wp-content/uploads/2013/10/par2btechmanual.pdf https://star-help.renaissance.com/hc/en-us/articles/12483321397019-star-assessments-for-early-literacy-technical-manual https://star-help.renaissance.com/hc/en-us/articles/12483321397019-star-assessments-for-early-literacy-technical-manual morgan et al. 15 table 4: relative screener rankings ranking screener strong (8) aimswebplus amira classworks reading universal screener exact path diagnostic assessment i-ready assessment for reading isip reading with ran and orf predictive assessment of reading star assessments moderate (5) acadience reading k–6 fastbridge areading isteep map reading fluency mclass weak (3) easycbm battelle early academic survey mindplay universal screener the maximum possible score for any screener in our ranking was 17; the highest score achieved was 15.87 (exact path diagnostic assessment), and the lowest score received was 3 (mindplay universal screener). screeners in the strong category had at least 14 points in our ranking. the moderate category belongs to screeners that received between 10 and 14 points. only three screeners received a 0 for psychometric breadth. four screeners received 0 points for reliability due to only having tested one type of reliability. no screener received less than 2 points for criterion validity. the lowest specificity, averaged across k–3, for any screener that tested it and provided data was 0.71. cutoffs for rankings of criterion validity and specificity can be found in the notes under table 3. discussion the authors conducted an independent review of universal literacy screeners approved by the sboe to meet the screener requirements in hb 538. the review included a detailed summary of each tool’s primary features, domains assessed, and evidence of psychometric strength as indicated by metrics of reliability, criterion validity, sensitivity, and specificity. the purpose of this review was to provide a supplement to the sboe’s approved list of screeners to aid leas in making an informed choice as to the most appropriate screener for the students they serve. overall, our findings indicate that for k–3, most of the screeners assess all relevant early literacy domains as specified by gadoe with acceptable levels of reliability and criterion validity where reported. the available evidence supporting each screener, along with the absence of psychometric evidence for some tools, allows us to discern which tools are supported by the strongest evidence of reliability and validity when identifying students at risk for reading difficulties. given the information available, the eight tools with the strongest psychometric properties on the sboe list of approved screeners are aimswebplus, amira, classworks reading universal screener, exact path diagnostic assessment, i-ready assessment for reading, isip reading with ran and orf, predictive assessment of reading, and star assessments. five tools, acadience reading k–6, 16 georgia journal of literacy 46(1) fastbridge areading, isteep, map reading fluency, and mclass were ranked as having moderate psychometric strength. in contrast, three tools cluster as having weaker psychometric profiles. these include easycbm, battelle early academic survey, and mindplay universal screener. in consideration of these global groupings, a few issues should be taken into account. these are discussed in detail below. given that sensitivity and specificity should be interpreted together when determining the overall usefulness of a diagnostic test (shreffler & huecker, 2023), we identified the strongest screeners as those that demonstrate both acceptable sensitivity and specificity with an emphasis on sensitivity. sensitivity is prioritized because it ensures accurate identification of children who need access to early reading interventions. six screeners in our review demonstrated weak sensitivity. tools with low sensitivity will fail to identify a higher percentage of children that are in need of additional instructional support. for the purposes of our review, we reported the average sensitivity of the tool across all grades assessed. the consequence is that the average can mask variability in sensitivity at different grade levels. while a screener might have strong sensitivity at specific grades, the weak sensitivity of a tool at any grade level should be considered a key factor in decision-making when selecting screeners. one of the primary challenges of evaluating these screeners is inconsistency in available information. this inconsistency is found in both lack of information and discrepancies in reporting. two screeners (isteep and mindplay universal screener) for example, did not provide gradespecific metrics of reliability and validity. relatedly, two screeners (battelle early academic survey and mindplay universal screener) did not provide evidence of sensitivity or specificity. there is an inherent problem with comparing tools lacking information to those that provided information that is less than compelling. similarly, some inconsistency was noted with regard to ncii reporting on the grade levels the test was developed for versus what grades the publisher indicated the tool could be used. in both cases, it is important to consider that some publishers of tools are less rigorous in the evaluation of their screeners. for the purpose of this review, tools that presented thorough and consistent data were viewed more favorably than those that did not. another consideration is the matter of tools having variable performance at different grade levels. nine out of the sixteen tools do not have convincing evidence for either reliability or validity for kindergarten. while this should be a concern of school districts, it is not surprising for screening tools to perform differently when administered across a multi-year age span. as children develop, their skills change at a rapid pace and certain screener items, or domains are likely to be more or less relevant given a child’s developmental level. in literacy development, children in kindergarten present with a highly variable set of skills even within normal expectations. additionally, kindergarten students undergo rapid acquisition of new skills within the school year. thus, psychometric strength is more likely to be unstable at the early grades than the upper grades. our review gave greater weight to tools demonstrating the greatest breadth of strong performance across grades. the limited nature of this review is important to note, as it was conducted to provide a broad-based synopsis of the psychometric quality of early literacy screeners approved by the sboe. this review was completed by the authors at the request of the georgia council on literacy to respond to a specific need. thus, it was conducted as robustly and thoroughly as was feasible within a relatively brief timeline (i.e., about two months). while the review includes ample detail, it was not conducted with the specificity and rigor that would be expected of a full-scale psychometric evaluation. as a result, some nuance and detail were beyond the scope of this project. for example, the review did not conduct an analysis of standardization populations, nor did it morgan et al. 17 include examination of the full scale of psychometric indices. relatedly, we utilized two major sources (gadoe rfi and ncii) to compile this review. outside these two sources, there were a handful of additional publications used to gather information. thus, there may be sources regarding these screeners that were not consulted for this review. finally, our review was conducted following a review by the gadoe of a broader set of screeners submitted for consideration of approval. thus, it is important for leas to consider that these tools represent a select set that are likely to be superior to other tools on the market. thus, our rankings should be considered within this context as relative only to one another and not an absolute ranking of overall superiority or weakness. conclusion this review was conducted to enable leas to determine which screeners are best suited for the students they serve. our review demonstrates that gadoe has selected a number of tools with acceptable psychometric properties enabling statewide implementation of meaningful screening of k–3 students as required by hb538. with proper utilization of these screeners, schools can accurately and consistently identify students in need of additional support. it is recommended that leas consider psychometric strength as delineated herein a critical factor when selecting an early literacy screener. key takeaways for leas  this review identified eight screeners (see table 4) from the sboe’s approved list that present with superior psychometric features relative to the remaining eight screeners.  this review was completed following a review by the gadoe of a broader set of screeners submitted for consideration. our rankings of strong, moderate, or weak should be considered within this context and as relative only to one another and not an absolute ranking of screener acceptability.  the relative rankings provided for the sixteen screeners included in this review were derived from an examination of all screener characteristics and psychometric features available to us. we ranked screeners based on a weighted combination of factors (e.g., completeness of psychometric testing, robustness across grades, adequate sensitivity).  this review was conducted to provide a broad-based synopsis of the psychometric quality of early literacy screeners approved by the sboe and was prepared within a very limited time frame. while this review includes ample detail, it was not conducted with the specificity and rigor that would be expected of a full-scale psychometric evaluation. references american educational research association, american psychological association, national council on measurement in education. (1999). standards for educational and psychological testing. https://www.aera.net/portals/38/1999%20standards_revised.pdf catts, h. w., compton, d., tomblin, j. b., & bridges, m. s. (2012). prevalence and nature of lateemerging poor readers. journal of educational psychology, 104(1), 166–181. https://doi. org/10.1037/a0025323 https://www.aera.net/portals/38/1999%20standards_revised.pdf https://doi.org/10.1037/a0025323 https://doi.org/10.1037/a0025323 18 georgia journal of literacy 46(1) cook, d. a., & beckman, t. j. (2006). current concepts in validity and reliability for psychometric instruments: theory and application. the american journal of medicine, 119(2), 101–192. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amjmed.2005.10.036 council on children with disabilities, section on developmental behavioral pediatrics, bright futures steering committee, & medical home initiatives for children with special needs project advisory committee. 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(2008). understanding and using sensitivity, specificity and predictive values. indian journal of ophthalmology, 56(1), 45–50. https://doi.org/10.4103/0301-4738.37595 raykov, t., & marcoulides, g. a. (2011). introduction to psychometric theory. routledge/taylor & francis group. sattler, j. m. (2020). a primer on statistics and psychometrics. assessment of children: cognitive foundations and applications. jerome m. sattler, publisher, inc. shreffler, j., & huecker, m. r. (2023). diagnostic testing accuracy: sensitivity, specificity, predictive values and likelihood ratios. national library of medicine. https://www. ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/nbk557491/ swift, a., heale, r., & twycross, a. (2020). what are sensitivity and specificity? evidence-based nursing, 23(1), 2–4. https://doi.org/10.1136/ebnurs-2019-103225 tavakol, m., & dennick, r. (2011). making sense of cronbach’s alpha. international journal of medical education, 2, 53–55. https://doi.org/10.5116/ijme.4dfb.8dfd https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amjmed.2005.10.036 https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2006-1231 https://doi.org/10.1007/bf02310555 https://doi.org/10.1037/h0040957 http://doi.org/10.1542/hpeds.2022-006951 http://www.acf.hhs.gov/sites/default/files/opre/compendium_2013_508_compliant_final_2_5_2014.pdf http://www.acf.hhs.gov/sites/default/files/opre/compendium_2013_508_compliant_final_2_5_2014.pdf https://intensiveintervention.org/sites/default/files/ncii_academicscreening_%e2%80%8cratingrubric_2020-06-30.pdf https://intensiveintervention.org/sites/default/files/ncii_academicscreening_%e2%80%8cratingrubric_2020-06-30.pdf https://intensiveintervention.org/sites/default/files/classification_accuracy_508.pdf https://doi.org/10.1177/019263659307755505 https://doi.org/10.4103/0301-4738.37595 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/nbk557491/ https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/nbk557491/ https://doi.org/10.1136/ebnurs-2019-103225 https://doi.org/10.5116/ijme.4dfb.8dfd morgan et al. 19 trevethan, r. (2017). sensitivity, specificity, and predictive values: foundations, pliabilities, and pitfalls in research and practice. frontiers in public health, 5, article 307. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2017.00307 white, r. f., braun, j. m., kopylev, l., segal, d., sibrizzi, c. a., lindahl, a. j., hartman, p. a., & bucher, j. r. (2022). niehs report on evaluating features and application of neurodevelopmental tests in epidemiological studies. national institute of environmental health sciences. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/nbk581902/ yang, l., li, c., li, x., zhai, m., an, q., zhang, y., zhao, j., & weng, x. (2022). prevalence of developmental dyslexia in primary school children: a systematic review and metaanalysis. brain sciences, 12(2), article 240. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci12020240 received: december 18, 2023 | accepted: february 22, 2024 | published: may 15, 2024 https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2017.00307 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/nbk581902/ https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci12020240 literature review psychometric constructs psychometric review process method reliability validity screener ranking results table 1: overview of literacy screeners approved by the sboe table 2(a): domains assessed table 3: reliability, criterion validity, sensitivity, and specificity of screeners at grades k–3 table 4: relative screener rankings discussion conclusion key takeaways for leas references georgia journal of literacy 2025, vol. 47(2), pp. 1–3 https://doi.org/10.56887/galiteracy.203 issn: 2833-7611 editorial article contact dr. robert a. griffin, associate professor, department of early childhood through secondary education and reading, university of west georgia, carrollton, ga; email rgriffin@westga.edu (https://orcid.org/0000-0002-31287687). dr. bethany l. scullin, associate professor, department of early childhood through secondary education and reading, university of west georgia, carrollton, ga; email bscullin@westga.edu. making thinking visible: explicit, transferable literacy practices across the curriculum robert a. griffin university of west georgia, carrollton, ga bethany l. scullin university of west georgia, carrollton, ga abstract this editorial article introduces the fall 2025 issue of the georgia journal of literacy, which is themed "making thinking visible: explicit, transferable literacy practices across the curriculum." with ai writing on the rise, new standards, and continued emphasis on science-based reading instruction, teachers are being called on to both teach structured literacy skills and the thinking that drives them. the four articles in this issue show how systematic, explicit, evidence-based instruction, along with modeling metacognition and culturally responsive teaching, can help students make learning visible and transferable across content areas. from reimagining grammar instruction for digital-age learners, to coupling structured literacy with metacognition, to bridging math and storytelling, and using mentor texts to cultivate writing craft, each article highlights how modeling cognitive processes transforms students into strategic, reflective thinkers. the articles here collectively call for literacy instruction that connects creativity, clarity, and structure with equity and thinking with doing. keywords literacy instruction; metacognition; explicit teaching; grammar; structured literacy; interdisciplinary learning; culturally responsive pedagogy; writing instruction n traditional face-to-face and virtual classrooms, students are surrounded by language, yet they are often disconnected from how language works on a practical level. between texting shorthand, ai-generative writing, and new ela standards, the act of thinking about thinking (metacognition) has never been more important. this fall 2025 issue of the georgia journal of literacy comes at a vital time. themed “making thinking visible: explicit, transferable literacy practices across the curriculum,” the authors published in this issue demonstrate how explicit instruction, purposeful modeling, and asset-based instruction can help learners read and write but also understand and appreciate the metacognition behind those language acts. why “making thinking visible” matters now for decades, literacy education has oscillated between explicit content-focused instruction and constructive, student-centered learning, between correctness and creative freedom. twenty-five years into the 21st century now, students find themselves needing to master content and build critical thinking skills. artificial intelligence (ai) tools, new state standards (such as georgia’s new ela standards), and renewed attention on scientifically validated reading instruction have placed a growing spotlight on metacognition, the ability to understand and monitor one’s own thinking and learning (grote-garcia et al., 2025; kalantzis & cope, 2025). when teachers model how to think and how to think about thinking, students gain agency across subjects (ghimire & i mailto:rgriffin@westga.edu https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3128-7687 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3128-7687 mailto:bscullin@westga.edu 2 georgia journal of literacy 47(2) mokhtari, 2025). they begin to see language, including the syntax or grammar of language, as meaning-making, comprehension as strategic thinking, and mathematics as storytelling. each of the four articles in this issue highlights the shift toward visibility, toward instruction that makes the invisible processes of literacy explicit, transferable, and equitable. grammar as understanding, not correction in “‘not just for the boomers’: the importance of grammatical understandings in 21st century p–20 classrooms,” dr. vicki luther and dr. matt sroka revisit a topic many educators are hesitant to tackle: grammar instruction. they trace how grammar fell out of favor after the 1963 national council of teachers of english (ncte) report and argue for its return through student-centered, explicit, structured literacy teaching. their literature review positions grammar within the generative ai and digital communication setting, showing that while it can autocorrect, technology cannot teach intentionality or metacognitive awareness. luther and sroka call on educators to balance descriptive and prescriptive grammar instruction to honor both “correctness” or precision and linguistic diversity and to prepare preservice teachers to do the same. their findings emphasize that meaningful grammar instruction depends on connection, clarity, and cognitive control, not on surface-level error marking. thinking aloud as equity dr. sarah sharpe’s practitioner article, “teaching thinking for reading: merging executive function, structured literacy, and asset-based practices,” extends this visibility into comprehension instruction. based on the science of learning and reading, sharpe maintains decoding is the starting point, but comprehension is the goal, and it depends on deliberate thinking. her culturally responsive think-aloud instructional model (crtaim) demonstrates how teachers can make invisible cognitive processes, such as inferring, predicting, and monitoring, visible through explicit modeling and culturally responsive teaching. by bringing students’ linguistic and cultural assets into structured literacy instruction, sharpe shows how to transform comprehension instruction from a skill set into an act of empowerment and equity building. storytelling as mathematical reasoning two teaching tips pieces constitute the final section of this issue, the first of which is whimsical in title but highly practical in function. few pairings seem as delightful (or unlikely) as dragons, tacos, and numeracy. yet in “beyond fire and tacos: using dragons love tacos to ignite mathematical thinking through interdisciplinary read-alouds,” dr. luminita hartle shows how teachers can utilize children’s literature as a springboard for understanding mathematics. hartle’s work with teacher candidates using tactile manipulatives along with engaging picturebooks and a little humor can make math concrete, visible, and culturally relevant. her interdisciplinary strategy merges narrative and problem-solving and invites learners to explore math concepts such as addition, graphing, and pattern recognition through shared experiences. math, hartle reminds us, lives in conversation, not isolation, with cultural stories and joy. writing as imitation and insight finally, in “mentor texts as a bridge to independent writing: supporting young writers through sentence imitation and craft study in the elementary classroom,” dr. jolene reed and dr. melinda miller bring us back to the sentence itself. using the sentence-composing approach of griffin & scullin 3 don and jenny killgallon, they illustrate how imitation, long dismissed as rote, can instead serve as a scaffold for authentic writing. through gradual release with explicit modeling, students internalize writing skills, such as narrative leads and parallelism. reed and miller posit that when young writers study the sentences of master writers, they can begin to think and write like them. imitation becomes an act of insight that leads to the development of writing skills and proficiency. looking ahead: from mechanics to metacognition across these four articles, a theme emerges: visible thinking leads to transferable learning. whether through grammar, comprehension, math, or writing, each author reinforces the importance of explicit instruction accompanied by deliberate modeling of the cognitive, linguistic, and creative work that learning requires. with information overload and increased automation, the practices and strategies showcased in this issue remind us that human teaching still matters. our role as literacy teachers and advocates is not merely to deliver “correct” content but to model curiosity and the joy of learning. as you read this issue, consider how “making thinking visible” appears in your own work. how could you model the metacognitive habits you want your students to develop by revising in real time or life experience or pausing to wonder during a read-aloud? principally, literacy is the connective tissue and foundation for all learning and subject areas, not just language arts. the editors and reviewers of the georgia journal of literacy invite you to continue this conversation by submitting research or practitioner pieces or even teaching tips for the next year’s spring 2026 issue. we encourage researchers, teacher educators, literacy advocates, and even pk– 12 teachers and school leaders across georgia and beyond to submit manuscripts that question and expand how we teach students to read critically and write purposely. after all, when we make thinking visible, we make learning and literacy growth possible and lasting for all learners. references ghimire, n., & mokhtari, k. (2025). evaluating the predictive power of metacognitive reading strategies across diverse educational contexts. large-scale assessments in education, 13(4), 1–33. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40536-025-00240-3 grote-garcia, s., ortlieb, e., & cardona, s. l. (2025). what’s hot in literacy: misguided trends in a divided field. literacy research and instruction, 64(1), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1080/ 19388071.2024.2409130 kalantzis, m., & cope, b. (2025). literacy in the time of artificial intelligence. reading research quarterly, 60(1), e591. https://doi.org/10.1002/rrq.591 published: december 12, 2025 https://doi.org/10.1186/s40536-025-00240-3 https://doi.org/10.1080/19388071.2024.2409130 https://doi.org/10.1080/19388071.2024.2409130 https://doi.org/10.1002/rrq.591 why “making thinking visible” matters now grammar as understanding, not correction thinking aloud as equity storytelling as mathematical reasoning writing as imitation and insight looking ahead: from mechanics to metacognition references georgia journal of literacy 2024, vol. 46(1), pp. 20–33 https://doi.org/10.56887/galiteracy.136 issn: 2833-7611 research article contact dr. susan green, district literacy specialist, rock hill schools, rock hill, sc; email sgreen@rhmail.org. dr. maryann mraz, professor, reading and elementary education department, university of north carolina at charlotte, charlotte, nc; email memraz@uncc.edu. the effects of question-answer-relationship (qar) instruction on standardized reading comprehension test scores of third-grade students susan green district literacy specialist, rock hill schools, rock hill, sc maryann mraz reading and elementary education department, university of north carolina at charlotte, charlotte, nc abstract despite many school reform initiatives designed to ensure reading proficiency for all students, recent reports from the national assessment of educational progress (naep) reveal that only 37 percent of fourth-grade students and only 34 percent of eighth-grade students performed at or above the proficiency levels measured in reading (naep, 2017). this quantitative study used a non-equivalent control group design to examine the impact of direct instruction of the question-answerrelationship (qar) strategy on standardized reading test scores of third-grade students. it also specifically examined the impact of direct instruction of the qar strategy on traditionally underserved students' standardized test scores. a two-way analysis of covariance (ancova) was conducted. adjusted marginal mean posttest scores in the group receiving treatment of the qar strategy (64.580) were higher than the mean post-test scores of students who did not receive qar instruction (56.382). adjusted marginal mean post-test scores of students who did not receive qar instruction (56.382). adjusted marginal mean post-test scores of historically underserved students showed no significant differences (60.05 and 60.90, respectively). in addition, adjusted marginal mean post-test scores of historically underserved and non-historically underserved students who received qar instruction showed no significant differences (54.48 and 58.29). keywords reading comprehension; reading proficiency; metacognition; qar (questionanswerrelationship); historically underserved students; standardized reading tests; high-stakes standardized testing espite many school reform initiatives designed to ensure reading proficiency for all students, recent reports from the national assessment of educational progress (naep) reveal that only 32 percent of fourth grade students and only 31 percent of eight grade students performed at or above the proficiency levels measured in reading (naep, 2022). poor performance on standardized reading tests can result in negative consequences for students, including limiting student learning, tracking, creating negative self-perceptions, and contributing to increased drop-out rates (national council of teachers of english, 2014). although the negative impacts of standardized testing are felt by all students, the impact is especially severe for historically underserved students and students of low socio-economic status (ses). differences between the scores of students with different backgrounds, including ethnic, racial, gender, disability, and income, are marked on standardized tests. the national center for education d mailto:sgreen@rhmail.org mailto:memraz@uncc.edu green & mraz 21 statistics reported that by the end of fourth grade, african american, latino, and poor students of all races are two years behind their wealthier, predominantly white peers in reading and math; by eighth grade, they have slipped three years behind, and by the twelfth grade they are four years behind (national center for education statistics, 2022). demonstration of reading proficiency on standardized reading tests involves answering questions. classroom reading instruction, however, does not always provide direct instruction in questioning skills. raphael and pearson (1985) contend that direct instruction in strategies for answering specific types of questions can advance comprehension. the question-answer relationship (qar) taxonomy was developed as a way for students to learn where information may be found to answer comprehension questions (ezell et al., 1996). qar is a way for students to understand that the answer to a question is directly related to the type of question asked. qar categorizes questions according to where the answers can be found. in the book questions will be literal because the answer will be contained in the text. in my head questions will be inferential because the answer will require information that is not contained in the text (cummins et al., 2012). this method of categorizing questions according to their answer source is intended to support comprehension (kinninburg & prew, 2010). qar is a valuable, well-known strategy that can be used to transport students to think deeply and analytically about text and prepare them for standardized testing while still focusing on higher-level thinking (raphael & au, 2005). educators work to guide students to become more tactical thinkers by helping them understand their metacognitive processes. in the qar framework, students analyze the question-answer relationship while becoming more aware of their metacognitive strategies as a step toward better reading comprehension (raphael & pearson, 1985). research has shown that by grade three, children scoring significantly below the norm on achievement tests will continue to experience failure throughout their academic years (ezell et al., 1996). today, standardized testing in literacy education is common. for test-takers, the ability to locate and recall information in the text is crucial for success on standardized tests. the primary deficiency of students’ responses on high-stakes tests is the failure to support answers (gunning, 2006). students need to know how to return to a passage to locate details, verify information, and find text evidence to support their answers. lower-level questioning involves students locating information directly stated in the passage. higher-level questioning involves students drawing inferences and making conclusions from information in the passage. qar can be adapted to testtaking in assisting students in locating sources of information and differentiating questions based upon question-answer classification (gunning, 2006). students can learn which questions are textually explicit and know they can go to the passage and find the information they need. students can learn which questions are textually implicit and know they must make inferences based on information contained in the passage. research shows that one of the most effective ways to improve students’ achievement and to reduce the literacy achievement gap is to promote metacognition and higher-level thinking skills; however, historically underserved students and students of low ses are more likely to be instructed in basic skills rather than higher-level thinking processes (gunning, 2006). qar can serve as a vehicle to teach higher-level thinking skills while preparing students for high-stakes tests without sacrificing high-quality instruction (raphael & au, 2005). studies have shown that direct instruction in metacognitive strategies, like qar, assists students in reaching high levels of literacy. in this era of high-stakes standardized testing, it is imperative that teachers not only focus on skills to promote a high level of literacy development but also provide support for minority students as they navigate standardized assessments. qar instruction, when used effectively in the 22 georgia journal of literacy 46(1) context of high-quality literacy instruction, can increase metacognition and provide students with a high-level strategy to increase reading comprehension and reading proficiency. qar instruction may also serve as a strategy to increase scores on standardized reading tests, which would promote increased educational opportunities for all. purpose and theoretical framework the purpose of this study was to examine the impact of direct instruction of the question-answer relationship (qar) strategy on standardized reading test scores of third-grade students. findings were intended to provide analysis of standardized test scores and the impact of qar as an intervention that will serve not only to increase standardized test scores but also increase educational opportunities for all students, including historically underserved students, whose educational opportunities have been greatly limited by poor performance on standardized tests. the following questions guided this study: research question 1: do students who received qar instruction do better on standardized reading assessments than students who do not receive qar instruction? research question 2: is the impact of the qar treatment the same for historically underserved and non-historically underserved students? prior research has focused primarily on qar as a strategy to improve reading comprehension. there is little research directly linking qar to improved standardized test scores (cummins et al., 2012; kinniburg & baxter, 2012; raphael & pearson, 1985). this study examined qar as a strategy to improve standardized test scores, which is critical in this era of high-stakes testing. furthermore, there is no research focusing specifically on the effect of qar on standardized test scores of historically underserved students or students of low socio-economic status (ses). this study used two theoretical frameworks to examine the impact of qar as an intervention to increase standardized test scores and, in turn, educational opportunities. piaget’s cognitive constructivism provides a strong framework for qar instruction as an intervention to increase student knowledge and comprehension skills. constructivism is a theory of learning anchored in the belief that students learn by actively constructing their own knowledge. it is an active process where learners construct meaning through a process of involvement and interaction with their environment. cognitive constructivism focuses on the importance of the mind in learning and the development of cognitive structures in learners (schcolnik et al., 2006). piaget’s terms accommodation and assimilation are used to describe the interaction between mind and environment in the learning process. learners use their cognitive structures to interpret the environment and assimilate new information into their existing cognitive schemas. assimilation is limited to the extent of the existing schemas until cognitive structures modify based on new knowledge. learning is continuous, and cognitive structures are always in process as the mind interacts with the environment (mohapatra et al., 2015). michel foucault’s power as knowledge theory provides a powerful lens through which to examine the effects of qar as a strategy not only to improve the standardized test scores of third-grade students but also as a method of empowering all students through increased educational opportunities. michael foucault, a postmodern theorist, explored the ways in which political power was subtly invested in the mechanisms of knowledge in the modern world (lemert, 2016). for green & mraz 23 foucault, power and knowledge were not seen as separate entities but as irrevocably connected. knowledge is always an exercise of power, and power is always a function of knowledge. foucault believed power was everywhere, dispersed throughout society, and able to shape individuals within society. he believed that power and knowledge were constructed by truths created within societies and that these truths became a standard set of rules accepted by societies, providing power to those who had the status to create these truths. foucault believed that these truths were reinforced through societal institutions, like schools, but believed that these truths were not static but rather marked by a constant battle where individuals pushed the boundaries of power (lemert, 2016). although he believed that the relationship between power and knowledge was constraining and often limited behaviors, he also recognized the potential it also held to open new ways of thinking and behaving. foucault recognized the potential for power to be a productive force in society, believing that power produces a reality that shapes individuals within societies through the attainment of knowledge (lemert, 2016). foucault viewed power as a fully socialized phenomenon and contended that power and the norms it creates are so embedded within our society that they tend to be unthinkingly followed by individuals who fail to fully realize the control it has over their daily actions (lemert, 2016). he focused not only on the power of institutions and their ability to discipline but also on how these norms often create advantages for some while placing many at a great disadvantage. relevant literature metacognition can be defined as the process of monitoring or regulating cognition or “thinking about thinking” (wilson & smetana, 2009, p. 20). it refers to the awareness of the cognitive process involved in thinking. metacognition in reading is multifaceted. it involves constructing meaning from text, recognizing when comprehension fails, and choosing appropriate strategies to increase comprehension. metacognition includes the readers’ knowledge of the reading process as well as command of the strategies related to reading (raphael, 1982). research studies have been conducted to explore the relationship between metacognition and reading proficiency. early studies concluded that younger students and emergent readers had metacognitive deficits in reading (myers & paris, 1978). subsequent studies explored the effects of classroom interventions that provided explicit instruction in reading strategies and reading strategy use to improve metacognition and reading comprehension. students who received metacognitive training showed an increased awareness of effective reading strategies and improved performance on reading tasks (cross & paris, 1988). reading is a metacognitive process. within text comprehension, readers must not only derive meaning from text content but also integrate new knowledge with background information from the readers’ prior knowledge (soodla et al., 2016) to engage in higher levels of thinking and understanding. the use of reading strategies plays an important role in reading and reading comprehension. proficient readers can use a variety of strategies and can apply appropriate reading strategies in various contexts. strong metacognitive knowledge allows readers to be successful on reading comprehension tasks because students engage in strategic reading. they know how and when to use good reading strategies that are most effective for the task (soodla et al., 2016). the qar taxonomy, first described by pearson and johnson (1978) and further developed by raphael and pearson (1985), is a metacognitive strategy used to improve reading comprehension by identifying questions according to their relationship to two primary sources of information: the reading material and the reader’s background knowledge. it requires students to 24 georgia journal of literacy 46(1) think about the relationship between the text and the questions. using the qar strategy, students can understand the question type, which correlates with knowing how to find the information to answer the question. raphael (1986) categorized qar questions according to where the answers can be found. in the book questions are literal because the answer is contained in the text. in my head questions are inferential because the answer requires information not contained in the text. there are four types of question–answer relationships: • right there: the answer can be found in one place in the text. • think and search: the answer can be found in a few places in the text. • author and you: the answer cannot be found in the text. the reader must use information in the text and find the answer in their head. • on my own: the answer cannot be found in the text. the answer is developed from the reader’s background knowledge. (raphael, 1986) in the qar framework, students analyze the question-answer relationship while becoming more aware of their metacognitive strategies as a step toward better reading comprehension (raphael & pearson, 1985). research supports the use of qar in elementary school classrooms to increase the answering abilities and the reading comprehension skills of students (ezell, 1992; ezell et al., 1996; raphael & au, 2005). the level of awareness that comes with the classification of questions leads to success in answering reading comprehension questions. while many studies explored qar as a strategy to increase students’ reading comprehension skills, there are few that focus on qar as a strategy to improve performance on standardized reading tests. standardized tests require students to answer questions that are both textually explicit and textually implicit in nature, which require students to perform both lowerlevel and higher-level thinking about text (wang, 2006). researchers are just beginning to examine qar as a framework for comprehension instruction that would not only raise students’ reading comprehension skills but also improve students’ performance on standardized reading tests. in this era of high-stakes standardized testing, it is imperative that teachers not only focus on skills to promote a high level of literacy development but also provide support for all students as they navigate standardized assessments. methodology a non-equivalent control group design was used for this study. established third-grade classrooms were assigned to treatment or control groups. students in both groups were pre-tested with a standardized reading test. students in the treatment classrooms received six weeks of direct instruction in qar. at the end of the six-week period, students in both groups were post-tested with a comparable standardized reading test. the research questions guiding this study were: research question 1: do students who received qar instruction do better on standardized reading assessments than students who did not receive qar instruction? research question 2: is the impact of the treatment the same for historically underserved and non-historically underserved students? the population of this study was comprised of third-grade students and teachers from eight third-grade classrooms in two elementary schools in a rural community in the south. the choice green & mraz 25 of schools in this study was purposeful. the two schools share similar student achievement levels and demographics. third-grade classrooms were chosen specifically for this study since third grade is the first year of standardized testing in the state. the first elementary school that participated in this study had a school population of 590 students, with an average of 19 students in each third-grade classroom. overall achievement indicators showed that 68% of students had achieved proficiency on recent past standardized state reading assessments. ethnicity data for school one reported that the school was comprised of approximately 76% white students and 24% historically underserved students (ucps enrollment and ethnicity data, 2018). the second elementary school that participated in this study had a school population of 604 students, with an average of 17 students in each third-grade classroom. overall achievement indicators showed that 70% of students had achieved proficiency on recent past standardized state reading assessments. ethnicity data for school two reported that the school is comprised of approximately 74% white students and 26% historically underserved students (ucps enrollment and ethnicity data, 2018). four third-grade classrooms from each school participated in this study. all four thirdgrade classrooms at school one were assigned as treatment classrooms, and all four third-grade classrooms at school two were assigned as control classrooms. teachers in treatment classrooms participated in professional development on the use of qar in the classroom and adhered to a sixweek qar instructional plan created by the researcher. teachers completed daily rubrics during the six-week instructional period to self-report on their qar classroom instructional practices. teachers in treatment classrooms met with the researcher for two hours prior to the beginning of each of the four phases of the six-week intervention period for professional development, which included directives, clarification, and support. teachers in treatment and control classrooms were not permitted to use qar as an instructional strategy prior to this intervention. teachers in control classrooms had agreed not to use qar during this instructional intervention period. data collection and analysis a non-equivalent control group design was used for this study, and instrumentation included pre and post-assessments published by triumph learning, which included full-length assessments that mirror the format, question type, and rigor of the state end-of-grade standardized reading assessment. these provided students with grade-level appropriate text to answer standardized reading comprehension questions that require application of both lower and higher-order thinking skills. test developers used the common core state standards to determine text complexity when selecting reading passages and employed quantitative measures and guidelines for making qualitative decisions about passages and questions included in each standardized reading assessment (triumph learning, 2015). both preand post-assessments contained six reading selections, which included fiction, non-fiction, folktale, and poetry passages with corresponding multiple-choice questions for each passage. the forty-four multiple choice questions included questions from three of the qar question types: right there, think and search, and author and you. the final qar question type, on my own, is not included in preor post-assessments since the answer would be developed solely from the reader’s background knowledge and is not included on standardized reading assessments. the pre-assessment contained 44 multiple-choice questions: 19 were text-based (right there or think and search), and 25 were inferential (author and you). the post-assessment contained 44 multiple-choice questions: 19 were text-based (right there or think and search), and 25 were inferential (author and you). 26 georgia journal of literacy 46(1) principals at the two participating schools were provided with copies of both pre-and postassessments prior to the implementation of this study. classroom teachers were provided with these preand post-assessments immediately prior to both assessments being administered in treatment and control classrooms. the pre-test assessments were administered by all eight thirdgrade classroom teachers the week prior to the six-week instructional intervention period. the post-test assessments were administered by all eight third-grade classroom teachers the week after the six-week instructional intervention period. students in all classrooms had to complete pre and post-assessments in one testing session, and no students, including exceptional children (ec) or english-language learners (ell), were excluded. preand post-tests were scored by the researcher. students received credit for correct answers on both assessments, and scores were calculated. quantitative data analysis involving descriptive and inferential statistics was used to examine student scores and draw comparisons between groups. research has shown that qar is a strategy that can be successfully implemented within existing instructional reading frameworks when teachers are provided with adequate professional development in qar. teachers in treatment classrooms participated in a two-hour professional development session prior to pre-test measures. during this professional development session, teachers were introduced to the qar strategy, and each question type was explained and discussed. teachers made materials to be used in their classrooms during the six-week instructional intervention phase, which included anchor charts and question cards to be categorized according to the qar taxonomy as part of daily qar classroom instruction. in addition, teachers were provided with a detailed four-phase plan and materials that they used to guide instruction during the six-week instructional intervention period and a copy of two for one: using qar to increase reading comprehension and improve test scores (green, 2016), which provided further clarification of each phase. each phase (table 1) of instruction took place within current classroom reading instructional frameworks and included a minimum of six days of instruction in the use of qar. the four teachers in the treatment classrooms met at the beginning of each phase of the sixweek instructional intervention period to discuss qar classroom instructional strategies for each phase. teachers were also provided with guidance and support from the researcher during these meetings to ensure classroom instruction would align with the instructional plan and at the end of each day of the six-week instructional classroom intervention of, qar teachers completed a daily rubric where they self-reported on qar classroom instruction. teachers in treatment classrooms scored themselves on teaching behaviors for each phase of the instructional intervention. table 1: phases within the six-week instructional period phase 1 phase 2 phase 3 phase 4 introduce and model qar model qar with subcategories qar with just right text qar with sample test questions teachers introduced the concept of qar, explaining that answers to reading comprehension questions can be found in two places: in the text and in the reader’s mind. teachers began instruction in all four categories of qar; explaining the two categories of in the book: right there and think and search and the two categories of in my head: author and you and on my own. teachers modeled, using a shared text, how to complete the qar graphic organizer provided by the researcher. teachers modeled how to classify and answer standardized reading comprehension questions. green & mraz 27 teachers used the qar anchor chart provided by the researcher to introduce only the two main categories of qar: in the book and in my head. teachers used a shared text and periodically stopped and asked questions to model classifying questions according to qar and qar vocabulary. teachers had students complete the qar graphic organizer with questions created around a reading passage provided by the researcher. teachers provided students with a reading selection and students classified (labeled) and answered questions using the qar strategy. teachers used a shared text and periodically stopped and asked questions to model classifying questions according to qar and qar vocabulary. teachers encouraged students to use qar vocabulary to classify and develop questions on their own for all four categories. teachers monitored student responses and provided clarification for students who had difficulty correctly using the qar strategy. teachers monitored student classifications and answers and provided clarification for students who had difficulty using the qar strategy to answer standardized reading comprehension questions. teachers encouraged students to use qar vocabulary to classify and develop both categories of questions on their own. quantitative data analysis involving descriptive and inferential statistics was used to examine student scores and draw comparisons between groups. to answer both research questions, a twoway analysis of covariance (ancova) was performed. treatment or control status served as one independent variable, and historically underserved or non-historically underserved status served as the second independent variable. the pre-test served as the covariate. this study used a quasi-experimental control design to examine the impact of qar on standardized reading test scores of third-grade students. it is important to delimit the boundaries of this investigation to interpret the results and potential future impacts most accurately. the use of a quasi-experimental design limits the generalizability of the findings. participants included students from schools in the same cluster within a rural county in the southeast. the choice of schools and classrooms was purposeful and sought to strengthen the validity of this study since the two schools share similar student demographics and include a similar number of historically underserved students. however, schools and classrooms were also chosen for convenience. the researcher was employed as a third-grade teacher in the treatment school and served as both a researcher and a participant, implementing the six-week instructional intervention in her own thirdgrade classroom. since the researcher in this study was also a participant, the dual role of the researcher must be addressed. as a teacher in one of the treatment classrooms, the researcher provided qar instruction to her students. one can assume that although the researcher did not use qar as an instructional strategy prior to the six-week instructional intervention period, her knowledge of the strategy was extensive. while the use of a shared scripted instructional plan and a teaching rubric for self-reporting classroom instruction served to mitigate the inconsistencies resulting from the researchers’ knowledge of the strategy, it is important to note this as a limitation of this study. this study also specifically examined the impact of direct instruction of the qar strategy on historically underserved students. the findings of this study and implications for historically underserved students may not be generalizable since there was a small sample of historically underserved students included as participants in this study. 28 georgia journal of literacy 46(1) results one hundred thirty-one students participated in this study between school one and school two. descriptive statistics are included in table 2. table 2: descriptive statistics of standardized reading assessment scores of historically underserved and non-historically underserved students in control and treatment groups pre-standardized reading assessment post-standardized reading assessment no qar qar no qar qar min n-min min n-min min n-min min n-min m 52.85 61.53 53.14 61.78 49.70 60.37 61.09 65.80 sd 18.63 18.21 18.73 20.68 20.32 17.90 19.78 18.98 n 20 38 22 51 20 38 22 51 note. min = historically underserved; n-min = non-historically underserved measures were taken to ensure fidelity of implementation. it was established that prior to the study, qar was not being used as an instructional strategy in any of the eight third-grade classrooms participating in this study. the teachers at school one, who were responsible for providing qar instruction in their classrooms, participated in professional development prior to providing direct instruction of qar in the classrooms. all four teachers in the treatment classrooms followed a scripted plan for qar instruction and used identical materials with their students. teachers in treatment classrooms were also required to complete a daily teaching rubric to self-report on qar classroom instruction. all four teachers reported high levels of alignment between the instructional plan and classroom implementation of qar classroom instruction. results of the self-reporting teaching rubric are outlined in table 3. the numbers in each likert scale category show how many teachers selfreported the frequency in which they engaged in the tasks listed on the rubric in each classroom for each teaching segment. table 3: teaching rubric scores: self-reporting on classroom instruction for treatment classrooms for each teaching segment never rarely a few times frequently often room 1 0 0 2 3 194 room 2 1 0 0 0 198 room 3 4 0 3 6 186 room 4 2 0 0 0 197 note. total number of teaching segments = 199 green & mraz 29 there was not a statistically significant two-way interaction between condition and ethnicity on post-test standardized reading comprehension scores while controlling for pre-test standardized reading comprehension scores, f(1,126) = 1.97, p = .163, partial η2 = .015. according to cohen (1988), this indicates a small effect size. therefore, an analysis of the main effects for condition (no qar and qar) and ethnicity (historically underserved and non-historically underserved) was performed. there was a statistically significant main effect for condition f(1,126) = 15.007, p < .001, partial η2 = .106. adjusted marginal mean post-test scores in the group receiving treatment of the qar strategy (64.58) were higher than the mean post-test scores of students who did not receive qar instruction (56.38). according to cohen (1988), this indicates a medium effect size. there was not a statistically significant effect for ethnicity, f(1,126) = .153, p = .697, partial η2 = .001. according to cohen (1988), this indicates a small effect size. adjusted marginal mean post-test scores of historically underserved and non-historically underserved students showed no significant differences (60.05 and 60.90), respectively. in addition, adjusted marginal mean post-test scores of historically underserved and non-historically underserved students who received qar instruction showed no significant differences (54.48 and 58.29), respectively. discussion this quantitative study examined the impact of direct instruction of the qar strategy on standardized reading test scores of third-grade students. it also specifically examined the impact of direct instruction of the qar strategy on historically underserved students’ standardized test scores. the results will be discussed around the research questions and hypotheses guiding this study: research question 1: do students who received qar instruction do better on standardized reading assessments than students who did not receive qar instruction? in seeking to answer research question one, the results of this study show a significant difference in students’ mean scores on the post-test between third-grade students who received six weeks of qar instruction and those who did not. students who were in treatment classrooms had significantly higher mean scores (64.58) on the post-test compared to students in the control group (56.38). these results support the use of qar to improve standardized reading test scores of thirdgrade students. providing students with instruction in the metacognitive skill of classifying questions according to the location of the answer (text-based or inferential) assisted students in navigating standardized-type reading questions and increased student performance on a standardized reading comprehension test. research question 2: is the impact of the treatment the same for historically underserved and non-historically underserved students? in seeking to answer research question two, the results of this study do not show a significant difference in students’ mean scores on the post-test between historically underserved and non-historically underserved students. while results showed that historically underserved students benefitted from qar instruction, students’ ethnicity did not impact the results of this study. students benefitted from qar instruction regardless of their ethnicity status. however, since the findings of this study support the use of qar to improve standardized test scores of thirdgrade students, this would include third-grade historically underserved students. qar can be 30 georgia journal of literacy 46(1) viewed as a viable strategy to increase standardized reading comprehension test scores of both historically underserved and non-historically underserved students. of utmost importance to the paradigm of best practices in literacy education, this study presented evidence to substantiate the benefits of qar in improving standardized reading comprehension test scores of third-grade students. students in the treatment classrooms had substantially higher mean scores on the post-assessment measure after six weeks of direct instruction in the qar strategy than students in the control classrooms. the results have instructional and theoretical implications for practice. instructional implications include support for direct instruction in metacognitive skills to increase students’ reading performance and proficiency. in this study, direct instruction in metacognition, involving the awareness of the relationship between reading comprehension questions and the sources of information to answer questions correctly, resulted in increased reading performance on a standardized assessment. students who received direct instruction in metacognition showed an increase in awareness of effective reading strategies, which resulted in improved performance in reading tasks. as a result of increasing students’ metacognitive knowledge, students employed strategic reading behaviors. the findings of this study align with previous studies concluding that direct instruction and use of metacognitive strategies facilitate students’ understanding of critical cognitive processes and promote students’ reading development. in addition, instructional implications include support for the use of qar to increase students’ reading comprehension skills. students in this study who used the qar strategy were more successful in answering reading comprehension questions than students who did not receive qar strategy instruction. qar was easily implemented within established literacy classroom frameworks and a six-week instructional period provided students with the ability to correctly classify and answer text-based and inferential questions within a reading comprehension selection. the findings of this study align with others that have established qar as a method to increase students’ awareness of sources of information to improve reading comprehension questionanswering skills and could be easily implemented within established classroom instructional frameworks to enhance students’ performance on reading comprehension tests. this study also highlights the importance of providing instruction in higher-level critical thinking skills. qar instruction focuses on the relationship between questions and answers and provides students with procedural knowledge to practice both lower-level and higher-level reading and thinking skills. students were instructed to employ both lower-level and higher-level reading and thinking skills as part of this instructional intervention. qar requires students to engage in lower levels of thinking by recalling text when answering text-based questions. however, qar also requires students to employ higher levels of thinking like application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation when categorizing and answering inferential questions. in addition to increasing students’ abilities to answer questions, qar was also used to provide students with an opportunity to generate their own questions. question generating and discussion around cognitive techniques allowed students to maximize the benefits of qar as a higher-level metacognitive strategy. the instructional implications for educators working with historically underserved students are clear. while this study showed no statistically significant interaction effect between the qar strategy and ethnicity, findings did support the use of qar to improve standardized test scores of all students in this study. these findings support the use of qar to increase non-historically underserved and historically underserved students’ test scores. there is significant research that shows one of the most effective ways to improve student literacy achievement is through green & mraz 31 instruction of metacognition and higher-level thinking skills; however, historically, underserved students are more likely to be instructed in basic skills rather than higher-level thinking processes (gunning, 2006). qar can be viewed as a viable strategy to promote higher levels of literacy development for historically underserved students as well as a strategy to increase standardized test scores. future research must adhere to a narrower focus where researchers examine different aspects of qar and the effects on students’ development of higher-level literacy skills. therefore, the next steps should include an examination of qar in relation to students’ age, length of instructional intervention, longevity of skills, and the impact qar has on different levels of readers. in addition, since standardized testing has become a seemingly permanent fixture in education, future research should examine the impact qar instruction has on standardized test scores as well as the impact qar has on historical groups of students. future research should also explore the length of instruction required for the qar strategy students to improve reading comprehension and promote higher levels of literacy development. throughout the history of education, groups of students have struggled to show proficiency on standardized reading assessments. differences between the scores of students with different backgrounds, including ethnic, racial, gender, disability, and income, are marked on standardized tests. the consequences associated with low standardized test scores extend far beyond testing, limiting opportunities for higher education and future employment. future research should also focus on uncovering strategies that would increase the performance of historically underserved groups of students, therefore mitigating the negative consequences associated with poor performance on standardized assessments. in this era of high-stakes standardized testing, it is imperative that researchers not only focus on skills to promote a high level of literacy development but also focus on support for students as they navigate standardized assessments, specifically on skills and strategies that target the learning needs of historically marginalized student groups. this quantitative study examined the impact of direct instruction of the qar strategy on standardized reading test scores of third-grade students. it also examined the impact of direct instruction of the qar strategy on historically underserved students’ standardized test scores. the findings support the use of qar to increase standardized test scores of both historically underserved and non-historically underserved students. the research presented provides educators with an additional strategy to support students’ reading comprehension and improve student scores on standardized reading assessments. this is essential since scores on standardized assessments can either open or close doors to educational opportunities that influence future success. references cohen, j. 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(2009). questioning as thinking: a metacognitive framework. middle school journal, 11(1), 20–28. https://doi.org/10.1080/00940771.2009.11461709 received: december 29, 2023 | accepted: march 28, 2024 | published: may 15, 2024 http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ej1107896.pdf https://doi.org/10.1007/s10212-016-0293-x http://www.triumphlearning.com/research.html https://www.ucps.k12.nc.us/page/3030 https://doi.org/10.1080/10790195.2006.10850185 https://doi.org/10.1080/10790195.2006.10850185 https://doi.org/10.1080/00940771.2009.11461709 purpose and theoretical framework relevant literature methodology data collection and analysis table 1: phases within the six-week instructional period results table 2: descriptive statistics of standardized reading assessment scores of historically underserved and non-historically underserved students in control and treatment groups table 3: teaching rubric scores: self-reporting on classroom instruction for treatment classrooms for each teaching segment discussion references georgia journal of literacy 2025, vol. 47(1), pp. 98–108 https://doi.org/10.56887/galiteracy.178 issn: 2833-7611 teaching tips contact dr. william p. bintz, professor of literacy education, college of education, health, and human services; school of teaching, learning, and curriculum, kent state university, kent, oh; email wbintz@kent.edu. combining picturebooks and poetry as blended genres to teach earth and space science william p. bintz kent state university, kent, oh abstract recent research introduces the innovative concept of blended genres, the combination of picturebooks and poetry to teach across the curriculum. in science, for example, blended genres are described as an effective instructional tool to teach important concepts in life science (bintz, 2025). this article builds on and extends this emerging and exciting body of research by 1) presenting blended genres of picture books and poetry to teach earth and space science, 2) reviewing the value of integrating poetry and science, the important relationship between paired text and blended genres, and the connection between blended genres and next generation science standards (ngss) and common core state standards (ccss) standards, and 3) sharing examples of blended genres and samples of instructional strategies that k–8 teachers can use to help students learn important concepts in earth and space science. keywords blended genres; picturebooks and poetry; science literacy; earth and space science; intertextual connections his article builds on recent research that introduces the innovative concept of blended genres, the combination of picturebooks and poetry to teach across the curriculum. in science, for example, blended genres are described as an effective instructional tool to teach important concepts in life science in life science (bintz, 2025). this article builds on and extends this emerging and exciting body of research by presenting blended genres of picture books and poetry to teach earth and space science. it begins by reminding readers about the important relationship between poetry and science, the fundamental differences between paired text and blended genres, and the connection between blended genres and next generation science standards (ngss) and common core state standards (ccss) standards. next, it shares examples of blended genres and samples of instructional strategies that k–8 teachers can use to help students learn important concepts in earth and space science. poetry and science according to mcclure (2013), “there is much to be learned from both poetry and science, and when they are combined, the potential for learning grows” (p. 13). among other things, “science is rich in content and poetry offers powerful language: together they can both inform and inspire” (vardell & wong, 2015, p. 15). historically, science and poetry have been treated as dichotomies; that is, scientists do science and poets do poetry. today, research continues to indicate that integrating poetry and science has many benefits for teachers and students (rule et al., 2014). t mailto:wbintz@kent.edu bintz 99 blended genres, ccss, and ngss standards blended genres consisting of poetry and science are consistent with the ngss, which state that “literacy skills are critical to building knowledge in science” (ngss, 2013, appendix m, p. 1). similarly, the ccss identify skills for high proficiency in literacy, and the common core reading anchor standards identify skills for high proficiency in reading (national governors association center for best practices and council of chief state school officers, 2010). to ensure consistency, ngss identifies connections between ccss literacy and ccr reading skills and science content demands in grades 6–12. blended genres are a curricular resource that can integrate ngss, ccss, and ccr standards when used with instructional strategies. paired text & blended genres blended genres are rooted in the rich history of paired text (bintz, 2015). traditionally, a paired text consists of two conceptually related texts, e.g., topic, theme, genre, etc. (harste et al., 1988). a blended genre is one way to pair text. it consists of two texts, each text representing a different literary genre. for example, a blended genre can include a picturebook and a poem. like paired text, blended genres have much power and potential to support intertextuality, the process of creating intertextual connections across two texts. the following section contains examples of picturebooks and poems as blended genres, along with samples of instructional strategies to teach and learn important concepts in earth and space science. for teachers unfamiliar, i share some practical guidelines for developing and using blended genres with instructional strategies that highlight intertextuality (figure 1). figure 1: guidelines for teachers i used the following guidelines to help students use blended genres and instructional strategies to create and record intertextual connections across both texts. i share these guidelines with teachers, especially those who are unfamiliar with blended genres and instructional strategies that highlight intertextuality. teachers can put blended genres into practice using demonstration, engagement, and reflection (smith, 1981). demonstration is “watch me do this,” in which teachers are experts and students are apprentices. teachers provide demonstrations of how they make intertextual connections across a blended genre, introducing this process with a prompt like, “i wonder how these two texts are related?” then, teachers read aloud each text, identify, and record intertextual connections, and explain how each connection relates to both texts. engagement is “now, let me watch you do it,” in which teachers use a gradual release of responsibility (fisher & frey, 2021) by inviting students to demonstrate their current understanding of and ability to make intertextual connections across a blended genre. teachers can read aloud each text, pausing during and after each reading, and students record and share intertextual connections. reflection is “what do we now know about making intertextual connections that we didn’t know before?” and highlights the notion that moving forward also means looking backward. students reflect on the whole experience and share their new understandings about blended genres and intertextuality. teachers use reflections to make next-step curricular and instructional decisions and continue providing students with a gradual release of responsibility. blended genres and instructional strategies earth science snowflake bentley (martin, 2009) and “snowflakes” (mccord, in hopkins, 2002) are a blended genre in earth science. snowflake bentley is a picturebook biography of wilson bentley, a young boy who studied snowflakes with a microscope. later, his parents purchased a camera with a microscope so he could photograph snowflakes and study their intricate designs. bentley shared 100 georgia journal of literacy 47(1) his photographs and designs with the world. after his death, he was honored with a monument in tribute to snowflake bentley. “snowflakes” is a poem combined with snowflake bentley to create a blended genre. snowflakes sometime this winter if you go to walk in soft new-falling snow when flakes are big and come down slow to settle on your sleeve as bright as stars that couldn’t wait for night, you won’t know what you have in sight— another world—unless you bring a magnifying glass. this thing we call a snowflake is the king. of crystals. do you like surprise? examine him three times his size: at first you won’t believe your eyes. stars look alike, but flakes do not: no two the same in all the lot that you will get in any spot you chance to be, for everyone come spinning through the sky has none but his own window-wings of sun: joints, points, and crosses. what could make such lacework with no crack or break? in billion billions, no mistake? interlocking spheres of intertextual connections is an instructional strategy that invites students to create and record intertextual connections between two texts. figure 1 illustrates this strategy using the blended genre of the picture book snowflake bentley and the poem “snowflakes.” students read each text and record a significant intertextual connection in each sphere, using “both texts…” to introduce each connection. bintz 101 figure 2: interlocking spheres of intertextual connections space science maria’s comet (hopkinson, 2003) and “the comet” (florian, 2007) are a blended genre in space science. maria’s comet is a picturebook biography of maria mitchell. born in 1818 on nantucket island, massachusetts, maria became america’s first woman astronomer. as a young girl, she learned much about stars from her father, an astronomer who used his telescope to study flickering stars and mountains on the moon. he also searched for comets. inspired by her father, maria read about early astronomers such as copernicus and galileo while aspiring to be an astronomer herself. she hoped to see a comet. one night, maria joins her father on the rooftop to peer through her father’s telescope. suddenly, she sees a star bursting into view, a bright spark. one star very far away but it seems so close. it lights her heart. “the comet” (florian, 2007) is a short but informative poem about the characteristics of a comet. the comet ice, rock, dirt, metal and gas— around the sun a comet may pass. snowflake bentley & “snowflakes” both texts refer to critical instruments to study snowflakes. “snowflakes” refer to using a magnifying glass to see and analyze snowflakes because they are so small. in snowflake bentley, wilson bentley’s mother gave him a microscope to look at snow. later, his parents bought him a camera, one that was as big as a cow. both texts acknowledge the mystery of snowflakes. “snowflakes” asks, what makes billions and billions of snowflakes each year with no mistake? in snowflake bentley, wilson bentley solved the mystery of studying snowflakes in the long-term through photography. both texts describe an important and surprising characteristic of snowflakes; namely, no two snowflakes are the same. “snowflakes” states “do you like surprise?” and “stars look alike, but flakes do not.” in snowflake bentley, wilson discovered that snowflakes had intricate patterns and unlike his expectation, no two patterns were alike. both texts refer to snowflakes as crystals. “snowflakes” uses metaphors to describe snowflakes as the “the king of crystals” and as “lacework.” in snowflake bentley, wilson bentley learned that snowflakes are crystals with six branches. 102 georgia journal of literacy 47(1) a dirty snowball of space debris, the biggest snowball that you’ll ever see. a z-map is another instructional strategy that invites students to create and record intertextual connections between two texts. figure 2 illustrates this strategy with the blended genre of the picturebook maria’s comet and the poem “the comet.” students read each text and record a significant intertextual connection in the middle of the alphabetic letter z, using “both texts…” to introduce each connection. figure 3: z-map maria’s comet maria’s comet (hopkinson, 2003) is a picturebook biography of maria mitchell, america’s first woman astronomer. as a young girl, she learned about stars from her father, an astronomer who used his telescope to search for comets. maria aspired to be an astronomer, too. one night, she peered through her father’s telescope and saw a distant star bursting into view. it lights her heart metaphor: both texts use the metaphor of a dirty snowball to describe comets. properties: both texts describe the properties of comets as consisting of frozen gases, including water, ice, and dust particles. scientific instruments (telescopes): both texts highlight the picturebook directly and the poem indirectly, that telescopes were used by astronomers to discover, track, and analyze comets. pathway: both texts describe comets as traveling around the sun. “the comet” ice, rock, dirt, metal and gas— around the sun a comet may pass. a dirty snowball of space debris, the biggest snowball that you’ll ever see. final thoughts combining picturebooks and poems as blended genres is an innovative and exciting way to pair text. this article shared examples of blended genres and samples of instructional strategies using blended genres. it also provides a curricular resource of additional examples (table 1) of blended genres to teach various essential topics in earth and space science. k–8 teachers are encouraged to use this resource to collaborate on developing and implementing blended genres in both english language arts (ela) and science classrooms. combining picturebooks and poems as blended genres can ignite teacher interest in exploring more innovative ways to pair text. for example, recent research has advanced the idea of developing paired texts using expanded formats of texts (lupo et al., 2019; tracy et al., 2016). bintz 103 expanded formats of texts include newspapers, cartoons, field guides, websites, tweets, blogs, songs, podcasts, etc. similarly, recent research has advanced the idea of developing paired text using linked texts (cappiello & dawes, 2021; nwesd communications, 2019; pytash et al., 2014; cummins, 2017). linked texts consist of non-traditional texts like multimodal and multi-genre texts, including, among others, digital texts, youtube videos, news articles, and podcasts. these nontraditional texts offer students different formats to read, voices to hear, and perspectives to consider. this article aims to spark new thinking for teachers who are unfamiliar or inexperienced with combining picturebooks and poems as blended genres or using inked texts, including multimodal and multi-genre texts, to teach across the curriculum. either way, let the new thinking begin! table 1: additional blended genres in earth and space science picturebook poem zoo in the sky (mitton, 2006) “the constellations” (florian, 2007) hurricane (weisner, 1992) “hurricane” (lewis, 2007) why do leaves change color? (krupinski, 2015) “why leaves change color in the fall” (lewis, 2007) the island that moved: how shifting forces shape our earth (hooper, 2004) “the lithosphere” (lewis, 2007) pass the energy, please! (mckinney, 1999) “sun’s busy day” (scholastic, n.d.) drop: an adventure through the water cycle (moon, 2021) “water cycle” (hayley, n.d.) the incredible water show (frasier, 2004) “water cycle” (hayley, n.d.) nature did it first (ansberry, 2020) “counting on the woods” (lyon, 1998) the pebble in my pocket: a history of our earth (hooper, 2015) “geology” (king, 2005) tsunami! (kajikawa, 2009) “tsunami” (lewis, 2007) it started with a big bang: the origin of the earth, you, and everything else (bal, 2019) “twas the night” (scieszka & smith, 2004) there was a black hole that swallowed the universe (ferrie, 2021) “cosmology and scientists on my mind” (deo, 2022) waiting for high tide (mcclure, 2016) “danceline at high tide” (esbensen, 1995) born with a bang: the universe tells our cosmic story (morgan, 2002) “the big bang” (lewis, 2007) no one walks on my father’s moon (curtis, 1996) “quarrel between truth and falsehood forever” (reza, 2008) sector 7 (weisner, 1999) “cloud watching” (reeve, 2024) lessons from mother earth (mcleod, 2010) “nature’s way” (2024) pluto and the planets: children’s storybook about the solar system (awa, 2022) “the great beyond” (florian, 2007) there was a black hole that swallowed the universe (ferrie, 2021) “the black hole” (florian, 2007) maria’s comet (hopkinson, 2003) “the comet” (florian, 2007) pluto’s secret: an icy world’s tale of discovery (weitkamp, 2015) “pluto” (florian, 2007) 104 georgia journal of literacy 47(1) come see the earth turn (mortensen, 2010) “scientific method at the bat” (scieszka & smith, 2004) mr. archimedes bath (allen, 1998) “scientific method at the bat” (scieszka & smith, 2004) archimedes and his numbers (professor, 2017) “bring back archimedes” (smith, 2006) papa, please get the moon for me (carle, 1991) “moon-catchin net” (silverstein, 1981) the little dipper (stanley, 2015) “little dipper” (bager, 2007) dinosaur lady (skeers, 2020) “dinosaur bone” (schertle, in hopkins, 2002) galileo galilei (munoz, 2020) “galileo’s universe” (lewis, 2005) stars (simon, 2006) “stars” (sandburg, in hopkins, 2002) when i heard of the learn’d astronomer (whitman, 2004) “stars” (sandburg, in hopkins, 2002) feel the wind (dorros, 2000) “what are you, wind?” (o’neil, in hopkins, 2002) the relationship of the moon and the tides (professor, 2017) “strictly for the birds” (fatchen, 1987) telling time: how to tell time on digital and analog clocks (older, 2000) “tide talk” (fatchen, 1987) the waterhole (base, 2001) “a cliché” (merriam, 1964) i am the solar system (mcdonald, 2020) “spinning song” (shields, 1995) maria’s comet (hopkinson, 2003) “halley’s comet” (lewis, 1998) a birdwatcher’s guide to chickadees (harasymiw, 2015) “chickadee’s song” (smith, 2014) when cloud became a cloud (hodgson, 2021) “water cycle poem” (mr. r., 2002) feel the wind (dorros, 2000) “wind on the hill” (milne, 2022) the sun: shining star of the solar system (perdew, 2021) “voice of unnamed star” (bagert, 2006) super stars: the biggest, hottest, brightest, most explosive stars in the milky way (aguilar, 2010) “the brightest star” (bagert, 2006) round the garden (glaser, 2000) “photosynthesis poem” (mr. r., 2002) references bintz, w. (2015). using paired text to meet the common core: effective teaching across the k–8 curriculum. guilford press. bintz, w. (2025). combining picturebooks and poetry as blended genres to teach life science. georgia journal of literacy, 47(1), 84–97. https://doi.org/10.56887/galiteracy.169 cappiello, m. a., & dawes, e.t. (2021). text sets in action: pathways through content area literacy. routledge. cummins, s. (2017). the case for multiple texts. educational leadership, 74(5), 66–71. https://www.ascd.org/el/articles/the-case-for-multiple-texts fisher, d., & frey, n. (2021). better learning through structured teaching: a framework for the gradual release of responsibility. ascd. florian, d. (2007). comets, stars, the moon, and mars: space poems and paintings. harcourt. harste, j., short, k., & burke, c. (1988). creating classrooms for authors. heinemann. hopkins, l. b. (ed.). (2002). spectacular science: a book of poems. simon & schuster. https://doi.org/10.56887/galiteracy.169 https://www.ascd.org/el/articles/the-case-for-multiple-texts bintz 105 lupo, s. m., berry, a., thacker, e., sawyer, a., & merritt, j. (2019). rethinking text sets to support knowledge building and interdisciplinary learning. the reading teacher, 73(4), 513–524. https://doi.org/10.1002/trtr.1869 mcclure, m. (2013). fancy & facts in poetry: an argument for scientific research in poetry [unpublished master’s thesis]. pacific lutheran university. https://rwwsoundings.com/ wp-content/uploads/2012/05/mcclure.pdf national governors association center for best practices and council of chief state school officers. (2010). college and career readiness anchor standards for reading. https://www. thecorestandards.org/ela-literacy/ccra/r/ nwesd communications. 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(2015). the symbiosis of science and poetry. children and libraries, 13(1), 15–18. https://doi.org/10.5860/cal.13n1.15 picturebooks and poetry cited aguilar, d. (2010). super stars: the biggest, hottest, brightest, most explosive stars in the milky way. national geographic kids. allen, p. (1998). mr. archimedes’ bath. harpercollins. ansberry, k. (2020). nature did it first. dawn publications. awa, l. (2022). pluto and the planets: children’s story book about the solar system. https://www.amazon.com/pluto-planets-kids-solar-system-ebook/dp/b09vyz1f85 bagert, b. (2007). little dipper. in shout: little poems that roar. scholastic. bagert, b. (2007). the brightest star. in shout: little poems that roar. scholastic. bagert, b. (2007). voice of unnamed star. in shout: little poems that roar. scholastic. bal, d. (2019). it started with a big bang: the origin of earth, you and everything else. kids can press. base, g. (2001). the waterhole. harry n. abrams. carle, e. (1991). papa, please get the moon for me. simon & schuster. https://doi.org/10.1002/trtr.1869 https://rwwsoundings.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/05/mcclure.pdf https://rwwsoundings.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/05/mcclure.pdf https://www.thecorestandards.org/ela-literacy/ccra/r/ https://www.thecorestandards.org/ela-literacy/ccra/r/ https://www.nwesd.org/ed-talks/linked-text-sets-a-strategy-for-deeper-learning/ https://www.nwesd.org/ed-talks/linked-text-sets-a-strategy-for-deeper-learning/ https://doi.org/10.21061/alan.v42i1.a.6 https://doi.org/10.5408/1089-9995-52.1.10 https://doi.org/10.5408/1089-9995-52.1.10 https://www.jstor.org/stable/41961381 https://doi.org/10.1002/jaal.613 https://doi.org/10.1002/jaal.613 https://doi.org/10.5860/cal.13n1.15 https://www.amazon.com/pluto-planets-kids-solar-system-ebook/dp/b09vyz1f85 106 georgia journal of literacy 47(1) curtis, c. m. (1996). no one walks on my father’s moon. voyage. deo, a. (2022). cosmology and scientists on my mind [poem]. https://www.poetrysoup.com/ poem/cosmology_and_scientists_on_my_mind_1447406 dorros, a. (2000). feel the wind. harpercollins. esbensen, b. j. (1995). danceline at high tide. in dance with me. harpercollins. fatchen, m. (1987). tide talk. in a paddock of poems. omnibus/puffin. ferrie, c. (2021). there was a black hole that swallowed the universe. sourcebooks explore. fleischman, p. (1988). joyful noise: poems for two voices. harpertrophy. florian, d. (2007). pluto. in comets, stars, the moon, and mars: space poems and paintings. harcourt. florian, d. (2007). the black hole. in comets, stars, the moon, and mars: space poems and paintings. harcourt. florian, d. (2007). the comet. in comets, stars, the moon, and mars: space poems and paintings. harcourt. florian, d. (2007). the constellations. in comets, stars, the moon, and mars: space poems and paintings. harcourt. florian, d. (2007). the great beyond. in comets, stars, the moon, and mars: space poems and paintings. harcourt. frasier, d. (2004). the incredible water show. millbrook press. glaser, r. (2000). round the garden. harry n. abrams harasymiw, p. (2015). a birdwatcher’s guide to chickadees. powerkids press. hayley. (n.d.). water cycle. in awesome poems about the water cycle. https://www.natgeokids .com/uk/discover/geography/physical-geography/raining-rhymes/ hodgson, a. (2021). when cloud became a cloud. abrams appleseed. hooper, m. (2004). the island that moved: how shifting forces shape our earth. frances lincoln children’s books. hooper, m. (2015). the pebble in my pocket: a history of our earth. frances lincoln children’s books. hopkinson, d. (2003). maria’s comet. simon & schuster. kajikawa, k. (2009). tsunami! philomel books. king, r. (2005). geology. in stepping twice into the river: following dakota waters. university press of colorado. krupinski, l. (2015). why do leaves change color? charlesbridge. lewis, j. p. (1998). halley’s comet. in doodle dandies: poems that take shape. atheneum. lewis, j. p. (2005). galileo’s universe. creative editions. lewis, j. p. (2007). hurricane. in poems for teaching in the content areas. scholastic. https://www.poetrysoup.com/%e2%80%8cpoem/cosmology_and_scientists_on_my_mind_1447406 https://www.poetrysoup.com/%e2%80%8cpoem/cosmology_and_scientists_on_my_mind_1447406 https://www.natgeokids.com/uk/discover/geography/physical-geography/raining-rhymes/ https://www.natgeokids.com/uk/discover/geography/physical-geography/raining-rhymes/ bintz 107 lewis, j. p. (2007). the big bang. in poems for teaching in the content areas. scholastic. lewis, j. p. (2007). the lithosphere. in poems for teaching in the content areas. scholastic. lewis, j. p. (2007). tsunami. in poems for teaching in the content areas. scholastic. lewis, j. p. (2007). why leaves change color in the fall. in poems for teaching in the content areas. scholastic. lyon, g. e. (2000). counting on the woods. econo-clad books. mcclure, n. (2016). waiting for high tide. groundwood books. mcdonald, k. (2020). i am the solar system. independently published. mckinney, b. (1999). pass the energy, please! dawn publications. mcleod, l. (2010). lessons from mother earth. groundwood books. merriam, e. (1964). it doesn’t always have to rhyme. scott, foresman & company. milne, a. a. (n.d.). wind on the hill [poem]. https://www.familyfriendpoems.com/poem/wind-onthe-hill-by-a-a-milne mitton, j. (2006). zoo in the sky: a book of animal constellations. national geographic kids. moon, c. (2021). drop: an adventure through the water cycle. independently published. morgan, j. (2002). born with a bang: the universe tells our cosmic story. dawn publications. mortensen, l. (2010). come see the earth turn: the story of léon foucault. random house. mr. r. (2002). photosynthesis poem. in mr. r.’s math poems. rak publishing. mr. r. (2002). water cycle poem. in mr. r.’s math poems. rak publishing. munoz, m. (2020). galileo galilei: astronomer and physicist. the child’s world. older, j. (2000). telling time: how to tell time on digital and analog clocks. charlesbridge. o’neil, m. (2002). what are you, wind? in l. b. hopkins (ed.), spectacular science: a book of poems. simon & schuster. perdew, l. (2021). the sun: shining star of the solar system. capstone press. professor, b. (2017). archimedes and his numbers. baby professor. professor, b. (2017). the relationship of the moon and the tides. baby professor. reeve, j. (2024). cloud watching [poem]. https://allpoetry.com/poem/11910121-cloudwatching-by-jenny-reeve reza, m. (2008). quarrel between truth and falsehood forever [poem]. https://www.poemhunter .com/poem/quarrel-between-truth-and-falsehood-forever/ sandburg, c. (2002). stars. in l. b. hopkins (ed.), spectacular science: a book of poems. simon & schuster. schertle, a. (2002). dinosaur bone. in l. b. hopkins (ed.), spectacular science: a book of poems. simon & schuster. https://www.familyfriendpoems.com/poem/wind-on-the-hill-by-a-a-milne https://www.familyfriendpoems.com/poem/wind-on-the-hill-by-a-a-milne https://allpoetry.com/poem/11910121-cloud-watching-by-jenny-reeve https://allpoetry.com/poem/11910121-cloud-watching-by-jenny-reeve https://www.poemhunter.com/poem/quarrel-between-truth-and-falsehood-forever/ https://www.poemhunter.com/poem/quarrel-between-truth-and-falsehood-forever/ 108 georgia journal of literacy 47(1) scholastic. (n.d.). sun’s busy day: science poem [poem]. https://shop.scholastic.com/teachersecommerce/teacher/books/suns-busy-day-sources-of-energy-science-poem9781338011098.html shields, c. (1995). spinning song. in lunch money and other poems about school. allyn & bacon. sidman, j. (2000). just us two: poems about animal dads. millbrook. sidman, j. (2010). dark emperor and other poems of the night. hmh books for young readers. sidman, j. (2014). winter bees and other poems of the cold. hmh books for young readers. silverstein, s. (1981). moon-catchin net. in a light in the attic. harper & row. simon, s. (2006). stars. harpercollins. skeers, l. (2020). dinosaur lady: the daring discoveries of mary anning, the first paleontologist. sourcebooks explore. smith, d. (2006). bring back archimedes [poem]. https://www.poetrysoup.com/poem/bring_back _archimedes_807345 smith, j. (2004). scientific method at the bat. in j. scieszka & l. smith (eds.), science verse. viking. smith, j. (2014). chickadee’s song. in j. sidman (ed.), winter bees and other poems of the cold. hmh books for young readers. stanley, d. (2015). the little dipper. powerkids press. weisner, d. (1992). hurricane. clarion books. weisner, d. (1999). sector 7. clarion books. weitkamp, m. (2015). pluto’s secret: an icy world’s tale of discovery. abrams books for young readers. whitman, w. (2004). when i heard the learn’d astronomer. in leaves of grass. modern library. received: october 23, 2024 | accepted: february 7, 2025 | published: may 20, 2025 https://shop.scholastic.com/teachers-ecommerce/teacher/books/suns-busy-day-sources-of-energy-science-poem-9781338011098.html https://shop.scholastic.com/teachers-ecommerce/teacher/books/suns-busy-day-sources-of-energy-science-poem-9781338011098.html https://shop.scholastic.com/teachers-ecommerce/teacher/books/suns-busy-day-sources-of-energy-science-poem-9781338011098.html https://www.poetrysoup.com/poem/bring_back%e2%80%8c_archimedes_807345 https://www.poetrysoup.com/poem/bring_back%e2%80%8c_archimedes_807345 poetry and science blended genres, ccss, and ngss standards paired text & blended genres figure 1: guidelines for teachers blended genres and instructional strategies earth science figure 2: interlocking spheres of intertextual connections space science figure 3: z-map final thoughts table 1: additional blended genres in earth and space science references picturebooks and poetry cited georgia journal of literacy 2025, vol. 47(1), pp. 79–83 https://doi.org/10.56887/galiteracy.181 issn: 2833-7611 teaching tips contact dr. melissa comer, professor, department of curriculum & instruction, tennessee tech university, oak ridge, tn; email mcomer@tntech.edu. teaching with a twist: embracing appalachian (and other) dialects—y’all ready for this? melissa comer tennessee tech university, oak ridge, tn abstract situated within the appalachian region, i celebrate dialect diversity within the courses i teach. appalachian english, a recognized marginalized language variety, is my own dialectical heritage and that of my students. as such, i reinforce the notion that home languages, i.e., dialects, have a place in english language arts instruction in a direct, not peripheral, manner. to build students up in their use of their home languages, to help children see the value in native speech patterns, and to know that no single voice can represent an entire region, engaging in language and culture studies that reinforce the dialect and region in a positive manner is a must. focusing on books that promote the appalachian area and people group in a way that is free of stereotypes is central to supporting the acceptance of this marginalized language variety. additionally, including intentional activities that highlight the richness of language serves to celebrate students’ voices and cultural histories. keywords appalachian english; marginalizedlanguage variety; dialect acceptance in schools; writing rowing up poor in the rural south, the appalachian mountains were my playground. traipsing their hills, i learned to appreciate and respect nature. using empty plastic milk jugs as sleds, my siblings and i discovered the joy of flying down a hard-packed dirt hill at a breakneck speed. it was the closest we ever came to bobsledding. we dug for buried treasures, skipped rocks across ponds, and chased lightin’ bugs (a.k.a., fireflies). attending a k–12 community school, i knew my teachers, some of them personally; intuitively, i recognized they cared about me as a student and as a person. they held me accountable for my academics and my actions. teaching holistically, they adopted maslow’s hierarchy of needs, realizing that education is more than just academics, a lesson i take with me into my own teacher education courses. looking back, it may be that my glasses have a rose-colored tint. school was not perfect (nor do i think it needs to be). there was no diversity, at least not in the most commonly viewed terms of race and ethnicity. and, truthfully, there were few socio-economic differences. we were all poor, living paycheck to paycheck or on government assistance. we all spoke the same rich appalachian dialect, so linguistic variations were, for the most part, nonexistent. regardless, many of us secretly carried the stigma of speaking hillbilly (a term i overheard a group of non-native well-meaning teachers call our speech). sensing that speaking in this manner brought with it a degree of pity, i determined to eradicate, or at least hide, my dialectical heritage. as such, i erased ‘youns’ and ‘y’all’ from my conversations, quit saying ‘reckon’ and ‘fixin’ too, and even contemplated calling my grandparents something other than ‘mamaw’ and ‘papaw.’ my new voice was uncomfortable, as if i were wearing someone else’s skin. in essence, i no longer trusted, as lyon (2014) calls it, my first voice—“the one tuned by the people and place that made [me]” (p. g mailto:mcomer@tntech.edu 80 georgia journal of literacy 47(1) 187). little did i know then that this was the beginning of my linguistic journey, one that would follow me into adulthood and my own teaching career. appalachian english, a recognized marginalized language variety (clark & hayward, 2013; cummings-lilly & forrest-bank, 2019; siegel, 2006), plays a critical role in shaping the identities and experiences of those of us who call this region home. as such, it is essential to affirm that our home language, i.e., dialect, occupy a central place in english language arts instruction rather than being relegated to the periphery. by fostering an environment where students can appreciate the value of their native speech patterns (and other rich dialects), we can help them understand that no single voice can encapsulate the entirety of a region (winchester, 2020). this approach necessitates engaging in language and culture studies that positively reinforce one’s dialect and its associated heritage. central to this effort is the selection of literature that portrays the appalachian people, their language, and their stories in an authentic manner, free from stereotypes (see table 1 for an appalachian children’s and young adult booklist). it should be noted that although this paper focuses on the appalachian dialect and culture, the premise discussed can and should be adapted to other linguistic patterns. table 1: appalachian children’s and young adult book list title author(s) copyright publisher down cut shin creek: the pack horse librarians of kentucky kathi appelt & jean cannella schmitzer 2001 harper collins publishers ashpet: an appalachian tale joanne compton 1994 holiday house knoxville, tennessee nikki giovanni 1994 scholastic trade publishers when uncle took the fiddle libba moore gray 1999 orchard books that book woman heather henson 2008 atheneum books saturdays and teacakes lester laminack 2004 peachtree publishers with a hammer for my heart george ella lyon 2014 the university press of kentucky molasses man kathy may 2000 holiday house a is for appalachia: the alphabet book of appalachian heritage linda hager pack 2002 harmony house publishers. when i was young in the mountains cynthia rylant 1982 reading rainbow the relatives came cynthia rylant 1985 simon and schuster silver packages cynthia rylant 1997 orchard books appalachia: the voices of sleeping birds cynthia rylant 1998 harcourt brace and company affrilachia: poems frank x. walker 2020 ohio university press distributed titles the serpent king jeff zentner 2016 crown books for young readers/ random house furthermore, including intentional activities—such as the one described below—that celebrate the richness of language patterns honors students’ voices and recognizes their cultural histories. this approach encourages students to explore both their own dialects and the linguistic heritages of others. it also has the potential to engage students in critical thinking, encouraging comer 81 them to question their own assumptions and examine how language and culture intersect through an authentic lens. additionally, the multimodal approach of connecting students' spoken language experiences and cultural backgrounds to written text, along with visual support, improves comprehension, engagement, and literacy development. this is particularly beneficial for students whose dialects differ from the standard form taught in school, as it makes learning more relevant and accessible by affirming their unique linguistic identities. exploring different linguistic and cultural perspectives, the activity also provides students with a broader lens through which to analyze text, particularly the author’s background and intended audience. appalachian language book using an online bookmaker like bookemon (bookemon.com), students create a book that explores appalachian vocabulary, phrases, and pronunciations. they build on the language patterns of their life and/or the area, explaining the meaning of the entries. for example, most of us who are native to appalachia understand that blackberry winter is a cold spell that occurs in may, just as the wild blackberry bushes begin to bloom. we also know that we should avoid a polecat or skunk at all costs. in creating the book, students celebrate the region’s linguistic richness by highlighting the uniqueness of the dialect and the culture that influences it. the online digital tool allows students to write and illustrate a book they can share with each other, their families, and their community. beyond this, bookemon also permits students to purchase their books in hard copy, becoming, in essence, a published author. see table 2 for assignment details and table 3 for its associated rubric as well as a modified example, i.e., rednecks, hillbillies, and hicks: exploring the language and culture of a place, of the assignment i created at https://www.bookemon.com/flipread/1040897/ rednecks-hillbillies-and-hicks&refid=l8w2p. table 2: appalachian language and culture book assignment details assignment component description and directions objective the goal of this assignment is to research, create, and publish an online book that explores the rich language and culture of the appalachian region. you will use a digital tool like bookemon to design and present your findings in an engaging and informative format. assignment overview conduct thorough research on various aspects of appalachian language and culture. focus on topics such as dialect, folklore, music, art, food, traditions, and contemporary issues facing the region. utilize credible sources, including books, articles, interviews, and online resources as well as your own personal knowledge or experience with the dialect and culture. content development organize your research into coherent sections. each section should highlight a different aspect of appalachian culture and/or language. sections to include: introduction (overview of appalachian culture and language), dialects & linguistic features (examples of appalachian grammar, vocabulary, phrases, and their meanings, etc.). cultural characteristics (descriptions and/or illustrations of traits unique to the area). note: you may include other sections/things of your choice. book creation using bookemon or a similar digital tool, design your online book. pay attention to layout, visuals, and multimedia elements (such as images, videos, or audio clips) that enhance the reader's experience. ensure that your book is visually appealing and easy to navigate. citations and references include a bibliography of your sources at the end of your book. use a consistent citation style (e.g., apa, mla) to acknowledge the resources you consulted. https://www.bookemon.com/ https://www.bookemon.com/ https://www.bookemon.com/flipread/1040897/%e2%80%8crednecks-hillbillies-and-hicks&refid=l8w2p https://www.bookemon.com/flipread/1040897/%e2%80%8crednecks-hillbillies-and-hicks&refid=l8w2p https://www.bookemon.com/ https://www.bookemon.com/ 82 georgia journal of literacy 47(1) table 3: appalachian language and culture book rubric criterion excellent (4) good (3) fair (2) poor (1) content accuracy thoroughly researched, accurate information with credible sources. mostly accurate with minor errors; generally credible. some inaccuracies; misrepresents key concepts. numerous inaccuracies; lacks credible sources. cultural representation rich and nuanced portrayal; includes diverse appalachian perspectives. good representation; lacks depth in some areas. limited representation; focuses narrowly on culture. misrepresents or oversimplifies culture. language and dialect deep understanding of language and dialect exhibited with several authentic examples. adequate understanding: some authentic examples present. limited understanding: few examples or authenticity is questionable. little understanding; no authentic examples. engagement and accessibility highly engaging; accessible to a wide audience. generally engaging; mostly accessible, with some challenging sections. somewhat engaging; may be difficult for certain audiences. not engaging, confusing, or inaccessible to most readers. visual and multimedia elements excellent use of visuals and multimedia; enhances understanding and engagement. good use of visuals and/or multimedia that mostly supports content. limited visuals or multimedia and/or visuals that may not enhance understanding. little to no visuals or multimedia; detracts from the content. organization, structure & editing well-organized, virtually error-free, clear structure that enhances comprehension and flow. acceptable organization, a few errors, some sections are unclear. poorly organized, several errors, difficult to follow the main points. disorganized, an abundance of errors, lacks coherent structure. citations and references all sources cited correctly in a consistent style; comprehensive bibliography. adequate number of sources present, cited correctly and consistently limited sources present; several inconsistencies or some missing citations. few or no citations; fails to acknowledge sources. conclusion o’mahoney (2018) reminds us that we need to raise awareness among our educators. by doing so, we can integrate more culturally appropriate instructional practices, including dialect acceptance. “in a society,” o’mahoney argues, “where it is felt that no ethnicity, religion, and gender should be considered better or worse than any others, it follows that a person’s language(s) or dialect(s) should likewise not be associated with any kind of stigma” (p. 221). he, of course, is right. poet rhina espaillat (1998), when told by her father to speak “english outside this door, spanish inside,” questioned, “but who can divide the world, the word (mundo y palabra) from any child?” (p. 60). herein lies the most simple and critical answer: no one. words, languages, cultures, and yes, dialects, are part of who we are; they make us, us. as such, they deserve to be explored and welcomed in the english classroom. references clark, a., & hayward, n. (eds.). (2013). talking appalachian: voice, identity, and community. university press of kentucky. cummings-lilly, k. t. & forrest-bank, s. s. (2019). understanding appalachian microaggression from the perspective of community college students in southern west comer 83 virginia. the journal of sociology & social welfare, 46(2), 125–153. https://doi.org/ 10.15453/0191-5096.4097 espaillat, r. (1998). bilingual/bilingüe. in r. espaillat (ed.), where horizons go (p. 60). new odyssey books. lyon, g. e. (2014). voiceplace. in a. d. clark & n. m. hayward (eds.), talking appalachian: voice, identity, and community (pp. 185–192). university press of kentucky. o’mahony, c. t. (2018). an analysis of dialects and how they are neither linguistically superior nor inferior to one another. international journal of humanities, arts, and social sciences, 4(5), 221–226. https://doi.org/10.20469/ijhss.4.10004-5 siegel, j. (2006). language ideologies and the education of speakers of marginalized language varieties: adopting a critical awareness approach. linguistics and education, 17(2), 157– 174. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.linged.2006.08.002 winchester, k. (2020, dec. 11). fifteen books about appalachia to read instead of hillbilly elegy. book riot. https://bookriot.com/books-about-appalachia/ received: november 20, 2024 | accepted: february 17, 2025 | published: may 20, 2025 https://doi.org/10.15453/0191-5096.4097 https://doi.org/10.15453/0191-5096.4097 https://doi.org/10.20469/ijhss.4.10004-5 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.linged.2006.08.002 https://bookriot.com/books-about-appalachia/ table 1: appalachian children’s and young adult book list appalachian language book table 2: appalachian language and culture book assignment details table 3: appalachian language and culture book rubric conclusion references georgia journal of literacy 2024, vol. 46(2), pp. 4–19 https://doi.org/10.56887/galiteracy.165 issn: 2833-7611 practitioner article contact dr. stephanie grote-garcia, professor, dreeben school of education, university of the incarnate word, san antonio, tx; email grotegar@uiwtx.edu (https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5764-8719). dr. bethanie pletcher, associate professor, curriculum, instruction, and learning sciences department, texas a&m university-corpus christi, corpus christi, tx; email pletcher@tamucc.edu (https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9248-1291). hanna b. pattonelliott, doctoral student, curriculum, instruction, and learning sciences department, texas a&m university-corpus christi, corpus christi, tx; helliott@islander.tamucc.edu. phonetic continuum matrix: a researchinformed approach to selecting decodable words for phonics instruction stephanie grote-garcia university of the incarnate word, san antonio, tx bethanie pletcher texas a&m university-corpus christi, corpus christi, tx hanna b. patton-elliott texas a&m university-corpus christi, corpus christi, tx abstract this article presents a sequential system for selecting words for early decoding instruction. we have named our model the phonetic continuum matrix due to its intersection with the developmental continua of phonemic awareness and phonics. our purpose for creating this model is to offer teachers an efficient and sequential method of selecting words for word making, word breaking, sorting, and other activities and games during phonemic awareness and phonics instruction. we begin this article with a literature review to explain “why” we teach explicit phonemic awareness and phonics skills during early literacy instruction. following that discussion, we explore the research used to create our sequential system for selecting words. next, we present the phonetic continuum matrix and share recommendations for using the model when designing early literacy instruction. keywords phonics; phonemic awareness; early literacy instruction; research-based instruction t was early september at lamar elementary and first-grade teacher mr. reyes sat at the front of his inclusive classroom of 16 students. he knew through observations and universal screening data that seven students needed support in orally blending phonemes to form spoken single-syllable words, while nearly all of his students needed support in decoding consonantvowel-consonant (cvc) words. during today’s whole group gathering, he decided to combine these two skills by asking his students, “what word am i saying, /m/ /a/ /n/?” his students quickly replied with, “man”. he then asked his students to help him spell the word man, and they did so without hesitation. he repeated this exercise with the words sit, bat, and dig. his students were once again successful with the word sit, but many of them struggled with the words bat and dig. how could this be? mr. reyes ended the exercise by asking his students to read the same four words. once again, his students were successful with the words man and sit, but they demonstrated more difficulty with the words bat and dig—leaving mr. reyes wondering why his students experienced more difficulty with some words and less difficulty with others. i mailto:grotegar@uiwtx.edu https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5764-8719 mailto:pletcher@tamucc.edu https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9248-1291 mailto:helliott@islander.tamucc.edu grota-garcia et al. 5 although the opening vignette is fabricated, we have heard teachers share similar experiences and ask the same questions as mr. reyes. perhaps the information that mr. reyes is missing in his teaching materials includes a word list that is more nuanced than those traditionally provided in phonological awareness and phonics lists – a word list that takes linguistic research into account. for example, the reason the children in mr. reyes’s class may have experienced difficulty in blending the phonemes in man, but not bat is because the letter m makes a continuous vocal sound, and the letter b is a stop plosive. in this article, we present a sequential system for selecting words for early decoding instruction. we have named our model the phonetic continuum matrix due to its intersection with the developmental continua of phonemic awareness and phonics knowledge. our purpose for creating this model is to offer teachers an efficient and sequential method of selecting words to use for word making, word breaking, sorting, and other activities and games during phonemic awareness and phonics instruction. we begin this article with a literature review to explain “why” we teach explicit phonemic awareness and phonics skills during early literacy instruction. following that discussion, we explore the research that was used to create our sequential system for selecting words. next, we present the phonetic continuum matrix and share recommendations for using the model when designing early literacy instruction. for the purpose of printing, the phonetic continuum matrix has been split into two figures—those being figures 1 and 2. literature review recent publications that are focused on phonemic awareness and phonics are largely influenced by the current attention being given to the science of reading (grote-garcia & ortlieb, 2023). that recent attention led us to initially set out to find within the available research a tiered system for evaluating the difficulty of decodable words. for this, we utilized our university database and an internet search engine, employing search terms such as decodable word list, phonics word difficulty levels, decodable reading words by level, and word difficulty continuum for phonics. although we found various lists of decodable words, these resources did not provide the tiered structure or detailed progression we were seeking. this absence in the literature prompted us to develop the phonetic continuum matrix to fill this gap. the literature review that follows explores “why” we teach explicit phonemic awareness and phonics skills in elementary classrooms. also explained is the research used to formulate our sequential system for selecting decodable words. the reviewed research spans a total of 66 years, with publications as early as templin’s 1957 publication detailing language development. we felt it to be important to revisit classic studies within our literature review because the relationship between phonemic awareness, phonics, and overall reading success has been established for several decades and many of those earlier studies contributed significant findings that guided the formation of our model. the why lindsey and colleagues (2020) remind us, that in order to read an alphabetic language, such as english, “students must possess secure knowledge of the alphabetic principle (i.e., speech sounds are represented by combinations of letters in the alphabet) as well as the ability to aurally separate the distinct sounds (phonemes) that make up words” (p. 159). the latter part of this statement refers to phonemic awareness. phonemic awareness is “the ability to focus on and manipulate phonemes [or the smallest sounds] in spoken words” (liberman et al., 1974). during phonemic awareness instruction, students might be asked to isolate, blend, segment, or manipulate phonemes 6 georgia journal of literacy 46(2) (collet, 2021). in the opening vignette, we read that mr. reyes asked his students, “what word am i saying, /m/ /a/ /n/?” his students blended the stated phonemes together and said the word “man”. in that exchange, mr. reyes’s students demonstrated the phonemic awareness task of blending phonemes. no graphemes (i.e., letters or letter combinations used to represent the sounds) were used in that example—as is the case for phonemic awareness tasks (lindsey et al., 2020; kilpatrick, 2015, nrp, 2000). why do we teach phonemic awareness? research has established that phonemic awareness skills can be a predictor of students’ early reading skills because it provides a window into students’ ability to learn sounds that can then be used for decoding (boyer & ehri, 2011; kilpatrick, 2015; share, 2004). in fact, boyer and ehri (2011) and share (2004) emphasized that being able to segment words into phonemes when entering kindergarten is one of the strongest predictors of reading in kindergarten and first grade. cassano (2018) explained this predictable relationship by stating, “although [phonemic awareness] does not involve print directly, there is a link between [phonemic awareness] and decoding in alphabetic writing systems, because letters represent phonemes in words” (p. 12). cassano (2018) further explained that “without an awareness of the sound structure of words at the phoneme level, children do not understand how print works and thus can fail to deploy phonics instruction that teachers provide” (p. 12). thus, one reason we teach phonemic awareness is that children must be aware of phonemes in order to map them to their associated graphemes (i.e., the letter or letter combinations that represent individual phonemes in print). additional research has established that many children who are struggling with decoding and spelling also have deficits in phonemic awareness (spear-swerling, 2016). in fact, phoneme blending impacts students’ decoding abilities, while segmenting phonemes impacts students’ spelling skills. those two relationships are proven through a vast body of research that spreads across decades (bond & dykstra, 1967; ehri et al., 2001; fox & routh, 1984; nichd early child care research network, 2005; nrp, 2000). the opening vignette illustrates that finding. mr. reyes’s students looked at the printed word sit and used their knowledge of grapheme/phoneme relationships to decode that word. this process required students to recognize the three graphemes s, i, t, and to map those graphemes to the phonemes /s/, /i/, /t/—in doing so, students were applying their phonic knowledge. once students identified the three phonemes connected to the printed letters, they then blended those phonemes together to pronounce the printed word. the students’ successes in blending those phonemes to pronounce the printed word are dependent upon their skills in phoneme blending. had mr. reyes’s students only applied their phonetic knowledge and struggled with phoneme blending, they would not have been able to state the printed word. instead, their response would have remained as the isolated phonemes of “/s/—/i/—/t/”. in a reversed manner, phoneme segmenting impacts spelling because in order to spell a word that is not memorized, we must segment the phonemes of the spoken word and then map those phonemes to their associated graphemes (ball & blachman, 1991). not only do teachers of early reading need to teach phonemic awareness skills explicitly; they also need to teach explicit phonics skills—but, why? in addition to phonemic awareness being an important and necessary skill for reading an alphabetic language, decades of research have also established that phonetic knowledge is highly important (nrp, 2000; stahl et al., 1998; torgerson et al., 2018). phonics is the method of teaching phoneme/grapheme relationships. students’ capacity to decode unfamiliar words is impacted by their ability to recognize graphemes, map those graphemes to phonemes, and then blend those phonemes together to identify the printed word (lindsey et al., 2020). however, there is an even larger picture. research has identified that grota-garcia et al. 7 students' abilities to decode words (which is influenced by their phonemic awareness and phonic knowledge) have direct impacts on their abilities to read text fluently (ecalle et al., 2020; nrp, 2000; saha et al., 2021), and to comprehend them (gough & tunmer, 1986; kieffer & christodoulou, 2020; kim, 2015; scarborough, 2001). continuum of difficulty research has established that decoding skills are dependent upon the reader’s phonetic knowledge as well as the reader’s ability to blend phonemes into words (bradley & bryant,1983; hulme et al., 2012; share, 2011). when creating our sequential system for selecting words for early decoding instruction, we revisited the research establishing the continuum of difficulty for phoneme blending and phonetic knowledge; by doing so, we developed the sequence found in the phonetic continuum matrix (see figure 1 and figure 2). that research is reviewed in this section— establishing the scientific foundation on which the model was built. phoneme blending. the difficulty of phoneme blending tasks can vary from easy to more difficult depending upon the number of phonemes (i.e., fewer phonemes are easier, while more phonemes are harder) and the type of phonemes featured. the english language has 44 phonemes that are placed into two categories: consonants and vowels (foorman, 2023). freeman and freeman (2014) remind us that consonant phonemes are closed (i.e., airflow is obstructed), can be stopped (i.e., cannot be elongated) or continuous (i.e., can be elongated), and can be voiced (i.e., require a vibration of the vocal cords) or voiceless (i.e., do not require vibration of the vocal cords). furthermore, vowels are open (i.e., shaped by the mouth, but unobstructed), continuous, and voiced. following a review of relevant literature, mesmer (2019) summarized the continuum of difficulty for words used in phonemic awareness tasks and organized those findings based on twophoneme and three-phoneme words. first, two-phoneme words beginning with a vowel phoneme, such as “at” and “on”, are the easiest to hear; followed by two-phoneme words beginning with a continuant consonant (e.g., knee, so, me), and then two-phoneme words beginning with another consonant (e.g., be, doe, tea,). for three-phoneme words, the pattern is similar with words beginning with continuant consonants being easiest (e.g., man, nap, sat) and words beginning with other consonants being more difficult (e.g., bag, dig, top). next, children typically develop the ability to segment and blend four-phoneme words with initial blends (e.g., clap, stop, trap), followed by four-phoneme words with final blends (e.g., felt, last, jump), and lastly five-phoneme words with initial and final blends (e.g., blend, clasp, stomp). these research findings directly influenced the formation of the phonetic continuum matrix and are displayed in the columns, moving from left to right, of figure 1 and figure 2. phonetic knowledge. decoding requires phonemic awareness and phonetic knowledge because readers must “use phonics principles to break the word into small chunks and then blend those chunks back together into recognizable words” (lindsey et al., 2020, p. 161). research points to phonics instruction needing to be explicit (meaning the teacher tells students the skill they are learning) and systematic and sequential (meaning easier skills are taught and mastered first before moving on to more difficult skills; mesmer & griffith, 2005). this instruction may begin as early as prekindergarten. in this section, we explore the continuum of development for phonics skills. we have arranged the discussion to first explore the development of letter knowledge, which is then followed by a discussion of how word decoding develops. 8 georgia journal of literacy 46(2) letter knowledge. decades of research have documented that preschoolers’ letter knowledge (specifically their ability to name letters), is highly correlated to their later wordreading ability (bond & dykstra, 1967; tunmer et al., 1988; wagner et al., 1994). in light of this correlation, we use this section to review significant research findings that have provided insights into the development of letter knowledge—the reason being that these findings informed the development of the phonetic continuum matrix. according to research, children have more difficulties learning letters with hard-tohear sounds and letters that are connected to more than one sound (treiman et al., 1998). researchers have identified that the sounds of acrophonic printed letters, or letters whose names carry information about their sound (e.g., the name of letter m ending with /m/), are easier to learn than non-acrophonic letters (e.g., h, w, x; cardoso-martins et al., 2011; piasta & wagner, 2010; share, 2004; treiman & rodriguez, 1999; treiman et al., 1998). also, huang et al. (2014), mcbride-chang (1999), and treiman et al. (1998) presented evidence that children learn the sounds of letters whose names are pronounced in consonant-vowel order (e.g., b, d) easier than those pronounced in vowel-consonant order (e.g., s, f). although research has largely identified sounds of acrophonic printed letters to be easier to learn, castles and colleagues (2009) remind us that this relationship “may be confounded to some degree with phonemic awareness ability because benefiting from the sound information provided by the letter name presumably requires that children are sufficiently phonologically aware to be able to successfully segment the relevant phoneme” (p. 69). this highlights the importance of considering individual differences in phonemic awareness when developing effective literacy instruction. therefore, educational strategies should be tailored to address both the phonological and phonemic awareness skills of learners. word reading. similar to phonemic awareness instruction, there is a general sequence for teaching phonics to increase word reading skills. following a review of relevant literature, lindsey and colleagues (2020) summarized that general sequence. most phonics curricula “move from teaching students patterns with one-to-one correspondences in single-syllable words (e.g., big, hat, and tin) to teaching two-to-one (e.g., bath, see, she) and three-to-one correspondences in single-syllable words (e.g., eat, eight, and shoot)” (lindsey et al., 2020, p. 169). overall, the literature review provided by lindsey et al. (2020) supports the following to be a suggested order for phonics instruction (from easy to difficult): short vowel word families (e.g., -at, -am, -it), initial consonant digraphs (e.g., ph-, sh-, th-), final consonant digraphs (e.g., -ch, -ck, -sh), initial consonant blends (e.g., bl-, fr-, st-), and final consonant blends (e.g., -st, -mp, -nd). after reading words with short vowels, students typically learn words with long vowels (e.g., the silent e), vowel digraphs (e.g., ai, oa, ee), vowel diphthongs (e.g., oy, oi, ow as in cow), complex consonants (e.g. silent letters such as kn, soft/hard c, soft/hard g, and trigraphs), syllable division rules (e.g., vcǀcv, vǀcv), and morphemic analysis (e.g., prefix “un” means “not”). many speech and language researchers have purported that there is an order in which children master consonant clusters/blends (higgs, 1968; mcleod et al., 2001; smit et al., 1990; templin, 1957). dodd (1995), dyson (1988), paul and jennings (1992), and watson and scukanec (1997) found, in their studies of young children, that word-final consonant blends (e.g., -mp, -nd, -ps) appear in language before word-initial clusters do (e.g., st-, tw-, pl-); however, werfel and schuele (2012) and lindsay (2020) recommend the opposite. also, children usually acquire consonant blends that consist of stop and liquid sounds (e.g., br-, pl) grota-garcia et al. 9 before they acquire blends with fricative and liquid sounds (e.g., fr-, sl-ingram, 1976; powell, 1993; smit et al., 1990; smith, 1973; templin, 1957; watson & scukanec, 1997). more specifically, barlow (2004) contended that, because sounds range on a continuum from least sonorous to most sonorous (in order from least to most sonorous: stops, fricatives, nasals, liquids, glides), consonant clusters whose sounds are further apart on this continuum (e.g. wr) are easier than those whose sounds are closer together (e.g., sc-, sp-). another way of explaining this is that clusters whose sounds are formed in the same place of articulation are more difficult to pronounce than those whose sounds occur in different parts of the mouth. this is partly because during pronunciation, the child can feel their mouth move and see it when looking in a mirror. it seems the most difficult blends to hear and pronounce are final blends that contain a nasal (/n/) right before a voiceless phoneme (e.g., -mp, -nt) or a voiced phoneme (e.g., -nd, -ng; treiman et al., 1995). considering which clusters occur with the most frequency is important in forming a recommended sequence of instruction (groff, 197172). we have utilized these findings to inform our model in terms of when these clusters/blends might be taught. this information is illustrated in the rows of figure 1 and figure 2, with the simplest skills at the top and increasing in complexity moving downward. theoretical framework the phonetic continuum matrix is designed to be utilized with children at specific stages of word reading development. when crafting the matrix, we drew insights from ehri’s (2005) word reading stages and bear et al.’s (2020) words their way framework. in this section, we explore these two staging frameworks to explain the “how” and “when” of employing the phonetic continuum matrix in the design of early literacy instruction. by aligning instructional practices with these frameworks, educators can better tailor their approaches to the individual needs of students at various stages of reading development. this ensures that instruction is both developmentally appropriate and research-based, enhancing the overall effectiveness of literacy education. according to ehri’s (2005) four stages of word reading, word knowledge evolves through distinct phases. those stages are the pre-alphabetic, partial alphabetic, full alphabetic, and consolidated alphabetic stages. each phase operates on a continuum determined by the mastery of specific word knowledge skills. in the pre-alphabetic stage, children rely on visual cues and specific contexts to derive meaning, emphasizing visual input over letter sounds and drawing connections to environmental print. notably, the phonetic continuum matrix does not address the pre-alphabetic stage, as it commences with ehri’s subsequent stage, the partial alphabetic stage. the partial alphabetic stage incorporates letter names and sounds, enabling children to use phonetic cues for comprehension. the phonetic continuum matrix initiates at this stage, featuring acrophonic printed letters and one to two phoneme words in the top left corner of the model (refer to figure 1). moving to ehri’s third stage, the full alphabetic stage, children utilize all letter sounds in reading and engage with graphemic knowledge. as the phonetic continuum matrix progresses downward and across (from the top-left toward the bottom-right), it closely aligns with ehri’s full alphabetic stage, encompassing consonant digraphs, consonant blends, vowel digraphs, and vowel diphthongs. in the consolidated alphabetic stage, ehri’s fourth stage, children strategically incorporate morphological and syllabic elements into their reading, utilizing chunks or clusters within words and word families to enhance fluency (e.g., the child recognizes that “happiness” consists of the rood word “happy” and the suffix “-ness”). the phonetic continuum matrix does not include ehri’s consolidated alphabetic stage since the matrix is centered on the intersection of phonetic 10 georgia journal of literacy 46(2) knowledge and phonemic awareness. readers in this advanced stage analyze “chunks” of words rather than individual phonemes and graphemes. consequently, the matrix focuses on earlier stages of reading development where phonetic and phonemic skills are foundational, providing a structured approach to building these essential skills before students reach the more advanced stages of analyzing word patterns and morphemes. bear et al.’s words their way framework (2020) expands upon ehri’s stages and offers developmental timelines for each stage of reading—therefore, it was also consulted as the phonetic continuum matrix was being designed. the initial stage, the emergent stage, typically occurs between the ages of two and five years old. during this stage, children make prephonetic attempts at reading and writing as they synthesize experiences with six crucial concepts. these concepts encompass language concepts and vocabulary, which provide foundational experiences with language and accumulated background knowledge. alphabetic awareness leads children to an understanding of print and the literacy input derived from their environment. phonological awareness increases a child’s ability to blend, segment, and delete sounds when creating new words, and rhythmic activities contribute to mastery of syllabication. finally, children must have an automaticity with familiar words, creating sight words in context through cow-t, or concepts of words in text. similar to the connections made between ehri’s (2005) stages and the phonetic continuum matrix, the top left corner of figure 1 relates to bear et al.’s early stage. the remainder of the phonetic continuum matrix relates to bear et al.’s next two stages— the letter-name stage and the within word pattern stage. the letter-name stage, which is typically when formal reading instruction begins, ranges from kindergarten to the middle of second grade. at this stage, pronunciation of letter names can influence children’s reading and writing ability, while they also attend to realizations of how mouth shape and intonation affect words read. common areas of focus during bear and colleagues’ second stage often include short vowel families and cvc words. children must understand phonemes to progress to the next stage, referred to as the within word pattern stage, which typically involves children in second and third grade. the within word pattern stage involves exploring concepts in word study, including single syllable patterns such as cvce, cvvc, and cvv, with attention to diphthongs. additionally, students grapple with words that have multiple meanings and similar pronunciations, such as “steak” and “stake” or “pair” and “pear”. this stage emphasizes a deeper understanding of spelling patterns and the ability to decode and spell words with more complex structures, paving the way for more advanced literacy skills. bear et al.’s syllables and affixes stage and derivational stage are not depicted in the phonetic continuum matrix, mirroring the omission of ehri’s (2005) final stage. in these advanced stages, readers analyze word “chunks” rather than individual graphemes and phonemes. the syllables and affixes stage spans third grade through eighth grade, involving morphology, etymology, and inflection. the derivational stage, starting in middle elementary and extending through college, emphasizes continuous learning by exploring connections between word meanings and applications, including the study of word roots, prefixes, and suffixes to understand and generate complex words. this progression highlights the evolution from foundational phonetic skills to sophisticated word analysis and application, building a comprehensive understanding of language. mastering the “how” and “when” to employ the phonetic continuum matrix in literacy instruction is contingent on a thorough understanding of ehri’s and bear et al.’s stages. the matrix commences its journey at the partial alphabetic stage, aligning with ehri’s model, and then aligns closely with the full alphabetic stage, emphasizing the importance of sound recognition and grota-garcia et al. 11 graphemic knowledge. it proceeds through consonant digraphs, blends, vowel digraphs, and diphthongs, reflecting transition within ehri’s full alphabetic stages. additionally, the phonetic continuum matrix corresponds largely with the letter-name stage and the within word pattern stage in bear and colleagues’ framework, establishing that the phonetic continuum matrix is a comprehensive tool for facilitating tailored literacy instruction throughout different stages of word reading development, particularly in grades kindergarten through second grade. the phonetic continuum matrix the phonetic continuum matrix offers a structured and sequential approach for the selection of decodable words for use during literacy instruction, incorporating research findings from phonemic awareness development, decoding development, and various word reading frameworks (i.e., bear et al., 2020; ehri, 2005). examining figures 1 and 2, the phonetic continuum matrix is designed to align with the progression of phonemic awareness development, transitioning from less complex to more complex concepts as one moves from left to right across the two figures. simultaneously, the continuum of phonics instruction development is depicted by moving from the top to bottom of the two figures. within the individual boxes present in the model, we have integrated points where the research on phonemic awareness and decoding development intersects, offering example words that reflect both the findings in phonemic awareness research and decoding research. our objective is not for teachers to adopt these particular words but rather to employ the alignment of research as a guide when choosing words for instruction or assessment. for example, figure 1 demonstrates that children generally find it easier to decode words like “rash” and “much” compared to “bake” and “poke”. this is because children generally master the phonetic rules for single-syllable words with final consonant digraphs and blend three-phoneme words with initial continuant sounds (e.g., 'rash' and 'much') before they become proficient with silent-e words and those with initial stop consonants (e.g., 'bake' and 'poke'). by following this structured approach, teachers of grades k–2 can more effectively match instructional materials to the developmental needs of their students, ensuring a more targeted and efficient literacy instruction process. 12 georgia journal of literacy 46(2) figure 1: phonetic continuum matrix for acrophonic letters and short vowels note. “–” denotes the feasibility of providing an example for overlapping phonics and phonemic awareness tasks, either due to one task being developed later or being inherently impossible. *suggested order for beginning blends is the following: tw, kw, fw, pl, bl, cl, gl, fl, pr, br, cr, gr, fr, dr, tr, st, sp, sc, sn, sm, sl, sw, str, squ, spl, scr, spr. +suggested order for final blends is the following: st, ps, ts, nt, ns, mp, nd, nk (barlow, 2004; dodd, 1995; dyson, 1988; groff, 1971-72; higgs, 1968; ingram, 1976; lindsay, 2020; mcleod et al., 2002; paul & jennings, 1992; powell, 1993; smit et al., 1990; smith, 1973; templin, 1957; treiman, 1995; watson & scukanec; 1997; werfel and schuele; 2012). phonics sequence: moving from easiest (top) to hardest (bottom) phonemic awareness continuum: moving from easiest (left) to hardest (right) onephoneme words two-phoneme words three-phoneme words four-phoneme words five-phoneme words with initial* and +final blends with initial vowel phoneme with initial continuant consonant phoneme with initial stopped consonant phoneme with initial continuant phoneme with stopped initial phoneme with *initial blends with +final blends letters acrophonic printed letters a, i – – – – – – – – short vowels ending in consonant – at am an in up if it on us – – man sit not men set sat let run red lap net van zip sip ran log bat pet but can did get had has him big cut put got dog pig – – – with initial consonant digraphs – – – – ship this shop than then them this shut chip chat chop chin chug chap – – – with final consonant digraphs – ash ick – – moth much fish such lack sick math lash rash lick cash dish push with back rock bath hush wish path flash sloth trash black stick flash trick swish clash stash – – with initial and final consonant digraphs – – – – shuck thick shack shush chick whack when which check – – – with *initial consonant blends – – – – – – stop swim drop frog flip twig plan clash brush swish clap grip – – with +final consonant blends – – – – ant ink elk ask end – – jump link sent long hand help just land must thing think last left list song best – with *initial and +final consonant blends – – – – – – – – blend clump stomp plant stand bring frost blink grota-garcia et al. 13 figure 2: phonetic continuum matrix for long vowels, vowel combinations, and complex consonants note. “–” denotes the feasibility of providing an example for overlapping phonics and phonemic awareness tasks, either due to one task being developed later or being inherently impossible. *suggested order for beginning blends is the following: tw, kw, fw, pl, bl, cl, gl, fl, pr, br, cr, gr, fr, dr, tr, st, sp, sc, sn, sm, sl, sw, str, squ, spl, scr, spr. +suggested order for final blends is the following: st, ps, ts, nt, ns, mp, nd, nk (barlow, 2004; dodd, 1995; dyson, 1988; groff, 1971–72; higgs, 1968; ingram, 1976; lindsay, 2020; mcleod et al., 2002; paul & jennings, 1992; powell, 1993; smit et al., 1990; smith, 1973; templin, 1957; treiman, 1995; watson & scukanec; 1997; werfel and schuele; 2012). phonics sequence: moving from easiest (top) to hardest (right) phonemic awareness continuum: moving from easiest (left) to hardest (right) onephoneme words two-phoneme words three-phoneme words four-phoneme words five-phoneme words with initial* and +final blends with initial vowel phoneme with initial continuant consonant phoneme with initial stopped consonant phoneme with initial continuant phoneme with stopped initial phoneme with *initial blends with +final blends long vowels single long vowel – – me so no my the be go he by we – poll toll both. . – bold cold find kind most went hold told pint grind with silent e – – – – made make rope like land line name same late life mile side fine shine bake poke time came home page take white wave base game gave date gate brave smile write state plane drive stove frame slime crime plate crate flame globe – – vowel combinations vowel digraphs – oak eek each eat see sea may they mow sew fee say show saw low though row hay day tow way tea toe bay bow bee key due seek leap look that mean need read rain feet real seem soon feel shown seat meet boat been book head keep coat took wood deep heat beat sleep green bread great fried cream grain stood queen float train braid brain great toast coast paint quaint vowel diphthongs – oil owl out our own ouch now vow few chow new cow toy how boy high chew soil fowl shout south noun town coin down. crown brown cloud frown clown fruit sound pound found point round – complex consonants (with short and long vowels) silent letters, hard/soft and trigraphs – – knee know – knit lamb right face light might night voice known knob comb height crumb stitch place close school space brought climb cent ghost – 14 georgia journal of literacy 46(2) instructional recommendations within this section, we explore the use of the phonetic continuum matrix to elevate and synchronize the instruction of phonemic awareness and decoding. furthermore, we reexamine crucial research findings and optimal approaches for teaching phonemic awareness and decoding skills. we also explore how consulting the phonetic continuum matrix can reinforce and enhance this instructional process. by aligning instructional practices with the matrix, teachers can ensure a cohesive approach that integrates research-based strategies with practical application, thereby supporting students’ progress through the various stages of reading development. this alignment not only enhances the effectiveness of phonemic awareness and decoding instruction but also provides a structured framework for monitoring and adapting teaching strategies to meet individual student needs. phonemic awareness tasks intentionally avoid incorporating printed letters for several crucial reasons. a primary consideration is the necessity for students to initially cultivate the ability to distinguish distinct sounds before linking them to written language, as emphasized by lindsey and colleagues (2020). additionally, the use of printed letters could inadvertently act as “clues,” potentially leading to an inaccurate assessment of a child’s genuine phonemic awareness, as noted by kilpatrick (2015). this situation arises when children rely on visual cues rather than authentic phonemic awareness. kilpatrick (2015) also addresses a common misinterpretation of the national reading panel’s (nrp, 2000) original findings. nrp’s suggestion was not that phonemic awareness should be taught with letters; instead, the nrp recommended moving swiftly into integrating phonemic awareness with letter recognition and the decoding process. after completing a phonemic awareness task without the use of letters, students should promptly map those same phonemes to their associated graphemes. kipatrick argues that this practice helps students establish a robust foundation in phonemic awareness, phonetic knowledge, and a deeper understanding of the alphabetic principle. given these considerations, kilpatrick advises educators to use non-letter symbols or tokens when teaching phonemic awareness skills. subsequently, students are encouraged to establish connections between the featured phonemes and printed letters by then replacing those tokens with the associated graphemes. the importance of following phonemic awareness tasks with connections to decoding is further explained by ehri (2020). ehri clarifies that readers connect the spellings of words to their pronunciations. therefore, in addition to using tokens like pennies or bingo chips when perceiving sounds in words (e.g., elkonin boxes), it is also beneficial to establish links between phonemes and letters, assisting children in connecting letters to their corresponding sounds (ehri, 2020). ehri asserts that this process helps children transition from the pre-alphabetic phrase to the partial alphabetic phrase and “facilitate[s] learning because the [letters] provide visible, concrete representations of phonemes that are transient and disappear as soon as they are spoken or heard” (boyer & ehri, 2011, p. 441). these research findings highlight the intricate relationship between phonemic awareness, decoding, and spelling. the shift from phonemic awareness instruction to phonics instruction should be seamless, as recommended by mesmer (2022). the effectiveness of this approach is well-illustrated in the opening vignette featuring mr. reyes, where he guided his students to orally segment phonemes in spoken words and then immediately applied that knowledge by spelling the same words. in the vignette, mr. reyes’ students successfully read and spelled the words “man” and “sit” but encountered difficulty with the words “bat” and “dig”. this challenge aligns with the principles of the phonetic continuum matrix, where the initial continuant phonemes of /m/ in the word “man” and /s/ in the word “sit” appear earlier on the matrix when compared to the stopped sounds of the grota-garcia et al. 15 /b/ and /d/ phonemes found in the words “bat” and “dig”. as mr. reyes’ students’ progress in their phonics instruction, mastering the stopped initial sounds, they will likely advance to continuant initial consonant digraphs like “sh” in the word “ship” and “th” in the word “this”, broadening their understanding of more complex phonetic patterns. subsequently, they will further navigate through the phonetic continuum matrix, encountering stopped initial consonant digraphs such as “ch” in the words “chat” and “chip” before moving further up and toward the right on the matrix into more complex consonant blends appearing at the beginnings and ends of words (e.g., “stop” and “ink”). this sequential development illustrates the importance of a systematic and targeted phonics curriculum, ensuring students acquire a comprehensive set of skills that progressively build upon each other, ultimately enhancing their reading and spelling abilities across a diverse range of words. final thoughts the phonetic continuum matrix is a valuable tool for educators seeking a systematic and sequential approach to selecting words for early decoding instruction. drawing from a comprehensive literature review, the matrix tackles the essential connection between phonemic awareness and phonics skills. through its structured framework, the phonetic continuum matrix helps teachers navigate from simpler to more complex phonemic and phonics concepts. the reviewed research, spanning over six decades, emphasizes the enduring importance of explicit instruction in phonemic awareness and phonics for successful reading outcomes. guided by theoretical frameworks from ehri (2005) and bear et al. (2020), the development and application of the phonetic continuum matrix ensures alignment with stages of word reading development. beginning at the partial alphabetic stage and progressing through consonant digraphs, blends, and beyond, this model offers a comprehensive approach tailored to different stages of emergent and early literacy. it is important to note, however, that these stages are a guide for how children might work with sounds and print. thus, teachers should keep in mind that different children may progress through these stages differently. the integration of evidencebased practices, as advocated by ehri (2005) and kilpatrick (2015), highlights the significance of separating phonemic awareness tasks from printed letters initially and later connecting them seamlessly during decoding instruction. the instructional recommendations stress the importance of a smooth transition from phonemic awareness to phonics, as demonstrated in the vignette featuring mr. reyes. the sequential development outlined by the phonetic continuum matix emphasizes the importance of helping teachers understand that some individual sounds and sound combinations are harder for children to hear than others. this approach ensures students progressively build a strong foundation, leading to improved reading and spelling across a diverse range of words in increasingly complex texts. in essence, the phonetic continuum matrix not only addresses the challenges faced by educators, as exemplified by mr. reyes; it also offers a practical solution grounded in research-based principles. by incorporating this model into early literacy instruction, educators can cultivate an effective and tailored approach, ultimately contributing to improved reading outcomes and literacy success for students. references ball, e. w., & blachman, b. a. 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(2012). segmentation and representation of consonant blends in kindergarten children’s spellings. language, speech, and hearing services in schools, 43, 292–307. https://doi.org/10.1044/0161-1461(2012/11-0005) received: july 25, 2024 | accepted: september 4, 2024 | published: november 15, 2024 https://doi.org/10.1044/jshd.5504.779 https://doi.org/10.1002/trtr.1410 https://doi.org/10.1598/rrq.33.3.5 https://doi.org/10.1598/rrq.33.3.5 http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5749/j.ctttv2st https://doi.org/10.2307/1132130 https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9280.00164 https://doi.org/10.23%e2%80%8c07/1132130 https://doi.org/10.23%e2%80%8c07/1132130 https://doi.org/%e2%80%8c10.1016/0010-0277(94)00638-2 https://doi.org/%e2%80%8c10.1016/0010-0277(94)00638-2 https://doi.org/10.2307/747799 https://doi.org/%e2%80%8c10.1037/0012-1649.30.1.73 https://doi.org/%e2%80%8c10.1037/0012-1649.30.1.73 https://doi.org/10.1177/026565909701300102 https://doi.org/10.1177/026565909701300102 https://doi.org/10.1044/0161-1461(2012/11-0005) literature review the why continuum of difficulty theoretical framework the phonetic continuum matrix the phonetic continuum matrix offers a structured and sequential approach for the selection of decodable words for use during literacy instruction, incorporating research findings from phonemic awareness development, decoding development, and various ... figure 1: phonetic continuum matrix for acrophonic letters and short vowels figure 2: phonetic continuum matrix for long vowels, vowel combinations, and complex consonants instructional recommendations final thoughts references georgia journal of literacy 2025, vol. 47(2), pp. 39–45 https://doi.org/10.56887/galiteracy.199 issn: 2833-7611 teaching tips x contact dr. luminita hartle, assistant professor, department of teacher education & social work, middle georgia state university, macon, ga; email luminita.hartle@mga.edu. beyond fire and tacos: using dragons love tacos to ignite mathematical thinking through interdisciplinary read-alouds luminita hartle middle georgia state university, macon, ga abstract on a bright tuesday morning, in a university math undergraduate course, the professor held up a beloved children’s picture book, dragons love tacos by adam rubin, and the room filled with smiles. “if you want to make math fun, put it in a taco!” shouted one teacher candidate, prompting laughter all around. while the line was humorous, it also hinted at something deeper: mathematics, when anchored in meaningful contexts, becomes more than just numbers on a page. this narrative follows a group of teacher candidates as they explore mathematics through the lens of children’s literature. using the playful yet insightful story of taco-loving dragons who cannot eat spicy salsa, the lesson evolved into a space where literacy, math, and interdisciplinary teaching came to life. keywords children’s literature; math; teacher candidates; interdisciplinary read-aloud n interdisciplinary approach intentionally integrates concepts and skills across content areas to foster deeper, more authentic learning experiences (beane, 1997; drake & burns, 2004). by selecting texts that are humorous, relatable, and rich in social-emotional subtext, such as dragons love tacos, educators can bridge literacy and mathematics in ways that connect students’ cultural and personal experiences (tomlinson & imbeau, 2010). when paired with accessible, hands-on math tasks, this approach engages learners as capable thinkers, problemsolvers, and storytellers, making both subjects more meaningful and memorable (vacca & mraz, 2017). such integration not only supports academic growth but also promotes collaboration, creativity, and the transfer of knowledge across disciplines (fogarty, 2009). an interdisciplinary framework also challenges teacher candidates to rethink the traditional boundaries of subject instruction. rather than treating mathematics and literacy as isolated domains, teacher candidates begin to recognize how each discipline can enrich and clarify the other. the process of weaving story and cultural touchpoints into mathematical tasks encourages them to design lessons that are not only academically rigorous but also personally relevant for students. this blending fosters a mindset where learning is viewed as holistic, dynamic, and responsive to real classroom communities, rather than segmented into discrete and disconnected parts. setting the stage: literacy as a gateway to mathematics this article explores how the popular children’s picture book dragons love tacos by adam rubin (2012) can serve as a springboard for interdisciplinary instruction in teacher preparation programs. anchored in culturally responsive pedagogy (ladson-billings, 1994) and grounded in studentcentered practices (tomlinson & imbeau, 2010), this approach illustrates how teachers can blend literacy and mathematics instruction in meaningful and engaging ways. through a case study of a a mailto:luminita.hartle@mga.edu 40 georgia journal of literacy 47(2) 2nd-grade integrated lesson designed in a teacher preparation program, we examined how mathematical concepts such as estimation, addition, subtraction, and data analysis emerge naturally through storytelling, an approach supported by research on narrative-based learning (bruner, 1990), and how students respond to this type of experience. drawing on reflective feedback from teacher candidates, the article offers instructional strategies and demonstrates how children’s literature can nurture both conceptual understanding and classroom community (chambers, 2011; sipe, 2008). bridging mathematics and literacy through interdisciplinary instruction enables students to form deeper, more authentic connections across content areas (beane, 1997; drake & burns, 2004), enhancing both engagement and conceptual understanding (national council of teachers of mathematics [nctm], 2014). furthermore, children’s literature offers powerful entry points for mathematical discussions that are rooted in storytelling, cultural experiences, and classroom dialogue (van de walle et al., 2019; whitin & whitin, 2004). as one teacher candidate reflected, “we had a book project in one class and used it to design a math lesson in another—that helped it all make sense.” this integration underscores the power of interdisciplinary instruction to ground abstract ideas in concrete, culturally relevant contexts (gay, 2018; hammond, 2015). such crosscourse connections highlight why the read-aloud, long valued for literacy, can also serve as an anchor for interdisciplinary and culturally responsive mathematics instruction. here. inside the read-aloud: stories that count as the story unfolded, in the college classroom, the teacher candidates were asked to think mathematically. “if one dragon eats 7 tacos and another eats 5, how many tacos did they eat in total?” the professor asked, pausing mid-story. teacher candidates reached for paper taco manipulatives and drew number sentences. math became visible and tactile. one teacher candidate noted that hands-on, tactile experiences are more memorable and impactful for students than computer-based tasks. throughout the read-aloud, teachers can also seamlessly incorporate math talk by posing simple questions such as, “what happens if a dragon eats spicy salsa?” or “if three bowls of salsa were made and one spilled, how many remain?” these prompts encourage mental math and problem-solving while grounding mathematical thinking in the context of the story’s plot. extending the discussion, teacher candidates also experimented with different ways to scaffold questions for diverse learners. for instance, some suggested using sentence frames such as “___ plus ___ equals ___” to support students still developing language skills, while others recommended encouraging students to act out the problem using taco cards or by grouping themselves into “dragon teams.” teacher candidates quickly saw that the same story prompt could be adjusted for varying levels of readiness, simple addition for early learners, multi-step problems for more advanced students, or even open-ended questions like, “how many different ways could three dragons share 12 tacos?” this flexibility illustrates the broader pedagogical significance of story-based instruction: one narrative can sustain a wide range of mathematically rich discussions, differentiated to meet diverse learner needs and coherently linked to a shared text. in doing so, it exemplifies how interdisciplinary and culturally responsive practices can ground abstract concepts in meaningful and contextually relevant experiences. after reading: bringing data to the table post–read-aloud activities extended mathematical learning by integrating graphing with real-world applications. as part of a class exercise, teacher candidates conducted a brief survey on preferred hartle 41 taco toppings such as cheese, lettuce, salsa, and beans, and recorded the results using tally marks. they then transformed this data into bar graphs and engaged in small-group discussions to interpret patterns and compare frequencies. this activity reinforced essential data analysis skills while fostering collaboration, purposeful mathematical discourse, and application of mathematics in authentic contexts, an approach that candidates noted they could readily implement in their future classrooms. a subsequent task was framed as a real-world scenario: “if you are throwing a taco party for five dragons and each dragon eats six tacos, how many tacos do you need?” teacher candidates approached the problem using a variety of strategies, including drawing visual models, skip counting, and composing equations, before sharing their reasoning with peers. one candidate reflected, “the problem felt real. it wasn’t just a worksheet—it was our story.” this type of authenticity, where mathematical reasoning emerges from familiar and engaging contexts, can transform mathematics from an abstract exercise into a meaningful, memorable learning experience for all students. tens and tacos: building number sense playfully building number sense in early elementary classrooms often begins with understanding combinations of 10, an essential foundation for addition, subtraction, and place value. inspired by the classroom read-aloud of dragons love tacos, teacher candidates extended the learning with a vibrant, taco-themed math anchor chart titled “dragons love 10” (see figure 1). in this anchor chart, the numbers 0 through 10 are arranged in an arc, representing a taco shell. yellow lines link the pairs that make 10 (e.g., 3 and 7, 4 and 6), visually reinforcing the symmetry and logic of number bonds. below the taco, each fact is written as a number sentence, bridging concrete and abstract representation. figure 1: “dragons love 10” anchor chart note. the taco-themed anchor chart provides a visual representation of all number combinations that equal ten, designed to support students’ addition fact fluency. 42 georgia journal of literacy 47(2) the activity exemplifies responsive teaching by embedding familiar, culturally relevant imagery, such as tacos, into core mathematics instruction and pairing it with joyful classroom routines. as students build fluency with number combinations, they simultaneously engage in storytelling, collaboration, and visual problem-solving, hallmarks of an engaging and studentcentered mathematics classroom. activities such as “dragons love 10” illustrate how mathematics can be joyful, conceptually rich, and rooted in a sense of community within the playful context of a taco. as one teacher candidate observed, “students will get excited to find their taco match. it can turn a basic math fact into a game—and they will remember the combinations better because of the story.” integrating mathematics and literacy: gse-aligned activities inspired by dragons love tacos to support the integration of mathematics and literacy through dragons love tacos, table 1 presents a range of classroom activities aligned with key elementary mathematics concepts and the georgia standards of excellence (gse). each activity illustrates how the book can function as a catalyst for engaging, standards-based instruction across domains such as addition, subtraction, graphing, measurement, and early multiplication. collectively, these examples demonstrate how mathematical thinking can be anchored in storytelling, transforming abstract concepts into meaningful, joyful learning experiences. table 1: example of math activities using the book “dragons love tacos” activity title description math focus ga math standard (gse) sample math problem taco tally & graph students survey classmates on taco toppings and create bar graphs data collection & graphing mgse1.md.4: organize, represent, and interpret data how many students prefer cheese? which topping is most popular? dragons love 10 use an anchor chart or taco cards to find number pairs that make 10 number bonds & addition mgse1.oa.6: add and subtract within 20 if one dragon eats 4 tacos, how many more does it need to eat 10? taco party planning plan a party for dragons with tacos and toppings multiplication & repeated addition mgse2.oa.4: use repeated addition to model equal groups if each dragon eats 5 tacos and there are 4 dragons, how many tacos are needed? salsa spill subtraction story problem about spilled salsa bowls subtraction within 20 mgse1.oa.1: represent and solve problems involving subtraction if there were 6 bowls of salsa and 2 spilled, how many are left? taco sorting categorize taco toppings or dragon types by attributes sorting, classifying, and patterns mgse2.g.1: recognize and draw shapes with given attributes sort tacos by number of ingredients. what pattern do you notice? build-a-taco word problems students create and solve taco-themed word problems addition, subtraction, multiplication mgse2.oa.1: solve word problems using drawings and equations maria made 3 tacos with beef and 2 with beans. how many tacos did she make? hartle 43 dragon delivery distance dragons deliver tacos; measure and compare distances measurement & comparison mgse2.md.1 & mgse2.md.4: measure and compare lengths dragon a flew 12 feet, and dragon b flew 15 feet. who flew farther and by how much? note. mgse2 refers to the mathematics georgia standards of excellence, grade 2. planning with purpose: creative lesson design from teacher candidates designing a math lesson that integrates literature requires teacher candidates to think beyond conventional models. one candidate shared, “i used to think math had to look a certain way— charts, numbers, timed drills. now i realize it can be a story, a conversation, even a taco party.” teacher candidates also described how integrating literacy into their math instruction made the standards more approachable. several teacher candidates embraced the interdisciplinary nature of the task as a strength. “i learned that i don’t have to choose between being creative and meeting the standards,” one reflected. “i can do both—and my students learn more when i do.” this mindset shift, viewing standards as the foundation rather than the limit, enabled teacher candidates to craft lessons that were engaging, rigorous, and joyful. as one summed it up: “creativity is not about doing whatever you want—it’s about making the learning meaningful.” as teacher candidates worked through the planning and designing of the lesson, they demonstrated creative flexibility in both format and content. these reflections illustrate a deepening understanding of culturally responsive pedagogy not as a checklist of strategies, but as a sustained mindset. children’s books like dragons love tacos serve as both mirrors and windows (tschida et al., 2014). mirrors that reflect students’ familiar cultural experiences, such as taco night, and windows that invite them to explore new ways of thinking, reasoning, and engaging with mathematics. lessons for practice: a narrative framework for integration the classroom experience revealed five guiding principles for weaving math meaningfully into story-rich learning: (1) choose literature with natural mathematical hooks, such as dragons love tacos, where numbers and comparisons emerge organically; (2) embed math talk into shared reading to prompt reasoning and verbal explanation (hammond, 2015); (3) use manipulatives like paper tacos or counters to make abstract concepts tangible (sowell, 1989); (4) connect math tasks to real-world or imaginative contexts to boost motivation and relevance (ladson-billings, 1994); and (5) engage in intentional reflection to ensure instruction remains inclusive, student-centered, and responsive to both academic and social-emotional growth (zeichner & liston, 2013). these five principles provide a flexible framework that teacher candidates can carry into their own practice. for example, when selecting literature with mathematical hooks, teacher candidates recognized the value of choosing texts students already enjoy, whether about tacos, animals, or familiar routines, to make math feel approachable from the start. embedding math talk into read-alouds was also identified as a powerful move, especially when teacher candidates practiced using open-ended prompts such as, “what do you notice? what do you wonder?” to spark multiple solution strategies rather than a single correct answer. the use of manipulatives such as taco cards or counters showed how easily abstract ideas could be transformed into playful and concrete tasks. one teacher candidate reflected that “passing out tacos” during the lesson can keep students’ hands and minds equally engaged, a reminder that movement and play are not distractions but powerful vehicles for learning. real-world and imaginative contexts, such as hosting a taco party for dragons, helped teacher candidates see how 44 georgia journal of literacy 47(2) math could connect to students’ lived experiences while still meeting curriculum standards. finally, intentional reflection emerged as a practice that made the biggest difference for teacher candidates’ growth. in this way, the five principles served not only as a framework for planning but also as a mindset for sustaining joyful, responsive, and meaningful mathematics instruction across content areas. here. conclusion: children’s literature as a catalyst for mathematical understanding the dragons love tacos, read aloud, showed how children’s literature can transform math from abstract numbers into meaningful, memorable experiences. by embedding mathematical concepts in a playful, culturally familiar narrative, teacher candidates designed lessons that were rigorous, creative, and student-centered. this approach reframed standards as a springboard for innovation, blending literacy and math to build both conceptual understanding and classroom community. in the end, tacos and dragons became more than a whimsical tale; they served as a catalyst for joyful, connected learning, advancing student literacy and mathematical understanding through purposeful and interdisciplinary integration. equally important, this lesson design demonstrated the potential for replication across multiple texts, grade levels, and contexts. teacher candidates recognized that once they learned the process, they could select a story with natural math connections, embed purposeful math talk, extend learning through hands-on tasks, and apply the same framework to other children’s literature. for example, counting crocodiles by judy sierra (1997) lends itself to lessons on number sense and repeated addition, too many tamales by gary soto (1992) can be used to explore estimation, subtraction, and culturally responsive connections around family traditions, and the doorbell rang by pat hutchins (1986) naturally introduces division and sharing concepts through a familiar context of cookies and friends. each of these texts, like dragons love tacos, provides opportunities for authentic math talk, hands-on exploration, and interdisciplinary teaching that bridges literacy and mathematics in ways students find meaningful, authentic, and memorable. story-based mathematics instruction can be strengthened through three interconnected strategies: (1) embedding purposeful questioning by pausing at key moments in the narrative to pose mathematically rich prompts that stimulate reasoning and discussion (hammond, 2015). for example, during dragons love tacos, a teacher might pause when dragons are piling up tacos and ask, “if one dragon eats seven tacos and other eats five, how many tacos do they eat together?” (2) facilitating representational modeling by encouraging the use of manipulatives, drawings, or embodied actions to connect abstract concepts with tangible representations (sowell, 1989). for example, having students distribute paper taco cards among dragon cutouts to model sharing twelve tacos among three dragons; and (3) designing authentic extensions that situate mathematics in culturally relevant and real-world contexts, such as surveys, data displays, or scenario-based problem solving (ladson-billings, 1994; gay, 2018). for instance, after the read-aloud, students might conduct a taco-topping survey and graph the class’s preferences. together, these strategies illustrate how children’s literature can transform mathematics into a dynamic, interdisciplinary, and culturally responsive learning experience. references beane, j. a. (1997). curriculum integration: designing the core of democratic education. teachers college press. hartle 45 bruner, j. (1990). acts of meaning. harvard university press. chambers, a. (2011). tell me: children, reading, and talk. thimble press. drake, s. m., & burns, r. c. (2004). meeting standards through integrated curriculum. association for supervision and curriculum development. fogarty, r. (2009). how to integrate the curricula. corwin press. gay, g. (2018). culturally responsive teaching: theory, research, and practice (3rd ed.). teachers college press. georgia department of education. (2015). georgia standards of excellence (gse) in mathematics [state standards]. gadoe. hammond, z. (2015). culturally responsive teaching and the brain: promoting authentic engagement and rigor among culturally and linguistically diverse students. corwin press. hutchins, p. (1986). the doorbell rang. greenwillow books. ladson-billings, g. (1994). the dreamkeepers: successful teachers of african american children. jossey-bass. national council of teachers of mathematics. (nctm). (2014). principles to actions: ensuring mathematical success for all. rubin, a. (2012). dragons love tacos. dial books for young readers. sierra, j. (1997). counting crocodiles. gulliver books/harcourt brace. sipe, l. r. (2008). storytime: young children’s literary understanding in the classroom. teachers college press. soto, g. (1992). too many tamales. putnam. sowell, e. j. (1989). effects of manipulative materials in mathematics instruction. journal for research in mathematics education, 20(5), 498–505. https://doi.org/10.2307/749423 tomlinson, c. a., & imbeau, m. b. (2010). leading and managing a differentiated classroom. association for supervision and curriculum development. tschida, c. m., ryan, c. l., & ticknor, a. s. (2014). building on windows and mirrors: encouraging the disruption of “single stories” through children’s literature. journal of children’s literature, 40(1), 28–39. https://scenicregional.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/ 08/building-on-windows-mirrors.pdf vacca, r. t., & mraz, m. e. (2017). content area reading: literacy and learning across the curriculum (12th ed.). pearson. van de walle, j. a., karp, k. s., & bay-williams, j. m. (2019). elementary and middle school mathematics: teaching developmentally (10th ed.). pearson. zeichner, l. m., & liston, d. p. (2013). reflective teaching: an introduction (2nd ed.). routledge. received: august 9, 2025 | accepted: september 29, 2025 | published: december 12, 2025 https://doi.org/10.2307/749423 https://scenicregional.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/building-on-windows-mirrors.pdf https://scenicregional.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/building-on-windows-mirrors.pdf setting the stage: literacy as a gateway to mathematics inside the read-aloud: stories that count after reading: bringing data to the table tens and tacos: building number sense playfully figure 1: “dragons love 10” anchor chart integrating mathematics and literacy: gse-aligned activities inspired by dragons love tacos table 1: example of math activities using the book “dragons love tacos” planning with purpose: creative lesson design from teacher candidates lessons for practice: a narrative framework for integration conclusion: children’s literature as a catalyst for mathematical understanding references georgia journal of literacy 2023, vol. 45(2), pp. 33–56 https://doi.org/10.56887/galiteracy.129 issn: 2833-7611 research article contact dr. christine craddock, assistant professor, department of teaching and leading, augusta university, augusta, ga; email ccraddock@augusta.edu. multimodal literacies in elementary teacher education: facilitating culturally relevant pedagogy with mathematics christine craddock augusta university, augusta, ga abstract this study presents qualitative action research conducted in elementary teacher education coursework. teacher candidates were introduced to multimodal literacies in mathematics by representing and communicating content through multiple modes such as signs, symbols, images, text, gestures, manipulatives, music, videos, and more. teacher candidates used multimodal literacies to implement and understand culturally relevant pedagogy in their assignments as students, in lesson plans, and in-field experience exercises during a semester course. three focal participants are outlined to highlight similarities and differences across cases through the ways teacher candidates navigated coursework with multimodal literacies and mathematics while enacting culturally relevant pedagogy. multiple assignments from each participant were collected and analyzed, culminating with a post-term semistructured interview. findings illuminate intricate interactions within teacher candidates’ multiple identities through their cultural awareness with others and in disciplinary connections. their learning and teaching development illustrates a dynamic interplay of literacy, multimodality, and mathematics with the implementation of culturally relevant pedagogy, ultimately suggesting the need for teacher educators to consider how these connections can be best facilitated. keywords multimodal literacies; disciplinary literacies; culturally relevant pedagogy; teacher education esearchers, educators, and students often differ in their perspectives toward effective mathematics instruction and elementary pedagogy. frequently, descriptions of mathematics “best practices” vary, which can leave teacher candidates (tcs) and their own possible students confused, frustrated, and ill-prepared (greenberg & walsh, 2008; lee & ginsburg, 2009). this article reports on the investigation of elementary tcs as they navigated multiple identities in an elementary mathematics methods course. participating tcs were future or current teachers undergoing the certification process, while also engaging as students of mathematics, literacy, and mathematics pedagogy. the research took place in multiple cycles and semesters of instruction for the same required course at a university in the southeastern united states. the study was designed to explore teacher education with multimodal literacies (kress, 2010) and culturally relevant pedagogy (crp; ladson-billings, 1995) for undergraduate and master of arts in teaching (mat) candidates as they participated in elementary mathematics coursework. as the tcs’ professor in the course, i sought to answer the following research question and sub-questions: ▪ how do teacher candidates utilize multimodal literacies to represent, understand, and enact crp in elementary mathematics? r https://doi.org/10.56887/galiteracy.129 mailto:ccraddock@augusta.edu 34 georgia journal of literacy 45(2) o in what ways do teacher candidates’ experiences with multimodal literacies facilitate changes over time in their understanding of crp in elementary mathematics? o what do teacher candidates’ choices when utilizing multimodal literacies reveal about their understanding of crp in elementary mathematics? in exploring these questions, i aim to contribute to the developing literature surrounding crp and mathematics instruction. interestingly, though studies have intentionally investigated tcs and crp, including some that specifically focus on mathematics teaching, very few explicitly also recognize their important intersections with literacy practices (leonard et al., 2014). in turn, the findings of this study proffer the use of multiple literacies to further understand and frame these possibilities. literature it is essential for elementary tcs to be effectively prepared in mathematics pedagogy as they develop in coursework. significant attention has been given to mathematics anxiety common in tcs and how to help them grow in confidence and self-efficacy in teacher preparation programs (isiksal et al., 2009; tassell et al., 2020). to this end, related research has supported utilizing many facets of reflection throughout elementary tcs mathematics coursework and field placements (saylor & johnson, 2014; wickstrom et al., 2018). these and other studies affirm the need to tactfully consider, value, and acknowledge the multiple identities of tcs while they learn conceptual elementary mathematics alongside elementary mathematics pedagogy (lutovac, 2020; lutovac & kaasila, 2014). further, research in elementary mathematics teacher education problematizes how teachers frequently instruct mathematics the same way they were taught (blanco et al., 2013), and how mathematics instruction generally involves decontextualized and procedural methods lacking a sociocultural lens (taylor, 2018). relatedly, studies demonstrate that students and teachers can often resist notions of incorporating or validating culture in mathematics and dismiss possibilities for relevant associations and connections of culture with mathematics content. nevertheless, disciplinary experts and proponents of crp argue that crp with mathematics topics and instruction is not only a possible consideration but a vital one (brown, 2020; dominguez et al., 2014; enyedy et al., 2011). students of multiple ages can be provided opportunities to engage with mathematics concepts in agentic, engaging, and empowering ways that promote social justice, critical thinking, and problem-solving. however, implementing this instruction within certain paradigms requires an intentional, invested, and persistent shift in perspectives on pedagogy and mathematics, thus illuminating the complexities of effectively incorporating crp into mathematics classrooms at various levels (maloney & matthews, 2020; wiggan et al., 2020). studies that consider the challenges of apprenticing tcs into crp with their students and contexts frequently involve coursework that incorporates assignments with community engagement, reflective work, and critical conversations (aguirre et al., 2012; kelly, 2020; turner & drake, 2016). moreover, they often use iterative implementations of a study design through multiple semesters where teacher educators (tes) refine their courses and investigate tcs’ experiences (leonard et al., 2014; mark & id-deen, 2020). since applying crp to mathematics instruction can be seen by tcs as difficult or improbable, researchers in these areas illustrate the continuing call to facilitate and redirect possibly resistant perspectives of tcs toward embracing craddock 35 culturally relevant innovations and options in mathematics instruction (averill et al., 2009; brown et al., 2019). accordingly, research suggests content literacy instruction and children’s literature as effective approaches for integrating crp into elementary mathematics instruction and tc preparation (hintz & smith, 2013; leonard et al., 2014; sheppard, 2011). these combined considerations demonstrate a need for investigating ways elementary mathematics instruction and teacher education can reflect and incorporate multiple literacies with crp. specifically, research recommendations often allude to or utilize what are known as multimodal literacies without explicitly identifying or explaining their role in instruction. stein (2008) describes multimodality as the combinations of different modes individuals use to represent and communicate meaning like speech, writing, image, gesture, and sound. thus, mathematics instruction is inherently multimodal (arzarello & robutti, 2010; daher, 2014; freeman et al., 2016). nonetheless, not all educators recognize the value and/or nature of multimodal literacies and how influential they may be in cultivating crp in stem subjects (hsu et al., 2013; taylor, 2018; youngjoo & jayoung, 2015). there is a significant dearth in research around multimodal literacies in higher education, specifically with teacher preparation (cardoso, 2017). consequently, teacher education must evolve in its instructional pedagogies with multimodal literacies (craddock, 2022; serafini, 2015). studying and blending views of multimodal literacies and crp in mathematics requires a framework that joins disciplinary and social literacy perspectives. while the discipline of mathematics uses specific literacies germane to its content and context, its discourse also involves sociocultural perspectives (shanahan & shanahan, 2017). in other words, mathematics discourse and literacy practices are more than isolated multimodal representations; rather, they encompass individuals’ identities and social ways of “doing” mathematics in particular contexts (gee, 2014). the multimodal register of mathematics cannot be separated from social and cultural ways it is communicated and represented. finally, while disciplinary literacy is often emphasized in secondary and higher education fields, it is increasingly recognized as a valid, relevant consideration for elementary contexts, which merits more investigation and attention in application (shanahan & shanahan, 2014). theoretical framework though crp is a widely accepted framework in the educational field, this research’s combined perspective on multimodal literacies in mathematics as being both discipline-specific and social engenders a more focused lens grounded in sociocultural literacy perspectives and the three tenets of crp including academic success, cultural competence, and critical consciousness (ladsonbillings, 1995). through previous iterations of action research that took place in my own classroom, i developed a framework with key aspects to approach instruction and research when utilizing multimodal literacies in content areas known as icare: identity engagement, critical engagement, authentic engagement, and relevant engagement (craddock, 2022). accordingly, i detail and support with salient literature individual aspects of the framework. identity engagement mccarthey and moje (2002) propose a reciprocal, influential relationship exists between identities and literacy practices, that student identity, literacy, and learning are intricately connected. additionally, gee’s (2014) previously cited theory on discourses grounds identity as a social literacy construction that draws upon multiple modes. discourses are identity kits including how 36 georgia journal of literacy 45(2) to dress, act, talk, and often write. therefore, disciplinary literacies are examples of discourses; educators must apprentice students into the practices of different disciplines to participate meaningfully. critical engagement critical literacy practices, like constructing and critiquing arguments during instruction, are evident in multiple content areas, though they vary across disciplines. individuals who engage in critical literacies can be empowered to problem-solve, challenge structures, and develop agency in learning (freire & macedo, 1987; janks, 2013). critical literacy engagement is often articulated through multimodal literacies since proving, justifying, and explaining can require multiple modes in different contents (brown et al., 2019). while critical and social connections can be seen as more difficult to make in mathematics, especially at the elementary level, i encourage educators to adopt a dynamic, innovative lens for content applications of critical literacy engagement. that while pertinent practices involved in justification and explanation differ depending on content and age, developing creative connections is not only a plausible consideration in mathematics, but by very nature, a powerful one. for example, mathematical standards can naturally facilitate critical concepts of equity, fairness, sharing, and justice when educators are inspired to imagine and cultivate these possibilities through literacy practices. authentic engagement authentic literacy practices are described as combining language, literacy, and learning to make instruction functional, accessible, and socially constructed through problem-posing and problemsolving (dominguez et al., 2014; goodman & goodman, 2011). this authenticity is also characterized by literacy experiences purposefully connected to students’ lives (behizadeh, 2015; wargo, 2020). specifically, authentic disciplinary literacies include critiquing and sharing work with students and communicating to real audiences. in elementary mathematics, these practices innately engage multiple modes like pictures, signs, symbols, videos, manipulatives, tables, graphics, and food (to name a few). relevant engagement individuals engage with content they identify as relevant to their lives, desiring connections between disciplinary literacies and typical, familiar practices (wynter-hoyte et al., 2019). burns (2008) posits relevant literacy practices often involve multimodal text rather than print-only instruction, which can be irrelevant and disengaging. consequently, multimodal literacies are one possible means of making relevant connections to the disciplinary literacies of elementary mathematics through games, art, music, crafts, tactile puzzles, emojis, comics, and storybooks. to clarify, i differentiate authentic engagement as “functional” and relevant engagement as “familiar.” thus, authentic and relevant engagement are indicated separately in the framework; though, they are not necessarily mutually exclusive and can often evoke similar applications. the elements of icare emphasize how multimodal literacy practices can cohesively facilitate student engagement that would promote the academic success, cultural competence, and critical consciousness central to crp in ways that often overlap and are not always distinct; table 1 aims to clarify potential connections in the frameworks. craddock 37 table 1: framework correspondence icare components crp domains identity engagement (validates and incorporates individuals) cultural competence critical consciousness critical/civic engagement (promotes possible critical/civic applications) cultural competence critical consciousness authentic engagement (illuminates real purposes/audiences) academic success critical consciousness relevant engagement (facilitates and relates familiar practices) academic success cultural competence i taught tcs about icare and multimodal literacies during coursework and discussed with them how i intentionally incorporated aspects of icare into our assignments. i likewise encouraged them to consider leveraging multimodal literacies in tasks and lesson plans for their own students to mirror these same goals. i follow with my approach to the study’s design through this instruction. methodology i engaged in practitioner inquiry positioning myself, as teacher-researcher, and tcs enrolled in elementary mathematics methods as central to identifying and improving the problem of practice (glesne, 2016; mccutcheon & jung, 1990). this action research design of “inquiry as stance” emphasizes researcher reflexivity, critical inquiry, and multiple sources to ensure trustworthiness (cochran-smith & lytle, 2009). design i used purposive sampling of multiple participants as qualitative case studies to gain a natural, holistic perspective of social context in practice (creswell, 2014; glesne, 2016). participants were recruited and consented to participate by my colleague at the institution in the beginning of each semester. tcs’ development and perceptions of crp in elementary mathematics pedagogy were facilitated through instruction with, and their uses of, multimodal literacies including written reflections, lesson plans, online class forums, online zoom sessions, creative writing assignments, children’s literature selections, games, tactile and virtual manipulatives, mathematics exercises and assessments, and presentations (such as powerpoints, prezis, storybooks, songs, or videos). some of the most popular digital presentation modalities i suggested to tcs included flipgrid and a site called canva which allows the user to choose from many different graphics, templates, and images to make a variety of visual displays that can include music, comics, infographics, slides, and posters. through consenting, tcs allowed their assignments to become a part of research and could opt into an opportunity for a focus group or individual interview after the semester ended. participants from the courses, 27 participants’ work samples were collected and six tcs agreed to some form of interview opportunity. because each participant illuminated different multimodal experiences and interpretations that are best understood through thorough description, this article will detail only three focal participants from the courses (pseudonyms provided). while one course was for 38 georgia journal of literacy 45(2) undergraduates and delivered face-to-face, the other was a fully online graduate course with asynchronous and synchronous components. though the majority of the assignments for the courses were the same, i will distinguish which participants took certain courses because the study reveals a relationship between course delivery on tcs’ uses and interpretations of different modalities related to the research questions. britney was an elementary education tc in her final block of coursework just before student teaching. she is a white female and a local mom who was born and raised near our university while taking full-time face-to-face coursework for her undergraduate degree. jackie was a tc in our elementary mat program completing her final semester of courses before student teaching. she also is a white, female mom who formerly had a career background in business/accounting (her undergraduate degree field). she was working part time assisting in a school near her home. kyla was employed as a teacher and concurrently enrolled in our elementary mat program to gain certification. she had a background in music and music education, teaching it at multiple levels including college music courses. interestingly, she, too, is a female mom and was working full time as a first-grade teacher of record in a school near her home. more than once in class sessions she self-identified as a pacific islander and commented on this as a notable aspect of her identity. data sources each of the three participants engaged with me after their terms in a semi-structured interview lasting approximately 30–60 minutes on zoom to discuss coursework, key takeaways, and assignments. these interviews were transcribed for accuracy. to reinforce trustworthiness and validity, i conducted member checks with participants after drafting a final manuscript. multiple assignments were collected from participants, but only 12 for each participant were included in analysis based on the assignments that had a paired match between courses. this included two formal lesson plans taught during field experience assignments accompanied by reflections. additionally, participants completed pre-assessment and post-assessment reflection papers which detailed their feelings and perceptions toward mathematics as both teachers and students. other noteworthy assignments included presentations of a culturally relevant “lesson seed” based around a children’s literature book of their choice and a reflection paper detailing disciplinary literacies observed during their field experience hours. specifically, britney also created a multimodal presentation on canva in response to a place-based multimodal literacy “field trip” we took in our face-to-face class. this trip involved visiting a local, downtown art museum along with walking to and through a sculpture memorial garden celebrating southern american and black history in our university’s city. although jackie and kyla’s class did not go on this trip because online candidates enroll in our program from various locations, they completed a corresponding online module and discussion about empirical research articles involving children’s literature, multimodal literacies, and crp in mathematics. finally, video recordings of online instructional sessions were collected to capture the complex multimodal interactions which field notes and observations could not afford, especially given i was the researcher and instructor. these videos bolstered trustworthiness with the opportunity to revisit participants’ strategies and conversations while collaborating, manners and gestures in presenting, class dynamics and structure, and interactions among tcs during discussions when multimodal literacies were utilized. craddock 39 data analysis i analyzed data through a social semiotic multimodal framework according to social context (kress, 2010). i incorporated multimodal analysis suggested by kim and kim (2016) who utilized halliday and hasan’s (1989) analysis of language according to field, tenor, and mode. field describes the topic of the language involved, tenor describes relationships between participants in the language interaction, and mode describes the role of the language in context. with field, tenor, and mode as a frame, i coded class videos and tcs assignments. through this approach, i analyzed participants’ gestures, images, videos, dialogue, and text throughout their work, class interactions, and discussions. i utilized caqdas software, nvivo, to directly code selected portions of each of the data sources including video recordings (paulus et al., 2014). codes were generated with an inductive approach using initial coding, leading to a second cycle of focused coding (saldaña, 2009). figure 1: hierarchy chart of codes to suggest emerging themes true to the heart of the study and design, i utilized nvivo’s multimodal functions for crosscase visual comparisons within participants to recognize growth, changes, and commonalities of codes between preand post-reflection assignments. i also used a similar hierarchy chart function, which takes qualitative text codes and displays them in a multimodal, mathematical model grouped by percentage, frequency, and subcategories. one example i used to ultimately indicate pervasive themes is depicted in figure 1. lastly, an analysis of language in social context through coding of field, tenor, and mode is illustrated by a specific example from one of kyla’s multimodal video presentations. figure 2 presents the coding stripes that correspond to the subsequent video slides and timestamps depicted below them. 40 georgia journal of literacy 45(2) figure 2: coding stripes of data analysis for kyla’s video presentation findings the findings can be grouped by key themes present in the data analysis. each clarifies ways in which tcs utilized multimodal literacies to make culturally relevant connections during coursework. these connections will be further clarified in sections that include intrapersonal and interpersonal connections along with interdisciplinary and intercultural connections. negotiating intrapersonal connections multimodal literacies are shown to be valuable resources for integrating student identity with learning in diverse contexts (kelly, 2012; taylor, 2018). this study confirms multimodal literacies were a vehicle to negotiate connections between tcs own mathematics learning experiences and crp in mathematics instruction. the findings illuminate a multifaceted perspective of tcs identities as both students and teachers. interestingly, even the ways they articulated their own identities as students and teachers were not singular. tcs were given options in responding to classroom exercises through multiple modes (though more frequently in the online course) which included video recordings using flipgrid, multimodal presentations, and more traditionally written discussion forums and essays. through these choices, participants utilized multimodal literacies to acknowledge multiple intrapersonal student identities and consider themselves as college students of mathematics and college students craddock 41 in an education program. they also contemplated their past student identities before college both in mathematics and more generally. jackie articulated recognition of her own learning through her intentional multimodal choices in our coursework: the way my brain works is, my initial thought is kind of like a picture... so if that picture ended up being like a circle arrow circle arrow process (while gesturing with hands on video), then i would do a canva. or if my brain went to like, oh, here’s all my thoughts, then i would write a response. but one [time] i did a video because i couldn’t get my thoughts out fast enough. i did a video that helped me say everything i was trying to say in like word vomit kind of all of my thoughts. and so that . . . was my thought process of the way i saw my response in my head. it gave me opportunities to express in different ways. jackie’s multimodal descriptions using modes of gestures, text, signs, symbols, and images involved multiple relationships, or tenor, reflecting her communication within herself and then me. these interactions are vividly represented through various fields of her mathematics responses, thoughts, and lesson planning (figure 3). figure 3: examples of jackie’s multimodal planning she would voluntarily (and excitedly) share these planning pieces alongside final products of a presentation, warm-ups, and exit tickets she turned in as evidence of her thinking and journey: and i learned about myself in kind of studying just on a personal expedition, that i notice things with a picture, and some people notice things audibly, and some people will notice things or think thoughts . . . like letters and sentences in words. but mine is pictorial. jackie expresses freedom and comfort in these opportunities for relevant expression through multimodal literacies. this ownership to engage in crp as a student through her own mathematics learning processes then became an essential component to integrate into her teacher identity and planning. 42 georgia journal of literacy 45(2) participants’ intrapersonal teacher identities also included multiple parts reflecting as: tcs, acting teachers (during field experience or if currently employed), and contemplative future teachers. kyla’s description of her uses of multimodal literacies indicates her considerations as a tc that eventually blended into her current teaching: it was really fun . . . and, we’re using them for my first-grade classroom. those standards are perfect for a classroom, and they’re visual for the kids, and it was great to see that. but the multimodal [text] where you’re using all the images, i really started to migrate towards that [when] i have a lot of thoughts i want to share. and i felt the multimodal [text] got my emotions and my feelings about it . . . and so all my visuals i created were colorful, and i don’t know—they were bubbly. so i liked that opportunity. but it was very much a choice every time for me . . . i’ve always been artsy. i’ve always loved images and to create posters. i would take an idea of an opera and create an entire program and posters and advertisements, and i loved that . . . but i never thought about doing it in the academic side, especially with math. kyla reveals her own interests in music and how multimodal literacies gave her the agency to make relevant connections in mathematics with a new lens. this self-reflection and awareness demonstrate an interaction of identity in cultivating a deeper understanding of multimodality and crp as a tc, to eventually be applied to her instruction. figure 4: consecutive slides from britney’s multimodal field trip presentation for britney, she made authentic and relevant connections to her identity through the art she enjoyed and through new knowledge of history in her local community (figure 4). she used multiple modes of aesthetic slides, geometric shapes, images, and text, through tenor that included relationships between her, her past and future self, me, and her peers (since it was posted to a discussion forum). she described our class trip, depicting a multimodal learning experience for her as a growing, lifelong student about art and local history that could also influence her as a future teacher. thus, the dynamic interplay between learning and planning with multimodal literacies was unique and necessary for tcs’ intrapersonal development, as they integrated prior mathematics experiences with new pedagogical ones, while simultaneously beginning to analyze how they craddock 43 might facilitate this process and crp for their own students. markedly, this interaction dually raises the question of tcs’ identities and their interpersonal relationships with their professor, their peers as classmates/colleagues, and their students. navigating interpersonal connections data indicate the clear role of a te in facilitating classroom and coursework experiences to demonstrate possibilities with multimodal literacies and crp in teaching elementary mathematics. for instance, both jackie and kyla noted how even though they were graduate students getting their first and second master’s degrees, respectively, they had not been given chances to explore and understand applications of multimodality until our course. notably, they had each already taken the two required conceptual elementary mathematics courses for their degrees. jackie shared in her interview: most of the time you don’t get options to be able to be creative with responses. you have to be tailored. the way i’ve always been in school is basically just reactive. i mean, you can’t be creative so much when you’re in school. at least when i was in school for my bachelor’s program, i felt, which i was in the finance/accounting world. so, most of it was just like, are you following the rules? yes, or no? because accounting is just black and white—for the most part, anyways. here jackie recognizes even in a degree and career background based in mathematics, the new opportunities i gave her to reason mathematically with multimodal literacies fostered creativity that empowered her to be proactive rather than reactive. likewise, kyla commented on how assignments i created facilitated this process for her: i think one of the reasons why it was difficult for me to do the multimodal [text] is i haven’t been given that opportunity, or even been given the opportunity to think that way . . . but i felt it actually combined . . . it helped me understand the concepts. it helped me remember everything, and it’s so effective. these revelations suggest if tcs often teach mathematics as they were taught, how they are taught mathematics pedagogy must also be modeled with similar regard in a way that honors identity and culture in authentic ways. correspondingly, jackie articulated how what i modeled through multimodal literacies and interpersonal relationships in our coursework would translate into her teaching identity and philosophy with future students: you kind of just slowly let us step up on the stairs with ‘here’s how you can kind of allow multimodal[ity] to help you in your classroom, connect with the kids, and have the kids connect with the material.’ and at the same time, you’ve got this sincere—care—for lack a better term, for how the kids feel, and how they learn and how they interact in the classroom in their learning environment. so, i can see that you care as a teacher for your kids . . . and so i built kind of my teacher person on that. and so that’s the culturally responsive part i’m talking about, is to actually care about how they’re growing as a person in who they want to be, and not necessarily who the [state math] standards want them to be. when i assigned mathematics exercises, reflections, or planning assignments, i let students know i provided multimodal options, open-ended interpretations, and flexibility as a pedagogical choice. i indicated to them my purpose in this was to supportively enable what we know in 44 georgia journal of literacy 45(2) mathematics as productive struggle—or discovery, problem-solving, and critical thinking. kyla expressed similar adaptations she was already taking from instruction into her teaching practices with her students. she allowed them the agency through exploration, options, and choice in multimodal tools they used to explore concepts based on their individual identities and interests: and so, i think you expanded my idea of what i can use, and . . . not limiting my students and what they can do. and while i’ll admit your lack of telling me exactly what you wanted, and the vagueness . . . i knew it was purposeful, and i knew it was helpful . . . and i think my students, i’m hoping by the end of this year they’ll struggle less with that. because i try to be vague with them, taking a page out of your book and letting them discover and create their own learning . . . i mean it’s first grade. so, they’re so imaginative. and i have, i call it a manipulative bar. and it’s like their candy [stores] and they just pick which manipulatives they want, and all of them love it. and they all do better than when i decide ‘okay—we’re all doing cubes. we’re all doing counters. we’re all doing bears.’ specifically, kyla recalled how through providing multimodal choices, one student was empowered to make culturally relevant connections: i had one [student] pick out books the other day as their manipulatives, and so while it wasn’t necessarily on the table, it worked. and he’s my perfectionist. he loves books, and he created how to do these addition and subtraction problems with pages. something i would never have chosen. but he would find that page, and then click back or scroll back to the page that it was supposed to be on. it was an interesting thing i hadn’t thought of, but it works for him because everything for him is in a book that he can put pages on. through this, kyla shows true attention to interpersonal relationships and her students’ academic success by creating opportunities for mathematics to relate to their culture through multimodal representations. britney articulated a comparable sentiment in her final reflection paper as she referenced a hands-on classroom experience where she made interpersonal connections with me, her peers, and her future students at the same time: as a student i struggled with math anxiety. even now, i get frustrated and feel alone if i do not understand a concept as easily as my peers. i now know that i am not the only student who feels this way. i enjoyed the sharing activities we did in class. my favorite was when we held up the emoji signs to describe how we felt about mathematics. that activity helped ease my math anxiety. it made me realize i am not the only person who feels this way. i want to include this activity and many others in my future classroom to create a positive learning environment. here britney describes a task during class discussion when tcs were given multiple die-cut emojis and asked to display their feelings in response to presented tasks, quotes, and excerpts from our math exercises and readings. she felt this type of activity did, and would, acknowledge student culture and identity through relevant literacies. using modes of text, emojis, speech, and gesture, through the tenor of professor to tc, we discussed fields of mathematics anxiety with problemsolving and created an interpersonal community where individual voices were welcome, and mathematics discussion could be an open, safe space. craddock 45 in sum, tcs often referenced and utilized instruction and examples from class lectures, assignments, and activities that served as instances when they were explicitly taught or directed how multimodal literacies were facilitating crp in their understandings of mathematics content and pedagogy. in making these connections, the tcs’ multiple identities were evolving in and through interpersonal relationships with their professor, their fellow tcs, and their considerations for students. developing interdisciplinary and intercultural connections tcs gained nuanced views for recognizing mathematics instruction, literacy instruction, and crp as integrated, blended practices that inform, engage, and support one another as if in braided strands rather than mutually exclusive contents, lessons, or considerations. they learned that through multimodal literacies, mathematics instruction could be a space for connecting disciplines and cultures without being forced. the multimodal literacies provided opportunities for authentic, relevant engagement that facilitated meaning and connections in novel ways. during face-to-face instruction, i endeavored to model interdisciplinary and intercultural connections in course sessions through multimodal formative assessments that included technology polls, manipulatives, drawings, sticky note responses, gallery walks, group stations, and a collaborative discussion strategy involving music and passing die-cut animals (to name some). we also watched multiple clips, one of which included a spoken word about cultural misconceptions. the modes of text, color, and image depict britney’s whole class response to the spoken word as they thought about how to make cultural considerations in mathematics instruction. in the word cloud, the most common word submissions are calculated mathematically and displayed multimodally as the largest and most central (figure 5). figure 5: word cloud of tcs’ reactions to spoken word video in class britney’s class also thought about how to define culture in their own words and capture commonalities between each other’s definitions to articulate ways it could be incorporated into mathematics lessons. tcs used modes of colorful puzzle pieces to collaboratively arrange and then create a larger visual text display of their takeaways for our class to compare with one another (figure 6). 46 georgia journal of literacy 45(2) figure 6: multimodal definitions of “culture” in elementary mathematics tcs also routinely discussed how these multimodal formative assessments could be adaptable to their own classrooms with mathematical concepts and problem-solving strategies. through these activities and others, i intended to demonstrate how multimodal literacies cohesively facilitate mathematics instruction as a viable space for engaging with critical and civic concepts authentically and reciprocally. we also talked about incorporating multimodal children’s books to motivate, encourage, and promote literacy along with cultural and critical conversations through mathematical concepts. a specific example i provided in coursework highlighted the concept of division that can be taught and introduced through various stories or books about sharing and equality, alongside multimodal manipulatives (especially food or something desirable) to be distributed, divided, and shared in a classroom community. this instruction could then be related to current events or local history with videos, images, or multimodal websites that bring to light questions of fairness and equity through discussion or writing. tcs then made similar interdisciplinary and intercultural connections by incorporating children’s literature into lesson plans and presentations. as previously shown in craddock 47 slides from figure 2, kyla and her partner used combined modes of images, text, audio, and shapes while considering the tenor between themselves, me, their future students, and their peers when presenting. they chose a book on jewish traditions to introduce multi-day lessons about geometry and holiday traditions, centered around values of generosity and kindness from the book: i always thought this when it came to teaching—all subjects can relate to each other. but math was the one that was harder for me to figure out, even though yes, i can say word problems. and in music, yes, obviously there is a huge connection to math. but to me multimodal[ity] expanded my ability to connect everything. and even in our last presentation, where we were taking a book that has not necessarily anything with math. we wanted to pick a book that i would just read and find different ways to add the mathematical concepts, and then have them use different modes of expressing this book and these terms, and these processes, and these standards that we’re trying to learn across different subjects. she described the reasoning behind their multimodal and cultural choices and related them to her prior learning and teaching in the the discipline of music: and i think multimodal[ity] is the key to all of them and it’s been interesting because my teaching has always focused around cultural relativism in music. i mean, how do you even get people to care about opera that listen to rap? you have to make some kind of connection, and if i had utilized a multimodal way of going back to images of ‘draw what rap feels, draw what you think of with rap, draw images, or pull images, create a rap poster,’ i think multimodal[ity] could have expanded my teaching. in this, kyla demonstrates her new recognition for the potential role multimodal literacies can play in facilitating interdisciplinary and intercultural connections. figure 7: slides from jackie’s crp “lesson seed” presentation jackie also planned a lesson centered around children’s literature. she engaged through the tenor of presenting to me and classmates using modes of images, text, audio, and symbols on shape attributes with a book from the amy wu series (figure 7). she planned on using this to begin a discussion around embracing differences in others’ lifestyles. 48 georgia journal of literacy 45(2) this discussion would then relate to an activity where students could observe housing structures across the world and create their own geometric homes. in both cases, kyla and jackie aimed to use children’s literature and multimodal literacies as a foundation for connecting mathematics with a variety of disciplines such as art, history, and geography but also encouraged intercultural connections by cultivating space in mathematics to interrogate notions of giving, sacrificing, and honoring differences. not all connections were made through children’s literature. some samples from jackie’s lesson plans demonstrate how she planned to engage students with an interdisciplinary steam inspired playground problem using a canva comic design, and multiple times she (and other tcs) utilized familiar foods or images to engage students in mathematical discourse and discovery related to teaching topics like counting by threes or understanding teen numbers (figure 8). figure 8: example from slides of jackie’s multiple field experience lesson plans these slides show consideration for the tenor of teacher to student through modes of images, text, and symbols and involve fields of mathematical concepts, problem-solving, and critical thinking. she aimed to appeal to her students’ cultures through relating intentional multimodal choices like relevant images, foods, and comics to elementary mathematics. additionally, britney made interdisciplinary and intercultural connections on our historic community walk and trip to a local art museum that she expressed through the mode of text in her presentation slide: it is important for me as an educator to teach my students material that is culturally relevant. art can be used to make connections to other subjects, such as history, science, math, and ela. the art at the museum was relevant to our community and i learned new things through the experience. the experience demonstrated to me a way that i can help my own students make real world connections. i can plan activities and field trips that will provide students with their own experiences. craddock 49 she recognizes here that validating varied student interests in content areas through multimodal literacies can help them connect their daily lives and experiences. she equally notes the value in leveraging student assets through cultural connections to their local community and that one possible way this can be accomplished is through multiple literacies. ultimately, learning about a specific community and/or culture through multimodal literacies, followed by lesson planning for direct field contexts, and subsequently teaching and applying these ideas in field experience were effective applications for this theoretical integration. after the semester when i interviewed participants, i drew a rough model—intentionally a bit bare and general (figure 9). figure 9: multimodal image drawn to represent coursework goals i used it to describe how i conceptualize multimodal literacies, “ml”, as a small vehicle carrying some of our main course takeaways back and forth between “math” and “crp”. i asked participants what they would change or add to the representation and kyla responded: i like this. i honestly, i don’t think i would add anything to it . . . i think it’s just the connection we need for everything. so, when it comes to teaching . . . i think the image is perfect. i mean you could literally put crp in the middle, and then put all of the subjects around and then draw to that. but then also draw them to each other, using the multimodal [vehicle] from math to literacy, literacy to music, to ela— any of them—social studies. that’s what i was originally thinking when you drew it. it was a venn diagram with the ml in between. you could literally make a pretty little flower. kyla’s theoretical view on these connections excited me as her professor in terms of what i hoped she might glean from coursework. though, in candor, some of the practical applications for what i consider crp throughout all tcs assignments could still best be described as developing. at times, their interdisciplinary and intercultural connections left a bit to be desired in terms of what i would term critical, civic, and authentic engagement and what ladson-billings (2014) would suggest are deeper implications of cultural competence and critical consciousness that move toward culturally sustaining practices. in light of this, i aim to pose suggestions toward this finding and others in the subsequent discussion. 50 georgia journal of literacy 45(2) discussion participants’ coursework, responses, and interactions with multimodal literacies demonstrate significant, new connections in their developing perspectives toward learning and teaching in elementary mathematics. the different connections negotiated through multimodal literacies created safe opportunities and choices for incorporating multiple identities, expressing feelings or interests, understanding various disciplines, validating others’ cultures, and simultaneously valuing personal ones. for many, these perspectives are not typically associated with elementary mathematics, as admitted by participants in their pre assessments and interviews. multimodal literacies began to shift their perceptions of mathematics from black and white, yes and no, right and wrong, or cut and dry, to position it through crp as a potential space for negotiation and connection. this connective framing included freedom, expression, ownership, agency, exploration, empowerment, and discovery. this indicates growth and change within tcs understandings of the true nature of representing and communicating mathematics through crp. despite this progress, the apparent lack of critical consciousness sometimes evident in tcs assignments is particularly noteworthy. though presentations and discussions indicated expansion of tcs cultural competence, their integration of critical literacy and discussion into their lessons was still improving. as might be expected, tcs reflected varying levels of comfort in terms of cultural awareness and facilitating critical conversations. some of the tcs takeaways became based around creative ways to promote academic success and mathematical engagement through multicultural, social, emotional, relevant literacy “supplements” or “injections” of sorts. by her own admission, kyla wrote in a final online reading response “i find i have only scratched the surface of being culturally responsive and aware in my mathematical instruction.” however, these aspects of tcs identities should be acknowledged and addressed, not forcibly altered. i see their applications as promising in terms of supporting mathematical achievement or affinity, cultural competence, and disciplinary literacies even though i do not necessarily see them as full actualization of what is possible for crp through multimodal literacies in mathematics. incorporating critical consciousness into elementary mathematics pedagogy can be complex, but i corroborate ladson-billings’ (2014) assertion it cannot be overlooked. i take this as a personal responsibility and challenge to continually interrogate, incite, and cultivate through further iterations of study. findings confirm the value in moving forward in additional research in multimodal literacies for teacher education across content areas, especially with a lens toward elementary tcs, since content literacy instruction often focuses on secondary teachers and candidates (accurso, 2020). the study affirms the call for integrating multimodal literacy instruction into teacher education programs (fang, 2014), while illuminating disciplinary literacy instruction as not limited to secondary settings. the results also point to important questions for tes and programs in terms of intersecting needs of content literacy and crp. as it can be uncommon to find faculty with expertise in both literacy and specific contents like mathematics, various institutions have attempted collaborative relationships between departments for integrating content literacy with tes, though the focus is primarily among secondary tcs, literacy education faculty, and disciplinary faculty (draper et al., 2012). this study illuminates a need for similar emphases in elementary teacher preparation. for elementary tcs, if programs separate contents and coursework such as mathematics and literacy pedagogy, while tes simultaneously uphold the value of integrating crp and interdisciplinary approaches in elementary subjects, we could be creating an unintentional conundrum. shifting this lens of distinct domains and courses in creative ways is worth craddock 51 considering. a proposition is raised, that shared needs of educating tcs on multimodal literacies and crp in content areas necessitates fresh perspectives toward collaborative faculty efforts in teacher education. further, it directs attention toward innovative possibilities in partnerships with schools, administrations, and other community stakeholders who may already be implementing interdisciplinary afterschool, enrichment, or intervention programs that focus on these combinations. in practice, these results have led me to newly collaborate with a historian from our local black history museum and my colleague, the children’s literature and advanced literacy professor. as first steps, we have been working together toward planning and taking extended, improved “field trips” together with our undergraduate tcs. conclusion the study is limited by a few factors influenced by the research design. though purposive sampling aimed to investigate diverse participants, the study was conducted in coursework at one university, limiting the sample. including tcs of varied ethnicities, backgrounds, genders, mathematical and literacy abilities, and general perspectives toward both mathematics and teaching would benefit ongoing research in this area. additionally, the study was conducted in a single type of course with me as the professor. since the study and instruction were designed and facilitated by me, this provided detailed understanding of both the instruction and research methods, accompanied by considerable rapport with my participants; however, it also is limited in how it may apply to different educators and institutions. admittedly, my lens as their white, female professor can also be restricted to inform some of these perspectives. moreover, while my unique position as someone with degrees and teaching experience in mathematics, language, and literacy afforded specific strengths to the design and applications, my knowledge and role as a professor with this combined interest and training may be hard to recreate or simulate when extending to other contexts. nonetheless, it is useful to consider both the difficulties and possibilities in how this can be further researched since similar studies may manifest differently in other contexts. i plan to continually collect data through future coursework and the newly formed cooperative partnership mentioned. i propose that with further research, applications of multimodal literacies and crp in a learning community can move beyond a specific mathematics pedagogy course to provide students with opportunities to engage in meaning-making through ways that contribute to growth in literacy, learning, and multiple identities. research continues to call for developing crp in tcs (leonard et al., 2014) and university faculty in their own praxis (ellington et al., 2021). this study confirms the value of investing into collaborative development for tes and tcs to explore interdisciplinary implementations of literacy and crp. specifically, it is pertinent for tes and tcs to understand the nature and value of multimodal literacies in content areas. tes are a vital component in considering the practical ways coursework assignments can be leveraged to effectively promote and cultivate the connections for tcs. furthermore, understanding how tcs make sense of the relationship between mathematics, multimodal literacies, and cultural relevance will ultimately help them facilitate these connections in their own classrooms. if tcs can begin to understand their own multimodal and mathematical reasoning from the past into the present, it could lead to more meaningful integration of these same literacy practices into their instructional planning and assessment decisions. in turn, this would also influence mindful choices of modes they provide for their own students to use during instruction and assessment. ultimately, more informed, thoughtful attention toward incorporating 52 georgia journal of literacy 45(2) and leveraging multimodal literacies in mathematics instruction can forge and validate relevant, 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(2015). teachers’ views of multimodal practices in k-12 classrooms: voices from teachers in the united states. tesol quarterly, 49(4), 838–847. https://doi.org/10.1002/tesq.219 received: september 1, 2023 | accepted: october 20, 2023 | published: november 13, 2023 https://doi.org/10.1002/jaal.1022 https://doi.org/10.1002/jaal.1022 https://doi.org/10.1080/09650792.2017.1286604 https://doi.org/10.1080/09650792.2017.1286604 https://doi.org/10.1177/004208‌5920937756 https://doi.org/10.1177/004208‌5920937756 https://doi.org/10.1080/13613324.2017.1382465 https://doi.org/10.1002/tesq.219 georgia journal of literacy 2024, vol. 46(1), pp. 49–63 https://doi.org/10.56887/galiteracy.135 issn: 2833-7611 practitioner article contact dr. bethany l. scullin, associate professor of literacy, department of early childhood through secondary education and reading, university of west georgia, carrollton, ga; email bscullin@westga.edu. nickie b. smith, graduate student, university of west georgia, carrollton, ga; email nbsmith24@gmail.com. holly n. proby, graduate student, university of west georgia, carrollton, ga; hollyproby@yahoo.com. teaching between the bans: exploring book banning, censorship, and book access in the middle grades bethany l. scullin department of early childhood through secondary education and reading, university of west georgia, carrollton, ga nickie b. smith graduate student, university of west georgia, carrollton, ga holly n. proby graduate student, university of west georgia, carrollton, ga abstract in this article, we invite middle-level educators to discover how literature can be a gateway to understanding and addressing book bans, censorship, and access to books. we delve into the recent rise in book challenges, particularly against diverse narratives, and trace the historical roots of censorship. highlighting ten selected texts, we show how they can be practical tools in teaching the critical importance of intellectual freedom. accompanied by discussion questions and engaging teaching ideas, these books aim to spark critical thought, embrace varied viewpoints, and motivate students to actively discuss censorship issues. this piece is a resource for educators to enrich their approach to complex topics and underscore the vital role of reading in shaping aware, inquisitive, and active citizens in today’s increasingly complex world. keywords banned books; educational censorship; book access; book challenges; middle school literacy; diverse narratives books themselves are freedom. freedom to think, to believe, to dream. lucas; words on fire (nielsen, 2019, p. 109) n the first eight months of 2023 alone, the american library association’s office for intellectual freedom recorded an unprecedented spike in attempts to censor library materials, with challenges to 1,915 unique titles (slj, 2023). this marks a worrying twenty percent increase from 2022, which sets a record for the most challenges in over two decades. most targeted were books reflecting the lives and rights of people of color and the lgbtqia+ community, echoing a historical pattern of marginalizing already underrepresented voices. as troubling as these statistics are, they are not without precedent. history is rife with censorship, from the destruction of millions of books in the national library in sarajevo during the bosnian war in 1992 (burgess, 2020) to the banning of classics by shakespeare (baldassarro, 2011). we have witnessed the burning of books by profound thinkers in nazi germany (stern, 2022) and the suppression of scientific truth by the catholic church (artigas, 2006). more i mailto:bscullin@westga.edu mailto:nbsmith24@gmail.com mailto:hollyproby@yahoo.com 50 georgia journal of literacy 46(1) recently, a georgia teacher, katie rinderle, was terminated for reading a picturebook she purchased at the school’s scholastic book fair, my shadow is purple (stuart, 2022), to her fifthgrade gifted class (sonnenberg, 2023). these acts of censorship were not simply about removing books from shelves; they were about stifling ideas, silencing dissent, and erasing cultural and intellectual diversity. the pattern is clear: society’s progress stalls when books are banned. amid a resurgence in banning books across the united states, the role of educators in fostering a culture of open inquiry and protecting intellectual freedom has never been more important. recent headlines underscore this urgency, with books on topics from diverse historical narratives to those reflecting a range of identities being removed from classroom libraries, school media centers, and public library shelves. this alarming trend erases numerous perspectives of human experience and weakens the foundation of public education within the united states, which thrives on the exchange of ideas and the freedom to explore them. historically, censorship and book banning have been instruments of oppression, stifling the voices of marginalized communities and reinforcing the barriers to access. as advocates of literacy and students’ rights, we firmly believe that every student has the inherent right to read, explore, and think critically about diverse perspectives. books about banned books . . . and censorship and book access in an educational environment that is constantly evolving and facing new challenges, teachers find themselves at a crucial intersection, balancing the responsibility to address complex issues while managing varied external pressures. the question arises: what path should we take? we propose the answer lies in turning to literature itself to provide a solid foundation. by integrating stories that reflect on book banning, censorship, and book access, educators equip students with the tools to understand and question these issues. this approach allows students to connect with the core values of freedom and access, showcasing the real-life and historical impact of these principles. in this article, we present ten books, including five picturebooks and five novels, which serve as both mirrors and windows (bishop, 1990) into the complex world of censorship, book banning, and access to books. we specifically included picturebooks within our list of recommended texts, acknowledging their growing recognition in middle-grade classrooms for engaging adolescent students. these books are visually appealing and rich in mature themes, complex content, and multi-layered meanings. with their intricate illustrations and challenging texts, picturebooks cover controversial topics and support reading comprehension skills. this combination makes picturebooks valuable educational tools for middle school students, facilitating a more profound understanding and engagement with the material (bintz & ciercierski-madara, 2022; costello & kolodziej, 2006). along with the carefully selected texts, we have included suggested discussion questions, teaching ideas, and activities with the goal of informing and inspiring students to become thoughtful, questioning, and engaged citizens. our proposed texts range from historical contexts that gave rise to censorship to examining its present-day actualities. we explore how books about banned books, censorship, and book access can be powerful tools in the classroom. in addition, we provide a collection of resources (figure 1) to aid educators in exploring perspectives of censorship, book banning, and access to books and education. by equipping our students with the ability to analyze the world around them, we are defending their right to read and empowering them to shape the future of their own intellectual freedoms. scullin et al. 51 figure 1: summaries, discussion questions, teaching ideas, and activities with texts featuring censorship, book banning, and access to books and education ashes (2010) by kathryn lasky historical fiction, novel, 320 pp., isbn 9780142411124 i’ll say whatever i want. i’m not a book. you can’t burn me! (p. 304) thirteen-year-old gaby (gabriella) lives the typical life of any thirteen-year-old girl in berlin in 1932. she goes to the theater with her best friend and enjoys her favorite pastime of reading…even during the occasional class. she comes from a loving, educated family and great friends, including albert einstein. but slowly, that all starts to change as the political climate begins to change. author kathryn lasky writes a gripping novel about a young girl living in the days when hitler began to come into power. this historical fiction novel highlights how quickly censorship can take over and what is really at stake when that happens. gaby watches how censorship affects her classmates, family, and close friends. then she watches, in horror, how censorship affects her beloved books that she has come to cherish. in ashes, the reader takes a historical journey while learning about the dangers of censorship. discussion ● considering gaby’s experience, how do changes in political power, like the rise of hitler, impact the freedom to access and enjoy literature? what can this tell us about the role of government and politics in shaping what we read? ● gaby finds solace in books during turmoil. how do you think banning or censoring books would have affected her understanding of the world and her identity? what might be the consequences for young people when their access to diverse stories and perspectives is restricted? teaching ideas & activities ● personal responses to censorship: invite students to create a visual or written response expressing their feelings about censorship, inspired by gaby’s story. they could design posters, write poems, or create short stories that reflect what losing access to books might mean for them. this activity will allow students to connect personally with the impact of book bans and censorship, encouraging them to express their viewpoints creatively and consider the value of free access to literature in their own lives. ● compare/contrast: using the graphic organizer, have students compare and contrast the effects of censorship. for example, compare gaby’s classmates’ behavior and attitudes at the beginning of the novel to their behavior and attitude at the end of the novel. how did censorship play a part in this? alternatively, compare gaby’s life at the beginning of the novel to her life at the end of the novel. again, ask how censorship plays a part in this. other choices could be gaby’s father, albert einstein, and the overall social life of berlin’s citizens. https://studylib.net/doc/8019743/compare-and-contrast-graphic-organizer 52 georgia journal of literacy 46(1) the book is banned (2023) by raj haldar fantasy, picturebook, 40 pp., isbn 9781728276564 because we banned everything and there’s no ending left to read. (p. 35) giraffes! hippos! and unicorns!?! these are some of the things that get banned in this silly and engaging book about book banning. author raj haldar uses ordinary examples to demonstrate to his young readers how banning the simplest things can lead to eliminating everything. it all starts when the hippos want to ban the giraffes because they are tall and get all the leaves off the trees. no more giraffes! but wait! what happens when someone thinks the hippos complain too much?? they get banned, too! no more giraffes and no more hippos! thus begins this tale of banning things because of differences and dislikes…until there is nothing left to read and no ending to the story.. discussion ● in this story, various items are censored, leading to a series of bans. how does this reflect the potential consequences of censorship in real-world scenarios? what might be the broader impact on society if diverse ideas and topics are routinely banned? ● considering the book’s humorous approach to banning subjects like dinosaurs and avocados, what message does it convey about the reasons behind censorship? how can this perspective help us understand the importance of having access to a variety of books and ideas? teaching ideas & activities ● create a banned book: challenge students to write and illustrate their own short story, picture book, or comic strip on a seemingly innocuous topic, then go through a mock ‘banning’ process. discuss the reasons why certain books might be banned and the impact of these decisions, encouraging students to reflect on the importance of diverse perspectives in literature. ● banned book fair: have students create displays or presentations on books that have been historically banned or challenged (in the u.s. and globally). students can research the reasons behind the ban and its cultural or historical context, then present their findings to the class. scullin et al. 53 attack of the black rectangles (2022) by amy sarig king realistic fiction, novel, 272 pp., isbn 9781338680522 the first step is finding out who did it, i say. then why they did it, denis says. then we fight it, marci says. (p. 72) his dad believes he is an alien, his mother is a hospice nurse, and his grandfather is a truth-teller, so what does that make mac? being encouraged to have integrity, sixth grader mac delaney, in a town that’s 97% white from pennsylvania, stumbles onto a book from the library. not long into his reading, mac finds out that someone is marking out words and phrases in the book he is reading. who is the culprit? did someone make a mistake in the book? when mac goes to his teacher, ms. sett, for answers, he learns that she agrees with the censorship. with the support of friends denis and marci, mac challenges the status quo and finds out they have gotten more than they bargained for. this book aligns with the politics happening in modern times. it opens the door to having those hard discussions of acceptance, friendship, growing pains, and the importance of letting people decide for themselves what is true. however, you have to know all the facts, right? discussion ● considering mac’s reaction to the blacked-out sections in the devil’s arithmetic (yolen, 1988), how does censorship in literature impact a reader’s understanding of history, susceptible topics like the holocaust? ● mac’s decision to challenge the censorship at his school raises important questions about student activism. what role should students play in addressing censorship issues in their schools or communities? teaching ideas & activities ● create a speech suppression poster: working in small groups or independently, have students design posters that illustrate the causes and effects of speech suppression. this project allows them to visually express how restricting speech can impact individuals and society while critically considering the consequences of limiting free expression. ● create a public service announcement (psa): have students use adobe spark (or similar software) to create a psa on the importance of reading and the impact of book censorship. this activity encourages students to express their views on why reading is fundamental and to explore the arguments for and against censoring books. here is a three-minute tutorial: youtube.com/watch?v=iwrx0sxtabw https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iwrx0sxtabw 54 georgia journal of literacy 46(1) the library bus (2020) by bahram rahman realistic fiction (based on true events), picturebook, 32 pp., isbn 9781772781014 there are no schools for girls in the village or the camp. they only have the library bus once a week. but i will help them the same way your grandpa helped me. (p. 30) not being aware of the privileges of learning in a classroom, pari’s mother brings the learning experience to remote mountainous areas and teaches her daughter pari the value of an education with a mobile classroom. with the library bus, children can escape what they consider the norm of war and rubble and trade it for a short while for an adventure a book will take them. based on actual events, the author gives homage to afghani women in his own family and their relentless pursuit of the freedom that literacy can give but is forbidden for the female gender. this book will provoke the thinking of middle school students learning about geography or cultures beyond their own. discussion ● reflect on the role of the library bus in providing access to books in pari’s story. how does this mobile library challenge the traditional barriers to education, especially for girls in war-torn areas? ● considering the restrictions on girls’ education in pari’s community, discuss how access to books can empower individuals and change societal norms. what impact could this kind of access have in communities where certain groups are denied educational opportunities? teaching ideas & activities ● comparative analysis: have students create venn diagrams to compare learning experiences in a library bus versus a traditional classroom setting and the educational opportunities for boys versus girls in afghanistan. this activity encourages students to analyze the different educational environments and gender disparities in access to education, enhancing their understanding of global educational challenges. ● illustrated storyboard project: encourage students to create illustrated storyboards that depict key scenes from the library bus. focus on how the library bus impacts the community and the differences in educational opportunities for boys and girls in afghanistan. scullin et al. 55 words on fire (2019) by jennifer a. nielsen historical fiction, novel, 336 pp., isbn 9781338275780 how do you destroy a people? you take away their culture. and how is that done? you must take their language, their history, their very identity. how would you do that? i pressed my lips together, then looked up at her. you ban their books. (p. 78) words on fire is a powerful historical fiction novel that resonates profoundly with themes of censorship, the importance of cultural identity, and the courage to defy oppressive regimes. set in late 1800s lithuania under russian rule, the story centers around 12-year-old audra zikaris, whose life changes dramatically when she joins the underground network of book smugglers. these brave individuals risked everything to distribute lithuanian books, which the russian empire banned to suppress the lithuanian language and culture. audra’s journey is one of resilience, bravery, and the transformative power of literature. the book not only highlights the historical impact of book banning but also celebrates the spirit of resistance and the vital role of access to literature in preserving cultural identity. this narrative offers middle school teachers a compelling resource to discuss the consequences of censorship and the enduring value of intellectual freedom with their students. discussion ● how did the actions of the book smugglers in words on fire challenge the idea of censorship? what risks did they face, and why do you think they believed those risks were worth taking? ● in what ways does banning books affect a community or culture, as shown in words on fire? discuss how the absence of particular books can shape or limit our understanding of the world. ● if you were in audra’s situation in words on fire, what would you do and why? would you risk breaking the law to preserve and share your culture’s literature? discuss the moral and ethical considerations in such a situation. teaching ideas & activities ● create a book smuggler’s diary: have students create a diary or journal entry from the perspective of a book smuggler in words on fire. encourage them to express the challenges, fears, and motivations of a smuggler. this activity will help students empathize with those who fought against censorship and understand the importance of preserving cultural literature. ● debate on book banning: organize a classroom debate on book banning. assign roles to students – some as censorship authority members and others as literary freedom defenders. this exercise will allow students to explore and articulate both sides of the issue, fostering critical thinking and understanding of the complexities surrounding censorship. ● interactive map exploration: use online resources to create an interactive map (such as google maps) showing locations where book banning has occurred historically and in modern times, including the setting of words on fire. this can be a collaborative project where students research and add information to the map, learning about the global impact of censorship and the fight for intellectual freedom. 56 georgia journal of literacy 46(1) the librarian of basra: a true story from iraq (2005) by jeanette winter narrative nonfiction, picturebook, 32 pp., isbn 9780152054458 all through the night, alia, anis, his brothers, and shopkeepers and neighbors take the books from the library shelves, pass them over the seven-foot wall, and hide them in anis’s restaurant. (p. 14) this story is an accurate account of a librarian in basra risking everything to save the books in basr’s central library. the librarian, alia muhammad baker, fears for the safety of the books in her library because there are rumors of war among her people. as those rumors become true, alia must act fast. she is not alone. her fellow citizens answer her cries for help. but will they act in time to save all 30,000 books in the city’s library? discussion ● alia and the villagers took significant risks to save their books during the war. why do you think they considered these books so valuable, and what does this tell us about the importance of preserving literature in times of conflict or censorship? ● considering alia’s effort to save the library, how does access to books and literature contribute to a community’s resilience and identity, especially in challenging times like war? teaching ideas & activities ● book rescue simulation: in this classroom activity, students act as a community deciding which books to save in a crisis. split into groups, they choose books based on criteria like historical and cultural importance, mirroring the challenging decisions in literature preservation. for added engagement, students can bring their favorite books, imagining them as the last existing copies, to deepen their understanding of the value and impact of saving books during adversity. ● writing prompt: what would a book think? pose this question to students and have them respond from the perspective of a book in alia’s library. students can focus on the book’s journey, its significance to the citizens of basra, and its feelings about being saved. this will help students empathize with the emotional value books can hold and explore the impact of losing access to literature. scullin et al. 57 banned book (2023) by jonah winter realistic fiction, picturebook, 32 pp., isbn 9781568463940 i-- have the right to -------- -- ---- --- ---- - ----, ------- --- ----- --- ---- - --- - ------- lthink --------, - ----- --------* *[this content has been removed.] (p. 18) this short but powerful 32-page picture book addresses the issues of book banning and censorship in schools head-on. it features pages with text literally blacked out, symbolizing the suppression of words deemed “not allowed” by a group called “we are right,” or war. this group, acting as self-appointed censors, influences school board meetings and advocates for removing certain books from libraries. this narrative serves as a crucial resource for middle school teachers to explore the consequences of censorship and emphasize the importance of access to literature in educational settings. discussion ● how does the literal blacking out of text in banned book represent censorship? what impact does this visual representation have on your understanding of the effects of censorship? ● why do you think the group “we are right” wants to ban certain books? discuss how their actions might affect students’ access to diverse perspectives and information. ● imagine if your favorite book was banned. how would that make you feel and why? discuss the importance of having the freedom to choose what you read. teaching ideas & activities ● create a visual censorship exhibit: have students create visual representations of censorship inspired by the blacked-out text in banned book. they can use excerpts from various books and creatively censor words to reflect the impact of censorship. this can be followed by a class discussion on how censorship changes the meaning and impact of literature. ● small group role-play debate: divide the class into small groups, each representing different stakeholders in a book-banning scenario (such as members of war, librarians, students, authors, etc.). have the different stakeholder groups present their arguments (either for or against book banning) to the class. then, students can ask questions and challenge their views. this activity can foster empathy and understanding of different viewpoints. 58 georgia journal of literacy 46(1) property of the rebel librarian (2018) by allison varnes realistic fiction, novel, 288 pp., isbn 9781524771478 don’t count yourself out just yet, june, she [ms. bradshaw] says, gathering a stack of books into her arms. you read that one book, and one book can change everything. (p. 14) june harper has never caused trouble a day in her life. she loves to read, and she loves ms. bradshaw, the librarian at her school, dogwood middle school. ms. bradshaw is super friendly and recommends great books, like the one june just finished reading, the making of a witch. but when june’s dad discovers the book, he is not pleased at all! “missing kids. witches. it’s too scary for you.” this discovery leads to many books being banned from the school library and a recourse of action by ms. bradshaw that devastates june. it is just too much for someone in middle school! however, when june discovers a little free library one day, an idea is sparked, and she takes matters into her own hands. she becomes the rebel librarian, secretly providing books for the students at dogwood middle to read. but if her secret identity is revealed, will it just make the matter worse? will she ever make her parents and principal understand the fundamental importance of reading? discussion ● in property of the rebel librarian, june’s actions challenge the book ban at her school. discuss the importance of individual actions in opposing censorship. what impact can a single person’s efforts have in situations like these? ● considering the consequences faced by the librarian and the impact on the school community, what does this story teach us about the broader effects of censorship on education and intellectual freedom? teaching ideas & activities ● reflective letter writing: as an individual or class project, students can write letters to allison varnes, the author of property of the rebel librarian. in their letters, students should discuss their interpretation of why she wrote the book and the key messages they believe she conveyed about censorship and freedom of reading. additionally, they should include their personal takeaways and how the story resonated with them. ● school-wide reading campaign: organize a school-wide reading campaign featuring books that have been challenged or censored. students can collaborate to create promotional materials and host events to discuss the themes of these books, involving teachers, parents, and other students. this can culminate in a school assembly or community event where the importance of intellectual freedom and diverse literature is highlighted, creating a broader conversation about censorship and its impact on the learning environment. scullin et al. 59 nasreen’s secret school: a true story from afghanistan (2009) by jeanette winter narrative nonfiction, picturebook, 40 pp., isbn 9781416994374 the taliban soldiers don’t want girls to learn about the world, the way nasreen’s mama and i learned when we were girls. (p. 5) for five years, the taliban took over afghanistan, leaving a lasting imprint where the way of life for women and girls had forever been changed. this is the story of one little girl, nasreen, and her grandmother, who were resilient to the changes in her world. this book is dedicated to the courageous women and girls of afghanistan. discussion ● in the story, education becomes a secret and risky endeavor. how do you think the act of banning books and restricting education can impact a community, especially its younger members? ● considering nasreen’s experience and the secret school, discuss why you think access to education and books is essential for personal growth. what might be the consequences in a society where such access is denied? teaching ideas & activities ● secret classroom activity: transform the classroom into a ‘secret school’ similar to the one in the book. have students experience a day of learning as if they were doing it in secret, discussing what it feels like to have restricted access to education. this activity can help students appreciate their right to learn and understand the challenges faced in environments where education is banned. ● comparative freewrite*: ask students to freewrite for 15 minutes, comparing their own educational experience with nasreen’s. encourage them to explore themes like freedom of education, access to books, and the impact of censorship on learning. this exercise can deepen their understanding of the value and privilege of education in different cultural and political contexts. *a freewrite is the practice of continuously writing down thoughts as they come, without pausing to edit for spelling, grammar, or structure. 60 georgia journal of literacy 46(1) snow falling in spring: coming of age in china during the cultural revolution (2010) by moying li memoir, novel, 192 pp., isbn 9780312608675 there was nothing baba treasured more than his books (p. 79) ...from baba i learned to value books. but i never truly appreciated them until one day in 1968 (p. 82) ...the soldiers dumped all our books into large hemp sacks that they pulled from the back of the truck. the paper factory will turn this trash [books] into pulp in no time, they announced. dragging the sacks through our gate, they flung them, one after another, onto the open truck. then hurling baba on top of the bulging bags, the soldiers drove away in a cloud of dust. (p. 84) this memoir offers readers a vivid look into the cultural revolution in china, a period marked by intense censorship and suppression of literature. li’s story began in beijing and went on from 1966 to 1976. through her eyes, readers experience the harrowing effects of censorship and the loss of intellectual freedom as mao’s red guards purge books, culture, and free thought. the author’s recollections provide a personal account of a critical historical moment and underscore the importance of preserving access to literature and cultural heritage. these themes resonate deeply with contemporary discussions on book banning and censorship. discussion ● how did the cultural revolution’s censorship and book ban impact moying li’s life and education? discuss the importance of having access to a variety of books and ideas during one’s formative years. ● compare the experiences described in snow falling in spring with current situations where books are banned or censored. what similarities and differences do you observe? ● moying li’s story shows the power of literature in difficult times. why do you think access to books and diverse ideas is important, especially in challenging circumstances? teaching ideas & activities ● personal memoir project: encourage students to write their own short memoirs or diary entries, reflecting on a time when they felt their voice or choices were limited. this exercise will help students connect with moying li’s experiences and understand the impact of censorship on a personal level. ● cultural revolution research and presentation: assign students to research different aspects of the cultural revolution, such as its impact on education, literature, and personal freedoms. students can then create presentations or posters to share their findings, helping them to understand the historical context of moying li’s memoir and the broader implications of censorship. the ten selected books outlined above provide a foundation for deeper exploration into censorship and literary freedom. moving to table 1, we present a range of resources for further exploration. we hope this collection, which incorporates various viewpoints on censorship, book banning, and access to literature, equips middle-level educators with essential tools for enriching classroom dialogues on these vital topics. scullin et al. 61 table 1: resources to explore perspectives of censorship, book banning, and access to literature and education title & link description possible use for teachers the history of book bans—and their changing targets—in the us. bit.ly/3tjblzm *please note that you will need to create a free account with national geographic to have free unlimited access to content. this article examines the rise in book banning in the u.s., highlighting its historical context. it covers various eras, from early religious censorship in colonial times to modern challenges against books discussing lgbtqia+ issues, race, and sexuality. the piece also discusses the evolution of censorship targets over time, including classic authors like twain and stowe, and how schools and libraries have become contemporary battlegrounds for book bans. the article emphasizes the impact of these bans on intellectual freedom and education. teachers can use this article as a resource to educate students about the historical and contemporary context of book banning in the u.s. it provides examples across different eras, illustrating how the targets of censorship have evolved. this can foster discussions on the reasons behind book bans and their impact on society. the article can be used to explore themes of intellectual freedom and how censorship challenges democratic values, encouraging critical thinking and debate in the classroom. banned books – top 3 pros and cons bit.ly/3nkxani *this article is from a nonpartisan issueinformation source (procon.org) this article highlights the increasing trends in book challenges in the u.s. it outlines arguments for banning books, including parental rights to shield children from certain content, and arguments against emphasizing the importance of diverse literature for educational and emotional development. the article also discusses the role of parents, schools, and libraries in these challenges and highlights the changing reasons for book bans over the years. teachers can use this article to provide a balanced view of the debate surrounding banned books, illustrating both sides of the argument. it can be a resource for discussion, encouraging students to critically evaluate the reasons for and against book banning. the article contains a "take action" section where students are provided with five action items ranging from learning more about book banning and censorship to encouraging students to write letters to their us representatives to voice their opinions. american library association (ala) ala.org this comprehensive website offers extensive materials on advocacy, current censorship issues, and statistical data on book challenges. these resources can help create informative, engaging lessons exploring the dynamics of intellectual freedom and censorship in contemporary society. links to resources for more information regarding advocacy & public policy, banned & challenged books, censorship by the numbers, how to report censorship (report challenges or bans of materials, resources, programs, and services), and books for all (with the new york public library). sample script about book bans for school board meetings bit.ly/46uewyt *to learn more about pen america: the freedom to write, please visit pen.org/about-us/ the article provides a sample script for addressing school board meetings about book bans, advocating against challenges to books that often target themes of race, gender, and sexuality. it emphasizes the importance of the freedom to read and argues against the imposition of one group's preferences over others. teachers can use this article to provide students with a practical example of civic engagement in the context of book bans and censorship. the sample script can be modified to express both sides of the argument. it demonstrates how individuals can effectively communicate their concerns to school boards, promoting an understanding of advocacy and the democratic process. final thoughts in this article, we delved into books that tackle themes of book banning, censorship, and limited access to literature and education. by bringing these stories into middle-level classrooms, educators can help students understand and question these complex issues. as the character lucas stated in words on fire (2019), “books themselves are freedom. freedom to think, to believe, to dream” (nielsen, 2019, p. 109). this quote underscores the importance of our collection of https://bit.ly/3tjblzm https://bit.ly/3nkxani https://www.procon.org/ https://www.ala.org/ https://www.ala.org/advocacy/advocacy-public-policy https://www.ala.org/advocacy/bbooks https://www.ala.org/advocacy/bbooks https://www.ala.org/advocacy/bbooks/by-the-numbers https://www.ala.org/tools/challengesupport/report https://www.ala.org/tools/challengesupport/report https://www.ala.org/advocacy/books-all-protect-freedom-read-your-community https://bit.ly/46uewyt https://pen.org/about-us/ 62 georgia journal of literacy 46(1) suggested texts and the provided teaching ideas, which open up opportunities for critical discussion, giving students insights into the consequences of limiting access to diverse voices. looking ahead, our role as educators in promoting free and open access to literature is essential. exploring these books is more than just an academic exercise; it is a commitment to freedom and access. it is our responsibility to guide students in appreciating a variety of perspectives, fostering a generation of u.s. citizens who value the freedom to read and learn. we must keep advocating for the open exploration of literature, setting the stage for a future where every book is available, and every viewpoint is accessible. references american library association. (2024, february 8). https://www.ala.org/ artigas, m. (2006). what we should know about galileo. scripta theologica, 32, 877–896. https://en.unav.edu/web/ciencia-razon-y-fe/lo-que-deberiamos-saber-sobre-galileo baldassarro, w. r. (2011, december 12). banned books awareness: william shakespeare. banned books awareness and reading knowledge. https://bbark.deepforestproductions.com/ column/2011/12/12/banned-books-awareness-william-shakespeare/ bintz, w., & ciercierski-madara, l. m. (2022). middle grades readings: where are the picturebooks? middle school journal, 53(3), 22–30. https://doi.org/10.1080/00940771. 2022.2047566 bishop, r. s. (1990). mirrors, windows, and sliding glass doors. perspectives: choosing and using books for the classroom, 6(3), ix–xi. blakemore, e. (2023, april 24). the history of book bans—and their changing targets—in the u.s. national geographic. https://www.nationalgeographic.com/culture/article/history-ofbook-bans-in-the-united-states burgess, a. (2020, february 21). andrás riedlmayer catalogued years of cultural heritage destruction by serbian nationalists in the balkans, testified before the u.n. the harvard gazette. https://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/2020/02/harvard-librarian-puts-this-warcrime-on-the-map/ costello, b., & kolodziej, n. j. (2006). a middle school teacher’s guide for selecting picture books. middle school journal, 38(1), 27–33. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ej7528 77.pdf pen america. (2023, september 25). sample script about book bans for school board meetings. https://pen.org/script-book-bans-school-board/ procon.org. (2024, january 29). banned books – top 3 pros and cons. https://www.procon.org/ headlines/banned-books-top-3-pros-and-cons/ school library journal. (2023, september 20). ala releases preliminary 2023 book ban data. https://www.slj.com/story/censorship/ala-releases-preliminary-2023-book-ban-data sonnenberg, r. (2023, june 22). georgia teacher fired for reading children’s book about acceptance in class. southern poverty law center. https://www.splcenter.org/news/ 2023/06/22/georgia-teacher-fired-reading-childrens-book-about-acceptance-class https://www.ala.org/ https://en.unav.edu/web/ciencia-razon-y-fe/lo-que-deberiamos-saber-sobre-galileo https://bbark.deepforestproductions.com/column/2011/12/12/banned-books-awareness-william-shakespeare/ https://bbark.deepforestproductions.com/column/2011/12/12/banned-books-awareness-william-shakespeare/ https://bbark.deepforestproductions.com/column/2011/12/12/banned-books-awareness-william-shakespeare/ https://doi.org/10.1080/00940771.%e2%80%8c2022.2047566 https://doi.org/10.1080/00940771.%e2%80%8c2022.2047566 https://www.nationalgeographic.com/culture/article/history-of-book-bans-in-the-united-states https://www.nationalgeographic.com/culture/article/history-of-book-bans-in-the-united-states https://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/2020/02/harvard-librarian-puts-this-war-crime-on-the-map/ https://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/2020/02/harvard-librarian-puts-this-war-crime-on-the-map/ https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ej752877.pdf https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ej752877.pdf https://pen.org/script-book-bans-school-board/ https://www.procon.org/%e2%80%8cheadlines/banned-books-top-3-pros-and-cons/ https://www.procon.org/%e2%80%8cheadlines/banned-books-top-3-pros-and-cons/ https://www.slj.com/story/censorship/ala-releases-preliminary-2023-book-ban-data https://www.splcenter.org/news/%e2%80%8c2023/06/22/georgia-teacher-fired-reading-childrens-book-about-acceptance-class https://www.splcenter.org/news/%e2%80%8c2023/06/22/georgia-teacher-fired-reading-childrens-book-about-acceptance-class scullin et al. 63 stern, g. (2022). the burning of the books in nazi germany, 1933: the american response. the museum of tolerance at the simon wiesenthal center. https://www.museumoftolerance .com/education/archives-and-reference-library/online-resources/simon-wiesenthal-centerannual-volume-2/annual-2-chapter-5.html literature cited haldar, r. (2023). this book is banned. sourcebooks explore. king, a. s. (2022). attack of the black rectangles. scholastic. lasky, k. (2010). ashes. puffin books. li, m. (2010). snow falling in spring: coming of age in china during the cultural revolution. square fish. nielsen, j. a. (2019). words on fire. scholastic. rahman, b., & grimard, g. (2023). the library bus. pajama books. stuart, s. (2022). my shadow is purple. larrikin house. varnes, a. (2018). property of the rebel librarian. random house children’s books. winter, j. (2005). the librarian of basra: a true story from iraq. clarion books. winter, j. (2013). nasreen’s secret school: a true story from afghanistan. zaner-bloser. winter, j. (2023). banned book. creative editions. yolen, j. (1988). the devil’s arithmetic. viking. received: december 20, 2023 | accepted: february 8, 2024 | published: may 15, 2024 https://www.museumoftolerance.com/education/archives-and-reference-library/online-resources/simon-wiesenthal-center-annual-volume-2/annual-2-chapter-5.html https://www.museumoftolerance.com/education/archives-and-reference-library/online-resources/simon-wiesenthal-center-annual-volume-2/annual-2-chapter-5.html https://www.museumoftolerance.com/education/archives-and-reference-library/online-resources/simon-wiesenthal-center-annual-volume-2/annual-2-chapter-5.html books about banned books . . . and censorship and book access figure 1: summaries, discussion questions, teaching ideas, and activities with texts featuring censorship, book banning, and access to books and education table 1: resources to explore perspectives of censorship, book banning, and access to literature and education final thoughts references literature cited georgia journal of literacy 2025, vol. 47(1), pp. 46–65 https://doi.org/10.56887/galiteracy.188 issn: 2833-7611 research article contact dr. matthew j. sroka, assistant professor of literacy, tift college of education, mercer university, macon, ga; email sroka_mj@mercer.edu. teachers as readers: examining the personal reading lives of english educators matthew j. sroka mercer university, macon, ga abstract this study explores the personal reading lives of four english teachers, providing insight into how teachers engage with texts both inside and outside of the classroom. using participant-generated artifacts, reading journals, teaching artifacts, interviews, group meetings, and virtual discussion boards, the study uncovers the diverse reading habits, practices, and motivations of these english teachers. findings reveal that teachers’ reading choices are influenced by personal experiences, professional demands, and continually evolve over time. the study suggests that when teachers reflect on their reading histories and experiences, they gain deeper insight into how they view their students as readers, helping them foster meaningful student engagement with books and potentially inspiring more authentic and positive classroom reading experiences. keywords reading; reading motivation; teachers as readers; english language arts; adolescent literacy everal years ago, a fellow english teacher poked his head in my classroom and said, “hey, i saw you’re interested in reading murakami.” i nodded, realizing he must have noticed the recent additions to my “want to read” list on goodreads. when i asked if he had read any of murakami’s work, our conversation unfolded into a lively 15-minute discussion about murakami’s distinctive style and our experiences reading japanese literature. by the time he walked away, i felt intellectually energized, eager to read the latest murakami novel, and already looking forward to our next literary exchange. it was a small moment—just a casual hallway chat—but one that left a lasting impression. one might assume that in a profession built around reading, discussions about books would be a natural part of daily life; yet my 14 years as an english teacher suggest otherwise. even in spaces lined with literature posters and classroom libraries, conversations about personal reading lives don’t always happen organically. this experience led me to wonder: what does research tell us about the reading habits of teachers? how much do english teachers read? what do they read? how often do they share what they’ve read? and why does a strong reading life even matter? at a time when the value of reading—and the role of books in schools—is increasingly debated (ingraham, 2018; voice of america, 2024), these questions, understanding how teachers engage with books in their personal lives, feel more urgent than ever. literature review research suggests that teachers’ personal reading lives shape how they introduce, discuss, and value books in the classroom (daisey, 2010; hall et al., 2010; mccarthey & moje, 2002). this research appears even more meaningful given that, as students move into adolescence, their s mailto:sroka_mj@mercer.edu sroka 47 disengagement with books becomes more pronounced (webber et al., 2024; wilkinson et al., 2020). when thinking about how to engage students with books, english teachers could start by reflecting on what motivates them to read. another factor in considering the reading life of an english teacher is the ever-evolving and subjective nature of the english curriculum. this raises broader questions about the types of texts and lessons teachers should create based on their views and assumptions about the goals of reading in their classroom. luke (2004) suggests that the very notion of “what counts as english has become somewhat unclear” (p. 88). luke also questions, “how we might reinvent (english) in relation to an understanding of its own social and cultural complexities and dynamics” (p. 87). a teacher’s reading habits and history influence their perception of what english should look like in their classroom. it shapes what counts as a text and what texts students should or should not be reading. in a climate where teachers are teaching fewer longer works (voice of america, 2024), what role do books play in the english classroom? how do teachers think about the canon? what is the place for young adult literature in the classroom? what are realistic expectations for students as readers? how do teachers balance positive experiences with texts while also preparing students for standardized assessments? these are just a few of the seemingly endless questions that an examination of a teacher’s reading life may help address. insights into these questions may also influence pedagogical decision-making around texts within a teacher’s classroom. there exists a wealth of research around the best practices for teaching texts and guiding students to become better readers (beach et al., 2016; jago, 2019; kittle, 2024; styslinger, 2017). still, it is unclear if teachers themselves follow the recommended best practices in their teaching practices and in their own reading lives. research suggests that teachers who are avid readers are more likely to utilize best practices in their literacy instruction and, in turn, are more likely to motivate their students to read (applegate & applegate, 2004; mckool & gespass, 2009; merga, 2016). recent quantitative research by griffin and mindrila (2024) identified distinct profiles of teacher reading motivation among over 1,000 u.s. educators, revealing that while many teachers demonstrate high intrinsic motivation to read, others report lower engagement due to diminished reading self-efficacy or undervaluing the importance of reading. these findings underscore the need to examine not only what teachers read, but why they read, and how these motivational patterns may influence classroom practice. this article seeks to investigate the following question: what are the reading practices of in-service secondary english teachers, and how do these practices influence how they approach texts and reading in the classroom? theoretical framework this research is situated within a sociocultural perspective of literacy, drawing on street’s (2003) assertion that literacy is “always embedded in social practices” (p. 78). reading texts is one form of social practice, and the ways one reads and interprets texts are shaped by larger cultural contexts that influence one’s understanding. reading is an event occurring in a specific time and place, involving a transaction between reader and text (rosenblatt, 1994). this transactional theory of reading highlights the reciprocal relationship between the reader and the text, situated within the historical and cultural contexts of both. as a result, the contexts of both texts and readers evolve over time, influencing the meaningmaking process in this transaction. 48 georgia journal of literacy 47(1) together, street’s (2003) sociocultural perspective and rosenblatt’s (1994) transactional theory support viewing reading as a social act, shaped not only by texts and contexts but also by the social roles and lived experiences of the reader. specifically, looking at the literacy lives of teachers, gomez (2009) explores how they engage with texts through the lens of their relationships, professional identities, and lived experiences. these factors influence not only what is read in their personal and professional lives but also how meaning is made, reinforcing the idea that reading is an evolving practice shaped by readers, texts, and the contexts in which they are situated. methods this article is part of a larger participatory action research (par) study. while researchers have defined and taken up action research in a variety of ways, most agree that this type of research involves “inquiry that is done by or with insiders to an organization or community” (herr & anderson, 2015, p. 3). par assumes that research questions do not have simple, easily answerable responses to the research question and require a problem that takes long-term and persistent effort to explore (lawson et al., 2015). par also acknowledges the idea of shared expertise, recognizing that knowledge is not solely produced by the researcher but is co-constructed with participants. using a par design allowed these in-service teachers, over the course of four months, to explore their reading histories and practices, reflect on these experiences in a group setting, and consider how these insights might influence their own and their students’ relationships with reading. participants for par to be effective, participants must be genuinely invested in the topic and the knowledge being generated, as lawson et al. (2015) emphasize that it relies on “‘local stakeholders’ genuine participation in knowledge generation intertwined with real-world problem solving” (p. 15). using purposive sampling (salkind, 2012), this study recruited in-service english teachers from a previous pilot project who, as “local stakeholders,” were interested in exploring the role of reading in their lives and classrooms. the “real-world problem” is the growing disengagement with books among adolescents (webber et al., 2024; wilkinson et al., 2020). english teachers participated by reflecting on their own reading lives, with the belief that fostering an appreciation of reading in students may first require understanding what motivates them as readers. this article focuses on four of those participants: robert (all names are pseudonyms), a male high school english teacher in illinois; george, a male high school english teacher in maryland; cheryl, a female educator who, at the time of this study, had transitioned to a literacy coach position in maryland after teaching high school english for over 20 years; and james, a male middle school language arts teacher in colorado. data collection data for this article consists of participant-created reading identity artifacts. reading identity artifacts serve as a creative method for encouraging teachers to share insights into their reading lives. the creation of such artifacts can be useful when attempting to express something as abstract as a reading identity (butler-kisber & poldma, 2010; sroka et al., 2022). participants also submitted teaching artifacts related to reading (course syllabi, lesson plans, worksheets). throughout the study, participants contributed to an asynchronous discussion board on slack. in addition to these reading identity artifacts. teaching artifacts, and discussion board, seven 90sroka 49 minute biweekly group meetings were conducted over the course of 4 months focusing on different aspects of reading and teaching lives. two semi-structured individual interviews were conducted with each participant, one midway through the four-month period and one at the end, to follow up on topics discussed in the group meetings and to explore the submitted artifacts. participants also kept reading journals. defining what counts as reading for their reading journals, and in general, proved increasingly difficult as the study progressed. most participants preferred an inclusive approach, with one stating, “let’s include it all,” an openness that echoed eaglestone and field’s (2015) view of reading literature as “not something that can be defined but as something that overflows or escapes from any attempt to limit it or put it into a box” (p. 54). however, through data analysis, it became clear that participants had varying and sometimes inconsistent notions of what constitutes reading. for instance, podcasts, ranging from storycentered to news-centered content, were discussed as an acceptable form of reading. however, only one participant included podcasts in their reading journal data. these responses revealed a dissonance between what participants said and did, pointing again to reading being a social act, where even what counts as reading is constantly being shaped by readers, texts, and contexts. (gomez, 2009; rosenblatt, 1994, street, 2003). data analysis all data were collected and uploaded to nvivo software for organization and coding. for coding, saldaña’s (2016) first and second cycle coding were utilized. in the first cycle, in vivo coding was applied to capture participants’ precise language and “honor the participant’s voice” (p. 106). given the par design, it was essential to capture their language when discussing their reading beliefs and experiences. trustworthiness was established throughout the study by fostering positive rapport and creating an open environment that encouraged authentic sharing during collaborative meetings (herr & anderson, 2015). to enhance internal validity, multiple data sources were incorporated, and member checking was done during individual interviews, where participants reviewed transcripts and analyses. these strategies strengthened the credibility of both the data and findings (brinkmann & kvale, 2015). findings the findings profile the reading lives of four english teachers, exploring their reading habits, beliefs, and the evolving nature of their literary experiences. a common thread among these educators is their belief that reading is inherently social, whether through reading alongside others, recommending texts, or engaging in discussions about books. central to their reading practices is the importance of choice; each teacher selects texts based on their immediate needs, curiosities, and desires, whether for knowledge, escape, personal growth, or connection with self and others. these profiles also underscore the importance of reflecting on one’s reading life, highlighting how such reflection can inform both personal reading choices and professional practices in the classroom. robert i always kind of chose things to read that i was interested in, but also that others were interested in. 50 georgia journal of literacy 47(1) i first connected with robert, a white male in his early 30s, after he responded to a recruitment letter that i posted on the ncte message board. with a decade of experience, robert teaches high school english in chicago. previously a middle school teacher, at the time of this study, robert was working in an urban school serving a predominantly latinx student population. robert’s reading identity artifact (figure 1) visually depicts the interconnectedness between his reading life and his relationships. in this representation, various social circles are surrounded by different types of texts, providing insight into robert’s personal and professional connections. for example, the circle labeled “students” includes texts he teaches, such as romeo and juliet and a song for gwendolyn brooks, alongside those he reads with his students, like ironheart. some texts, such as the wizard of oz, appear in multiple circles, spanning different relationships. the “wife” circle features the greatest variety of texts, ranging from children’s books like will giraffe laugh? to travel books such as 111 places in lisbon that you shouldn’t miss, to classic novels like breakfast at tiffany’s, and biographies such as grant. figure 1: robert’s reading identity artifact caption a central theme in robert’s reading life is the connection between reading and social interaction, which shapes both his personal and professional reading habits. in our first meeting, he explained his reading choices: “i always kind of chose things to read that i was interested in, but also that others were interested in. so, it was like a conversation piece.” for robert, reading is not just an individual act–it’s a way to foster dialogue, whether with colleagues, students, or his wife. as a teacher, robert encourages his students to engage with texts through conversation. he believes that “if you’re reading something that is good, it can start a conversation, or it should be an entry point to have a conversation about something.” robert’s approach to reading reflects his belief that texts should serve as a catalyst for thoughtful interaction, with his personal choices often guided by a desire to discuss what he’s reading with others. sroka 51 robert’s reading journal further demonstrates his eagerness to engage with and discuss his reading. spanning 35 pages, his journal, significantly longer than those of any other participant, captures not only the books he was reading but also the personal connections he was making with them, as can be seen in the following journal entry (see figure 2). robert, dialoguing with the text, writes about his personal experiences and preferences for learning about education history. he also brings in his professional identity, discussing how the texts apply to his teaching and the power of storytelling. overall, this entry demonstrates a reader who is constantly in dialogue with what he is reading through his background knowledge, past experiences, and professional identity. figure 2: robert’s journal entry april 28th, 2020 tuesday, april 28, 2020 should we burn babar? essays on children’s literature and the power of stories by herbert kohl essay: the good old days. i was there. where was they? a fictional history of public education in the united states i took two courses on education history for my ba and ma, both of which, education and history, are subjects i love. somehow, both classes were some of the lamest courses i’ve ever taken. kohl’s reimagining of the history of our educational system, using generations of a fictional family in a small town, brought the decisions to life and could form the basis for an entire education history course. all that would be needed would be footnotes of articles that relate that could then be read. again, i think this really illustrates the power of storytelling and reinvigorates me to place even more emphasis on this in my classes and find ways to make this come alive even though e-learning. i’ll admit that some of kohl’s work reads dated and has some contradictions. still, i feel an odd sense that kohl is a “kindred spirit,” and i wish i had read his work earlier in my career. i, too, believe that teaching criticism, the earlier the better, makes for richer, more authentic discussion. i, too, believe that literacy is a social endeavor grounded in storytelling, which is what makes us human. i, too, believe in the messiness of history and literature in the movement toward a more progressive education. i know babar brought me to this book (i’m a fan of babar, regardless of the problematic plot and characterization), but i left feeling somewhat vindicated in much of my educational philosophy, for better or for worse. robert’s reading life is also deeply intertwined with his local context, as he actively seeks out texts that reflect chicago’s literary and cultural landscape. his involvement in the young authors book project (see figure 3) demonstrated a deliberate effort to explore works by chicago authors, both to deepen his own understanding of the city and to better connect with his students. in his journal, he noted how this experience led him to “consciously start seeking out texts that were written by authors with a chicago or illinois aesthetic” to fill gaps in his knowledge. figure 3: robert’s journal entry april 3rd, 2020 tuesday, april 3, 2020 algren: a life by wisniewski chapters 1–2 beginning last year, i started to take an increased interest in chicago authors, specifically in response to the young authors book project, with which i had the opportunity to work with my freshmen students in collaboration with 826chi, and for which they returned again this year for my creative writing elective. the writers-in-residence there are really fantastic, and through the writing prompts they shared with students and my conversation with them, i became reinvigorated to “rediscover” chicago and tap into that sense of shared experience and community. this isn’t to say that i didn’t read chicago authors before, of course, but i started to consciously start seeking out texts that were written by authors with a chicago or illinois aesthetic and really with an eye toward plugging the gaps in my own understanding of what that aesthetic is. 52 georgia journal of literacy 47(1) robert also prioritizes understanding his students’ backgrounds and tailoring his text selections to reflect their experiences. he described using bishop’s (1990) “windows and mirrors” framework to select readings that resonate with his students’ lived realities. for example, when teaching near chinatown, he incorporated texts about chinese american experiences, while his current work with a predominantly latinx population has shifted his focus to stories reflecting their culture. additionally, robert often draws inspiration from his students’ interests to foster engagement. reflecting on one class, he shared, “one of my classes was really, really into ghost stories. so, we ended up using a lot of different ghost stories as models.” his personal reading choices and knowledge of books frequently inform his teaching, helping him identify texts that would connect with his students. robert’s reading life demonstrates a balance between his desire to learn, his professional goals, and his personal enjoyment. he explores his community’s past and present through texts such as algren: a life and seeks to improve his teaching by engaging with academic works such as “education builds character” and should we burn babar? essays on children’s literature and the power of stories. to prepare for parenthood, he turns to parenting books such as bringing up bébé and dad to dad: parenting like a pro. while much of his recent reading has focused on professional growth, with texts such as reaching and teaching children who hurt and teach like a champion, robert also carves out time for personal enjoyment with a graphic novel titled darwin: an exceptional voyage, which he describes in his reading journal as “nice to pick something up that was just for me.” through meetings, reading journals, and participant-generated artifacts, robert maintains an active and diverse reading life centered on social connections. he not only acquires recommended readings from others but also seeks out conversations about the texts. his reading choices reflect his commitment to continuous learning and professional growth, while leaving room for personal enjoyment. george there was almost a guilt associated with reading. i felt like if i wasn’t reading to enhance my teaching, then i was wasting time. a hand-drawn pen and ink sketch (figure 4) portraying stacks of large nameless books with children perched atop illustrates how george identified himself as a reader. the viewer’s eyes are drawn to the right of the picture, where the largest child sits, not reading, but simply looking. george views this giant child as himself, sitting on a stack of books, gazing down through his telescopes at his reading peers. to george’s left, in the foreground, sits a boy with his chin resting on his hands, appearing to listen to a story, possibly being read by the boy next to him. this boy of a darker complexion sits cross-legged as he reads a book, while in the background, another boy appears to be in mid-climb, ascending a stack of books. sroka 53 figure 4: george’s reading identity artifact in explaining his reading identity artifact, george shared how his motivation as a young reader often stemmed from a desire to outperform his peers. he recalled, “my goal was just to compete with every other kid and read the most complex, ridiculous, fancy english stuff. i was reading shakespeare in elementary school, lots of dickens. not because dickens is good, but because dickens is dickens.” george read to demonstrate sophistication, choosing texts well above his grade level. though less competitive now, george’s motivation remains goal-oriented and focused on personal growth. when i first met george, a 12-year veteran high school teacher in his mid-30s, he was transitioning from a district with a prescribed curriculum to one where he had more autonomy. george shared that, as a new teacher, he felt “almost a guilt associated with reading... if i wasn’t reading to enhance my teaching, i was wasting time.” for much of his career, george’s reading life, like that of many english teachers, centered on the texts he taught, with any personal reading often considered “wasting time.” george described a life-changing event that reignited his love for personal reading: “last summer i got appendicitis, and sitting up for long periods was exhausting. i just wanted to lie in bed and started reading again. i remembered how much i loved it.” he began reading anything that caught his interest. “i got into conan the barbarian, of all things, and loved it.” he began to distinguish between his past reading of “shakespeare” and his new interest in “absolutely not shakespeare,” signaling a shift in his view of what has value and a place in his own reading life. this shift allowed him to rediscover the joy and value of exploring diverse texts. in describing this shift, george said: i started exploring other things, and there’s a lot of cool stuff out there. part of the fun for me now is discovery—finding new genres. it’s no longer something i feel like i’m doing to enrich myself intentionally. maybe it is, but the intention isn’t to improve as a reader or a person; it’s just to occupy my time. this perspective has 54 georgia journal of literacy 47(1) made it easier to enjoy things i would’ve thought were beneath me earlier. and that’s been fun. george’s reading habits underwent a transformation, leading to a shift in both his attitude and purpose. he began to read more freely, without needing a professional justification. george’s reading journal reflects this newfound freedom in his reading life, with entries that include high-interest, contemporary texts such as the inheritance trilogy by n. k. jemisin, lost stars (set in the star wars universe), and the silent patient. on our slack message board, he shared his excitement about a short story by carly holmes: “‘sleep’: wow. i want everyone to read this story . . . it’s a great metaphor for parenthood, especially for motherhood.” this experience reignited his interest in the short story genre, inspiring him to seek out more collections and anthologies. during his final interview, george reflected on how examining his own reading life shaped his understanding of his students as readers and has encouraged him to share books with others. thinking about when he was an adolescent, he considered, “why do i seek out the books that i seek out?” and how this awareness could inform his approach to supporting students’ reading choices. he acknowledged that while he isn’t always successful, he strives to connect students with books that align with their interests, explaining, “when i have a kid who knows what they like to read, i’ll pull a book off my shelf and say, ‘i think you’d like this one.’ and they usually return them, loving it.” through this reflection, george expresses his commitment to fostering meaningful reading experiences for his students, using his own personal history with books as a guide. george’s reading life, like robert’s, reflects a reader who seeks to engage with a variety of texts and share those texts with others. the evolution of his reading life occurred both gradually, as george became more comfortable in his profession, and suddenly, such as when he was forced to remain still while recovering from appendicitis. his journey evolves from reading for competition to seeing reading as a luxury he couldn’t afford amidst professional responsibilities, and finally to reading for discovery and finding a new appreciation for a strong personal reading life. cheryl when i read something, i kind of live through it. i don’t remember as much, and that’s why i’m a good teacher—i understand when kids say, ‘i can tell you this or that, but not the name.’ three months after our final interview, cheryl sent me an email with a link to the article “does johnny’s reading teacher love to read?” (mckool & vespas, 2009), writing, “thought of you when i found this. hope you are surviving . . .” i smiled, knowing it was quintessentially cheryl, continuing to reflect on the study and thinking of ways to connect her reading life to help others. i first met cheryl in 2015 when we were both teaching english in the same county, though at different schools. with over 20 years of experience, she seemed like a seasoned veteran compared to my seventh year of teaching. in 2018, i changed schools and moved to a new county, but when i began this research, i reached out to cheryl, who had transitioned from her position as an english teacher to her new role as a county-based literacy coach. she eagerly agreed to participate in the study. cheryl’s reading identity artifact (figure 5) features a timeline with four rows representing key periods in her life, each tied to significant texts. the first row spans the years from 1961 to the sroka 55 present, illustrating how reading has remained an ongoing part of her life. the second row connects major life events and places with her reading choices. the third row lists key readings, often categorized by genre. the final row displays book covers representing each phase. this timeline reflects how different personal and professional moments shaped her reading, from preparing to write a new curriculum for her new job to the birth of her daughter, which prompted her to read more children’s books. throughout, reading has been woven into the fabric of cheryl’s life. figure 5: cheryl’s reading identity artifact reading was not only woven into the fabric of cheryl’s personal life, but it was also central to how she supported others. as a veteran teacher, texts became a tool for cheryl to support her colleagues and other community members. her desire to help is evident in the teaching artifacts she submitted, including a summer reading list for students (figure 6) and a curated collection of books, articles, websites, podcasts, and videos to help parents engage in race-related conversations with their children (figure 7). in this current stage of her life, reading has become a thread she uses to connect with and support those around her. 56 georgia journal of literacy 47(1) figure 6: cheryl’s recommended summer reading list figure 7: cheryl’s recommended reading list for parents cheryl compared her reading habits to a “squirrel,” describing her reading life as “all over the place.” like a squirrel catching food across multiple spaces, her reading was scattered yet purposeful, guided by curiosity, professional needs, and personal interest. her reading journal reflects this approach, documenting an expansive range of texts across genres and mediums from academic articles and poetry to podcasts, novels, websites, and magazines, in both print and digital sroka 57 formats. just as her summer reading list included diverse forms of text, her personal reading practices reveal a reader who gathers texts wherever she finds them, drawing on a wide array of content to nourish herself and others. this variety stems not only from her responsibilities as a literacy coach but also from her broad personal interests. cheryl appears to be self-aware about her reading habits and history, acknowledging times when she struggled to find time to read or felt frustrated with her reading pace. reflecting on her high school experience, she recalled being criticized for not remembering specific details in the great gatsby: “i remember my teacher saying because i couldn’t remember the names of characters, that i didn’t read it. i kept being told i hadn’t read things when i had; i just couldn’t recall the basic characters.” this experience continues to shape how she views reading today. cheryl shared, “when i read something, i kind of live through it. i don’t remember as much, and that’s why i’m a good teacher—i understand when kids say, ‘i can tell you this or that, but not the name.’” her reflection reveals how reading, for her, is an immersive and emotional experience, less about memorizing facts and more about feeling and understanding the content. this personal way of reading allows her to relate to students who may understand the story even if they forget specific details. instead of viewing this as a deficit, cheryl sees it as an acceptable way to read. cheryl’s reading reflects an aesthetic stance, where she focuses on the feelings, ideas, and emotions evoked by a text, engaging with the tension and resolution as the story unfolds (rosenblatt, 2013). this contrasts with the more text-centered, efferent approach often emphasized in schools. cheryl shared that her positive reading identity shifted in middle school, recalling the transition from a catholic school to a public school. she said, “the public school didn’t really have books. they had these boxes of cards for silent reading, and most of the reading was answering multiple-choice questions.” cheryl explained that her love of reading “kind of died out” during this time, as it became more about competition and keeping up with others, rather than reading for enjoyment. this shift echoes a larger trend of students becoming disinterested in reading as they reach adolescence (webber et al., 2024). in high school, cheryl found support from librarians who “recommended just some wonderful books.” cheryl repeatedly spoke about the powerful role librarians and libraries have played in her reading life. for instance, she shared, “the joy of my job is i actually have an office in the library, so i can influence the library and help select books… whenever i know kids are coming to the library, i run around picking out books for them based on what i know about them.” cheryl’s role in the library and the joy she finds in curation of texts for students highlight the deeply relational nature of her reading identity, where her personal and professional reading interests align. given her aesthetic stance, her recommendations were not strictly academic or skills-based but rooted in an understanding of what it means to feel seen or comforted by a book. further evidence of this aesthetic stance can be observed in cheryl’s reading journal. cheryl often reads to ease her mind using phrases such as “escapism from work,” “more fluff, really rough day just need escapism,” “more relief from a taxing day,” and “fluff reading to get sleep.” while cheryl differentiates between what she refers to as her “beach reads” and the other texts that she reads, she often employs the same aesthetic stance. this emotional engagement with texts shapes not only her personal reading but also how and why she recommends texts to others as she seeks to offer that same experience to students, sharing books that she believes could connect personally with that student in meaningful ways. in this way, her aesthetic stance does not exist apart from her professional role but actively informs how she supports others through reading. 58 georgia journal of literacy 47(1) in summary, cheryl’s reading identity artifact highlights the importance of reading throughout various phases of her life. her reading journals and discussions show a reader who embraces an aesthetic stance, fully engaging with the experience of reading across a broad spectrum and sharing those experiences with others, including her students. her teaching artifacts further reflect how she integrates her reading life in socially conscious ways, aiming to support her school and home communities. james if you don’t take time to listen to someone’s ideas, or weep together when johnny dies in the outsiders, then you haven’t really met them—you’re just in the same room. james, a middle school language arts teacher in his mid-30s from western colorado, arrived late to one of our group meetings. he was still dressed in a black suit after attending the funeral of a former student. he shared, “i had two students who died last summer, and i wrote a poem for them. i shared that part of my life with my students at the beginning of the year, asking, ‘what are you dedicating this year to?’” this moment highlights the healing and connective power of words, reflecting james’s authenticity in both his personal and professional reading life. james’s reading identity artifact (figure 8) is a personal bookshelf that provides a window into the breadth of his reading life, a concept he also encourages his students to explore. the colorcoded book spines represent different stages of his reading journey. orange spines list james’s alltime favorite books, including classics such as to kill a mockingbird and hamlet, poetry by john donne, nonfiction such as open veins of latin america, and contemporary young adult novels like ready player one. yellow spines represent books he is currently reading, such as the narrative of the life of frederick douglass and miles morales: spider-man. red spines mark books he has paused but plans to finish, including hidden figures and forward: a memoir by abby wambach. green spines display books he intends to read, like one crazy summer and onward. blue spines identify books he recommends to others, such as maus and the anthropology of turquoise. overall, james’s bookshelf reflects a reader who values past experiences with texts while remaining open to a wide range of diverse books in both content and form. the bookshelf, according to james, is not intended to remain stagnant, but is constantly evolving as his reading life evolves. sroka 59 figure 8: james’s reading identity artifact james’s reading journal reflects his multiple roles—parent, teacher, christian, citizen, sports fan, and reader. for example, on april 20, 2020, he listed a variety of texts:  michael jordan’s least favorite teammates ever by marty fenn  all colorado schools to remain closed for the rest of the academic year by erica meltzer  starry river of the sky by grace lin  solid joys by john piper  the name of the wind by patrick rothfuss  the outsiders by s. e. hinton  “miss bianca: the ultimate disney princess: is miss bianca the greatest of all disney princesses?” by peter fenzel this snapshot of his active and varied reading life shows the breadth of his interests, from sports and current events to children’s literature, epic fantasy, and christian devotionals. james often emphasized the power of shared reading experiences, especially with his students. when asked why reading together was important, he explained: shared experiences bring people together. you grow to love one another, understand each other, or even dislike each other based on what you go through 60 georgia journal of literacy 47(1) together. if you don’t take time to listen to someone’s ideas, or weep together when johnny dies in the outsiders, then you haven’t really met them—you’re just in the same room. when james talked about “weeping together,” he wasn’t speaking figuratively. for him, texts can be personal, capable of bringing readers to tears and drawing them closer to one another. he shared a memorable story of this vulnerability in his classroom: i read the wednesday wars with my seventh graders. there are two parts that make me weepy—the cafeteria worker whose husband died in vietnam, and a vietnamese child at a refugee orphanage who faces a racist attack. there’s this moment where i’m just like, ‘whoa,’ i’m in tears. a kid once asked me, ‘why are you crying?’ i said, ‘why aren’t you crying? that’s the real question.’ when james wept while reading the wednesday wars, he modeled authenticity in his reading and teaching. while this moment underscores james’s deep emotional engagement with the text and his willingness to model vulnerability for his students, it also reveals certain assumptions about how readers should respond. he was surprised when a student did not share the same emotional connection, which perhaps inadvertently reinforced a view of reading that privileges a singular, “correct” emotional response. rather than inviting multiple ways of reading, james’s comment may have missed an opportunity to validate diverse reader experiences. still, for james, reading is not just about acquiring skills for a test; it is a deeply personal and potentially transformative experience—a response he encourages, and perhaps expects, his students to share. james often spoke about reading in grand terms. to him, reading is a way to “connect with humanity”. when asked if all english teachers need to love reading, james responded, “no, but yes. you don’t have to read everything, or love it, but doesn’t it make life so much better?” this belief in the value of reading is embedded in his teaching. james encourages his students to engage in self-selected reading throughout the year, exploring a variety of genres. reflecting on his teaching, james used a metaphor, saying, “this job has a lot of sowing seeds... it might sprout sometime, but i’m doing a lot of work, just hoping, hoping, hoping.” his words suggest that for james, reading goes beyond academic success; he is striving to nurture an appreciation and love of literature in his students, similar to the deep appreciation he holds for literature. through both his personal reading and his teaching, james demonstrates how literature can be personally impactful and help to forge meaningful connections. his commitment to reading extends beyond acquiring knowledge or meeting expectations; it is about forging connections, embracing new perspectives, and enriching the lives of those around him. discussion and implications several trends emerged in the profiles that provide insight into the reading of english teachers and how these lives may inform how teachers take up reading with their students. for example, choice often led to positive experiences with reading, and these choices often reflect participants’ current life circumstances. robert read parenting books to prepare for fatherhood. cheryl read to escape from a challenging workday. george, when life circumstances forced him to slow down, read for the sake of discovery. james read for the not-so-simple reason of enhancing the quality of his life and deepening his connection with others. these varied reasons for reading provide just a glimpse into the multitude of purposes and circumstances that can shape a teacher’s (and everyone else’s) reading lives. talking openly, amongst other teachers and their students, about the varying purposes that guide their reading can help other people to see the different ways reading does or sroka 61 could emerge in their own lives. these conversations can also help teachers consider how to align in-class readings with both existing and potential reading purposes and interests of their students. the reading profiles also underscore that reading can be a social act that thrives in shared experiences and interactions. for example, james demonstrates that reading can enhance his ability to deepen relationships with others through texts like the wednesday wars. similarly, cheryl’s sharing her reading lists with community members and recommending books to students in the library shows a commitment to taking her reading experience and using it to benefit others. likewise, george’s excitement in guiding students in their book selections underscores how a teacher’s reading life can potentially influence the reading lives of others. robert’s reading identity artifact visualizes a reading life shaped by his social connections as he engages in ongoing dialogue about texts with family, students, colleagues, and community members to inform his text selection. taken together, these reading profiles highlight the social nature of reading, suggesting that teachers should foster positive social experiences around books, whether through shared reading, recommending books to others, creating reading lists, or finding other ways to bring reading into communal spaces in the classroom. these reading profiles also highlight the importance of teachers finding time to read and reflect on text selection. all participants chose to read a wide variety of texts, and this led to opportunities to provide positive reading experience for their students. james’s reading identity artifact illustrates a teacher who thoughtfully considers what he reads, what he plans on reading, and how he can model an active reading life for his students. perhaps his profound experience teaching the wednesday wars, a high-interest young adult text, would not have happened if he had not prioritized reading outside of his professional responsibilities. an active reading life fosters other positive experiences with reading, as seen in cheryl’s and george’s approaches to helping students select books. their abilities to guide student selection of books suggest the value of reading widely and developing a strong knowledge of books that may interest students (cremin et al., 2009). this knowledge of books can also extend to understanding one’s own community and students, as demonstrated by robert’s effort to find texts that were more relevant and meaningful for his students. across profiles, participants’ reading lives shift in response to changes in their personal and professional contexts. cheryl describes turning to escapist fiction after exhausting days at work, while also curating reading lists for her students and community, a reflection of her dual identity as reader and mentor. george notes that he read more widely during a period of personal transition, using reading as a space for exploration and renewal. robert’s reading shifts as he prepared for fatherhood, with a noticeable increase in parenting books and resources relevant to his life stage. these examples show how reading practices evolve alongside participants’ responsibilities, identities, and emotional needs. these patterns reinforce the idea that teachers’ reading lives are dynamic rather than static, continually shaped by life circumstances, professional roles, and personal interests. recognizing this fluidity is essential for understanding how teachers engage with reading in ways that are both personally meaningful and professionally responsive, and this may also help teachers to understand the many ways that students could engage with texts. recognizing the significance of teachers’ personal reading lives has implications not just for teachers but also for the institutions that support them. the findings of this study suggest that teacher preparation programs, school systems, and departments should talk explicitly about the value of personal reading and dedicate time and energy to fostering the personal reading lives of teachers (cremin & scholes, 2024). this could take many forms, including intentionally providing opportunity for self-reflection through activities such as reading identity artifacts, reflective 62 georgia journal of literacy 47(1) drawings (daisey, 2010), and literacy autobiographies (brown, 1999; neville & johnson, 2022). at the same time, it is important to acknowledge that reading lives are dynamic (merga, 2016; sroka, 2021). participants in this study described positive and meaningful experiences with texts. the reading experiences shared by these teachers did not strictly align with ways students typically are expected to read texts in school. this suggests that teachers should reflect on their own reading lives as they consider ways to foster positive reading experiences for students–experiences that can take many forms (gomez, 2005). james, robert, and cheryl emphasize the powerful relationship between text and others, while cheryl and george demonstrate that positive experiences with texts often involve reading high-interest, self-selected texts outside of their professional responsibilities. teacher preparation programs, educators, and schools should investigate ways for teachers and students to have similar positive experiences with texts by prioritizing shared reading experiences and allowing for greater autonomy in text selection. conclusion ultimately, the reading lives of the participants are shaped by personal experiences, professional demands, and evolving interests. this study underscores the importance of valuing, fostering, and exploring teachers’ personal reading practices, not only for their own growth but also for the impact it has on how they view and take up reading in their classrooms. when the teachers in this study engaged in meaningful, self-selected reading, they gained deeper insight into the motivations, struggles, and joys that accompany reading experiences, making them better equipped to support students. by creating space for reflection, discussion, and choice in both teacher preparation programs and school settings, educators can potentially help make the connection between personal and professional reading, ensuring classroom reading experiences are authentic, engaging, and relevant to students’ lives, leading to more positive experiences with texts both inside and outside the classroom. limitations participants’ existing interest in reading likely shaped how they reflected on their reading lives throughout the study. social and identity factors as english teachers may have influenced participants’ self-reported reading habits. for instance, participants may have been aware of each other’s reading behaviors and felt implicit pressure to read more or present themselves as more avid readers, which could have subtly shaped responses. similarly, guilt-driven reading may have played a role, where participants felt internal or external pressure to read more than usual to align with their professional identity. future areas for research this study contributes to previous research that has explored how teachers influence curriculum and text selection (brauer, 2009; brauer & clark, 2008; watkins & ostenson, 2015). however, little is known about how teachers’ reading habits and attitudes regarding curriculum and text selection shape students’ attitudes and perceptions of school reading. future research could explore how teachers’ reading habits, along with teacher-student interactions around text selection, impact both groups’ beliefs about the texts they read in school. another potentially promising area of study involves the role of reading identity artifacts in fostering reflection and dialogue among teachers and students. prior research has highlighted sroka 63 how artistic creation supports self-expression and identity development (butler-kisber & poldma, 2010; mckay & barton, 2018). the reading identity artifacts in this study proved to be a powerful tool for reflection among english teachers. future research could investigate how students engage in creating their own reading identity artifacts and what insights this process might 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(2020). reading during adolescence: why adolescents choose (or do not choose) books. journal of adolescent & adult literacy, 64(2), 157–166. https://doi.org/10.1002/jaal.1065 received: february 1, 2025 | accepted: april 21, 2025 | published: may 20, 2025 https://doi.org/10.9707/2168-149x.2304 https://doi.org/%e2%80%8c10.52214/cice.v5i2.11369 https://doi.org/%e2%80%8c10.52214/cice.v5i2.11369 https://www.voanews.com/a/us-students-read-fewer-books-in-english-class-as-focus-turns-to-shorter-works/7791558.html https://www.voanews.com/a/us-students-read-fewer-books-in-english-class-as-focus-turns-to-shorter-works/7791558.html https://doi.org/%e2%80%8c10.58680/ee201527169 https://doi.org/%e2%80%8c10.58680/ee201527169 https://doi.org/10.1111/lit.%e2%80%8c12359 https://doi.org/10.1111/lit.%e2%80%8c12359 https://doi.org/10.1002/jaal.1065 literature review theoretical framework methods participants data collection data analysis findings robert figure 1: robert’s reading identity artifact caption figure 2: robert’s journal entry april 28th, 2020 figure 3: robert’s journal entry april 3rd, 2020 george figure 4: george’s reading identity artifact cheryl three months after our final interview, cheryl sent me an email with a link to the article “does johnny’s reading teacher love to read?” (mckool & vespas, 2009), writing, “thought of you when i found this. hope you are surviving . . .” i smiled, knowi... i first met cheryl in 2015 when we were both teaching english in the same county, though at different schools. with over 20 years of experience, she seemed like a seasoned veteran compared to my seventh year of teaching. in 2018, i changed schools an... cheryl’s reading identity artifact (figure 5) features a timeline with four rows representing key periods in her life, each tied to significant texts. the first row spans the years from 1961 to the present, illustrating how reading has remained an on... figure 5: cheryl’s reading identity artifact figure 6: cheryl’s recommended summer reading list figure 7: cheryl’s recommended reading list for parents james figure 8: james’s reading identity artifact discussion and implications conclusion limitations future areas for research references georgia journal of literacy 2024, vol. 46(2), pp. 50–64 https://doi.org/10.56887/galiteracy.166 issn: 2833-7611 teaching tips contact dr. adam c. whitaker, instructional designer, elevate achievement educational services, atlanta, ga; email elevateachievement@gmail.com. teaching vocabulary in meaningful and memorable ways: explicit instruction in the english classroom adam c. whitaker elevate achievement educational services, atlanta, ga abstract this article discusses the importance of facilitating explicit vocabulary instruction in the english language arts (ela) classroom. vocabulary research on best practices suggests that explicit instruction can potentially increase student learning outcomes. the discussion begins with research on effective instruction, identifying words to teach, and ends by providing practical strategies that can be used in the ela classroom. keywords direct vocabulary instruction; explicit vocabulary instruction; vocabulary pedagogy as a storyteller, words are my endless supply of inspiration, my palette of splendid colors, my toolbox filled with everything i need. words are . . . the shyness of a fawn’s breath, the sobbing at a pet’s death, the last cracker in the box, the gloriously tailed fox, the sweet fullness of cantaloupe, the faith it takes to have hope, the bridge that crosses every sea, the steppingstones to you from me. (fresch & harrison, 2020, pp. x–xi) resch and harrison (2020) assert that words are a powerful tool used by storytellers. words can inspire. words can illustrate ideas. words can articulate complex emotions and dispositions. but, most of all, words can serve as connectors between people. during my time as an english language arts (ela) teacher at the middle and high school levels, my students struggled with academic vocabulary. i wanted, better yet, i needed to devise a plan to support students in learning academic vocabulary in meaningful and memorable (allen, 2007) ways. like the storyteller mentioned above, i wanted my students to realize the dynamic and eloquent potential that words possess. more importantly, i wanted to: (a) build my students’ academic vocabulary, and (b) engage them in explicit vocabulary instruction to develop their vocabulary knowledge. during my secondary school experiences, vocabulary instruction was facilitated in the following fashion: on mondays, we read and copied definitions of vocabulary words on notebook paper. on tuesdays, we were to use each word in a sentence. on wednesdays and thursdays, the words lingered awkwardly on the outskirts of the chalkboard. and on fridays, we completed an oral spelling test of all the words. then, something odd happened; the words returned to the dictionary from whence they came. to a great degree, these mundane and low-engagement instructional approaches enabled me to become adept at copying words from scuffed dictionaries. however, to deliver rich, meaningful, and effective vocabulary instruction, teachers must adopt f mailto:elevateachievement@gmail.com whitaker 51 multiple dynamic activities. students will benefit more from rigorous and repetitious instruction than from haphazardly studying hundreds of words from simple lists and definition charts. in this article, i describe intentional, meaningful, and explicit strategies for teaching vocabulary that can catalyze effective instruction. this article discusses the classroom context of my work, defines memorable and meaningful vocabulary instruction, explains how to identify vocabulary words, and provides a depiction of explicit vocabulary instruction in action. classroom context one of the primary considerations in developing a process for vocabulary instruction required me to consider the students in my classroom. as an 18-year educator, i have worked in some challenging title 1 schools in texas. most of the students i served were multiple years below grade level, they struggled with academic vocabulary, they were culturally and linguistically diverse, and, on average, at least 40% of my students each year were considered multilingual learners. because of the diverse composition of my classroom, i wanted to provide meaningful and memorable (allen, 2007) vocabulary instruction that pushed students to do more than copy words and definitions from dictionaries. throughout my teaching career, i developed research-based assignments to build students’ vocabulary knowledge and skills. in this paper, i discuss a few of these strategies and how they can be leveraged in the ela classroom. meaning and memorable vocabulary instruction according to allen (2007), current vocabulary instruction practices are ineffective. she maintained that in some classrooms, vocabulary instruction consists of students copying words from the dictionary and writing sentences with selected words. allen further explained that students need memorable and meaningful approaches to vocabulary instruction that involve more than just giving students word lists. additionally, scott et al. (2008) explain that students’ ability to use vocabulary in their writing does not happen without intentional vocabulary instruction. lane and allen (2010) postulate that direct vocabulary instruction is needed as an everyday literacy practice. the authors maintain that students do not come to school with adequate vocabulary knowledge and for students from diverse backgrounds, there is a difference in vocabulary knowledge. lane and allen further explain that the vocabulary knowledge gap will continue to expand for students who lack adequate vocabulary knowledge. ford-connors and paratore (2015) agreed with the claim that vocabulary knowledge is an important part of literacy development. they stated, if young people are to succeed in a world that is dominated by ever-changing digital technologies, and accordingly new literacies, and ever-growing competition in a global economy, they will need to acquire and maintain high levels of literacy skill and analytical ability. (p. 50) some scholars articulated the importance of vocabulary instruction for reading comprehension and writing development (e.g., elleman et al., 2019; harmon & wood, 2018). harmon and wood (2018) discussed that vocabulary instruction is vital for reading comprehension. to build students’ vocabulary, the authors suggest pre-teaching key academic words before reading a text and providing assignments where students use new vocabulary in writing activities. alternatively, elleman et al. (2019) stated that vocabulary instruction is significant for overall language development, and there is a positive relationship between vocabulary instruction and building students writing capacity. when teachers provide students 52 georgia journal of literacy 46(2) with the opportunity to use new vocabulary in writing essays and persuasive paragraphs, these practices have the potential to increase reading comprehension and writing skills. they further reported that when children better understand oral and written discourse, they can better express their experiences and thoughts in conversations and writing. conversely, fresch and harrison (2020) argue that vocabulary development is important for both reading and writing. the researchers suggest that teachers must face the challenge of teaching students vocabulary words they will need to be effective readers and writers. they advocate for using vocabulary instruction to empower students’ knowledge of words in different and engaging ways. identifying words to teach other researchers (fisher & frey, 2014; mckeown et al., 2012; quigley & coleman, 2019) documented the significance of teaching tiers of vocabulary, and they submit that this intentional approach can potentially increase learning outcomes. mckeown et al. (2012) reported that tier 1 words are words used in everyday speech (i.e., book, girl, sad, talk), tier 2 words are general academic words that appear in informational, technical, and literary texts (i.e. exacerbate, uproarious, exotic, robust), and tier 3 words are domain-specific words and are specific to a domain or field of study (i.e. quadratic formula, waning crescent, linear plot, colonialism). the authors further claim that tier 2 words have a wider application for reading a variety of texts. thus, tier 2 words should be a primary target for vocabulary instruction. fisher and frey (2014) acknowledge the benefit of providing direct instruction of tier 2 vocabulary words. in their paper, the authors reviewed the common core state standards (ccss) in reading and language arts and suggested that for students to meet the cognitive level of these standards, students will need extensive practice with words. they stated, “clearly, the architects of the standards wanted to ensure that students learn a lot of words and phrases and know how to mobilize this knowledge as they read and write” (p. 595). even though texas has not adopted the ccss, there is an explicit focus on building students’ vocabulary knowledge and skills as indicated by the texas essential knowledge and skills (teks). similarly, quigley and coleman (2019) assert that students should receive instruction for both tier 2 and tier 3 words as students will be unfamiliar with academic and domain-specific vocabulary. they also advance that these tiers of words should be carefully selected and aligned to vocabulary instructional strategies across all content disciplines. explicit vocabulary instruction in action the initial step in developing vocabulary instruction for my classroom involved selecting tier 2 vocabulary from levine’s (1994) vocabulary for the high school student. the words featured in this text are words my students would encounter on the state of texas assessment of academic readiness (staar). additionally, levine’s work is considered a seminal resource in vocabulary instruction, and the words selected from the book continue to appear on district, state, and national tests (i.e., nwea, accuplacer, advance placement). equally important, i leveraged the teks to identify vocabulary standards students must master as they matriculate through high school. table 1 provides the teks aligned to my explicit instruction process. whitaker 53 table 1: vocabulary standards grade-level focus standard 9th grade dictionary skills use print or digital resources such as glossaries or technical dictionaries to clarify and validate understanding of the precise and appropriate meaning of technical or discipline-based vocabulary. 9th grade context clues analyze context to distinguish between the denotative and connotative meanings of words. note. most of my experience has been at the middle and high school levels. i have used this instructional process for grades eighth through tenth. i used ninth-grade standards to show how the strategies i will describe align to one of the grade levels i have taught. after the standards were identified, the following components were unpacked for each standard: (1) standard content vocabulary (tier 3 vocabulary) and (2) verbs. the standard vocabulary was identified because it was important to understand the content terms that students needed to know to master the standard. meanwhile, identifying the verbs in the standard was essential to ensure that the vocabulary activities were aligned with the cognitive level of the teks. next, mastery objectives or learning targets were created for each standard to capture the vocabulary skills and knowledge students were expected to master. laidlaw-almaguer (2012) and moore et al. (2015) insist that beginning with academic standards is one of the first steps to planning assignments for students. moore et al. (2015) described that “learning targets drive what is taught, to include all activities, assignments, and assessments that occur during lessons and units” (p. 9). in this vein, unpacking standards was vital for developing instruction for vocabulary standards students needed to master on formative and summative assessments. the vocabulary process day 1: working with context clues. for 36 weeks, 18 weeks per semester, students engaged with explicit vocabulary instruction. five words were selected each week, with one bonus word per week. on day one, students were introduced to five vocabulary words through a do now (lemov et al., 2016) entitled, working with context clues. research scholars advised that building both definitional and contextual information about words is an efficient strategy for building student vocabulary knowledge (mckeown, 2019; wright & cervetti, 2017). according to lemov et al. (2016), a do now can be used to review content from a recent lesson or for students to practice with standards they have mastered. using a do now to develop vocabulary skills provided students an opportunity for repetitive practice by using context clues to determine the meaning of unknown words. the working with context clues assignment required students to read each sentence and put a box around the context clues. then, students determined the definition and wrote it in their own words (see figure 1). students were given five minutes to complete the do now and the answers were reviewed using whole class instruction. if the class did not identify the correct definition of the word, they were given the option to use the dictionary to determine the meaning. it was required for students to answer at least four of the context clues questions. the bonus word was not covered in class. instead, students were required to identify the context clues and determine the word’s meaning on their own in preparation for the assessment at the end of the week. 54 georgia journal of literacy 46(2) figure 1: working with context clues after the do now was reviewed with the class, students wrote the vocabulary words on index cards. on the front side of the index card, students wrote the words, and then on the back side of the card, students wrote the definition in their own words. in some cases, students provided a visual representation connected to the vocabulary word (see figure 2). each student was issued a 2-inch binder ring to attach their vocabulary words. the purpose of this strategy was for students to build a study tool to support them in learning the vocabulary words of the week. alternatively, if students had access to technology, programs like quizlet or padlet were used to create note cards as well. research on best practices in vocabulary instruction suggests that providing students opportunities to analyze context clues, discuss the meaning of words, engage with new words in different contexts, and assess student word learning are efficient routines to build students’ vocabulary knowledge (pennsylvania training and technical network, 2021). interestingly, fordconnors and paratore (2015) synthesized qualitative research on increasing the vocabulary knowledge of young adolescents. one of the strategies discussed in their work was using context clues to build students’ word knowledge. the authors emphasized that teaching students how to use context clues can support students at various levels in learning new words. whitaker 55 figure 2: vocabulary note cards day 2: working with synonyms and antonyms. on day two, students completed the assignment entitled, working with synonyms and antonyms. students identified both synonyms and antonyms for the vocabulary words and created an original sentence with the synonym for each word of the week (see figure 3). 56 georgia journal of literacy 46(2) figure 3: working with synonyms and antonyms the instructional approach of connecting vocabulary words to synonyms and antonyms is aligned with the work of dorothy frayer. frayer and colleagues (1969) developed the frayer model to support students in learning about key concepts. the model consists of defining a term, identifying the characteristics of the term, and providing examples and non-examples. examples or synonyms of the word support students in using words with the same definition. in contrast, antonyms or non-examples support students in understanding what the word is not. in the same way, other researchers (crosson & lesaux, 2013; phillips et al., 2008) advanced the notion that using synonyms is an effective approach for building student word knowledge. beach et al. (2015) described the various methods a u.s. history teacher used to enact vocabulary instruction in his self–contained special education class. the authors suggest that providing instruction that challenges students to identify synonyms and use them in sentences can serve as a scaffold to build students’ vocabulary knowledge. blachowicz and fisher (2004) whitaker 57 explained that synonym webs, feature analysis, and teaching students’ antonyms help them set clear parameters in meaning and understanding how the dimensions or features of words differ. day 3: work with personal connections. on day three, students were required to make personal connections with the words of the week. students identified an object, person, or profession connected to the vocabulary word (see figure 4). then, students wrote a sentence with the word using one of the previously mentioned connections. shanahan (2005) described that integrating real-life examples connected to vocabulary words supports students in making connections with words. bromley (2007) found that one way for students to learn new words is to make associations. he further explains that students can learn new words because of the connections made with their schema. comparably, faulkner (2010) reported the benefits of increasing students’ usability of vocabulary words in persuasive writing. the authors discovered that “when students’ brains are actively engaged in discussion, discovering, and demonstrating, then the words and their representative meanings become more permanent, visible, and understandable” (p. 114). figure 4: working with personal connections 58 georgia journal of literacy 46(2) kelley et al. (2010) also reiterated the value of making personal connections to target vocabulary words. the researchers stated that to “maximize student attachment and vocabulary growth, students need to be personally connected” (p. 12). they further insisted that for students to build personal connections with vocabulary words, they need to engage with topics and texts that reflect their world. overall, research shows that connecting vocabulary instruction to students’ schema through real-life examples (shanahan, 2005), personal association and connections (bromley, 2007), and persuasive writing (kelley et al., 2010) has the potential to build students’ word knowledge. independent practice after students were exposed to the instruction during class time, it was essential for students to practice with vocabulary for homework to further cement their word learning. wilson (2017) expressed that after students appear to understand the new material they should be allowed to apply or practice using the new information. therefore, students were given the option to choose an assignment from a vocabulary menu (see figure 5) to practice with the new vocabulary words they were learning in class. vocabulary assignments were assigned based on ability and interest. the assignments provided for students included but were not limited to the vocabulary comic strip (see figure 6), vocabulary cinquain (see figure 7), and vocabulary padlet (see figure 8). to complete the vocabulary comic strip, students created a fictional story with the vocabulary words for the week. then, students created the original comic strip on construction or white paper 8.5 by 11 inches. the vocabulary cinquain assignment required students to create a five-line poem. at the top of the poem, students wrote the vocabulary word. on line one, students wrote a synonym for the vocabulary word. on line two, students wrote two words that described the word with the word in the center. on line three, students identified three professions that connected with the word. on line four, students wrote a sentence with the word, and on line five, students wrote an antonym for the word. to complete the vocabulary padlet, students created four cards. one card for each word of the week. on the first card, students created a voice note pronouncing and spelling a word. secondly, students created a card with a visual representation and sentence connected to a word. on the third card, students wrote the etymology, past tense, and synonym of a word. on the last card, students wrote the meaning, antonym, and sentence for a word. shostak (2002) and bromley (2007) stated that students need multiple exposures to a word to build their word knowledge. harmon et al. (2010) echoed this sentiment and asserted that “it takes meaningful encounters with word meanings in a variety of contexts for students to internalize word knowledge” (p. 106). as a result, the vocabulary instruction in my class converged around providing students multiple exposures to practice with new vocabulary and meaningful encounters that aligned with their schema. whitaker 59 figure 5: vocabulary assignment menu 60 georgia journal of literacy 46(2) figure 6: vocabulary comic strip whitaker 61 figure 7: vocabulary cinquain strategy figure 8: vocabulary padlet assessment throughout the week, the context clues (day 1), synonyms and antonyms (day 2), and personal connections (day 3) served as formative assessments to monitor students’ vocabulary learning. moreover, the independent practice activities were designed to prepare students for the vocabulary test at the end of the week. on friday, students were given a vocabulary assessment. students were required to spell and use the words in a sentence in the correct context. meanwhile, if students wanted to earn extra credit on the assessment, they were required to spell the bonus word correctly and use it in a sentence (see figure 9). the purpose of the assessment was for students to use the 62 georgia journal of literacy 46(2) words in a sentence in the correct context and demonstrate a deeper level of thinking and understanding about the words of the week that extended beyond memorization and matching (moore, 2014). figure 9: vocabulary assessment conclusion ultimately, this article does not cover the countless possibilities for facilitating explicit vocabulary instruction. many of our students come to school and do not have the academic vocabulary needed to read and comprehend complex texts. our students need vocabulary instruction that is meaningful and memorable (allen, 2007). when teachers engage in explicit instruction, students will begin to use words to articulate complex emotions. they will begin to express critical thoughts and reflections filled with language that befits their ideas. but, most of all, students will begin to understand that they can use words: to inspire others, to inspire themselves, and to express their dreams for today and the future. references allen, j. (2007). inside words: tools for teaching academic vocabulary, grades 4–12. routledge. beach, k. d., sanchez, v., flynn, l. j., & o’connor, r. e. (2015). teaching academic vocabulary to adolescents with learning disabilities. teaching exceptional children, 48(1), 36–44. https://doi.org/10.1177/0040059915594783 blachowicz, c. l., & fisher, p. (2004). vocabulary lessons. educational leadership, 61(6), 66– 69. bromley, k. (2007). nine things every teacher should know about words and vocabulary instruction. journal of adolescent & adult literacy, 50(7), 528–537. https://doi.org/10.15 98/jaal.50.7.2 crosson, a. c., & lesaux, n. k. (2013). does knowledge of connectives play a unique role in the reading comprehension of english learners and english‐only students? journal of research in reading, 36(3), 241–260. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9817.2011.01501.x elleman, a. m., oslund, e. l., griffin, n. m., & myers, k. e. 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(2008). the word-conscious classroom: building the vocabulary readers and writers need. scholastic teaching resources. shanahan, t. (2005). the national reading report: practical advice for teachers (contract no. ed-01-co-0011). learning points associates / north central regional educational laboratory. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ed489535 shostak, j. (2002). the value of direct and systematic vocabulary instruction. sadlier-oxford: professional development series #9147-9. https://info.sadlier.com/hubfs/docs/middleschool-vocabulary-digital-kit.pdf wilson, l. o. (2017). madeline hunter lesson plan model. the second principle. wright, t. s., & cervetti, g. n. (2017). a systematic review of the research on vocabulary instruction that impacts text comprehension. reading research quarterly, 52(2), 203–226. https://doi.org/10.1002/rrq.163 received: july 9, 2024 | accepted: october 27, 2024 | published: november 15, 2024 https://ngl.cengage.com/assets/downloads/edge_pro0000000030/am_moore_%e2%80%8cwhy_vocab_instr_mtrs.pdf https://ngl.cengage.com/assets/downloads/edge_pro0000000030/am_moore_%e2%80%8cwhy_vocab_instr_mtrs.pdf https://www.pattan.net/publi%e2%80%8ccations/effective-practices-for-teaching-academic-vocabula https://www.pattan.net/publi%e2%80%8ccations/effective-practices-for-teaching-academic-vocabula https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ed612217 https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ed489535 https://info.sadlier.com/hubfs/docs/middle-school-vocabulary-digital-kit.pdf https://info.sadlier.com/hubfs/docs/middle-school-vocabulary-digital-kit.pdf https://doi.org/10.1002/rrq.163 classroom context meaning and memorable vocabulary instruction identifying words to teach explicit vocabulary instruction in action table 1: vocabulary standards the vocabulary process figure 1: working with context clues figure 2: vocabulary note cards figure 3: working with synonyms and antonyms figure 4: working with personal connections independent practice figure 5: vocabulary assignment menu figure 6: vocabulary comic strip figure 7: vocabulary cinquain strategy figure 8: vocabulary padlet assessment figure 9: vocabulary assessment conclusion references georgia journal of literacy 2025, vol. 47(1), pp. 4–23 https://doi.org/10.56887/galiteracy.174 issn: 2833-7611 research article contact emily cobb, doctoral student, literacy, language and culture program, clemson university, clemson, sc; email eccob@g.cleemson.edu. very mindful, very multimodal: digital texts affordances for emergent readers emily c. cobb clemson university, clemson, sc abstract the increasing presence of digital texts in early literacy education demands a deeper understanding of how they shape reading comprehension and vocabulary acquisition. this scoping review explores the most current research on digital literacy, emphasizing how early readers engage with digital texts and what this means for curriculum development. with the rise of one-to-one digital devices in classrooms, particularly following the covid-19 pandemic, students are reading and interacting with texts in new ways, yet research on early literacy has often lagged behind these technological shifts. digital texts are more than digitized print; they introduce multimodal features that require different cognitive processes and instructional approaches. findings suggest that high-quality, narrative-driven digital texts with interactive affordances can enhance meaning-making, comprehension, and vocabulary learning, especially when paired with thoughtful instructional scaffolds. however, gaps remain in understanding how students transfer literacy skills between print and digital formats and how educators can best integrate digital literacy instruction into early reading curricula. this review underscores the need for continued research into the evolving role of digital texts in literacy development, ensuring that instructional practices keep pace with the realities of 21st-century reading environments. keywords digital literacy; digital texts; early literacy; reading comprehension; vocabulary acquisition hile there is pivotal research in the areas of digital literacies, digital texts and storytelling, with adolescent literacy (boffone & jerasa, 2021; curwood, 2011; green, 2021; jerasa & boffone, 2021; mcbride, 2023; mcdaniel, 2024; thomas & stornaiuolo, 2016, 2019), there is a need for more understanding and research on these topics that can lead to pedagogical implications for early literacy. specifically, how the rise of digital devices and digital texts, or their potential uses in early reading instruction, could shift reading instruction for emergent readers beyond print-dominant traditions. if contextualized by the covid-19 pandemic that widely caused instructional shifts to e-learning with digital devices, tools, and texts (yan et al., 2021), digital texts in the classroom since the pandemic shift may vary from simply onceprinted or traditional texts that have been digitized, to an entirely new and developing category of text in its own right (paran & stadler-heer, 2022). when looking at the current research, what defines digital texts, how the components of those texts influence early reading comprehension and vocabulary acquisition, it is necessary to understand what these studies offer as far as implications or recommendations for practice. further analysis of research to practice is crucial when considering the magnitude these digital elements hold in modern life regarding reading and consuming information. from infancy, children are much more likely to be in front of screens interacting with digital material than they were ten to twenty years ago (konca, 2021; mannell et al., 2024), which w mailto:eccob@g.cleemson.edu cobb 5 would show a critical need to include digital literacy components that respond to the growing need for understanding and engagement with digital texts and screen reading (coulanges et al., 2024). we must also consider the “digital native” fallacy that may posit young children as such but does not consider the layers of context that define a child’s familiarity with digital devices or tools (bittman et al., 2011; kirschner & bruyckere, 2017). this paper argues that while some students may be comfortable, familiar, and adept with digital technology, this may not translate to reading and learning with digital texts, as these texts require specific skills to help students monitor and be strategic with the content they are engaging with. exploring the most current research regarding digital texts and literacy components in early literacy, the goals here are to glean what affordances digital texts may have for early readers and what this means for early reading instruction. digital literacy and digital texts in literacy theories to frame these goals, digital literacy will refer to the skills and ways of thinking needed to read, write, and communicate with digital components, tools, and texts and in digital spaces (gilster, 1997; secker, 2018; spires et al., 2019), and this definition is constantly developing as technology does and can encompass other literacy subsets (nichols & stornaiuolo, 2019). here, digital literacy is both how young children engage with and use the technology, but also how to make meaning with the content with technology. spires et al. (2019) view digital literacy through three buckets of locating and digesting content, creating content, and sharing content. these practices go beyond just skill-based learning with digital texts, but call for young readers to make complex, individualized decisions with texts that go beyond what may occur with print-based texts or inschool literacies (marsh, 2016; marsh et al., 2018; neumann et al., 2017). with the continued rise and evolution of technology, the need for pedagogical decisions that support digital literacy components is momentous to address the growing number of ways that children interact with information on screens and online. with the ever-changing nature of what is digital, young readers need additional support to engage with technology, how to engage with it for different purposes, and how to make use of the tools that digital texts afford. digital literacy falls into the new mediums and new approaches called for by multiliteracies and new literacies (new london group, 1996; cope & kalantzis, 2000; 2009; gee, 2002). multiliteracies asks educators to consider what the digital world will demand of students as they read, write, and communicate through multiple modes (cope & kalantzis, 2009; kress, 2000b; curiel, 2023) and across multimedia technologies that push traditional notions or definitions of literacy (swift, 2023). new literacies build upon the multiliteracies by arguing that literacy is not just encapsulated by in-school practices as students are making meaning, sharing language, and communicating for many purposes (alvermann & moore, 2011; mccarthey et al., 2020); the name itself implies literacies are multiple and renewing (lankshear & knobel, 2011; leu, 2017). as a facet of these theories, digital literacy calls for literacy education in the age of globalization, multimedia, and technology to equip students with literacy tools and skills to engage in digital spaces critically and pragmatically (alvermann, 2002; gainer, 2012; flewitt et al., 2015; harrison, 2017). digital literacy also requires explicit instruction and pedagogical decisions that frame digital learning that does not equate prevalence of the technology with equal access or understanding as digital devices and tools are not equally accessible to all students (ng, 2012; rowsell et al., 2017; hadad et al., 2023). in digital environments, where students would be engaging with texts, students will interact with an amazing amount of content. content that is inherently multimodal and requires alternative approaches for reading, writing, and communicating (kress & jewitt, 2003; yellend, 2016). students have to be equipped to know 6 georgia journal of literacy 47(1) how to engage pragmatically and effectively for their own goals and to make meaning in those spaces. beyond those technicalities of engaging with digital content, digital literacy encompasses students engaging with content and tools that allows them to take more ownership of their learning (li, 2017), and the sociocultural aspects of digital literacy includes this authenticity and ownership versus what is afforded by printed or offline texts or ways of creating (new london group, 1996; lankshear & knobel, 2011; gee, 2012; neumann et al., 2017; meoded karabanov & aram, 2024). with these theoretical framings in mind, it is important to define digital texts in their current reiterations to better understand their potentialities in early literacy instruction. what are digital texts now digital literacy can encompass all the means of action with digital tools, devices, components, etc., but when considering the research of digital literacy and digital texts, early literacy may lack the depth of scholarship found with the lens of adolescent literacy. also, what a digital text is continues to evolve. from cd-roms to educational media on television, then the dawn of accessible internet in schools, which brought ebooks, websites, video sites, and apps, digital texts shifted alongside their technology. digital texts may also include texts that were once print and are static screen reading. the evolution of these texts is perpetual, and the following review of literature aims to look at what scholarship says about what digital texts are right now while also considering reading comprehension and vocabulary acquisition. digital texts are different digital literacy engages students in spaces that are inherently multimodal. this inherent nature of multimodal reading can be an opportunity for educators to reconfigure early reading instruction, one that acknowledges the growing presence of multimodal texts students engage with in the 21st century and also maintaining a strong focus on foundational print-based skills (crane-deklerk, 2020; mckee & heydon, 2015; yellend, 2016). while the teaching of reading with print texts is not behind us, there is still a great need for instruction of digital reading skills to interact with and make meaning of digital texts for early readers, digital skills depend on the medium; just because young readers may be considered “digital natives” this does not mean that they automatically possess the digital skills necessary to comprehend digital texts (bittman et al., 2011; florit et al., 2022; kirschner & bruyckere, 2017). many more texts are now available to children with the availability of tablets and phones, where there is text on websites, apps, videos, streaming services, and social media. therefore, the need for early literacy to encompass the teaching of digital texts is pertinent. one perspective is that multimodal, digital texts in early literacy could be approached from a storytelling lens (kim & hachey, 2021) where young children can both engage with and create stories simultaneously as they read and retell stories (kelly, 2017, 2018; kim, 2019). similarly to the approach educators may take with print-text, such as picturebooks or other literature, this perspective extends to include the multimodality that pulls young readers into the storytelling to include more opportunities for students to make meaning. digital texts, such as videos, storybook apps, and others pull in communication as an element of digital literacy. multimodality in digital texts has the potential to deemphasize print text and language features for other modes of communication (wang et al., 2019) which would expand opportunities for students to engage in storytelling that is important for emergent readers (early et al., 2015). for example, while print picturebooks obviously are an integral part of early reading instruction, the affordances of multimodal texts, digital texts can extend imagery to video and even be malleable to the user so that young readers can make their own images to demonstrate cobb 7 meaning (marsh et al., 2018; oakley et al., 2020; undheim, 2023). considering the digital affordances of digital texts such as automatic animations of illustration, hotspots, navigation options, animation hotspots, further research is needed to connect these affordances to literacy outcomes for emergent readers (wang et al., 2019). the affordances of digital texts, even just through the lens of storytelling, give educators options to consider how digital texts can be included in early literacy instruction and for what purposes. focusing in on reading comprehension and vocabulary acquisition digital texts include visual, auditory, and action modes and have multiple pathways for reading, which means more decision making while reading (wang et al., 2019). possibly complicating instruction use of digital texts is an ongoing battle of what underpins reading comprehension, how best to teach reading, and with what tools or texts. in the simple view of reading (svr), gough and tunmer (1986), as cited by kim (2023), suggest “reading comprehension is the product of decoding and language comprehension, in which both skills are necessary and not alone sufficient for readers to understand what they read” (p. 196). when engaging with digital texts, educators may consider how the multimodality of those texts may require instruction that engages young readers beyond phonics and decoding, like that of print-based texts, therefore placing different purposes on these texts. with the active view of reading (avr), duke and cartwright (2021) expand svr and incorporate more evidence on the development of reading comprehension. the avr approach emphasizes decoding and language comprehension, but gives more context with the difficulties relating to comprehension. avr acknowledges that difficulties with reading comprehension can extend beyond the inability to decode, as content knowledge plays a key role in comprehension alongside vocabulary knowledge. therefore, the avr suggests that decoding and comprehension skills cannot be completely siloed; they often overlap. with this framing, the multimodal nature of digital texts may necessitate additional or specialized instruction as digital texts include multimedia components, intertextuality, and hypertextuality, which means students are reading beyond just what is on the page, top to bottom. to avoid a limiting perspective on how digital texts can be used in early reading instruction, it is worth exploring how digital texts may aid in the complexities facing educators as they guide students through language learning and reading comprehension. with this in mind, because of the variance and complexity of digital texts, a perspective to approach reading comprehension with digital texts may align with moje (2018): “[r]eading is a complex, multidimensional cognitive process in and mediated by social and cultural practices” (p. 2). also, compton-lily et al. (2020) argue that reading comprehension is complex and, therefore, requires complex solutions. scarborough (2001) suggests that the skills that underlie word recognition and language comprehension are a braided rope that tightens as young readers develop. zooming in on each of those strands and elevating pedagogical decisions around texts that elevate meaning conversation and engagement with texts (cabell & zucker, 2024), opens the possibility that digital texts could aid in instructional decisions that help strengthen those strands for students as there can be more individualized instruction, text selection, and digital tools as aids. reading comprehension requires dynamic thinking and critical, active engagement in the text (shanahan, 2005), which digital texts may afford with their multimodal features that can be leveraged for early readers. while reading difficulties for young readers goes beyond word recognition and comprehension, reading comprehension, being able to understand, retell, and make critical meaning of what is being read, is paramount as students progress through reading development with more and more complex texts. new literacies (lankshear & knobel, 2011) 8 georgia journal of literacy 47(1) gives further perspective on the affordances of digital texts as digital tools allow for meaningmaking pathways through interactivity, more choice with the text, and ways to transact between texts. all alluding to the hope that digital texts and reading comprehension can actually be a hopeful piece to the digital age, considering the breadth of choices, tools, and availability to students. a note about vocabulary acquisition the more vocabulary students know and can recognize, the more complicated texts they can read and understand. educators know, as research has found, explicit and implicit vocabulary instruction is important and that students need in-depth and repeated interactions with word lists or crucial words in order to cement them into meaning as vocabulary instruction should also be focused on engaging students with analytic thinking about word meaning and teaching an emphasis on the relationship between word means (shanahan, 2005). in early literacy, as children are cognitively gathering and soaking up as many words as they are surrounded with, and building off the focus on comprehension, building sight vocabulary is an essential skill for recalling words and text-reading (ehri, 2013). as students are engaged with, even playing with, digital texts or apps, they may be naturally exposed to more vocabulary (masters et al., 2023), whereas many digital texts have vocabulary tools embedded in them. however, vocabulary is not just learned by hearing it but also by reading it in print. with digital texts with additional tools for young readers, there needs to be a broader understanding if these tools aid in vocabulary acquisition. one consideration is the availability of digital texts or storybook apps that include narration, since read-alouds are important for vocabulary acquisition and pronunciation (ehri, 2013). from an instructional perspective, vocabulary knowledge and reading comprehension should not be in isolation as teaching the meaning of words in text supports comprehension, but the most important thing is teaching students how to approach a word they do not know on their own. this could be an area where digital texts are superior to print text considering the tools that those texts may have to aid with students working to discover word meanings. with digital texts, students may be engaged in more active processing of vocabulary (orcutt et al., 2023), and digital texts may have more affordability to aid students in working with unknown words. considering that vocabulary acquisition and fluency are the bridge makers between word recognition and comprehension (cartwright, 2021), there are exciting pedagogical possibilities regarding how digital texts could shift students’ scope and breadth of textual availability. locating current research on digital texts, early literacy, and practice to locate the most relevant research and identify gaps in research regarding digital texts in early literacy, this paper draws on a synthesis of research collected through a scoping review. the purpose of the scoping review is to locate the most recent research on a topic, the key themes from a synthesis of that research, and what gaps in research remain on the topic (peters et al., 2020). to guide the search, the following question grounded this review: how are emergent readers’ engagement with digital texts shaping or changing what we know about practice regarding reading comprehension and vocabulary acquisition? scoping review searches and results to begin the search, an inclusion/exclusion criterion was determined to generate and narrow the most relevant research, and search terms were generated to conduct a thorough search of at least cobb 9 one database (peters et al., 2020) (see tables 1 and 2). these results were then narrowed through screenings to ensure that each article met the review’s requirements and goals before a thematic analysis was conducted to extract data using inductive coding (peters et al., 2020; saldana, 2016) (see figure 1). table 1: inclusion criterion for scoping review date of publication january 2019 – may 2024 language english publication type peer-reviewed journal articles, empirical research articles, and practitioner articles location context u.s. public schools grade level context early literacy education, preschool, elementary education digital literacy must contain research/data regarding digital texts in regards to reading comprehension and/or vocabulary acquisition quality must be a peer-reviewed publication in a reputable journal and provide recommendations for practice or curriculum implications the inclusion criteria above helped guide the search during the review as these limited the selected studies to only include the most recent, relevant research regarding the topic. articles were only selected if they fell within the outlined “date of publication” period above. this was important to the review as part of the purpose hinges on looking at how the covid-19 pandemic digital shift may have influenced or been influenced by the increased use of digital devices, tools, and texts. another important criteria was the selection of u.s.-only studies that further narrows possible instructional implications for educators. the results using these aforementioned criteria are outlined below. table 2: search terms and results from scoping review searches total results by search term 96  digital texts + comprehension + early literacy 57  digital texts + vocabulary + early literacy 39 screening results abstract screening 45 full screening 11 the search terms above initially yielded 96 results. after further screening, utilizing the inclusion criteria, eleven studies were selected that gave insight on digital texts, reading comprehension, vocabulary acquisition in an early literacy context with curriculum implications. most studies were excluded because of the publication date criteria and location context being set to only u.s. public, k–12 schools, outlined in table 1. 10 georgia journal of literacy 47(1) scoping review findings from the literature reviewed, several themes emerged. these themes all strongly correlated to the importance of multimodality and transferring modalities across texts with digital texts in the early grades. as research studies were only included in this review if explicit recommendations or implications for practice grounded their work, outlined below are the major themes from the research and approaches for educators to consider with digital texts in the classroom (see figure 1). these themes are expanded upon in the following section. figure 1: results from scoping review research question how are emergent readers’ engagement with digital texts shaping or changing what we know about practice regarding reading comprehension and vocabulary acquisition? themes across studies connections to rq digital texts and storytelling (brown et al., 2022; cloonan et al., 2020; florit et al., 2022; gleason & martinez, 2024; neuman et al., 2019; reich et al., 2019) digital texts  more tools and modes for meaning making for beginning readers  more student choice and agency with texts  more availability for higher-quality texts  ways to strengthen engagement for early readers  amount of reading content and genre alongside intertextuality increased versus print texts digital texts & reading comprehension  more engagement with digital texts  increase self-regulation with reading digital texts  more rereading, retelling, and language options available digital texts & vocabulary acquisition  more exposure to vocabulary and vocabulary with visual aids  in the moment definitions with digital tools  more layered or available context while reading visual representations (brown et al., 2022; christ et al., 2019; gleason & martinez, 2024; kontovourki & siegel, 2022; neuman et al., 2019; neuman et al., 2019; serafini et al., 2020) multimodal affordances (brown et al., 2022; bruner & hutchinson, 2023; christ et al., 2019; hoch et al., 2019; reich et al., 2019) digital texts and the affordances for emergent readers to return to the purpose of this paper, below the studies are examined to see what their research indicates about how current forms of digital texts may shape or transform early literacy components such as reading comprehension and vocabulary acquisition. provided below is that research, extracted from the scoping review, paired with some instructional approaches for educators to consider when incorporating digital texts into their classroom. storytelling goes digital what was clear across the results was the connection between narrative structures, narratives, or storytelling aspects on digital apps. this paired with collaboration between peers either in buddy reading or creating their own retellings of a text using digital tools helped students make meaning through connections with others and by students becoming creative communicators (gleason & martinez, 2024). when using digital texts or tools to read or create cobb 11 stories in the classroom, storytelling may take visual forms, through images created with digital tools, that is an important early literacy skill for emergent readers as they make meaning and examine context (gleason & martinez, 2024). this is also clear in brown et al.’s (2022) work where they found students took up different digital tools, manipulating them, to show their understanding of the stories in deep contextual ways such as making connections to real-world experiences alongside emotion, language, and culture. digital texts, because of their intertextuality and hypertextuality, may give students more opportunities to explore stories through more perspectives or build upon perspective through their own retellings. the tools present in digital texts can be used as scaffolds for meaning making, and this is especially important for emergent multilingual students who may need more support beyond print-text (gleason & martinex, 2024). narrative structure appears to be important for early literacy and digital texts. narrative structure capitalizes aids in comprehension (brown et al., 2019; neuman et al., 2019) and as young readers recreate or retell stories as a means of storytelling, students may expand beyond the “traditional repertoires of print-based text to include visual media and popular digital images” (gleason & martinez, 2024, p. 58). these studies showed that with digital texts, when selected from options that are narrative in style and give students multiple ways to respond to the text, students are both reading and writing through retelling. as retelling is a seminal assessment of reading comprehension, it is important to consider how digital texts or tools can be used for students to retell what they read using different modalities, and as brown et al. (2022) found, it could have positive benefits for students such as multilingual students. as educators are considering how to use digital texts around storytelling, narrative retelling with imagery could be a strategy that piques interest with young readers, gives them agency, and supports their reading comprehension through deeper contextual narration where young readers can infuse responses to text with their own identity and pull from various aspects of their language repertoire. the types or genres of digital texts seem to differ regarding students’ engagement with the text and this affects comprehension (florit et al., 2022). as described here, narrative stories had the most positive correlation between reading the digital story and improved reading comprehension and vocabulary acquisition. children may prefer reading narrative or descriptive texts on screen (visual; florit et al., 2022). this may not be surprising considering how much digital content is consumed by young and old alike in our current digital age. but, it is important to remember that it is not just the visual as narration plays a vital role (reich et al., 2019). narration is a key component of digital texts and could be an important pedagogical tool in the classroom when considering how it may be used beyond the typical teacher-whole group read-aloud. digital texts that are narrative in genre, and include narration options, could provide teachers with increased opportunities for small-group or individualized read-aloud time that is more tailored to students’ needs. to approach small group instruction around a text, a renewed approach to literature circles could help educators approach literature with multimodal texts and multimodal responses to text (cloonan et al., 2019). combined with the multimodal features of quality digital texts, and the extended ways young readers can making meaning or show understanding, literature circles where students can discuss texts, collaborate to explore the text, and take on roles within their groups to create digital representations of their reading could further support students’ comprehension and vocabulary acquisition with digital texts rather than just focusing on individual reading with the text. 12 georgia journal of literacy 47(1) the importance of visual aids digital texts’ affordances regarding visual aids and representations may help emergent readers’ reading comprehension (foritt et al., 2022; neuman et al., 2019). as early readers are engaging with text, with listening, visual aids as part of the storytelling or options for visuals could lead to increased understanding of a text. it is important to note, however, that early readers may process digital texts superficially without teacher scaffolding or mediation and digital reading may require a higher cognitive load (florit et al., 2022). digital texts may also aid in listening comprehension and vocabulary learning: “when stories were accompanied by visual or other nonverbal information, the vocabulary words were retained better than if conveyed alone” (neuman et al., 2019, p. 33) neuman et al. (2019) refers to the process of dual coding as early readers process information in tandem but on different channels, one verbal and one nonverbal (such as images). digital texts and media like in videos would be an example of this process and is important as more and more text is tied to video imagery. while picturebooks include visuals, gleason and martinez (2024) argue that digital texts can go beyond the static print-based text and visual text. cloonan et al. (2020) suggest a step further for educators to have students also engage in responding to texts multimodally using the digital tools that may accompany the texts to pull in various modes of communication to represent meaning like language tools, digital imagery, and collaborative retellings. as referenced, the amount of time that children are in front of screens has increased significantly (because of mobile devices and other digital devices), meaning that children are engaging with digital content and texts outside of school, and educators could lean into this new reality (neuman et al., 2019). looking at educational media on streaming services, neuman et al. (2019) found that quality educational media could be important to promote oral vocabulary knowledge in the early stages of language growth, and a large majority of that education media includes vocabulary scenes to support students in-the-moment vocabulary work. the visual component of this educational media is part of the appeal and may be part of the way forward when thinking about how young children may gain vocabulary skills alongside other literacy skills. connecting back to school settings, neuman et al. (2019) found that in order for the educational media to be the most effective, it had to be engaging enough to hold the child’s attention, which may inform educators in their selection of digital texts for the classroom. the higher quality of images or visuals paired with the more engaging story, could lead to higher reading comprehension results. also, considering how students may use digital tools, such as images and visuals, to make meaning and build vocabulary, brown et al. (2022)’s work with visual-text composition relates to bruner and hutchinson’s (2023) work with teaching the actual navigation of digital texts and tools alongside the comprehension of those texts. they echo the importance of engagement with digital texts and books. eutsler and trotter (2020) found that children who read the digital books were more likely to want to read another book and children showed slightly more attention while reading the digital text (more engaged and read for longer; eutsler & trotter, 2020) which may be attributed to the visual nature of digital text. digital texts include visual modes and auditory and action modes, and have multiple pathways for reading, which means more decision making while reading (christ et al., 2019) which research from above indicates more engagement with the text. so, when considering how to select digital texts and digital books, high interactivity, affordances that transform children’s meaning making as compared to paper books, intuitive developmental appropriateness, and good narrative/illustrative quality are all elements to consider (christ et cobb 13 al., 2019). also, alongside the narrative/illustrative qualities, the digital tools or elements of digital texts or books can also aid in comprehension when pre-taught as word hotspots led to better inference/critical thinking outcomes which could lead to higher vocabulary acquisition (christ et al., 2019). educators also need ways to assess early readers’ use of the multimodal resources available with digital texts. while the research indicates that visual aids are an important aspect of digital texts in aiding with reading comprehension and vocabulary acquisition, understanding how individual students respond to those resources is important as students will be engaging with texts that go beyond language-dominant texts. in their work studying young learners’ multimodal sign-making, kontovourki and siegel (2022) found that printdominant, fixed concepts of understanding texts, and who or what guides that understanding, is complicated by the multimodal responses students can make around and with digital texts. as good, quality digital texts may go beyond the capacities of print-based texts, it is important to consider that emergent readers meaning making of those texts may not fit into text-centered or print-based meaning making (kontovourki & siegel, 2022), and that opens the door for more opportunities for young readers to express their understanding of a digital text through simultaneously engaging with and making texts. also, just as digital texts may be used and approached in different ways than printtexts, neither abandoned for the other, students’ engagement with these texts deserves a different type of assessment. serafini et al. (2020) provide such a protocol for assessment to assist educators in analyzing students’ reading decisions with multimodal texts. this protocol includes specific categories of assessment that are specific to multimodal texts, such as digital texts, like whether students are focusing on written text, visual images, or design features (serafini et al., 2020, p. 290). as previous studies have indicated the need for educators to shift their monitoring of students engaged with digital texts, this may give them a protocol to help guide students as they make decisions with digital tools embedded in digital texts. multimodality is key multimodality really is the heartbeat of quality digital texts, and the multimodal affordances of digital texts must be harnessed for different purposes than how educators may approach instruction print texts. reich et al. (2019) looked at how electronic reading compares to print reading and found that it depends on the text and with the students’ understanding of using the digital device or app. as previously discussed, the multimodality of interactive digital texts may support emergent readers’ comprehension outcomes (christ et al., 2019). finding that students had a layered use of modalities, each child had a different approach to which multimodal features they used or did not use (reich et al., 2019). while print-text features may be pre-taught, this further suggests that educators should scaffold the learning of an app or a digital text with its modalities as without these scaffolds students’ reading comprehension may actually be hindered (christ et al., 2019). with so many more texts now available to children, text on websites, videos, and other apps, how to navigate those multimodal texts has to be part of the pedagogical approach with digital texts. digital devices with storybook apps allow for books that can be read without a mediator, but that does not erase the need for a teacher mediator or scaffolding, and while the “read-to-me” feature or similar is important, and a great aspect of digital text, reich et al. (2019) found that there needs to be a greater discussion about why teacher mediator is still key even for digital texts that include teaching elements. with such features, students can engage with apps or digital texts that may not be 14 georgia journal of literacy 47(1) relevant to the story without proper scaffolding with how to engage with the text and utilize its multimodal tools pragmatically (reich et al., 2019). while digital texts may include more ways for early readers to engage with a text, with many great tools available, there is still the need for educators to scaffold the text and help students navigate it while they read. this may give educators an opportunity to consider when digital texts may be more appropriate or not for instruction. educators can consider the need for individualized reading opportunities, and the affordances digital texts can have for students in this capacity, versus times of wholegroup, direct instruction with print-texts. brown et al.’s (2022) work with emergent multilingual students and digital texts and tools shows, again, how digital texts can be used as part of good-accommodation practice in the classroom. as the u.s. has a growing multilingual population, brown et al.’s (2022) suggest that educators consider how translanguaging as a multimodal practice could be relevant with digital texts. multilingual students’ reading comprehension is often assessed in ways that does not account for their full linguistic repertoire whereas digital texts and tools can allow for a wider breadth of multimodal reading and composition. considering reading comprehension affordances of digital tools, multimodal interactions promoted stronger meaning-making experiences, and digital tools help with independent decision making. tools such as text editor functions, speech bubbles, and even emojis as a semiotic resource all supported emergent bilingual students in the study (brown et al., 2022). again, educators can lean into what multimodality offers students through the use of digital texts and tools. being able to navigate a digital text, which may require a higher cognitive load, requires specific reading strategies (florit et al., 2022). shimizu (2024) looked beyond narrative texts at static reading passages like those used in standardized testing where static digital texts are presented digitally but do not include any or the quality of interactive or multimodal elements as discussed so far. while this type of text goes against what the other studies have found regarding what types of digital texts result in higher reading comprehension outcomes, shimizu’s (2024) findings are important for educators to consider as these are also the types/genres of digital texts students encounter, especially considering the reality of standardized testing in u.s. schools. digital reading is multifaceted, with greater need to be strategic and critical, needing the ability to synthesize over many multimodal sources, being an active reader is heightened with digital texts (bruner & hutchinson, 2023; shimizu, 2024). with paper to screen reading, as many of the texts that were previously read on paper, such as those used in standardized testing, are now digital. when educators consider how to scaffold students with digital reading, reading on screens may factor into that even if that means students are engaged with high quality, multimodal texts (florit et al., 2022). navigating digital texts is as much a part of digital learning as knowing how to interact and create digitally (bruner & hutchinson, 2023). this is key because digital texts require different skills of engagement than print-based texts. according to bruner and hutchinson (2023), digital texts are “intertextual, multimodal, immediate, abbreviated, informal, multi-authored, creative, interactive, hyperlinked and involve a diverse array of participants and languages” (p. 748). because of their multimodality, bruner and hutchinson (2023) see approaching digital texts through a disciplinary lens using specific disciplinary literacy practices common across academic disciplines and acknowledge how features of digital texts are different from printed texts. this would indicate that each digital text would need to be approached with a specific purpose cobb 15 as each text has a different set of multimodal affordances and can be utilized for different learning goals (hoch et al., 2019). another consideration for educators when using digital texts in the classroom, like the storybook apps or high-quality digital texts, is the link between paired or small group reading and higher comprehension outcomes with digital texts. christ et al. (2019) compared individual and buddy reading of app books, looking for comprehension outcomes (unprompted retelling, prompted retelling, inference/critical thinking responses, vocabularymeaning generation). they found app book affordances (or tools) linked directly to individual reading outcomes, appbooks with more hotspots on each page retelling outcomes were better, word hotspots led to higher inference/critical thinking scores. using these tools connects back to what was suggested earlier about the multimodality of these texts and how that might influence reading comprehension or vocabulary acquisition (brown et al., 2022). during buddy reading, emergent readers may have more tools to monitor their comprehension leading to better inference/critical thinking scores and showed promise for students’ subsequent individual reading because of more possibilities in modeling and scaffolding from the texts themselves, peers, and teachers (christ et al., 2019). all substantiating the importance of collaboration and mediation, whether by a teacher or peer, when using digital texts in the classroom (florit et al., 2022). another approach for student collaboration around multimodal, digital texts is through inquiry projects that are based on teacher-guided, and student-generated, multimodal text sets (hoch et al., 2019). a text set would allow for planned different uses of texts, beyond whole group instruction, different levels of texts, and different genres of multimodal texts. the continued reshaping of digital literacy and digital texts these studies help show that digital texts, through digital storytelling, their capacity of visual aids, and multimodal resources, have the potential to shape reading comprehension and vocabulary acquisition for emergent readers due to their affordances. the multimodal affordances of digital texts gives early readers even more support while reading as students can use tools in the moment to help with understanding both the text and the context. this is especially important for individual reading time, small group or “buddy” reading, and supporting multilingual students (christ et al., 2019; gleason & martinez, 2024). as technology continues to shape how people read, and how young people are learning to read, literacy education will have to continue to adjust what digital literacy looks like considering that the digital skills needed to interact with digital texts are constantly evolving alongside those texts (florit et al., 2022). the prevalence of digital devices, and as young people are engaged on them even before schooling, will require continued research to understand how literacy education will have to respond to this reality. one reality made clear through this review is that early literacy instruction will have to adjust to engage young children in reading skills that equip them to approach multiple modes of information while engaging with digital texts (cloonan et al., 2020; serafini et al., 2020; wang et al., 2019). conversely, this points out a gap in the research as there are few current studies on the variety of digital books and what needs to be invested in classrooms as this may be a factor of the fast-paced nature of digital technology and tools. research may not also account for the vast variability in school resources across the u.s. and the availability of such technology to teachers and classrooms. while it has been established here that digital book features may help comprehension like the digital tools that are available with the books, further research is needed to understand which 16 georgia journal of literacy 47(1) digital tools and what are the best quality digital texts to pull from (eutsler & trotter, 2020). christ et al. (2019) questions how much research or classroom practice has looked at the difference between the use of older style digital texts and newer app books further arguing that research is behind the technology. most studies regarding digital texts have been done with secondary or college students which does not reflect the reality that digital texts can be in every classroom at every grade level. digital texts and the changing of early reading as the research reviewed for this paper is limited, the changing of early reading instruction because of increased use or availability of digital texts is still in need for further research but there are clear points of consideration for pedagogy. as a baseline, it is important for educators to remember that students will come into the classroom with varying levels of experience with technology (brown et al., 2022) and with the breadth of digital text, content, and educational media that is available now, children may require more individualized instruction or support when engaging with digital texts (christ et al., 2019; neuman et al., 2019) and that engagement may require different pedagogical approaches than print-texts (kontovourki & siegel, 2022). also, educators may need to monitor students’ engagement with the actual devices for the digital texts as this novelty effect, where students are more engaged with the device than the text, could lead to an initial peak of engagement that wanes. however, reich et al. (2019) maintain that sustained engagement with high-quality digital texts, just as with printed texts, is what will have the highest benefit for reading comprehension and vocabulary acquisition. comprehension monitoring and teacher mediation are important parts of potential success with digital texts (christ et al., 2019). even though digital texts, like storybook apps, have many tools that can engage students directly, the research reviewed shows that there is a need for simultaneous acquisition of basic digital skills with child-adult interactions together with digital texts. this need for adult guidance, adult mediation, helps level the playing field for digital text comprehension across mediums (florit et al., 2022). as previously noted, educators will need to consider when to engage with moving from whole-class instruction to individual, group, or buddy reading of digital texts and that research suggests that teacher monitoring should continue from whole-group direct instruction with print texts to individualized or buddy reading with digital texts even if that means monitoring students across text choices and/or platforms (christ et al., 2019; cloonan et al., 2020). this monitoring can look like aiding in text selection, device usage, monitoring the use or non-use of multimodal tools, and engaging in talk about the text. when educators are selecting digital texts for instruction, research suggests that narrative or story book digital texts are the best types of digital texts to work with reading comprehension and vocabulary acquisition (eustler & trotter, 2020; reich et al., 2019). having a dynamic app book selection with appropriately leveled texts, high-quality narrative and illustration options, and digital affordances that uplift interactivity with the text is the best way to consider what type of digital texts are best for reading instruction (christ et al., 2019). also, reich et al. (2019) suggest that in considering the educational affordances of ebooks, it is possible that these verbal outputs during reading, even about the device, could benefit language development. regarding digital texts, or static digital texts, like those used in standardized testing, shimizu (2024) also supports monitoring young students’ engagement with screen reading and for educators to consider that there are many paths to comprehension cobb 17 success with digital texts. with static digital texts, linear reading and linear rereading, like with print texts, is most supportive for reading comprehension (shimizu, 2024), and this is a sharp contrast to other digital texts that are multimodal where linear reading may not be beneficial or appropriate for the text. again, this indicates that even in early reading instruction, educators need to balance print-reading instruction skills with digital reading skills with strategies that more align with digital literacy components. the question of digital texts and early literacy will be ongoing and evolving. there is also the question of what young students prefer and how they are engaging with digital texts before schooling (eutsler & trotter, 2022). for educators, more research is needed to understand what specific reading strategies best support students while reading digital texts and how educators can work with parents to understand what students are interacting with at home digitally and what types of media may actually be beneficial to students regarding digital literacy outside of the classroom (eutsler & trotter, 2022). also, there needs to be further research into how to balance print and digital texts in the classroom and what the best practices are for early literacy educators when scaffolding the reading of digital texts across the classroom. as this review, with recommendations for practice, has looked broadly at digital texts and specific reading components reading comprehension and vocabulary of emergent readers to locate the most current research, it is important to acknowledge that there are limitations to this review and needs for future research that includes early childhood educators and their perspectives on incorporating digital texts in the classroom. while research may suggest ways for early childhood educators to approach digital texts, and how to select digital texts for instruction, teachers may be more limited in their ability to make such pedagogical decisions. therefore, further perspective from educators, specifically early literacy educators, is imperative to research digital literacies. what was found in this review is that digital texts require specific digital literacy skills to be pre-taught, scaffolded, and monitored simultaneously for students just as they would be with print-texts but differ from those print-based skills. with digital texts, students are engaging through a different medium, they have more choices, and they have more agency in their decision making with the text. as far as the best digital texts to use with early readers, high-quality, narrative digital texts with effective visuals may lead to the best reading comprehension and vocabulary acquisition outcomes. what was found in this review is that digital texts require specific digital literacy skills to be pre-taught, scaffolded, and monitored simultaneously for students just as they would be with print-texts but are different from those print-based skills. with digital texts, students are engaging through a different medium, they have more choices, and they have more agency in their decision-making with the text. as far as the best digital texts to use with early readers, high-quality, narrative digital texts with effective visuals may lead to the best reading comprehension and vocabulary acquisition outcomes. digital literacy, and digital texts, will only continue to change, therefore, the research and pedagogical decisions made around them must also evolve and strive to keep up with the fast-paced nature of technology. what is exciting, however, is that there is clear evidence that digital texts, and however they evolve, may give more students engaged, individualized experiences with reading that may more closely mirror the reading choices they will make out of school. educators looking to harness these reading opportunities for their emergent readers can look to digital texts to see what the future of reading may encompass. 18 georgia journal of literacy 47(1) references alvermann, d. e. 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(2016). iplay, ilearn, igrow: tablet technologies and multimodal learning in the early years. in s. garvis, & n. lemon (eds.), understanding digital technologies and young children (pp. 122–138). routledge. received: october 2, 2024 | accepted: march 10, 2025 | published: may 20, 2025 https://doi.org/%e2%80%8c10.5040/9781350268555 https://doi.org/%e2%80%8c10.5040/9781350268555 https://doi.org/10.1002/trtr.2208 https://doi.org/10.17763/haer.66.1.17370n67v22j160u https://doi.org/10.17763/1943-5045-86.3.313 https://doi.org/10.17763/1943-5045-86.3.313 https://doi.org/10.1177/1468798420988756 https://doi.org/10.1177/2332858419869343 https://doi.org/10.1111/bjet.13102 digital literacy and digital texts in literacy theories what are digital texts now locating current research on digital texts, early literacy, and practice table 1: inclusion criterion for scoping review table 2: search terms and results from scoping review references georgia journal of literacy 2024, vol. 46(1), pp. 34–48 https://doi.org/10.56887/galiteracy.138 issn: 2833-7611 practitioner article contact dr. leah panther, assistant professor of literacy education, tift college of education, mercer university, atlanta, ga; email panther_lm@mercer.edu. caitlin hochuli, doctoral candidate in curriculum and instruction, mercer university, atlanta, ga; email caitlin.hochuli@live.mercer.edu. looking for it: language, literacy, and history in place leah panther tift college of education, mercer university, atlanta, ga caitlin hochuli doctoral candidate in curriculum and instruction, mercer university, atlanta, ga abstract within this article, we explore how teachers, researchers, and community members—including youth—worked in collaborative conversations and place-based projects to explore the languages, stories, and histories of their local georgia communities. by examining the process of “looking for it,” as one youth researcher puts it, this article explores three inquiry practices georgia youth use to identify and sustain community language and literacy practices: personal storytelling, walking histories, and breaking bread. these community literacies resulted in youth having a stronger sense of self and community and understanding the relationship between them. additionally, the practices spurred critical thinking, historical inquiry, and socioemotional learning. community exploration through community literacies created the foundation for place-based language, literacy, and history research to take root and flourish. keywords place-based learning; community collaboration; community literacies i want to see people understand that educations not something that’s boxed in, not something that you can all put in a book. you have to go out there and look for it. –naiser, 15 aiser, a self-selected pseudonym, defines education as “not something that’s boxed in” or “you can all put in a book”, rather, at the heart of her advice is moving beyond the traditional four walls of a text, classroom, and school building. this advice comes from two years as a youth co-researcher in the linguistic justice collaboration (ljc); a collaborative whose mission is to identify, design, and sustain the languages, literacy practices, and histories of georgia’s diverse geographical and cultural communities. this work means putting teachers, researchers, and community members—including youth—into collaborative conversations and place-based projects to explore the languages, stories, and histories of their communities. within this article, we explore how eight different ljc projects have gone “looking for it”, as naiser puts it, and what youth have taught us about identifying and sustaining community language and literacy practices in our middle and high school english classrooms. where we’re rooted we (leah and caitlin) are current and former classroom and community educators, researchers, and active community members within georgia. we, like the ljc collaborators, are committed to n mailto:panther_lm@mercer.edu mailto:caitlin.hochuli@live.mercer.edu panther & hochuli 35 schooling that centers local communities and remains accountable to community goals above (and sometimes in opposition to) standardized goals for learning. in other words, we view schooling as spaces that prepare youth for college, career, and community. preparing learners to be active, current citizens in their own communities includes an active exploration of community languages, literacy practices, and understanding the histories that both create, erase, and sustain these communities. these beliefs are summarized in the guiding framework: georgia languages, georgia races, georgia histories, and georgia places (figure 1). figure 1: linguistic justice collaborative’s framework language and linguistic justice what is currently the state of georgia is a snapshot of the language and linguistic diversity across the united states of america, with 10% of residents born outside of the country and 13% of households speaking a language other than english at home (american immigration council, 2023). in addition, georgians who speak english represent a range of linguistic varieties from geechee gullah along the atlantic coastline (turner, 1969) to appalachian “mountain talk” in the north (clark & hayward, 2013, p. 106) to black language throughout the state (dillard, 1973; smitherman, 1999; also called ebonics, african american english, african american vernacular english, and black english), particularly in the atlanta metro area where over 50% of residents identify as black or part of the african diaspora. though, this is not to suggest that all black georgians speak black language nor that all black language speakers are black, particularly given the intersectionalities between race and english language learners (cooper, 2020). furthermore, georgia represents a long history of languages outside of voiced traditions, as well, including one of the first schools for deaf education in the country (gallaudet, 1886). the classrooms throughout georgia reflect the language and linguistic diversity in its communities: learners are their language (anzaldúa, 1981) and bring their full repertoire into learning spaces regardless of how schooling systems do—or often do not—acknowledge, celebrate and sustain these languages and literacy practices (garcía et al., 2021). language and linguistic justice (baker-bell, 2020; hudley et al., 2020) collectively refer to creating systems, structures, 36 georgia journal of literacy 46(1) and pedagogies that value languages and linguistic varieties outside of voiced mainstream white english as the dominant language. throughout history, what is considered effective communication has been shaped by the languages and literacy practices enacted by cultural groups with power, from the erasure of indigenous languages within boarding schools to anti-literacy laws and literacy tests to block civic participation for black americans to english-only policies (spolsky, 2022). each geographic and cultural community develops, adapts, and sustains language and literacy practices that reflect these unique histories and purposes for communicating that are at threat of erasure when they deviate from the myth of a standard english that is associated with proximity to white, middle class, midwestern ways of speaking (baker-bell, 2020; lippi-green, 2016; maracz, 2018). language and linguistic justice honors each community’ languages, language varieties, and literacy practices as ways to sustain individual identities and community identities and prepare learners for more than college and career but for active civic participation in their own communities (mirra & garcia, 2017). this is not to suggest learners would not have full access to learning and growing in english and its various varieties, but rather an expansion of how power is understood within communication practices (cushing, 2021) to identify and abolish racist, ableist, and classist listening practices (baker-bell, 2020; rosa & flores, 2017). this necessarily demands challenges to the way we conceptualize, study, and teach language and literacy if our goals move past college and career readiness and into sustaining selves and communities (maracz, 2018). language and literacy in places broadly, place-based education uses local phenomena and students’ lived experiences to make education meaningful for learners (gruenewald, 2008; smith, 2002). according to sloan (2013), this approach is “conditioning the mind to inquire about the placement, patterns, and origins of our surroundings [in order for] learners to acquire a deeper understanding of culture and place” (p. 28). youth are conditioning their own minds to see how the geographic space of their communities came to be a meaning-filled place over time. furthermore, educators who leverage place-based education facilitate opportunities for learners to inquire about interdisciplinary patterns: the ecological, social, cultural, and historical aspects of society, and connect these meaningful places and their embedded knowledges to themselves (gruenewald, 2008). ideally, as students connect their personal experiences to problem-solving in their communities, they are using communitydeveloped languages, literacy practices, and stories to share their ideas and suggest solutions (smith, 2002). as a result, place-based education has emerged over the past several decades as a transdisciplinary approach to learning that draws from language, literacy, social studies, and science in order to solve problems in youths’ communities. within our georgian communities, as youth engage in local place-based work, language is the basis of that communication: how georgians tell the stories of self and others, and how community members connect to share and develop those stories. this means intentionally working in multiracial, multiethnic, and multilingual teams to ensure the community stories, histories, and problem solving represent the full range of community members’ perspectives, experiences, and valued actions. thus, we draw from place-based learning practices within our work, which can lead to deeper community connections and personal growth through the development of shared language and literacy practices for civic empowerment (silbernagel et al., 2015). exploring language and linguistic justice through a place-based lens ensures youth explore and interpret the historical and cultural contexts of their community more thoroughly than a textbook or curricular resource alone could provide (sedawi et al., 2021). as learners interact with their communities panther & hochuli 37 through hands-on, problem-based exploration, there are more opportunities to connect for youth who previously felt disconnected, better understand their individual identity, and find their place within their community (donovan, 2016; 2013; sedawi et al., 2021). unboxing education: language and linguistic justice in place based education the linguistic justice collaborative (ljc) is a research-practice partnership where teachers, teacher educators, community members, and youth collaboratively identify, design, and sustain the language and literacy practices. the work of identification and design of community language and literacy practices is through sustained, participatory action research within communities that is led by community educators and/or youth. within this manuscript, we draw from two participatory research projects to illustrate these findings (table 1). table 1: place-based projects project name original program advertisement additional context storying tucker: who is tucker? this free summer literacy program is available for youth aged 13-17 in the tucker area. tucker became a city in 2016, but it was a community long before that. what is the history of tucker? who is tucker today? and what could the future of tucker be? a small group of tucker youth will be co-researchers to record and capture tucker’s stories, voices, and community histories. the end results will be guided by youth co-researchers, but may include creating podcasts, open access digital archives, adding to tucker’s existing gis map, drafting a white paper for the tucker city council, or book. this project was in its second summer, and in 2023, ten multiracial, multiethnic, and multilingual youth explored the history of peter’s park, a historic black community within tucker, georgia, the history of school desegregation within the city, and a broader look at the transnational entrepreneurs who make up the economic life of tucker, georgia. in the shadow of stone mountain: historicizing shermantown this free summer literacy program is available for youth aged 12-18 in the stone mountain, tucker, smoke rise, mountain park, lilburn, and clarkston area. youth will record and capture the stories, voices, and community histories of shermantown, an african american community within stone mountain village. this will be guided by youth coresearchers, but may include creating podcasts, open access digital archives, a white paper for the stone mountain city government, or book. this project was in its second year, but 2023 was the first year with youth coresearchers. the five youth represented multiracial and multilingual youth who explored shermantown, stone mountain, stone mountain park, and the atlanta history center. collaborators regularly translate the findings of our place-based research projects into traditional schooling settings to sustain community languages, literacy practices, stories, and histories. holistically considering the results of ljc projects from the past three years, we (leah and caitlin) offer the ways we have translated place-based into curriculum and instruction that sustains individual and community identities within our roles as a literacy teacher educator and community language researcher (leah) and community-based educator and place-based researcher (caitlin; see figure 2). these practices consider how to (a) engage youth in exploring their local communities, (b) analyze the historical and media narratives surrounding their communities, (c) 38 georgia journal of literacy 46(1) develop their own inquiry processes, and (d) share their work to support change. within this article, we narrowly explore three community exploration practices using examples from three of our most recent projects (table 1) to consider how community becomes the central curriculum within georgia literacy education. figure 2: participatory process for curricularizing language and linguistic justice in georgia community exploration curriculum describes what knowledge, what language, and which literacy practices are most valued: it is what is explicitly taught, assessed, and ultimately sustained (giroux & penna, 1979). intentionally placing communities at the center of a curriculum is an intentional move to sustain the language, literacies, and valued knowledges of local communities (paris, 2021). youth are not future citizens in training but current community members, capable of posing questions, observing, and interacting with their communities. this asset-based understanding of youth results in coconstruction of a community-based curriculum with youth through practices such as personal storytelling, history walks, and opportunities to authentically “break bread” with community members and elders. personal storytelling. through personal storytelling, learners use their experiences from the community to share their existing knowledge, explore areas of curiosity, and understand multiple perspectives, ultimately setting up an environment for youth to tell stories of themselves and their communities. during a program exploring the history of shermantown, an african panther & hochuli 39 american community within the city of stone mountain, youth began by telling stories about their experiences living in stone mountain, visiting stone mountain park, and the histories their family members and neighbors had already passed down. completing a similar project in tucker, georgia, the youth walked down the city’s main street, stopping in front of each building or greenspace to recall memories of visiting each place, the people who worked there, and the history of the space. the storytelling centered youth languages and language practices as their his collective storytelling sparked additional memories and stories from others where they would take up generational language practices (e.g., leah learned what it meant to be streets ahead figuratively vs. literally) and translanguaging. additionally, youth made connections to history, examples of valued languages, patterns of valued literacy practices, and raised questions to guide further inquiry. starting with youth storytelling in and through community exploration creates space for youth to understand themselves, the history of their community, and the relationship between the two. for example, after participating in ljc projects across two summers, nasier reflected, “i think if you’re coming into a community, you’re bringing something with you, like you’re bringing another identity or like another piece to the community with you, making the community bigger and stronger.” each individual identity has something to add to the overall community, and these identities build a stronger community. these individual identities work together to build unique communities. according to bud, a self-identified lakotan, communities “have their own way of operating, by, um, knowing everybody. the people, the places, the language, the religion. just, like, things that connect them as a community that other communities wouldn’t have. something that like, um, makes them different.” these differences both connect and draw in others while also creating points of difference that lead to unique community language and literacy practices. considering how personal storytelling leads to connections between individuals and communities, fantasma describes the importance of racial identities and intersections of language as part of understanding communities and self. he explained, “i feel like race and language plays a big part of it . . . if you share the same ethnicity with your community, i feel like you’ll bond easier than the other community that’s a different race or this a different ethnicity.” as a multilingual hispanic high school student, he explained how he saw himself in signs written in multiple languages, hearing his youth co-researchers move between spanish and english in their personal storytelling, and his desire to find hispanic community members to conduct interviews for his project in spanish. shared racial, ethnic, and linguistic identities within the stories of coresearchers and within the community strengthened fantasma’s sense of self and self of membership within the community. returning to bud’s explanation of communities having points of “difference” that construct the uniqueness of community, personal storytelling spurred initial community engagement that spurred conversation around points of difference. for naiser, it was questioning why black history was a part of her family’s memories of the area but not a part of what her white co-researchers were taught around their dinner tables. or why bud had visceral memories of what stone mountain park, the world’s largest monument to the confederacy, represented, and others had happy memories of school field trips and family reunions in the same geographic space. these points of difference revealed different valued knowledges that served as the central curriculum for each place-based program. additionally, the differences in language usage to describe personal memories—what one person describes as a corner store another calls a bodega—and differences in literacy practices enacted in the storytelling—from narrative structures to rhetorical devices. 40 georgia journal of literacy 46(1) recognizing language and linguistic differences in personal storytelling reinforces youth connections to their own racial, ethnic, linguistic, and cultural communities (berry et al., 2014) and sustains pluralistic communities by centering youth language, literacy practices, and valued knowledge (paris & alim, 2017). by engaging in personal storytelling, youth also found connections between their stories and the stories of the community, further strengthening their relationship within their learning. youth also had space to explore their personal narratives, building confidence and self-perspective on their role in the community (berry et al., 2014). through this exploration, youth found a greater sense of belonging and understanding of their community. walking history. within our place-based programs, youth were learning in their communities by being in their communities: walking throughout neighborhoods, traveling to historic locations, and retracing the literal steps described during storytelling. rather than prefacing these walks with a mini-lecture, powerpoint, or reading on the history of the locations we were visiting or walking past. instead, the walk itself became the setting for authentic dialogue and artifact-based historical learning, resisting traditional approaches to history education. for example, stopping at street signs to pose a question about the meaning of the street’s name before offering the story (figure 1), pausing on a walk to observe changes in buildings’ facades to make predictions about eras of economic growth in the area (figure 2), or responding in the moment to question evoked during a personal storytelling session, such as providing context to who the united daughters of the confederacy were when youth did not have personal stories to tell about a location on a walk (figure 3). figure 3: using community resources, example 1 note. here, a street sign is a curriculum for learning history and historical literacies. panther & hochuli 41 figure 4: using community resources, example 2 note. here, architecture is a curriculum for learning economics and financial literacies. figure 5: using community resources, example 3 note. here, a donated monument is a curriculum for learning history and critical literacies. as youth walked through their communities—and therefore through community histories—they engaged in various language and literacy practices: speaking and listening with community members, photographing their experiences, writing down questions in their research notebooks, and tracing maps using gps and gis technologies. these moments 42 georgia journal of literacy 46(1) leveraged their existing language and literacy practices to explore historical contexts and connect them to the present-day community. dr. squiggles, a rising junior, described herself as “not much of a reader” but took great pleasure in interviewing community members about a range of topics, particularly when she was the one taking notes and relistening to the audio to catch details her youth co-researchers may have missed. bruce enjoyed taking the lead in asking the questions, and bando explained, “i silently collected data. i wasn’t asking questions like that. i was listening. i’m like, just, if you just sit and listen to that person instead of asking a lot of questions, it usually helps.” as a team, the youth drew from one another’s existing strengths: speaking, listening, and note-taking to create historical narratives that lizzie scripted and fantasma directed: he guided lizzie and bud to perform the scripts in the same locations described in the narratives and where initial interviews took place. the youth created youtube shorts that functioned as a public digital archive of their research, which was collected, analyzed, and disseminated based on history walks: one that sustained the history of the town while expanding access to the stories through multiple languages. ultimately, through their experiences with history walks, youth leveraged and challenged one another to develop critical literacies through their collective historical inquiry and challenged their language communities to be a part of the historical remembering. across programs, the pattern of history walks resulting in community engagement was sustained. garnett, a rising senior who had recently moved into the community, explained the importance of attaching new memories and experiences to being within the geographic community, “. . . understanding the place that like i’m . . . walking around every day. i’m driving by every day. i’m living in, like, i feel so much better knowing now, like more history behind it and more of the people and the elders.” she especially appreciated black community members in their 80s being willing to share their experiences with a white teenager: and i also just like, love that they had somebody like to talk to, like, like they had, like they, all of them said that they like love that like young people are interested and like they have young people to talk to. . . i will sit there and listen to you talk for hours, like, which i just loved it. it just like made, in like a nonselfish way, it just made me like feel really good about myself and knowing that like i got to know more about the community, but me, too. i love it. garnett loved listening to community elders at prearranged church gatherings, stopping in the streets, and being called to join them on their porches as we walked through the neighborhood. as a result of these history walks, which turned into extended conversations, garnett knew more about the community, “but me, too.” as learners engaged in history walks, they combined experiences of historical sites, neighborhoods, and community members’ perspectives to explore the history and present day of a place captured in photographs, audio recordings, and videos that facilitated continued exploration and meaning-making of these experiences. through these artifacts, students created a story of their place, which in turn made youth more likely to identify as members of their community while still bringing their full racial and linguistic identities into the space (donovan, 2016). place-based learning allows youth to engage in self-reflection and discovery while encouraging a reciprocal relationship with the community (janson et al., 2013). learning becomes transformational instead of transactional, and as youth reflect on their role within the community, they see how essential they are to sustaining the culture and history of their place (pisters et al., 2023). walking history was one such practice that created panther & hochuli 43 literal and figurative space for these transformational moments for youth to find and intentionally place themselves in the community. breaking bread. youth co-researchers routinely described and defined community as more than a geographic area or a shared cultural history, but as a changing and dynamic place where people are “known,” “work together,” “help one another,” and—above all—action-oriented. dr. squiggles described the action as “choosing to be a part of it.” naiser added, “to learn about it” and “be involved in something bigger. . .[being] willing to build a community.” in sum, that community is the active choice to build and sustain a place. part of our place-based program prioritized spending time in the community with community members but also actively building and engaging with the community. for example, eating meals at locally owned restaurants when meeting with community members, economically supporting local businesses where interviews took place, and asking community members what they wanted to see the youth create or do as a result of their research. literally and figuratively, community engaged research was centered on opportunities for “breaking bread.” breaking bread designs opportunity to talk and interact with community members and elders where the elders feel most comfortable in the community to break down potential barriers and build up meaningful relationships with community spaces. as youth participated in these experiences, they saw where they lived differently. garnett shared how talking with elders left her wanting to learn more, sharing, “give me all the conversations. the elder wisdom. i’ll take it all” referring to a porch conversation with a community elder that was in stark contrast to her usual experiences in history and english classes: i feel a lot like, in a way, like better about myself now. . .i always knew that there was so much history here, but like so many books and stuff, well, one, i’m not, i am not a huge fan of like reading nonfiction. i’m very bad at reading nonfiction. i love to read, but nonfiction is not my thing. and, but i will sit there and listen to somebody talk for hours. so i did not wanna leave that woman. i loved her. through breaking bread as part of community exploration, garnett developed a personal connection to a community member, and the community’s history was made relevant. similarly, naiser explained the identity of the community was “to me is the people, cuz without the people. then you’re not gonna have the business, you’re not gonna have the libraries, you’re not gonna have all this because they bring it in, right?” thus, spending time with the people in the places they had created—drinking a smoothie together at a coffee shop or walking on the trail at the neighborhood park—made her understanding of the people, the history, and the place that much deeper. for both garnett and naiser, breaking bread led to more than knowledge; it also developed socioemotional literacies or practices for listening with empathy and communication compassion. bud similarly found breaking bread with community members was essential to his socioemotional learning, stating when “you know about where you are and what people are there and what makes it a place. . . [that] knowledge of people allows you to be a more compassionate and kind person.” elisa explained how difficult these moments could be, recalling a luncheon at a local church with a group of elders who had different perceptions of the community’s racialized history, particularly their interactions with the ku klux klan in the 1950s: on some of the particular interviews where people were just saying stuff that you don’t necessarily think is true or believe in, it’s just kind of like challenging to not like push their buttons by like asking more about it. . . like she [a community elder] 44 georgia journal of literacy 46(1) was just very persistent, straightforward with her answers, and like, you asked her a follow-up question, she would kind of just say the same thing, but in like a stronger tone in a way. and it’s like, okay, well like that’s not really what i’m asking. like if you ask her about anything, she’s like, it’s just the same answer that she’s given the press a million times. which, like, i get, like you do an interview or amount of times, you’re going to kind of just, you know, feed the same information. but it’s like, okay. we’re asking her in-depth questions. like we’ve actually studied, like, it’s not just like, oh, like a reporter. like we’ve sat here all week and studied the town that you grew up in. we’ve interviewed multiple people that you grew up with and heard their stories. . . like just trying not to be like, ‘well, i heard different from somebody else’ was just kind of difficult cuz it’s like i don’t wanna argue. at all. and i don’t wanna make anybody angry. but it’s also like, okay. i just don’t think that that’s true. having heard stories that contradicted the community member’s recollection, elisa struggled to know when to listen and when to ask follow up questions or press a particular point. garnett contrasted the same community elder with another breaking bread experience, getting an early lunch with the first woman to desegregate a local elementary school. referring to the former, “and she was like, she clearly had some strong emotions, and she felt like some, you know, some negative things. anyway, that’s what i expected most people to feel like, and i feel like that’s very justified,” and contrasted the experiences with the latter community elder: but then when we were meeting with [a different community elder] and how she was able to take away. . . it shaped her and made her stronger. . . that was a really shocking takeaway because, like, i don’t know everybody, they just have every right to be angry about the way that they were treated and about the way that they had to like, lead their lives, have every right to be angry and she wasn’t. and she, i don’t know. i just, i don’t know how i make sense of all the different, um, the different react like reactions to the experiences and the takeaways that they had. because like i seriously don’t understand how [the one community elder] was able to like, walk away feeling like. . . her being treated horribly, like made her the person she is today. . . i don’t have that kind of inner peace. where one community member denied the existence of hard things, and others chose to remain angry—justifiably so, according to garnett—the ability to share a meal with a community member who forgave the racist actions of her classmates and framed these experiences as formative was difficult to make sense of. it revealed her own struggle to find “inner peace” while giving garnett a model of mercy that appealed to her. finding community through shared language and literacy practices helps learners develop social awareness and empathy as they make connections and communicate with each other within and across their languages (venegas, 2019). while the benefits of learning together are significant, learning histories with community members helped amplify the development of interpersonal literacies (bone, 2005). bringing in these moments for interpersonal and intergenerational connection across a kitchen table or smoothie from the local coffee shop invited cross-cultural conversations and deepened the bonds made in these connections: both to one another, the community, and geographic place (haddix et al., 2016). the shared geographic places also began to remove cultural barriers and invited warm, inclusive conversations that, in turn, created a sense of belonging (haddix et al., 2016). through these inter-generational conversations, youth and panther & hochuli 45 elders create a space to talk about the history and present day realities of societal challenges with kindness and compassion. from community to curriculum engaging youth in placed-based community exploration through personal storytelling, walking histories, and breaking bread resulted in youth having a stronger sense of self, community, and understanding the relationship between them. additionally, it supported language and literacy practices that spurred critical thinking, historical inquiry, and socioemotional learning. these opportunities are not reserved for community education programs but can be translated into georgia middle and high school classrooms, as well. at times, this means bringing the community into the traditional classroom due to the constraints of budgets, field trip procedures, and funding (table 2). table 2: place based practices in the georgia curriculum place based community exploration practices connections to georgia curriculum create opportunities for personal storytelling • making narrative units multimodal, where learners can integrate video tours, photographs, or self-created maps of where the narrative takes place. • bellringer or activator activities in class that use local photographs, maps, and landmarks as prompts • using voicethread to make text-to-community connections that learners add to and branch from, creating a multivocality of personal stories related to required curricular texts. participate in walking history tours • use googlemaps street view to “walk through” a street in your city as a class to reinforce how to write directions in a “how to” speech while also making authentic connections to the local community. • shift to a “living book report” and invite students to video record a conversation with a family member, neighbor, or friend as they walk through a place with significance. breaking bread and porch talks with community elders • ask students whom they would like to invite to class via microsoft teams or zoom as primary sources while working on a research essay. • invite local community members to your class publishing party to celebrate the youth writing—and perhaps the community members! however, given the potential for community exploration experiences to support language, literacy, and history learning and the success of youth participatory action research projects, we also offer examples of how georgia educators can take up community exploration in both small and largescale ways to ensure learners’ languages, literacy practices, and historical inquiries take root and flourish (table 3). table 3: engage in community exploration action ideas examples create opportunities for • create prompts to aid in group discussion before visiting a site or discussing a topic • before a community resource walk in stone mountain, we asked everyone in the group: “what are your experiences with stone mountain park?” and “what 46 georgia journal of literacy 46(1) personal storytelling • while walking through a community site, stop in front of each building, monument, sign, or street to share stories about personal connections to the place or historical knowledge. • ensure at least one historical or presentday community member is included on place-based community exploration trips to make sure personal stories and connections to place are included. • use a physical or digital map to track your route and put “pins” in locations associated with community members’ and youth stories. have you heard others share about stone mountain?” • during a community resource walk in tucker, we traced our route on a googlemaps printout and then added our photographs and audio recordings to a gisstorymap. participate in walking history tours • invite community members with historical knowledge to lead walking history tours of specific areas, including local parks, historic neighborhoods, a business district, or meaningful geographic sites. • record interviews with historical societies or community members to create audio walking tours. • photograph and video record sites throughout the community to create youtube shorts, gisstorymaps, and other digital tools that recreate placebased learning. • use qr codes to let other visitors to community places experience the community members’ stories, local histories, and youth created guides. • we audio and video recorded the president of the tucker historical society during a walking tour of main street. • youth recorded personal histories of community members that could be posted next to historical artifacts in a local museum to add additional local context to displays. breaking bread and porch talks with community elders • work with community organizations, including historical societies, local government, volunteer groups, and places of worship, to identify community leaders and elders. • seek to join community elders in their preferred spaces, such as attending a meeting or event, having lunch, or sitting on their porch. • attending community events (e.g., a tent at a festival) and being present in community spaces (e.g., a table at a coffee shop) to invite community members to share their stories with youth. • bring technology to record stories (e.g., audio and video recorders) and historical artifacts (e.g., scanner app, portable 3d scanner). • youth brought pie to community members and sat on their porches to hear the history of the local neighborhood. • youth joined a group of community elders 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(2022). some thoughts on the relation between language, dialect, and literacy. in e. saiegh-haddad, l. laks, & c. mcbride (eds.), handbook of literacy in diglossia and in dialectial contexts: psycholinguistic, neurolinguistic, and educational perspectives (pp. 1– 7). springer international publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-80072-7_1 turner, l. d. (1969). africanisms in the gullah dialect. arno press. venegas, e. m. (2019). “we listened to each other”: socioemotional growth in literature circles. the reading teacher, 73(2), 149–159. https://doi.org/10.1002/trtr.1822 funding the research reported in this article was made possible by a grant from the spencer foundation (#10030359). the views expressed are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the spencer foundation. received: january 9, 2024 | accepted: march 10, 2024 | published: may 15, 2024 https://doi.org/10.3102/0091732x1769012 https://doi.org/10.1080/00131725.2021.1957634 https://doi.org/10.1017/s0047404517000562 https://doi.org/10.1007/s11165-019-09903-y http://doi.org/10.1007/s11852-015-0380-1 https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ej1045830.pdf https://doi.org/10.1177/003172170208300806 https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-80072-7_1 https://doi.org/10.1002/trtr.1822 where we’re rooted figure 1: linguistic justice collaborative’s framework language and linguistic justice language and literacy in places unboxing education: language and linguistic justice in place based education table 1: place-based projects figure 2: participatory process for curricularizing language and linguistic justice in georgia community exploration figure 3: using community resources, example 1 figure 4: using community resources, example 2 figure 5: using community resources, example 3 from community to curriculum table 2: place based practices in the georgia curriculum table 3: engage in community exploration references georgia journal of literacy 2024, vol. 46(2), pp. 20–37 https://doi.org/10.56887/galiteracy.139 issn: 2833-7611 practitioner article contact dr. william p. bintz, professor of literacy education; college of education, health, and human services; school of teaching, learning, and curriculum; kent state university, kent, oh; email wbintz@kent.edu. abbey galeza, doctoral candidate, school of teaching, learning, and curriculum; kent state university, kent, oh; email agaleza@kent.edu. from paired text to blended genres: pairing picturebooks with poems william p. bintz kent state university, kent, oh abbey galeza kent state university, kent, oh abstract this article introduces the concept of blended genres and describes a rationale for using blended genres to teach important topics in the english language arts (ela) classroom. it begins with a vignette that sparked curiosity about, and the motivation to develop, a variety of blended genres. it describes blended genres as rooted in traditional notions of paired text, provides theoretical background on the benefits of paired text, and highlights intertextuality as one important benefit, among others. it shares examples of blended genres and illustrates samples of instructional strategies used with blended genres to support intertextuality and student learning on important topics in english language arts (ela). it ends with concluding thoughts. keywords paired text; blended genres; picturebooks; poetry; ela instruction; intertextuality ecently, one of us (bill bintz, the first author) read aloud mr. archimede’s bath (allen, 1994) to students enrolled in a graduate class entitled reading across the content areas. here is a precis: mr. archimedes likes to take baths with his friends, kangaroo, wombat and goat. the problem is that the water in the tub always overflows and makes a mess in the bathroom. he suspects the problem is one of his friends. mr. archimedes conducts an experiment by filling the bathtub with water and measuring the height of the water with a yardstick. he orders each of his friends to individually get in and get out of the bathtub, watching the behavior of the water. mr. archimedes includes himself in his experiment and finds the surprising and unexpected solution to the problem. bintz read aloud mr. archimede’s bath for three reasons: (a) promote the use of picturebooks for teaching content area material across the curriculum, (b) demonstrate the use of picturebooks to teach about important science and scientists, and (c) introduce or reintroduce, students to the life, times, and discoveries of archimedes, and how he used the scientific method to solve real problems throughout his life. after reading, bintz invited students to share their understandings of the text and write reflections on the whole experience. all students responded positively about mr. archimede’s bath, especially about using picturebooks to teach content area material across the curriculum. one response was particularly interesting. r mailto:wbintz@kent.edu mailto:agaleza@kent.edu bintz & galeza 21 i never liked science very much and was always confused about the scientific method. however, i love this picturebook because it makes the scientific method understandable. it is also a good introduction to archimedes. this picturebook reminded me of a poem, “bring back archimedes.” it would be great to read the book and the poem together to students. bintz shared this response with a colleague (abbey galeza, the second author), and the response caught her attention. we recognized mr. archimede’s bath and “bring back archimedes” (smith, 2016) was a paired text. at the same time, however, we realized that this combination of a picturebook and a poem introduced us to a new way to develop a paired text, one that blends two different genres. she and i started to develop blended genres of picturebooks and poems based on important topics related to reading and writing, including libraries and librarians; letters, words, and wordplay; parts of speech; school; books; and stories. we also created instructional strategies that teachers can use with blended genres to help students make intertextual connections across texts. this article introduces the concept of blended genres and provides a rationale for using this curricular resource to teach key topics in the english language arts (ela) classroom. a vignette, presented earlier, sparked the curiosity and motivation to explore various blended genres. the article defines blended genres, building on traditional ideas of paired texts, and offers a theoretical background on their benefits, particularly emphasizing intertextuality. it includes examples of blended genres; alongside instructional strategies designed to foster intertextuality and enhance student learning. the article concludes with final reflections on the use of blended genres in the classroom. paired text a blended genre is rooted in the traditional concept of a paired text. conceptually, a paired text consists of two texts that are interrelated in some way, e.g. topic, theme, concept, etc. (bintz, 2015). it is based on the notion that “reading is making connections between the books readers are currently reading and their past experiences” (short et al., 1995, p. 358). paired texts help readers “develop both an expectation for connections and strategies for making the search for connections more productive and wide ranging” (short et al., 1995, p. 537). the next section identifies several benefits of paired texts. benefits of paired text there are many benefits to paired text for students and teachers. for students, benefits, among others, include: (a) they enable students to learn about one book from the other, and reading and sharing understandings of paired text can contribute to learning across all subjects (neufeld, 2005, p. 302), (b) they enable students to share and extend understandings of each text differently than if only one text had been read and discussed (short et al., 1995, p. 537), (c) they help students to read one text and in the process build background knowledge for reading a second, related text (soalt, 2005, p. 680), (d) they provide experiences with multiple genres and content areas, (e) they demonstrate how different genres provide students with different lenses for interpreting text (murray, 1985, p. 122) and therefore different ways of knowing about texts (paretti, 1999), (f) they highlight different text structures, specialized vocabulary, captions, diagrams, subheadings, maps, etc., (g) they increase vocabulary by seeing same words in different contexts, and (h) they increase motivation to explore topics students are not initially interested in (soalt, 2005, p. 681). 22 georgia journal of literacy 46(2) in addition, paired have many benefits for teachers. perhaps most importantly, paired text is a curricular resource that is based on a multiple-text, not a single-text (textbook), mentality. this mentality posits that multiple, interrelated texts help students read broadly and deeply, make intertextual connections between texts, and learn new information from, about, and through books. paired text is also reflective of and consistent with common core state standards (ccss, 2010). for example, while ccss does not explicitly use the term intertextuality, the ccss does provide a rationale for developing and using paired text in the classroom. one ela standard states that students will “analyze how two or more texts address similar themes or topics in order to build knowledge or to compare the approaches the authors take” (ccss, 2010, p. 10). operationally, paired text is a curricular resource that helps teachers at all grade levels and all content areas to put intertextuality into action and address this ccss standard in the classroom at the same time. intertextuality the process of intertextuality is one of the most important benefits of paired text. this term was first coined in the 1960s by julia kristeva (allen, 2019) and essentially means “to weave together” (king-shaver, 2005, p. 1). since then, much professional literature continues to focus on the importance of intertextuality, commonly referred to as making connections between texts (harvey & goudvis, 2017). intertextuality refers to the “personal connections students make between the books they are currently reading and their past experiences” (short et al., 1995, p. 358). instructionally, paired text is one way to put intertextuality into action in the classroom. it invites and supports students in making of connections across texts. in the process, students develop both an expectation for connections and strategies for making the search for connections more productive and wideranging (short et al., 1995, p. 537). the next section describes different ways to pair text. ways to pair text there are many ways to develop a paired text (bintz, 2015). one is to pair contradictory texts, two texts that tell the same story in contradictory ways. one example of a contradictory paired text is rosa (giovanni, 2005) and claudette colvin refuses to move (wilkins, 2020). another is to pair corresponding texts, two texts that address the same theme. one example of a corresponding paired text is the case for loving: the fight for interracial marriage (alko, 2015) and the hello, goodbye window (juster, 2005). still another way is to pair companion texts, two texts that complement each other by addressing the same topic in a content area. one example of a companion paired text is cycling: lance armstrong’s impossible ride (sandler, 2006) and major taylor: champion cyclist (cline-ransome, 2004). these ways of pairing text are traditional in the sense that they consist of two texts from the same or similar genres, e.g. two narrative texts, two informational texts, two short stories, etc. recently, however, much research has advanced the idea of the development of text sets using expanded, not traditional, formats of texts (lupo et al., 2020; tracy et al., 2017). for example, in addition to traditional texts like picturebooks, expanded ideas of formats include newspapers, cartoons, field guides, websites, tweets, blogs, songs, podcasts, poems, etc. similarly, cappiello and dawes (2021) provide examples of linked text sets (nwesd communications, 2019; see also cummins, 2017; pytash et al., 2014). these text sets consist of non-traditional texts like multimodal and multi-genre texts, including, among others, digital texts, youtube videos, news articles, podcasts. these kinds of non-traditional texts offer students different formats to bintz & galeza 23 read, different voices to hear, and different perspectives to consider. here, we share paired texts that consist of picturebooks and poetry and refer to these paired texts as blended genres. blended genres the concept of blended genres is rooted in traditional notions of paired text. like paired text, blended genres consist of two texts and are used to support the process of intertextuality and enhance student learning. unlike traditional paired text, blended genres consist of two texts from two different genres. here, we share examples of blended genres. because we are literacy educators, we developed these blended genres around several major categories associated with literacy. these categories include librarians and libraries; letters, words, wordplay, punctuation; parts of speech; school; books; and stories. we see these blended genres as a curricular resource that english/language arts teachers can use to actively engage students in learning, creating, and representing intertextual connections across two different genres. we developed these blended genres with several considerations in mind. these considerations included highlighting the important role of librarians and libraries; selecting popular topics in reading and writing like wordplay, punctuation, parts of speech; highlighting high-quality literature in the form of narratives and biographies and poetry for its content, rhyme, and rhythm; noting the power and potential to actively engage readers in the reading process and enable them to create intertextual connections and support new learning on a specific topic. we also created several instructional strategies teachers can use with these and other blended genres. blended genres and instructional strategies in this section, we share examples of blended genres about certain topics (librarians and libraries; letters, words, wordplay, and punctuation; parts of speech; life at school; books; and stories) along with illustrated samples of instructional strategies (refer to figures 1–6) used with blended genres. blended genres about librarians and libraries. the storyteller’s candle (gonzález, 2013) is a narrative, and “librarian” (hopkins, 2018) is a poem. each text focuses on the importance of librarians and together represent a blended genre. the storyteller’s candle is a dual language book (english and spanish) that tells the story of pura belpre, a talented storyteller who became the first puerto rican librarian in the new york public library system. during the time of the depression (1929–1935), many puerto rican people left their homeland and moved to new york city. one morning, on the way to school, three puerto rican children passed a library and wanted to enter. mother explained the problem: they do not speak english, and the people inside do not speak spanish. however, that afternoon, a woman named pura belpre came and read to their class in both english and spanish. afterward, she invited all the children to visit the public library; the children couldn’t wait to go! inside, pura belpre lit a candle and read stories to the children. afterward, she invited the children to make a wish and blow out the candle. the wish was to decorate the reading room to celebrate five kings day, involving the community, all of whom heard people speaking english and spanish at the library. “librarian” is a poem about a man who opened a door and the world to those who stepped through it. the man was a librarian. spheres of intertextual connections is an instructional strategy that can be used with any blended genre. one way to teach this strategy, along with the other strategies illustrated in this 24 georgia journal of literacy 46(2) article, can include a two-stage process: teacher demonstration and student engagement. for demonstration, teachers can do the following: (a) organize students in pairs or small groups of 3– 4 to support collaboration and discussion, (b) prepare and distribute a blank copy of the strategy to each student, (c) display a selected blended genre to students and introduce each text with a picturewalk or book chat, (d) demonstrate the strategy by reading aloud both texts, pausing at strategic times to identify and record some intertextual connections between the texts on an illustrated class strategy, and (e) as a culminating experience, invite student discussions on the paired text, reflections on the intertextual connections, questions about completing the strategy on their own. for engagement, teachers can follow the same procedure with a different blended genre but this time inviting students to identify, discuss, and record intertextual connections between the two texts. here, we used this strategy with the storyteller’s candle and “the librarian” (see figure 1). similar to a venn diagram, this strategy illustrates three major intertextual connections: power of libraries, potential of libraries, and power of books. a fourth circle illustrates important differences between the texts. table 1 in the appendix illustrates additional blended genres on a variety of topics and concepts about libraries and librarians. figure 1: spheres of intertextual connections the storyteller's candle & "librarian" power of librarians literally, both librarians opened a library door and invited people inside. metaphorically, both librarians opened up new worlds for guests. power of books both librarians knew that books can change lives. they knew that books could lead guests anywhere and everywhere. differences (1) one librarian is anonymous, other is famous pura belpre. (2) in "librarian," location is unknown. belpre was in ny public library. (3) unlike story, "librarian" did not include multicultural perspective. (4) historical time different in story and poem. potential of libraries both librarians saw the potential of libaries for guests to build community, a place where guests of all ages and backgrounds can not only meet new faces but also bring new faces to the library. bintz & galeza 25 blended genres about letters, words, wordplay, and punctuation. intertextual connections chart is an instructional strategy that can be used with any blended genre. here, we used it with noah webster & his words (ferris, 2015) and “dictionary” (àmọó, 2019). figure 2 illustrates four intertextual connections: main character, need for dictionary, power of dictionary, dictionary today. short descriptions of how texts address each connection appear below. table 2 after the article illustrates additional blended genre on a variety of topics and concepts about letters, words, wordplay, and punctuation. figure 2: intertextual connections chart main character need for dictionary need for dictionary dictionary today text noah webster & his words (ferris, 2015) the main character is noah webster. the webster family wanted noah to be a farmer just like his father and continue the family tradition. noah webster, however, did not love farming, but loved learning and words throughout his life. at the time of the revolutionary war in the united states, no such thing as a dictionary existed. noah webster created the first dictionary, the first of many to come. webster forecasted that the dictionary would be a friend to all americans. noah webster saw power in a dictionary. he saw it as a tool for people to learn, not just individual words, but also pronunciation and spelling of words, as well as words that have similar meanings. noah webster predicted that people would value a dictionary for generations to come. people will always search for the meaning of a word, as well as different meanings for the same word. today, the american dictionary is the 2nd most popular book printed in english. poem “dictionary” (àmọó, 2019) the main character is an unnamed person who is also a reader, writer, and lover of words. the main character sees the dictionary as a friend and “helper to all.” it is a friend now and will be a friend with future editions. the main character realizes the power of a dictionary as a library in and of itself, and a helper to all throughout life, especially in finding and using words that add richness to the english language. the main character also recognizes that a dictionary is universal and will be valued forever because individuals, especially readers and writers, will also need and want to search for the meaning of a word. blended genres about parts of speech. h-map is an instructional strategy that we used with alfie the apostrophe (donohue, 2006) and “apostrophe” (vanderwater, 2021). figure 3 illustrates the letter h with short summaries of each text in the left and right columns and intertextual connections in the middle of the letter. table 3 illustrates additional blended genres on various topics and concepts about parts of speech. 26 georgia journal of literacy 46(2) figure 3: h-map text alfie is an apostrophe who does not want to audition for the punctuation mark talent show, even though he has perfected his work with possessives and contractions. mommy and daddy apostrophes convince him otherwise. at the show, bud asterisk, master of ceremonies, starts the show. alfie competes against hiram the hyphen, question marks, exclamation marks dressed in cheerleader costumes and pompoms, parentheses, commas, and a group of periods and hyphens (the “dots & dashes.” alfie shows a magic trick, making one word from two (won’t vs. will not). he was the star of the show. poem an unnamed apostrophe speaks to other letters, words, and punctuation marks, thanking them for his popularity but feels the need to set the record straight. the record is that he is a sign of ownership, like when he hangs around with the letter s. he also joins little words, like when he makes couldn’t from could not. he also talks to readers and writers, warning them to be careful when they use him. otherwise, he’ll create distractions. 1. both texts portray an apostrophe as a person and main character. 2. both are cautionary tales saying the apostrophe is very popular but often misunderstood and misused. 3. both texts stress the importance of the apostrophe for readers and writers. 4. both texts use academic vocabulary for uses of an apostrophe, e.g. possessive, omission of letters. 5. both texts use wordplay. blended genres about life at school. interwoven connections is an instructional strategy that we used with a fine, fine school (creech, 2003) and “good morning, dear students” (nesbitt, 2005). figure 4 illustrates four interwoven connections: principal is narrator, disrupting the normal, element of surprise, lasting lessons. short descriptions of how texts address each connection appear above and below, respectively. table 4 illustrates additional blended genre on a variety of topics and concepts about life at school. figure 4: interwoven connections “good morning, dear students” elementary school principal addressing all students. good morning, dear students, please put your pencils down and go back to bed. principal tells students today would different. they will spend the day playing outside not studying in class, and teachers will give them a rest, not a test, school is a place for learning and learning can be fun. principal is narrator disrupting the normal element of surprise lasting lessons a fine, fine school elementary school principal addressing all students and teachers. because everybody is learning so well, principal wants to have school all week, and on holidays and even in summer. tillie, a student tells principal that because she is in school all the time, her dog is not learning how to climb trees and return sticks. school is a place for learning, learning can be fun, but school is not the only place learning takes place. bintz & galeza 27 blended genres about books. identifying & describing intertextual connections is an instructional strategy that can we used with book (lyon & catalanotto, 1999) and “adventures with books” (blumhagen, 2015). figure 5 illustrates intertextual connections in the middle and short descriptions of how texts address these connections in the left and right columns, respectively. table 5 illustrates additional blended genre on a variety of topics and concepts about books. figure 5: identifying & describing intertextual connections book intertextual connection adventures with books the word book appears on every page and is illustrated in innovative ways. both texts focus on the importance of reading books and i can find with one good look, just what i want inside a book. a book is a house that is all windows and doors. a book is a chest that keeps the heart’s treasure. both texts use metaphors on the power and potential of books books are ships that sail the seas, to lands of snow or jungle trees… books are trains in many lands, crossing hills or desert sands… learn the secret passages. turn pages, corners, holding your breath. book, boon, companion both texts provide perceptions of books as a companion, one that is enjoyable adventurous and providing a sense of wonderment for readers. books are gardens, fairies, elves, cowboys, and people like ourselves dear friend, dear reader, look at the book you have just opened. what is it you hold in your hand? a book is a farm, its fields sown with words. reader, you are its weather. now you meet. both texts use 3rd person narration to talk directly to the reader come, let us read! for reading’s fun. blended genres about stories. z-map is an instructional strategy that we used with james marshall’s cinderella (karlin, 2001) and “poor cinderella” (nesbitt, 2009). this strategy, like the h-map used the letter h, uses the letter z to illustrates intertextual connections. figure 6 illustrates intertextual connections in the middle of the letter z and short summaries of each text above and below, respectively. table 6 illustrates additional blended genre on a variety of topics and concepts about stories. 28 georgia journal of literacy 46(2) figure 6: z-map cinderella cinderella has a mean stepmother who treats her differently than her two stepsisters. she was forced to work from morning to night. she started the fire and made meals every day, while others rested. one day, the king and queen announced a ball for the prince. cinderella was forced to make beautiful gowns for her stepsisters but was not allowed to go to the ball. on the night of the ball, cinderella’s fairy godmother appeared and tapped cinderella on her head with a magic wand. cinderella now wore a beautiful gown, glass slippers, and a carriage waited to take her to the ball. she danced through the night and met the prince. in her haste to return home by midnight, cinderella accidentally left one slipper at the ball. the prince found the shoe and looked for the beautiful girl who wore it to the ball. in the end, he found cinderella, and they married happily ever after. “poor cinderella” cinderella has a mean stepmother and does not allow her to see films rated pg-13, have a cell phone, notebook computer, and play video games. she has unfashionable clothes, no chauffeur to drive her to school, and no time limit for bedtime. prince charming announces a ball, but cinderella has nothing to wear. she surfs the internet to find things to wear. no fairy godmother contacts her to help. cinderella’s sister married the prince, and cinderella still complains her stepmother is so mean. concluding thoughts we started this article with a vignette about a student who made intertextual connections between the picturebook mr. archimede’s bath, and the poem “bring back archimedes.” these connections sparked our curiosity and prompted new conversations about moving beyond traditional notions of paired text and towards developing and using blended genres in the classroom. we hope this article will spark some new curiosities, start some new conversations, and generate some new inquiry questions about the power and potential blended genres. references allen, g. (2019, may 23). intertextuality. oxford research encyclopedia of literature. https://oxfordre.com/literature/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780190201098.001.0001/acrefore -9780190201098-e-1072 bintz, w. (2015). using paired text to meet the common core: effective teaching across the k–8 curriculum. guilford press. https://oxfordre.com/literature/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780190201098.001.0001/acrefore-9780190201098-e-1072 https://oxfordre.com/literature/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780190201098.001.0001/acrefore-9780190201098-e-1072 bintz & galeza 29 cappiello, m. a., & dawes, e. t. (2021). text sets in action: pathways through content area literacy. stenhouse publishers. common core state standards. (ccss). (2010). common core state standards for english language arts and literacy in history/social studies, science, and technical subjects. https://corestandards.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/09/ela_standards1.pdf cummins, s. 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(1999). intertextuality, genre, and beginning writers: mining your own texts. in k. l. weese, s. l. fox, & s. greene (eds.), teaching academic literacy: the uses of teacherresearch in developing a writing program (pp. 119–134). routledge. pytash, k. e., batchelor, k. e., kist, w., & srsen, k. (2014). linked text sets in the english classroom. the alan review, 41(1), 52–62. https://scholar.lib.vt.edu/ejournals/alan/ v42n1/pdf/pytash.pdf short, k., harste, j., & burke, c. (1995). creating classrooms for authors and inquirers (2nd ed.). heinemann. soalt, j. (2005). bringing together fictional and informational texts to improve comprehension. the reading teacher, 58(7), 680–683. https://doi.org/10.1598/rt.58.7.8 tracy, k. n., menickelli, k., & scales, r. q. (2017). courageous voices: using text sets to inspire change. journal of adolescent & adult literacy, 60(5), 527–536. https://doi.org/10.1002/ jaal.613 literature cited alko, s. (2015). the case for loving: the fight for interracial marriage (s. qualls, illus.). arthur a. levine books. allen, p. (1994). mr. archimede’s bath. puffin. àmọó, f. (2019, january). “dictionary.” hello poetry. https://hellopoetry.com/tag/dictionary/ ?page=3 https://corestandards.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/09/ela_standards1.pdf https://ascd.org/el/articles/the-case-for-multiple-texts https://doi.org/10.1002/trtr.1869 https://doi.org/10.1598/rt.59.4.1 https://www.nwesd.org/ed-talks/linked-text-sets-a-strategy-for-deeper-learning/ https://scholar.lib.vt.edu/ejournals/alan/v42n1/pdf/pytash.pdf https://scholar.lib.vt.edu/ejournals/alan/v42n1/pdf/pytash.pdf https://doi.org/10.1598/rt.58.7.8 https://doi.org/10.1002/jaal.613 https://doi.org/10.1002/jaal.613 https://hellopoetry.com/tag/dictionary/?page=3 https://hellopoetry.com/tag/dictionary/?page=3 30 georgia journal of literacy 46(2) blumhagen, v. (2015). “adventures with books.” book kids blog. https://bookkidsblog. wordpress.com/category/book-inspiration/ cline-ransome, l. (2004). major taylor: champion cyclist (j. e. ransome, illus.). atheneum books. creech, s. (2003). a fine, fine school (h. bliss, illus.). harpercollins. donohue, m. r. (2006). alfie the apostrophe (j. adinolfi, illus.). albert whitman & co. ferris, j. c. (2015). noah webster and his words (v. x. kirsch, illus.). clarion books. giovanni, n. (2005). rosa (b. collier, illus.). henry holt & co. gonzález, l. (2013). the storyteller’s candle (l. delacre, illus.). lee & low books. hopkins, l. (2018). “librarian.” in school people (e. shi, illus.; pp. 28–29). wordsong. juster, n. (2005). the hello, goodbye window (c. raschka, illus.). scholastic. karlin, b. (2001). james marshall’s cinderella (j. marshall, illus.). puffin books. lyon, g. e., & catalanotto, p. (1999). book. dk children. nesbitt, k. (2009). “poor cinderella.” in my hippo has the hiccups: and other poems i totally made up (e. long, illus.; pp. 136–137). sourcebooks jabberwocky. nesbitt, k. (2005). “good morning, dear students.” poetry foundation. https://www.poetryfound ation.org/poems/47154/good-morning-dear-students sandler, m. (2006). cycling: lance armstrong’s impossible ride. bearport. smith, d. (2016). “bring back archimedes.” poetry soup. https://www.poetrysoup.com/poem/ bring_back_archimedes_807345 vanderwater, a. l. (2021). “apostrophe.” in l. b. hopkins (ed.), a bunch of punctuation (s. bloch, illus.; pp. 8–9). wordsong. wilkins, e. j. (2020). claudette colvin refuses to move: courageous kid of the civil rights movement. capstone press. https://bookkidsblog.wordpress.com/category/book-inspiration/ https://bookkidsblog.wordpress.com/category/book-inspiration/ https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poems/47154/good-morning-dear-students https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poems/47154/good-morning-dear-students https://www.poetrysoup.com/poem/bring_back_archimedes_807345 https://www.poetrysoup.com/poem/bring_back_archimedes_807345 bintz & galeza 31 table 1: libraries and librarians title author copyright genre schomburg: the man who built a library carole boston weatherford 2019 biography “the prologue” carole boston weatherford 2019 poem library on wheels: mary lemist titcomb and america’s first bookmobile sharlee glenn 2018 biography “the bookmobile” kay umland 1952 poem the librarian of basra: a true story from iraq jeanette winter 2006 biography “hearing of alia muhammed baker’s stroke” philip metres 2014 poem planting stories: the life of librarian and storyteller pura belpre anika denise 2019 biography “librarian” lee bennett hopkins 2018 poem the book woman heather henson 2008 historical fiction “portrait of a pack horse librarian” allison c. rollins 2020 poem library lil suzanne williams 1997 fiction “in the library” charles simic 2008 poem waiting for the biblioburro monica brown 2011 fiction “poem-mobiles” j. patrick lewis 2014 poem the boy who was raised by librarians carla morris 2007 fiction “branch library” edward hirsch 2003 poem bats at the library brain lies 2008 fiction ‘don’t go into the library” alberto rios 2017 poem tomas and the library lady pat mora 1997 fiction “my first memory (of librarians)” nikki giovanni 2007 poem library lion michelle knudsen 2006 fiction “don’t go into the library” alberto rios 2017 poem the library sarah stewart 1995 fiction “because of libraries we can say these things” naomi shihab nye 1998 poem splat the cat and the late library book rob scotton 2016 fiction “overdues” shel silverstein 2002 poem richard wright and the library card william miller 1997 fiction “library card” olivia d michaels 2003 poem poetree shauna lavoy reynolds 2019 fiction “the buffalo in the library” brod bagert 2002 poem a library nikki giovanni 2022 fiction “library poem” julia donaldson 2015 poem 32 georgia journal of literacy 46(2) the library book michael l. mark 2017 fiction “books! books!” jordan hetrick 2015 poem table 2: letters, words, and wordplay title author copyright genre a river of words: the story of william carlos williams jennifer bryant 2008 biography “words” gunadevi rajaratnam 2022 poem noah webster: weaver of words pegi deitz shea 2021 biography “my dictionary” carl d’souza 2021 poem enormous smallness: a story of e.e. cummings matthew burgess 2015 biography “to e.e. cummings” brian p. cleary 2004 poem the right word: roget and his thesaurus jenn and jennifer bryant 2014 biography “thesaurus-saurus” charlie brown 2023 poem stacey’s extraordinary words stacy abrams 2021 autobiography “the power of words” omkar atale 2014 poem ann and nan are anagrams: a mixed-up word dilemma mark shulman 2013 fiction “the tot and the elder” olin & billy foblioso 2014 poem the keeper of wild words brooke smith 2020 fiction “reflections” lynne c. fadden 2002 poem eating the alphabet lois ehlert 1989 fiction “eating alphabet soup” j. patrick lewis 2014 poem tongue twisters for kids riley weber 2016 humor; fiction “toucan can-can” kenn nesbitt 2022 poem word play adam lehrhaupt 2017 humor; fiction “the parts of speech” unknown 2017 poem table 3: parts of speech title author copyright genre twenty-odd ducks: why every punctuation mark counts lynne truss 2008 informational “in a world of punctuation” lucy h. 2014 poem punctuation takes a vacation robin pulver 2004 fiction “it’sfuntoleavethespacesout” kenn nesbitt 2012 poem if you were a period nick healy 2009 informational “period” (in a bunch of punctuation) jane yolen 2021 poem bintz & galeza 33 exclamation mark amy krouse rosenthal 2013 fiction “!!!!!!!!-superhero kaboom-!!!!!!!!!” (in a bunch of punctuation) julie larios 2021 poem question marks say “what?” michael dahl 2019 informational “questions marks” (in a bunch of punctuation) lee bennett hopkins 2021 poem eats, shoots & leaves: why commas really do make a difference lynne truss 2006 informational “stop awhile” brian p. cleary 2004 poem greedy apostrophe: a cautionary tale jan carr 2009 fiction “apostrophe” amy ludwig vanderwater 2021 poem the girl’s like spaghetti: why you can’t manage without apostrophes! lynne truss 2007 humor; fiction “apostrophe” (in a bunch of punctuation) amy ludwig vanderwater 2021 poem code blue – calling all capitals! pamela hall 2009 fiction “sisters” lucille clifton 2003 poem silent letters loud and clear robin pulver 2008 fiction “silent letters” magiclight 2016 poem parts of speech for kids erin jacobs 2014 informational “parts of speech” mark hurlin shelton 2017 poem preand re-, misand dis-: what is a prefix? brian p. cleary 2015 informational “poemsicle” shel silverstein 1981 poem there is a tribe of kids lane smith 2016 fiction “collective nouns” gregory h. wlodarski 2021 poem nouns and verbs have a field day robin pulver 2006 fiction “signs” john frank 2015 poem merry-go-round: a book about nouns ruth heller 1990 informational “the grammar lesson” steve kowit 2003 poem fantastic! wow! and unreal! a book about interjections and conjunctions ruth heller 1998 informational “sentenced” vionet 2020 poem find your function at conjunction junction pamela hall 2009 fiction “conjunction” justin reamer 2013 poem under, over, by the clover: what is a preposition? brian p. cleary 2002 informational “tire attire” hannah borke 2017 poem many luscious lollipops: a book about adjectives ruth heller 1989 informational; nonfiction “life’s about the adjectives” michael benton 2007 poem up, up and away: a book about adverbs ruth heller 1991 informational 34 georgia journal of literacy 46(2) “silently” josie whitehead poem kites sail high: a book about verbs ruth heller 1988 informational “at the seaside” robert louis stevenson 1947 poem things that are most in the world judi barrett 1998 fiction “superlatives” nae ayson 2015 poem chips and cheese and nana’s knees: what is alliteration brian p. cleary 2017 informational “zzzzz” kenn nesbitt 2001 poem dear deer: a book of homophones gene baretta 2007 informational “here me write” babu 2016 poem table 4: school title author copyright genre first grade takes a test miriam cohen 2006 fiction “the test” harrison 1993 poem the king of kindergarten derrick barnes 2019 fiction “a kindergarten song” (in muse) carrie williams clifford 2006 poem miss malarkey’s field trip judy finchler 2006 fiction “we had a field trip yesterday” jack prelutsky 2012 poem i didn’t do my homework because… davide cali 2014 fiction “i tried to do my homework” kenn nesbitt 2018 poem field-trip fiasco julie danneberg 2015 fiction and then a flaming pterodactyl ate “my homework” evelyn swartz 2021 poem pecan’s spelling bee championship roger james 2021 fiction “the spelling bee” rowe 2016 poem first day jitters julie danneberg 2000 fiction “jitter glitters” krissy miner poem last day blues julie danneberg 2000 fiction “teacher blues” lyss 2019 poem angela anachonda: school is a necessary evil kent redeker 2001 fiction “sick” shel silverstein 1970 poem little yellow bus erin guendelsberger 2022 fiction “the yellow school bus” betty hermelee 2019 poem walking to school ethel turner 1989 fiction “let’s walk to school” wigan council no date poem big test jitters julie danneberg 2020 fiction bintz & galeza 35 “exam stress” lovewell no date poem thank you, mr. falker patricia polacco 1998 fiction “hero in the classroom” susan t. apaarejo 2009 poem the recess queen alexis o’ neill 2002 fiction “all i ask” caitlyn dwyer 2015 poem a day at damp camp george ella lyon 1996 fiction “summer camp souvenirs” richard thomas 2019 poem rondo in c paul fleischman 1988 fiction “audition” hope anita smith 2016 poem table 5: books title author copyright genre wild about books judy sierra 2004 fiction “books to the ceiling” arnold lobel 2015 poem bookie the book loving bear sonica ellis 2021 fiction “i love to read the books” mohit chahal 2013 poem the incredible book eating boy oliver jeffers 2006 fiction “how to eat a poem” eve merriam 1990 poem a child of books oliver jeffers 2016 fiction “invitation” shel silverstein 1974 poem miss brooks loves books! barbara bottner 2010 fiction “adventures with books” velda blumhgaen no date poem the world that loved books stephen parlato 2008 fiction “there is a land” leland b. jacobs 1990 poem the important book margaret wise brown 1977 fiction “the secret song” margaret wise brown 1952 poem a story for bear dennis haseley 2002 fiction “good books” guest 2014 poem you read to me and i’ll read to you mary ann hoberman 2006 fiction “read to me” jane yolen 1987 poem read for me, mama vashanti rahaman 1997 fiction “read to me” jane yolen 1987 poem the magic bookmark iraklis lampadariou 2016 fiction “i am a bookmark” ryan o’rourke 2017 poem look, a book! libby gleeson 2017 fiction “adventure” anonymous no date poem 36 georgia journal of literacy 46(2) the reader amy hest 2012 fiction “storyboat” bobbi katz 2013 poem table 6: stories title author copyright genre finding winnie: the true story of the world’s famous bear lindsay mattick 2015 nonfiction “pooh bear” elisabeth 2018 poem earmuffs for everyone: how chester greenwood became known as the inventor of earmuffs meghan mccarthy 2015 biography “i sing the earmuff electric” mary fons 2013 poem the marvelous thing that came from a spring gilbert ford 2016 biography “slinky” ima ryma 2013 poem the boy who thought outside the box: the story of video game inventor ralph baer marcie wessels 2020 biography “the games in my room” kenn nesbitt 2018 poem mighty jackie: the strike-out queen marissa moss 2004 biography “take me out to the ballgame” jack norworth 1993 poem bill, the boy wonder: the secret cocreator of batman marc tyler nobleman 2012 biography “batman” jan allison 2015 poem silver packages: an appalachian christmas story cynthia rylant 1987 fiction “appalachia with love” andrew welsh 2020 poem kate and the beanstalk mary pope osborne 2005 fiction “jack and the beanstalk” summer song 2006 poem snow white and the seven dwarfs: a tale from the brothers grimm grimm & grimm 1987 fiction “snow white: the anti-fairytale” emily reid 2013 poem little red writing joan holub 2016 fiction “little red riding hood & the wolf” roald dahl 2009 poem goodnight ipad: a parody for the next generation ann droyd 2011 fiction “the dragon of death” jack prelutsky 1993 poem the wretched stone chris van allsburg 1991 fiction “too much tv!” roann mendriq 2015 poem the widow’s broom chris van allsburg 2018 fiction “the witch who lost her broom!!!” prarthana gururaj 2023 poem bintz & galeza 37 playing right field willy welch 1995 fiction “the right fielder” tom lakin 2021 poem received: february 18, 2024 | accepted: august 5, 2024 | published: november 15, 2024 paired text benefits of paired text intertextuality ways to pair text blended genres blended genres and instructional strategies figure 1: spheres of intertextual connections figure 2: intertextual connections chart figure 3: h-map figure 4: interwoven connections figure 5: identifying & describing intertextual connections figure 6: z-map concluding thoughts references literature cited table 1: libraries and librarians table 2: letters, words, and wordplay table 3: parts of speech table 4: school table 5: books table 6: stories georgia journal of literacy 2024, vol. 46(1), pp. 78–100 https://doi.org/10.56887/galiteracy.132 issn: 2833-7611 practitioner article contact dr. william p. bintz, professor of literacy education; college of education, health, and human services; school of teaching, learning, and curriculum; kent state university, kent, oh; email wbintz@kent.edu. dr. lisa parker, associate professor of language and literacy education; school of humanities & social sciences; penn state, the behrend college, erie, pa; email lmc61@psu.edu. using companion texts to widen student perspective across the curriculum william p. bintz school of teaching, learning, and curriculum; kent state university, kent, oh lisa parker school of humanities & social sciences; penn state, the behrend college, erie, pa abstract this article is based on an unexpected experience between a grandfather (william bintz, the first author) and his six-year-old granddaughter. this experience sparked a collaborative inquiry project that explored companion texts as a new way to develop paired texts. the purpose of this article is to share examples of companion texts and instructional strategies to use across the curriculum. we begin by describing four theoretical frameworks underpinning the notion of companion texts. these include the concept of paired text, the benefits of paired text, the process of intertextuality, and reader response theory. next, we describe companion texts as a new way to pair texts and include a rationale for the development and use of companion texts across the curriculum. then, we share samples of instructional strategies that teachers can use with companion texts to widen student perspectives and enrich knowledge across the curriculum. we end with concluding thoughts. keywords literature; paired text; companion texts; intertextuality teachers can be bearers of gifts . . . we have the privilege of introducing good literature to young, imaginative minds. (cullum, 1967, p. 23) his article introduces the notion of companion texts as a new way to develop paired texts and shares examples of instructional strategies teachers can use with these texts to widen student perspective and learning across the curriculum. we begin with a vignette between a granddaughter and grandfather (william) that sparked our interest in developing and using companion texts in the classroom. we situate companion texts within four major theoretical frameworks: (a) the concept of paired text, (b) the benefits of paired text, (c) the process of intertextuality, and (d) reader response theory. next, we describe companion texts as one way to pair texts, include a rationale for the development and use of companion texts, and share examples of companion texts across the curriculum. then, we share samples of instructional strategies teachers can use with companion texts to widen student perspectives across the curriculum. we end with concluding thoughts. vignette one of us (william) has a six-year-old granddaughter who just finished kindergarten at the time. since preschool, she and i have practiced a tradition of visiting a local bookstore to browse and t mailto:wbintz@kent.edu mailto:lmc61@psu.edu bintz & parker 79 purchase picturebooks. afterward, we went to an ice cream parlor to enjoy some ice cream while we read a few of the picturebooks we bought together. recently, she and i visited one bookstore, sat on the floor, and started browsing the picturebooks. at one point, my granddaughter showed me the front cover of a book and stated, “grandpa, look at this one. i like it.” the book was the hello, goodbye window by norton juster. (juster, 2005). here is a precis: this story describes and illustrates the loving relationship between nanna, poppy, and their granddaughter. when the granddaughter visits, she must pass a large kitchen window. the window is important to the little girl because this is how she first sees nanna and poppy when she visits them. sometimes, they play peek-a-boo with her or make funny faces through the window. once inside the house, other fun and games continue. the colorful illustrations of nanna and poppy suggest a multicultural family and interracial marriage and thus have much power and potential to address the topic of diversity. i asked my granddaughter, “why do you like that book?” she responded, “it has pretty colors, and a little girl like me is in the story.” i asked, “how is she like you?” she started flipping through the pages of the book, stopped at one point, and stated: see, here’s the little girl, and here’s her grandma and grandpa. they are playing with the little girl inside their house. i like it because it’s like you, grandma, and me. you and grandma play with me when i come to your house. let’s buy it. i bought it and we read the story while later sharing a delicious chocolate sundae. reflection afterward, i reflected on this experience as a grandfather and a literacy teacher educator. as a grandfather, reading this picturebook to my granddaughter at the ice cream parlor was an enjoyable experience. while eating her chocolate sundae, she stopped periodically and made many personal connections to the little girl and her grandparents. for example, she stated, “see, grandpa, the little girl is playing with her grandma and grandpa, just like you and me when we play with my dolls.” as a literacy teacher educator, i was not surprised but intrigued by the personal connections she made to the text. i read the picturebook again by myself, and, like her, also made several personal connections to the text. for example, the picturebooks reminded me of the fun times i had when i visited my own grandparents as a child. it also reminded me of two friends who, like the grandma and grandpa in the story, enjoy a happy, interracial marriage. at the same time, i also made professional connections between the picturebook, the hello, goodbye window and another one of my favorite picturebooks, the case for loving: the fight for interracial marriage by selina alko. here’s a precis: the case for loving: the fight for interracial marriage (alko, 2015) tells the story of a remarkable but little-known family consisting of mildred loving, her husband richard perry loving, and their three children. mildred and richard fell in love and were married in washington, d.c. it was an interracial marriage. when they relocated back to their hometown in virginia, they were arrested because of a state law that prohibited interracial marriage. mildred and richard were determined not to allow their children or themselves to consider their marriage was wrong. for years, they fought the unfair law, eventually bringing their case before the highest 80 georgia journal of literacy 46(1) court in the land. in 1967, the supreme court issued its decision in loving vs. virginia, in favor of mildred and richard loving. i shared this whole experience with a colleague who is also a literacy teacher educator (author 2). at one level, we saw these two picturebooks as a traditional paired text that shares a variety of intertextual connections. for example, both picturebooks address the topic of cultural diversity and interracial marriage. both involve happy families, one with married grandparents from different cultures and a granddaughter, and the other with married parents from different races and three children. both include illustrations that beautifully complement the text. at another level, we saw important differences between this paired text. these differences included genre, narration, tone, time, and purpose. the hello, goodbye window is realistic fiction, whereas the case for loving: the fight for interracial marriage is nonfiction and includes an author’s note, bibliographic references, and suggestions for further reading. the hello, goodbye window is told through first-person narration by the little girl, whereas the case for loving: the fight for interracial marriage is told through third-person narration. the tone of the hello, goodbye window is evocative. it indirectly suggests, rather than directly states, through illustrations that nana and poppy are in an interracial marriage. the tone of the case for loving: the fight for interracial marriage is not suggestive, but direct and factual. the hello, goodbye window is told as a contemporary story, one that is occurring in present time, whereas the case for loving: the fight for interracial marriage is a historical story, one that occurred in 1958. lastly the purpose of the hello, goodbye window is to entertain, whereas the purpose of the case for loving: the fight for interracial marriage is to inform. in the end, we continue to see these two picturebooks as a traditional paired text. at the same time, we see this pair of picturebooks as a different way to conceptualize and a new way to develop paired text. specifically, we view these picturebooks as companion texts. companion texts the word companion is defined as “one of a pair of things intended to complement or match each other” (google dictionary, n.d.). typically, this definition of “things” often refers to two people, be they companions, friends, colleagues, significant others, married couples, etc. while a pair, companions are also independent people who live their own lives in their own ways. at the same time, companions enjoy each other’s company and spend much time together. in the process, they enrich their own life as well as the life of their companion. here, we refer to two texts, not as human companions, but as companion texts. they are a paired text on a particular topic in which each text complements and enriches the other in unique ways. here, we focus on one way; namely, companion texts complement each other by working together to widen student perspective and enrich knowledge across the curriculum. we believe that widening student perspective is essential. for some time now, carolyn burke (1995), an internationally recognized reading and curriculum theorist, has stated that a significant goal of curriculum and curriculum development is to widen student perspective. one way to widen student perspective is to provide multiple and different perspectives on a particular topic or theme. companion texts do just that. for example, reading the hello, goodbye window first provides not only a heartwarming and entertaining story but also an excellent introduction to the notion of cultural diversity and interracial marriage. among other things, this introduction can provide some initial background knowledge for students unfamiliar with interracial marriage, as well as extend existing background knowledge for students who are already familiar with interracial marriage. bintz & parker 81 the case for loving: the fight for interracial marriage is a companion text because it widens the perspective on and enriches the knowledge of cultural diversity and interracial marriage. this picturebook provides an important historical perspective on cultural diversity and interracial marriage, a perspective missing in the hello, goodbye window. for instance, nanna and poppy are depicted as happy, loving, and healthy grandparents in the hello, goodbye window. however, there is no information included, in text or illustration, that directly states or indirectly suggests, that nanna and poppy may have experienced challenges before, during, or after their interracial marriage. moreover, the case for loving: the fight for interracial marriage widens the historical perspective on interracial marriage. unlike nanna and poppy, it describes the many significant challenges richard loving and mildred jeter faced before, during, and after their interracial marriage in 1958. one challenge was that they lived and wished to marry in virginia; however, virginia, and many other states at the time, was a segregated state. therefore, mixing of races was strictly prohibited. another challenge was the fact that interracial marriage was illegal at the time. laws at the time, existed to prosecute and punish people who married interracially. nevertheless, richard and mildred married. soon after, however, they were arrested, charged with “unlawful cohabitation”, and imprisoned in jail. several days later, were given an ultimatum by law enforcement: leave virginia or stay in jail. reluctantly, they moved to washington, d.c. after six years, however, they moved back to virginia in 1966, vowing to overturn the law. ultimately, they did just that. they won their case in the supreme court. unfortunately, they also continued to encounter and overcome many challenges that continued in the state. since then, of course, increasing numbers of people have engaged in interracial marriages in virginia, across the united states, and around the world. fortunately, many of these marriages did not have to face challenges like segregation and the threat of incarceration. however, richard loving and mildred jeter did face both and, although it wasn’t documented in this picturebook, continued to face other challenges and threats, even though they won their case in court. ultimately, we see this paired text as an example of a companion text. individually, each addresses cultural diversity and interracial marriage in different ways. together, they both introduce and widen student perspective on cultural diversity and interracial marriage. in the next section, we describe the theoretical framework underpinning the notion of companion texts. theoretical framework paired text. paired text is not a new concept. much research has been conducted and much professional literature has been published on the development and implementation of paired text (ciecierski et al., 2016, 2017; lupo et al., 2019). historically, paired text have been defined conceptually as two texts that are related in some way, e.g. genre, theme, topic, etc. (short et al., 1988). it is primarily a curricular resource that is based on a multiple-text mentality. this mentality posits that multiple, interrelated texts help students read broadly and deeply, make intertextual connections between texts, and learn new information from, about, and through books. instructionally, paired text is grounded in a theory that posits learning is a matter of creating patterns that connect (bateson, 2000). in other words, students learn something new when they can make connections to something they already know. benefits of paired text. benefits of paired text. when thinking about the benefits of paired text, we find it helpful to remember the words of plotinus (the six enneads, n.d.), who stated, “it is a wise man who can learn about one thing from another.” from this perspective, we 82 georgia journal of literacy 46(1) believe that paired text has several benefits. among others, these include: 1) they enable students to learn about one book from the other and reading and sharing understandings of paired text can contribute to learning across all subjects (neufeld, 2005, p. 302), 2) they enable students to share and extend understandings of each text differently than if only one text had been read and discussed (short et al., 1996, p. 537), 3) they enable students to read one text and in the process build background knowledge for reading a second, related text (soalt, 2005, p. 680), 4) they provide experiences with multiple genres and content areas, 5) they demonstrate how different genres provide students with different lenses for interpreting text (murray, 1985, p. 122) and therefore different ways of knowing about texts (paretti, 1999), 6) they increase vocabulary by seeing exact words in different contexts, and 7) they increase motivation to explore topics students are not initially interested in (soalt, 2005, p. 681). intertextuality. intertextuality is a term first coined in the 1960s by julia kristeva (allen, 2000) and essentially means “to weave together” (king-shaver, 2005, p. 1). since then, much professional literature continues to focus on the concept of intertextuality. today, it is commonly referred to as making connections between texts (harvey & goudvis, 2017). intertextuality refers to the “personal connections students make between the books they are currently reading and their past experiences” (short et al., 1988, p. 358). paired text is based on the notion of intertextuality. reading paired text invites and supports the making of intertextual connections across texts. in the process, students develop both an expectation for connections and strategies for searching for connections more productive and wide-ranging (short et al., 1996, p. 537). the common core state standards (ccss, 2010) does not explicitly use the term intertextuality. however, the ccss does provide a rationale for developing and using paired text in the classroom. one standard states that students will “analyze how two or more texts address similar themes or topics in order to build knowledge or to compare the approaches the authors take” (ccss, 2010). operationally, paired text is a curricular resource that helps teachers at all grade levels and all content areas to put intertextuality into action and address this ccss standard in the classroom at the same time. reader response theory. historically, reader response theory, also known as the transactional theory of literature, gained international attention based on the work of louise rosenblatt (1994). fundamentally, this theory posits that a literary text picturebook, short story, novel, poem, etc.) does not inherently possess a fixed, correct, or final meaning. in fact, it posits that a literary text has multiple meanings, what van leeuwen (2015; see also, halliday, 1978) characterizes as meaning potentials, depending on the reader, the context, the purpose for reading, etc. the meaning(s) of a literary text is the result of “the two-way transactional relationship between the reader and the text” (rosenblatt, 1978, p. 21). simply stated, reader response theory posits that a literary text does not have a predetermined meaning and the role of the reader is to discover that single meaning; rather, a literary text has meaning potentials, and the role of the reader is to create personal meanings depending on personal interest, background knowledge, purpose and context for reading, opportunities for discussion, etc. finally, this theory posits that reader response of personal meanings can be viewed along a continuum ranging from aesthetic at one end and efferent at the other end (rosenblatt, 1995; see also, rosenblatt, 1994; 2005). aesthetic refers to a personal response and is commonly referred to as making connections to self and others. efferent refers to a response that is information and commonly referred to as making connections to similar books, topics, and themes. making aesthetic or efferent, or both, depends on the reader's stance and the purpose of the reading. bintz & parker 83 example of reader response theory. the vignette described earlier is an example of reader response theory at work. for example, my granddaughter and i responded very differently to the hello, goodbye window. essentially, and of course, without knowing it (she’s five years old), my granddaughter took an aesthetic stance to the hello, goodbye window. during and after reading aloud the picturebook to her, she made personal responses and connections to the text. for example, she made connections to herself and the girl in the story. she made connections to her grandparents. like the girl, she has two grandparents. she made connections to her parents. like the girl, her parents drop her off at her grandparents’ house so they can spend time together. she made connections to games. like the girl, her grandparents play games with her in their house. lastly, like the girl, she finds it hard to say goodbye but knows she will visit her grandparents again soon. i, too, took an aesthetic stance to the hello, goodbye window. during and after reading it aloud to my granddaughter, i made personal connections to the text. for example, i made connections to the times i visited with my own grandparents, and i also played games with them in their house. i also made connections to friends of mine who are involved in interracial marriages. afterward, however, i reread the picturebook. i did so because i wanted to take an efferent stance on the text. specifically, i wanted to read the text from the perspective of a teacher and reading educator to explore how i might be able to use it in my graduate courses. in other words, i wanted to make professional, not just personal, connections to the text. one efferent connection was that i saw this paired text as an opportunity to illustrate the power and potential of taking a contemporary and historical perspective on an important historical event, in this case, interracial marriage. another connection was that i saw this paired text as a different way to pair text. i already knew that there are a variety of ways to pair text. one way is to pair contradictory texts, e.g., two texts tell the same story but in contradictory, and corresponding texts, e.g., two texts address the same theme but in different ways. i saw this paired text as another way to pair companion texts. examples of companion texts across the curriculum in this section, we share examples of companion texts across the curriculum, specifically in english language arts, social studies, science, and math. english language arts cycling: lance armstrong’s impossible ride (sandler, 2006) and cycling: lance armstrong’s impossible ride (sandler, 2006) are companion texts on the topic of famous and little-known professional cyclists. cycling: lance armstrong’s impossible ride (sandler, 2006). this picturebook is an inspirational and illustrated biography of cyclist and cancer survivor lance armstrong. he is regarded as one of the greatest cyclists in sports history at both the amateur and professional levels. in 1991 he was the national amateur cycling champion. he went on to win six consecutive tour de france races. afterward, he was diagnosed with cancer and courageously survived. lance armstrong’s accomplishments in the sport of cycling are unparalleled in the 20th century. major taylor: champion cyclist (cline-ransome, 2004) is a companion text because it widens the perspective not only on the life of lance armstrong and the sport of international cycling but also on important but little-known accomplished cyclists who preceded him. this picturebook tells the remarkable story of marshall taylor, an internationally recognized and accomplished cyclist who preceded lance armstrong by almost a century. taylor grew up in 84 georgia journal of literacy 46(1) indiana, and by 1891, people in his community were amazed at this thirteen-year-old black boy who could perform amazing stunts on his bicycle. over the years, people began to call this teenager major taylor because of the red military uniform he wore while riding his bicycle. at the age of eighteen, he became a professional cyclist. later, major taylor became an american hero by winning the world cycling title at the age of twenty-one, while also encountering and battling racism all along the way. this companion text can broaden the perspective on the history of international cycling. one text can be used to introduce lance armstrong as a famous international cyclist. it can also extend understanding for students already familiar with lance armstrong. at the same time, this companion text can introduce major taylor as an accomplished but little-known international cyclist, as well as spark student curiosity about other little-known sports figures who have not received their well-deserved recognition. figure 1 illustrates an instructional strategy in the form of a graphic organizer that students can use to record and discuss intertextual connections between a companion text. we used it with companion texts on lance armstrong and major taylor. in addition, table 1 illustrates other companion texts on the topic of sports and sports figures. figure 1: interwoven companion texts lance armstrong started riding bike at 7 years old, rode everywhere, hills, city, countryside throughout texas competing in state bike races. turned pro in 1992. was diagnosed with cancer at age 25. received treatments and was cured of cancer. beating cancer made him stronger. mom bought lance first bike. she encouraged & supported him throughout his career and life, especially while he was surviving cancer. won the 1993 world championships. created the lance armstrong foundation for cancer survivors. won tour de france seven straight years. retired in 2005. history challenges and struggles support and mentorship victories major taylor humble beginnings. marshall taylor road a bike to deliver papers and became a “crackerjack cyclist.” gained notoriety from working at a local bicycle shop cleaning and doing bike tricks wearing a military uniform, thus became known as major taylor. became a professional at the age of 18. press called him “the black whirlwind.” encountered challenges off track, including segregated restaurants, turned away because races were “for whites only,” interfered with, and harassed by white cyclists during races. local bike shop owners hired marshall to work in the shop. the southard family provided him with a new bike. mr. hay introduced marshall to racing and encouraged him to win bicycle races. louis monger mentored him as a racer. won his 1st race at age of 13. won the 1899 world cycling championship and the 1900 world championship in france. in the end, major taylor finally received the respect and recognition he earned, deserved, and wanted. social studies a picture book of lewis and clark (adler, 2003) and my name is york (steenwyk, 1997) are companion texts based on the topic of the lewis and clark expedition. a picture book of lewis and clark (adler, 2003) provides an informative and colorful introduction to meriwether lewis and william clark and their famous journey into unknown territory. it provides a historical account of the “corps of discovery” led by lewis and clark, as they set out in 1804 on a journey for american expansion. the explorers overcame many bintz & parker 85 difficulties along the way, such as bitter cold winters, dangerous snakes, troublesome mosquitoes, grizzly bears, and endless rain and snowstorms. ultimately, lewis and clark were triumphant, reaching the pacific ocean in november 1805. while informative and enjoyable, this picturebook focuses the narrative almost exclusively on lewis and clark. for example, the “corps of discovery” consisted of a total of thirty american explorers, but little, if any, information was provided on any of the other explorers. one of the explorers, however, was a man named york. he was captain clark’s enslaved person and accompanied clark on this journey westward in hopes of becoming a free man. my name is york (steenwyk, 1997) is a companion text to a picture book of lewis and clark (adler, 2003) because it provides a broader perspective to this historical event and the people involved in it. unlike a picture book of lewis and clark, which is told in 3rd person narration, my name is york is told by york in first person narration. throughout the story, york invites readers into his world and in the end reveals his secret. unlike captain clark, york seeks freedom, not the “western waterway.” he also reveals pride when captain clark carved the names of all “corps of discovery” members on a pine tree after reaching the pacific ocean, including the name of york. this companion text can broaden the perspective on the famous lewis and clark expedition. a picture book of lewis and clark can be used to introduce students to lewis and clark and the adventure of western expansion. it can also be used to extend understanding of students who already possess some understanding about the expedition. my name is york widens the perspective by introducing and acknowledging york, a famous but little known african american historical character who was a valuable member of the expedition. figure 2 illustrates an instructional strategy in the form of a graphic organizer that students can use to record and discuss intertextual connections between a companion text. here, we use it with the companion texts a picture book of lewis and clark and my name is york. figure 2: complimentary companion texts • both texts identify york as the lifelong enslaved person of captain william clark and accompanied clark on the journey westward. york • both texts identify sacagawea as a north american indian woman and wife of canadian interpreter toussaint charbonneau, also a member of the corps of discovery and describe her importance to the expedition by helping lewis & clark befriend potential hostile indians. sacagawea • both texts identify dangers on the journey including snakes, mosquitoes, large gnats, grizzly bears, freezing weather, water rapids, as well as discoveries including immense herds of feeding buffalo, unknown species of plants & flowers, native forests & high mountain ranges. dangers & discoveries • both texts identify and describe the ultimate triumph of the lewis & clark expedition, namely, they successfully found a northwest passage and in the process journeyed back and forth acrossthe vast american continent. triumphs 86 georgia journal of literacy 46(1) table 2 presents companion texts on the lewis and clark expedition, while table 3 features additional companion texts covering various social studies topics. science star stuff: carl sagan and the mysteries of the cosmos (sisson, 2014) and look up! henrietta leavitt, pioneering woman astronomer (burleigh, 2013) are companion texts on the topic of astronomers and astronomy. star stuff: carl sagan and the mysteries of the cosmos is a biography of the famous astronomer. as a boy, carl sagan was an imaginative child, curious about everything. the 1939 world’s fair fascinated him. there, he saw a mechanical man and a time capsule filled with messages to the future. carl sagan, however, was fascinated by stars; he spent many hours at the library reading books about stars and astronomers who studied planets. over time, he became dr. carl sagan and, with other scientists, used mechanical explorers to study planets. these explorers collected and sent data back to earth. based on these data, he and his team prepared to launch voyager 1 and voyager 2, carrying greetings from earth to space. look up! henrietta leavitt, pioneering woman astronomer, tells the story of henrietta leavitt, a pioneering astronomer who was amazed by the brilliance of stars and the vastness of the sky. how high is the sky? is the question she asked as a young girl. she used the position of stars to help her answer the question. later, as an astronomy student, she was fascinated with vast distances and the notion of light years. after graduation, she worked at an observatory, peering through a magnifying glass to measure tiny star dots on photographs of the night sky. day after day, she studied new photographs of the stars. one day, she saw a pattern in the blinking of stars. this pattern allowed her to determine how far the star is from the earth. her discovery allowed other astronomers to make new discoveries about the milky way and the existence and distance of other galaxies. this companion text can broaden the perspective on the history of astronomers and astronomy, as well as understanding famous and little-known pioneers of space. star stuff: carl sagan and the mysteries of the cosmos can introduce or extend understanding of the valuable contributions made to science and astronomy by the famous scientist carl sagan. it reminds readers of the valuable contributions he made during his life, as well as the significant influence he has had on astronomers today and in the future. look up! henrietta leavitt, a pioneering woman astronomer, can introduce and extend understanding of the famous but little-known female astronomer henrietta levitt. figure 3 illustrates an instructional strategy in the form of a graphic organizer that students can use to record and discuss intertextual connections between companion texts. here, we used it with star stuff: carl sagan and the mysteries of the cosmos and look up! henrietta leavitt, pioneering woman astronomer. • both texts refer to the corps of discovery as a group of more than 30 american explorers who accompanied lewis & clark on a journey west of the mississippi river. corps of discovery • both texts describe personal dreams. lewis & clark dreamed of finding the northwest passage to the pacific ocean. york dreamed about the passage, but also dreamed about finding freedom. dreams bintz & parker 87 figure 3: new understandings, ways of thinking, inquiry questions table 4 illustrates other companion texts on different topics in science. mathematics what’s your angle, pythagoras? (ellis, 2004) and sir cumference and the great knight of angleland (neuschwander, 2001) are companion texts on the topic of angles and the pythagorean theorem. what’s your angle, pythagoras? tells the story of a young, curious boy named pythagoras who loved solving problems. he helps two builders balance crooked columns on a temple and finds a quicker route for his father to deliver his tiles to crete. one day, while on a trip with his father to egypt, pythagoras meets nef, a master builder, who uses a rope to teach him a special number pattern. pythagoras uses this pattern to solve problems involving right angles. this pattern is the pythagorean theorem. sir cumference and the great knight of angleland uses clever and informative wordplay to tell the story of radius, a young boy who is a squire but wants to be a knight. he is the son of sir cumference and lady di of ameter, and his teacher is sir d’grees, who teaches him to ride his horse at specific angles – right angles and straight angles. to be a knight, radius must undergo a quest. he must find king lell, who has mysteriously disappeared. to help, his parents give him a medallion in the shape of a perfect circle, and sir d’grees reminds him to remember right angles. radius encounters a village with rooftops pointing in steep angles and calls them “cute.” then, he travels to the mountains of obtuse and eventually to a walled castle, where he finds a note from the brothers zig and zag about how to find king zell. radius follows the instructions and uses the medallion to follow which paths to take. eventually, he finds and frees king lell. this companion text can widen the perspective on introducing or extending the understanding of the mathematical importance of the pythagorean theorem. it can also introduce or extend our understanding of pythagoras, the famous mathematician who developed and applied the theorem in real life. in many ways, this companion text can introduce or extend the mathematician behind the man and the man in front of the math. figure 4 illustrates an instructional strategy in the form of a graphic organizer that students can use to record and discuss intertextual connections between companion texts. here, we used it my new understanding about these famous scientists • carl sagan was curious and imaginative about everything, especially the cosmos, throughout his life. he asked questions, sought answers, studied diligently, and read profusely. he developed the idea of sending mechanical explorers to gather data about planets, e.g. voyager 1 and voyager 2. henrietta leavitt was curious, too, about stars, specifically the distance of stars from earth. my new way of thinking differently about this tipic (universe) • from sagan, i am thinking differently about stars, e.g each star is a sun, stars made the ingredients of life,and interstellar space. and the vastness of the universe. from leavitt, i am thinking differently about vast distances, the importance of astronomy, and how the tiniest discovery can lead to important findings. my new inquiry question • how did carl sagan become such a popular tv personality in the 1960's? how is the scientific work of sagan and leavitt interconnected with the work of stephen hawking? what are asteroids and cosmic dust? why do some stars blink? how far away is the milky way? how high is the sky? 88 georgia journal of literacy 46(1) with what’s your angle, pythagoras? a math adventure and sir cumference and the great knight of angleland: a math adventure. figure 4: intertextual connections chart book title mathematical names mathematical concepts journey discovery sir cumference and the great knight of angleland main characters include radius, son of sir cumference & lady di of ameter, and squire to sir d’grees, king lell’s pet dragons, zig & zag. locations include the kingdom of angleland, the a(cute) rooftops, and the mountains of obtuse, radius takes a knightly angle (a right angle) to the castle. circumference, diameter, acute, obtuse, and right angles, degrees, king lell of angleland has mysteriously disappeared. radius must find him. on horse, he travels through the kingdom to the king’s castle. using a medallion to make knightly right angles, he enters the castle only to find two fire-breathing dragons. the dragons are king lell’s pets and help radius rescue the king who proclaims radius as sir radius. at one level, radius successfully discovered the whereabouts of king lell and saved him from harm. at another level, radius discovered power and potential of angles, especially the knightly right angle, to solve real-life problems. he also discovered differences between acute and obtuse angles in terms of degrees. what’s your angle, pythagoras? main characters include pythagoras, saltos (salt) and pepros (pepper), leapus and boundus balance vs. imbalance, vertically and horizontally straight, column, relationship between distance & time, right angles, base, triangles, right triangles, squares, length, squaring, sides. pythagorean theorem. pythagoras’s father is a merchant who sells tiles. he and pythagoras set sail for egypt and arrive in alexandria. there, they meet nef, a builder of buildings. nef shows pythagoras the secret of his buildings, a knotted roper in the shape of a right triangle. pythagoras uses this triangle to solve problems with leaning buildings, and a quicker route for his father to sail to crete. historically, pythagoras became a philosopher, musician, and astronomer. however, his legacy is as a mathematician who made a famous discovered. today his discovery is commonly referred to as the pythagoreum theorem. a2 + b2 = c2 when a and b are two legs of a right triangle, and c is the side opposite the right angle. table 5 illustrates other companion texts on different topics in mathematics. concluding thoughts we began this article with a vignette about a reading experience between author 1 and his sixyear-old granddaughter. this vignette sparked a collaborative inquiry project that explored a new way to develop and use companion texts across the curriculum. the results of this inquiry project raise several implications for curriculum, instruction, and assessment. bintz & parker 89 regarding curriculum, we believe national and/or state academic standards are the driving force behind curriculum and curriculum development. from a blended genres perspective, one implication is that teachers become curriculum developers. teachers use academic standards as a starting point to develop blended genres that address these standards. a blended genres perspective also raises implications for instruction. one implication is that teachers move from a single-text to a multi-text view of reading and reading instruction. like paired text in general, a blended genre consists of two texts or readings designed to be read together in a single reading and learning experience. reading instruction is not viewed as reading single but multiple texts. lastly, a blended genres perspective raises implications assessment. in general, much reading assessment is based on a single text, uses text-based and objective instruments like a fillin-the-blank worksheets, multiple choices questions, and summaries/retellings of the text, and focuses on text-based elements like main idea, character, setting, problem, solution, etc. one implication is that assessment of blended genres focuses not on each text, but on the reader creating intertextual connections between the two texts. intertextual connections can, and often do, differ from reader to reader. from this perspective, creating and sharing intertextual connections offer readers to not only create personal meanings, but also learn multiple meanings from others. in the end, we hope this article will do for readers what a granddaughter did for her grandfather and his colleague. it allowed them to start new conversations and spark new thinking about the untapped and unlimited potential of companion texts. references allen, g. (2000). intertextuality. routledge. ciecierski, l., & bintz, w. (2016). paired text: a way into the content areas. middle school journal, 47(4), 32–44. https://doi.org/10.1080/00940771.2016.1202659 ciecierski, l., & bintz, w. (2017). tri-texts: a potential next step for paired texts. the reading teacher, 71(4), 479–483. https://doi.org/10.1002/trtr.1649 burke, c. (1995). personal correspondence. national governors association center for best practices & council of chief state school officers (ccss). (2010). https://corestandards.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/09/ela_ standards1.pdf cullum, a. (1967). push back the desks. citation press. google dictionary. (n.d.). https://www.google.com/search?q=companions halliday, m. a. k. (1978). language as social semiotic. arnold. harvey, s., & goudvis, a. (2017). strategies that work. stenhouse. king-shaver, b. (2005). when text meets text: helping high school readers make connections in literature. heinemann. lupo, s. m., berry, a., thacker, e., sawyer, a., & merritt, j. (2019). rethinking text sets to support knowledge building and interdisciplinary learning. the reading teacher, 73(4), 513–524. https://doi.org/10.1002/trtr.1869 murray, d. (1985). a writer teaches writing. houghton mifflin. https://doi.org/10.1080/00940771.2016.1202659 https://doi.org/10.1002/trtr.1649 https://corestandards.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/09/ela_standards1.pdf https://corestandards.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/09/ela_standards1.pdf https://www.google.com/search?q=companions https://doi.org/10.1002/trtr.1869 90 georgia journal of literacy 46(1) neufeld, p. (2005). comprehension instruction in content area classes. the reading teacher, 59(4), 302–312. https://doi.org/10.1598/rt.59.4.1 paretti, m. c. (1999). intertextuality, genre, and beginning writers: mining your own texts. in k. l. weese, s. l. fox, & s. greene (eds.), teaching academic literacy: the uses of teacherresearch in developing a writing program. routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781410 601421-14 plotinus. (n.d.) the six enneads. http://classics.mit.edu/plotinus/enneads.html rosenblatt, l. (2005). making meaning with texts. heinemann. rosenblatt, l. (1995). literature as exploration. modern language association of america. rosenblatt, l. (1994). the reader, the text, the poem: the transactional theory of the literary work. southern illinois university. short, k. g., harste, j. c., & burke, c. (1996). creating classrooms for authors and inquirers. heinemann. short, k. g., harste, j. c., & burke, c. (1988). creating classrooms for authors. heinemann. soalt, j. (2005). bringing together fictional and informational texts to improve comprehension. the reading teacher, 58(7), 680–683. https://doi.org/10.1598/rt.58.7.8 van leeuwen, t. (2015). multimodal meaning potential. in n. nørgaard (ed.), key terms in multimodality: definitions, issues, and discussions. https://multimodalkeyterms.wordpress .com/?s=multimodal+meaning+potential literature cited adler, d.a. (2003). a picture book of lewis and clark. holiday house. alko, s. (2015). the case for loving: the fight for interracial marriage. arthur a. levine books. cline-ransome, l. (2004). major taylor: champion cyclist. atheneum books. juster, n. (2005). the hello, goodbye window. scholastic. ellis, j. (2004). what’s your angle, pythagoras? charlesbridge. neuschwander, c. (2001). sir cumference and the great knight of angleland: a math adventure. charlesbridge. sandler, m. (2006). cycling: lance armstrong’s impossible ride. bearport. sisson, s. r. (2014). star stuff: carl sagan and the mysteries of the cosmos. roaring book press. burleigh, r. (2013). look up!: henrietta leavitt, pioneering woman astronomer. simon & schuster/paula wiseman books. https://doi.org/10.1598/rt.59.4.1 https://doi.org/10.4324/9781410%e2%80%8c601421-14 https://doi.org/10.4324/9781410%e2%80%8c601421-14 http://classics.mit.edu/plotinus/enneads.html https://doi.org/10.1598/rt.58.7.8 https://multimodalkeyterms.wordpress.com/?s=multimodal+meaning+potential https://multimodalkeyterms.wordpress.com/?s=multimodal+meaning+potential bintz & parker 91 table 1: sports and sports figures topic text #1 text #2 golf: these companion texts widen the perspective on the sport of golf by introducing/extending understanding about a little known, but famous, character named william powell golf course aerial photobook: 30 best selected images of most beautiful golf courses in the world (cooper photo gallery, 2022) twice as good: the story of william powell and clearview, the only golf course designed, built, and owned by an african american (michelson, 2012) little league baseball: these companion texts widen the perspective on the history of the little league baseball world series by introducing/extending understanding about the cannon street ymca allstars. baseball for kids: a young fan’s guide to the history of the game (mackinnon, 2020) let them play (raven, 2005) professional baseball: these companion texts widen the perspective on professional baseball by introducing/extending understanding about a little known, but famous, deaf baseball player named william hoy. baseball’s greatest players: 10 baseball biographies for new readers (martin, 2022) the william hoy story: how a deaf baseball player changed the game (churnin, 2016) japanese internment camps: these companion texts widen the perspective on japanese internment camps by introducing/extending understanding of day-to-day life of japanese americans during world war ii. write to me: letters from japanese american children to the librarian they left behind (grady, 2019) baseball saved us (mochizuki, 1993) women’s professional baseball team: these companion texts widen the perspective on professional baseball by introducing/extending understanding of women as professional baseball players and highlighting marcenia lyle, the 1st woman to play for a professional baseball team. meet the philadelphia dolly vardens: inspired by the first african american women’s professional baseball team (brinson, 2020) catching the moon: the story of a young girl’s baseball dream (hubbard, 2005) women’s olympics: these companion texts widen the perspective on women’s olympics by introducing/extending understanding of two, historic women olympians: lucille godbold and wilma rudolph. wilma unlimited: how wilma rudolph became the world’s fastest woman (krull, 2000) long-armed ludy and the first women’s olympics (patrick, 2019) professional baseball: these companion texts widen the perspective on professional baseball by introducing/extending understanding of one famous player, joe dimaggio, and one little known, female player, jackie mitchell. the streak: how joe dimaggio became america’s hero (rosenstock, 2014) mighty jackie: the strikeout queen (moss, 2004) baseball: these companion texts widen the perspective on baseball by introducing/extending understanding about josh gibson, a famous, african american home run hitter and bunny taliaferro, a little known, but famous african american little boy named bunny taliaferro. coming home: a true story of josh gibson, baseball’s greatest home run hitter (mellage, 1999) a home run for bunny (2013) negro baseball leagues: these companion texts widen the perspective by introducing/extending understanding on the differences between the negro baseball leagues and the major leagues. a negro league scrapbook (weatherford, 2022) leagues apart: the men and times of the negro baseball leagues (ritter, 1995) 92 georgia journal of literacy 46(1) professional baseball: these companion texts widen the perspective on professional baseball by introducing/extending understanding of two little known, but famous, historic stories. one story is about the allamerican girls professional baseball league, and the other about a spy for the united states during world war ii and played professional baseball after the war. players in pigtails (corey, 2003) the spy who played baseball (jones, 2018) girls in baseball: these companion texts widen the perspective on girls in baseball by introducing/extending understanding two girls who are famous, but little known, for their groundbreaking athletic achievements. anybody’s game: kathryn johnston, the first girl to play little league baseball (lang, 2018) girl wonder: a baseball story in nine innings (hopkinson, 2003) table 2: lewis and clark topic text #1 text #2 lewis & clark expedition: these companion texts widen the perspective by introducing/extending understanding about the important historical characters on the lewis & clark expedition. the lewis & clark expedition (houk, 1999) the journey of york: the unsung hero of the lewis and clark expedition (davis, 2019) how we crossed the west: the adventures of lewis and clark (schanzer, 2002) york’s adventures with lewis and clark: an african american’s part in the great expedition (blumberg, 2003 i am sacajawea, i am york: our journey west with lewis and clark (murphy, 2005) american slave, american hero: york of the lewis and clark expedition (pringle, 2006) lewis & clark expedition: these companion texts widen the perspective by introducing/extending understanding about the important historical characters on the lewis & clark expedition, both human and non-human. the lewis and clark expedition (peritano, 2010) seaman: the dog who explored the west with lewis and clark (karwoski, 2003) lewis & clark (mulhall, 2017) seaman’s journal: on the trail with lewis and clark (eubank, 2010) the lewis and clark trail: now and then (patent, 2002) lewis and clark and me: a dog’s tale (myers, 2002) lewis & clark expedition: these companion texts widen the perspective by introducing/extending understanding about the day-to-day life on the lewis & clark expedition. plants on the trail with lewis and clark (patent, 2003) cooking on the lewis and clark expedition (gunderson, 2000) explorers & exploratory tools: these companion texts widen the perspective by introducing/extending understanding about the explorers and the tools they used on the lewis & clark expedition. lewis and clark: explorers of the american west (kroll, 1994) lewis and clark’s compass: what an artifact can tell us about the historic expedition (micklos, 2021) sacagawea: these companion texts widen the perspective on one of the most important historical characters involved in the lewis & clark expedition. the lewis & clark expedition (domnauer, 2012) what’s so great about sacagawea? (rogers, 2014) bintz & parker 93 sacagawea: journey into the west (gunderson, 2006) sacagawea (erdrich, 2003) table 3: social studies topic text #1 text #2 japanese internment camps: these companion texts introduce/extend understanding about japanese internment camps in america during wwii. so far from the sea (bunting, 2009) home of the brave (say, 2002) winnie the pooh: these companion texts introduce/extend understanding about the true story behind the famous teddy bear created by a.a. milne. finding winnie: the true story of the world’s famous bear (mattick, 2015) winnie: the true story of the bear who inspired winnie-thepooh (walker, 2015) civil rights figures: these companion texts introduce/extend understanding about two civil rights figures, one famous, malcolm x, and one famous but little-known figure, fannie lou hamer. voice of freedom, fannie lou hamer: spirt of the civil rights movement (weatherford, 2015) malcolm x: a fire burning brightly (myers, 2003) holocaust: these companion texts introduce/extend understanding about the holocaust from two children’s perspectives. rose blanche (innocenti, 2011) a picture book of anne frank (adler, 1993) migrant workers: these companion texts introduce/extend understanding about migrant workers, one famous, cesar chavez, and one famous, but little-known, dolores huerta. dolores huerta: a hero to migrant workers (warren, 2012) harvesting hope: the story of cesar chavez (krull, 2003) decoders: these companion texts introduce/extend understanding about codes and coding during wwii. alan turing: the power of curiosity (valenti, 2021) the unbreakable code (hunter, 2007) nazi resistance: these companion texts introduce/extend understanding about nazi resistance during wwii from two different european countries. the yellow star (deedy the whispering town (elvgren, 2014) boston tea party: these companion texts introduce/extend understanding about the boston tea party and one famous child in the boston tea party. the boston tea party (freedman, 2013) crispus atticks: hero of the boston massacre (beier, 2003) civil war: these companion texts introduce/extend understanding about warfare in the water during the civil war by a battleship, the monitor, and a submarine, h.l. hunley. the monitor: civil war battleship (thompson, 2003) secrets of a civil war submarine: solving the mystery of the h.l. hunley (walker, 2023 civil rights: these companion texts introduce/extend understanding about the actions of a famous person, harriet tubman, and a famous but little-known person, henry brown, to gain freedom. moses: when harriet tubman led her people to freedom (weatherford, 2006 box: henry brown mails himself to freedom (weatherford, 2020) pirates: these companion texts introduce/extend understanding about a famous male pirate, blackbeard, and a famous but littleknown female pirate, zheng yi sao. blackbeard the pirate king (lewis, 2006) pirate queen: a story of zheng yi sao (becker, 2020) 94 georgia journal of literacy 46(1) revolutionary spies: these companion texts introduce/extend understanding about famous female spies during the revolutionary war. culpers, codes, and quakers: female spies of the revolutionary war (ryan, 2016) the scarlet stockings spy (noble, 2004) american revolution heroes: these companion texts introduce/extend understanding about famous american revolution female spies, and one famous but little-known spy, sarah edmonds. great women of the american revolution (hall, 2012) nurse, soldier, spy: the story of sarah edmonds, a war hero (moss, 2016) buffalo soldiers: these companion texts introduce/extend understanding about buffalo soldiers. from slave to soldier (hopkinson, 2007) buffalo soldiers: heroes of the american west (baker, 2015) abraham lincoln: these companion texts introduce/extend understanding about the life and times of abraham lincoln. young abe lincoln: the frontier days 1809-1837 (harness, 2008) my best friend abe lincoln: a tale of two boys from indiana (bloch, 2011) american civil war: these companion texts introduce/extend understanding about two famous but little known child soldiers during the civil war. johnny reb: the confederate soldier in the civil war (books, 1993) johnny clem’s civil war story (marsico, 2018) american revolution: these companion texts introduce/extend understanding about warfare in water during the revolutionary war, one a battleship, one a submarine. the monitor vs. the merrimac: ironclads at war (abnett, 2006) american turtle submarine: the best-kept secret of the american revolution (lefkowitz, 2012) world war ii: these companion texts introduce/extend understanding about the bravery and patriotism of wwii pilots, especially the tuskegee airmen. you wouldn’t want to be a world war ii pilot (graham, 2009) the tuskegee airmen story (homan, 2002) animals soldiers: these companion texts introduce/extend understanding about two famous but little-known animal soldiers, one a horse and one a donkey. bunny the brave war horse (macleod, 2014) the donkey of gallipoli: a true story of courage in world war i (greenwood, 2008) animal soldiers: these companion texts introduce/extend understanding about two famous but little-known animal soldiers, one a dog and one a horse. stubby: the dog soldier and world war i hero (hoena, 2014) sgt. reckless the war horse: korean war hero (higgins, 2014) animal soldiers: these companion texts introduce/extend understanding about two famous but little-known animal soldiers, one a pigeon and one a dog. cher ami: based on the world war i legend of the fearless pigeon (potter, 2022) rags: hero dog of wwi: a true story (raven, 2014) statue of liberty: these companion texts introduce/extend understanding about the statue of liberty from two different but complimentary perspectives. the story of the statue of liberty (maestro & maestro, 1989) emma’s poem (glaser & nivola, 2013) american revolutionary war soldiers: these companion texts introduce/extend understanding about the life of an american revolutionary war soldier and one famous but little-known female war soldier, deborah sampson. how to be a revolutionary war soldier (ratliff, 2006) cloaked in courage: uncovering deborah sampson, patriot soldier (anderson, 2022) martin luther king: these companion texts introduce/extend understanding about the life, work, and funeral of martin luther king. belle, the last mule at gee’s bend (ramsey & stroud, 2016) the cart that carried martin (bunting, 2018) bintz & parker 95 black enslaved heroes: these companion texts introduce/extend understanding about the history of black enslaved heroes and one famous but little-known hero, ona judge. black heroes of the american revolution (davis, 1992) never caught, the story of ona judge: george washington’s courageous /slave who dared to run away (dunbar, 2020) underground railroad: these companion texts introduce/extend understanding about the underground railroad and about a famous figure, harriet tubman and a famous but little-known figure, henry “box” brown. aunt harriet’s underground railroad in the sky (ringgold, 1995) henry’s freedom box: a true story from the underground railroad (levine, 2007) civil rights: these companion texts introduce/extend understanding about civil rights and a about a famous figure, rosa parks, and a famous but little-known figure, claudia colvin. rosa (giovanni, 2007) claudia colvin: twice toward justice (hoose, 2010) world war i: these companion texts introduce/extend understanding about the life and challenges of soldiers in wwi and how the war changed modern warfare. how wwi changed modern warfare (professor, 2021) the letter home (decker, 2009) historic aviators: these companion texts introduce/extend understanding about historic aviators, two famous, wilbur and orville wright, and one famous but little known, katherine stinson otero. first to fly: how wilbur & orville wright invented the airplane (busby, 2002) katherine stinson otero: high flyer (petrick, 2006) historic women aviators: these companion texts introduce/extend understanding about two famous but little-known women aviators, ruth law and harriet quimby. fearless flyer: ruth law and her flying machine (2016) brave harriet: the first woman to fly the english channel (moss, 2001) civil war: these companion texts introduce/extend understanding about drummer boy (turner, 1998) red legs: a drummer boy of the civil war (lewin, 2001) niagara falls: these companion texts introduce/extend understanding about two famous, but little-known women who went over niagara falls in barrels. maggie’s adventure: i’m going over niagara falls (d’arcangelo & kirchmyer, 2018) queen of the falls (van allsburg, 2010) american revolutionary war: these companion texts introduce/extend understanding about the american revolutionary war and about a famous, but little-known female soldier who fought bravely during the war. molly pitcher: young american patriot (glaser, 2006) they called her molly pitcher (rockwell, 2002) martin luther king: these companion texts introduce/extend understanding about the life, times, and funeral of martin luther king. belle, the last mule at gee’s bend: a civil rights story (ramsey & stroud, 2016) that cart that carried martin (bunting, 2013) musicians: these companion texts introduce/extend understanding about two internationally recognized musicians, one famous, wolfgang amadeus mozart, and one famous, but little-known, chevalier de saintgeorge. that’s my piano, sir!: wolfgang amadeus mozart (gerhard, 2021) the other mozart: the life of the famous chevalier de saintgeorge (brewster, 2007) 96 georgia journal of literacy 46(1) table 4: science topic text #1 text #2 galileo: these companion texts can introduce/extend understanding about galileo and his inventions and discoveries. starry messenger: a book depicting the life of a famous scientist, mathematician, astronomer, philosopher, physicist (sis, 1996) galileo’s treasure box (brighton, 1987) stars: these companion texts can introduce/extend understanding about the stars. one text is non-fiction, the other fiction, highlighting the story of hypatia and her work on numbers and stars. stars (simon, 2006) of numbers and stars: the story of hypatia (love, 2006) archimedes: these companion texts can introduce/extend understanding about archimedes and experimental design. archimedes: ancient greek mathematician (keating, 2002) mr. archimedes bath (allen, 2001) big bang: these companion texts can introduce/extend understanding about the big bang it started with a big bang: the origin of earth, you, and everything else (bal, 2019) born with a bang: the universe tells our cosmic story (morgan, 2002) oceanographers: these companion texts can introduce/extend understanding about one famous oceanographer, jacques cousteau, and famous, but little-known oceanographer, sylvia earle. manfish: a story of jacques cousteau (berne, 2015) life in the ocean: the story of oceanographer sylvia earle (nivola, 2012) astronauts: these companion texts can introduce/extend understanding about women astrounauts, one famous, sally ride, and one famous, but little-known, mae jemison. astronaut and physicist sally ride (goldstein, 2018) mae c. jemison (pincus, 2019) astronaut: these companion texts can introduce/extend understanding about famous women scientists, and one famous, but little-known astronaut, ellen ochoa. she persisted in science: brilliant women who made a difference (clinton, 2022) the astronaut with a song for the stars: the story of dr. ellen ochoa (mosca, 2019) plate tectonics: these companion texts can introduce/extend understanding about plate tectonics and a famous pioneer of plate tectonics, alfred wegener. the island that moved: how sifting forces shape our earth (hooper, 2004) alfred wegener: pioneer of plate tectonics (young, 2010) dna: these companion texts can introduce/extend understanding about dna, gregor mendel, and experimental design. grow: secrets of our dna (davies, gregor mendel: the friar who grew peas (bardoe, 2006) albert einstein: these companion texts can introduce/extend understanding about albert einstein (inspired inner genius, 2021) alfie’s first word: a tale inspired by albert einstein’s childhood (tourville, 2014) inventors: these companion texts can introduce/extend understanding about the accomplishments and the competitions between two famous inventors, thomas edison and nikola tesla. a wizard from the start: the incredible boyhood and amazing inventions of thomas edison (brown, 2010) electrical wizard: how nikola tesla lit up the world (rusch, 2013) wireless communication: these companion texts can introduce/extend understanding about wireless communication. making contact!: marconi goes wireless (kulling, 2013) radio boy (denslow, 1995) bintz & parker 97 butterflies and metamorphosis: these companion texts can introduce/extend understanding about butterflies, metamorphosis, and the famous, but littleknown, scientist, maria merian. butterfly boy (kroll, 2002) summer birds: the butterflies of maria merian (engle, 2010) comets: these companion texts can introduce/extend understanding about comets, and the famous, but little known, female astronomer, maria mitchell. famous comets and asteroids in our solar system (pfiffikus, 2016) maria’s comet (hopkinson, 1999) lunar landing: these companion texts can introduce/extend understanding about the first lunar landing, and margaret hamilton, the scientist who saved the first lunar landing. the first lunar landing (fradin, 2010) margaret and the moon: how margaret hamilton saved the first lunar landing (robbins, 2017) atomic bomb: these companion texts can introduce/extend understanding about the development and use of the atomic bomb in world war ii. the secret project (winter, 2017) faithful elephants (tsuchiya, 1997) nuclear fission: these companion texts can introduce/extend understanding about nuclear fission, one famous nuclear scientist, albert einstein, and one famous, but littleknown nuclear scientist, lise meitner. the story of albert einstein: a biography book for new readers (katz, 2020) lise meitner: had the right vision about nuclear (venezia, 2010) fossils: these companion texts can introduce/extend understanding about fossils and one famous, but little-known paleontologist, mary anning. all about fossils: discovering dinosaurs and other clues to the past (crane, 2021) the fossil girl (brighton, 1999) fossils: these companion texts can introduce/extend understanding about the science of fossils, and a famous, but littleknown paleontologist, mary leakey. where do fossils come from? how do we find them? archaeology for kids (bobo’s little brainiac book, 2016) fossil huntress: mary leakey, paleontologist (diehn, 2019) charles darwin: these companion texts can introduce/extend understanding about charles darwin, theory of evolution, and natural selection. animals charles darwin saw (markle, 2009) the mystery of darwin’s frog (crump, 2013) charles darwin: these companion texts can introduce/extend understanding about charles darwin, scientist and father. the tree of life: charles darwin (sis, 2003) the bumblebee hunter: inspired by the life & experiments of charles darwin and his children (hopkinson, 2010) moon: these companion texts can introduce/extend understanding about the moon and science as evidence not belief. when we walked on the moon (long, 2019) no one walks on my father’s moon (1996) pluto: these companion texts can introduce/extend understanding about the discovery of pluto. the man who discovered pluto (dubowski pluto’s secret: an icy world’s tale of discovery (weitekamp & devorkin dna: these companion texts can introduce/extend understanding about dna and the scientists who discovered the phenomenon. james watson and fricis crick (anniss) masterminds: rosalind franklin (howell) 98 georgia journal of literacy 46(1) imprinting: these companion texts can introduce/extend understanding about konrad lorenz, the scientist who pioneered the concept of imprinting in animal behavior. goose family book (kalas, 1991) the goose man: the story of konrad lorenz (greenstein, 2009) gravity: these companion texts can introduce/extend understanding about the concept of gravity. the day gravity goes loco (maloney, 2016) gravity (chin, 2014) katherine johnson: these companion texts can introduce/extend understanding about the life and work of katherine johnson, the scientist and mathematician who put astronauts on the moon. one step further: my story of math, the moon, and a lifelong mission (johnson, 2021) counting on katherine: how katherine johnson put astronauts on the moon (becker, 2018) galileo: these companion texts can introduce/extend understanding about galileo and his inventions and discoveries. starry messenger: a book depicting the life of a famous scientist, mathematician, astronomer, philosopher, physicist (sis, 1996) galileo’s treasure box (brighton, 1987) table 5: mathematics topic text #1 text #2 international mathematicians: these companion texts introduce/extend understanding about two famous, but little known, mathematicians. nothing stopped sophie: the story of unshakable mathematician sophie germain (bardoe, 2018) maryam’s magic: the story of mathematician maryam mirzakhani (reid, 2021) international mathematicians: these companion texts introduce/extend understanding about two international mathematics, one famous, the other little known. pythagoras (klepis, 2017) the boy who loved math: the improbable life of paul erdos (heiligman, 2013) international coders: these companion texts introduce/extend understanding about coding and two famous international code breakers. alan turing and the power of curiosity (valenti, 2021) grace hopper: queen of computer code (wallmark, 2017) measurement: these companion texts introduce/extend understanding about measurement. the know-nonsense guide to measurements: an awesomely fun guide to how things are measured (fiedler, 2017) the librarian who measured the earth (hawkes, 1994) computer programming: these companion texts introduce/extend understanding about computer programming, highlighting a famous, but little, known computer programmer. computer coding: an introduction to computer programming (dk, 2014) ada byron lovelace and the thinking machine (wallmark, 2015) tangrams: these companion texts introduce/extend understanding about tangrams based on a traditional fairy tale. the three pigs (weisner, 2012) three pigs, one wolf, and seven magic shapes (maccarone, 1997) counting: these companion texts introduce/extend understanding about counting. the history of counting (schmandt-besserat, 1999) counting with an abacus: learning the place value of ones, tens, and hundreds (murphy, 2004) bintz & parker 99 math squares: these companion texts introduce/extend understanding about benjamin franklin and math squares. a picturebook of benjamin franklin (adler, 2018) ben franklin and the magic squares (murphy, 2001) cartesian coordinate system: these companion texts introduce/extend understanding about the cartesian coordinate system. mister descartes and his evil genius (mongin, 2016) the fly on the ceiling (glass, 1998) dimensionality: these companion texts introduce/extend understanding about dimensionality. the flatland dialogues (sayre, 2018) flatland (sayre & emberley, 2013) fibonacci: these companion texts introduce/extend understanding about fibonacci and the fibonacci number system. blockhead: the life of fibonacci (d’agnese, 2010) the rabbit problem (gravett, 2009) fibonacci: these companion texts introduce/extend understanding about fibonacci and the fibonacci number system. growing patterns: fibonacci numbers in science (campbell, 2010) wild fibonacci: nature’s secret code revealed (hulme, 2010) problem solving: these companion texts introduce/extend understanding about problem solving. m.c. escher pop-ups (mccarthy, 2011) palazzo inverso (johnson, 2010) probability: these companion texts introduce/extend understanding about probability. that’s a possibility!: a book about what might happen (goldstone, 2013) probably pistachio (murphy, 2001) probability: these companion texts introduce/extend understanding about probability. bad luck brad: probability (herman, 2006) a very improbably story (edward einhorn, 2008) graphing: these companion texts introduce/extend understanding about graphing. groovy graphing: quadrant one and beyond (arias, 2019) tiger math: learning to graph from a baby tiger (nagda & bickel, 2000) graphing: these companion texts introduce/extend understanding about graphing. lemonade for sale (murphy, 1998) the great graph contest (leedy, 2005) tessellations: these companion texts introduce/extend understanding about tessellations. giraffe pattern and others like it: tessellations in nature (bine-stock, 2021) toads and tessellations: a math adventure (morrisette, 2012) fractions: these companion texts introduce/extend understanding about fractions. fractions in disguise (einhorn, 2014) polar bear math: learning about fractions from klondike and snow (nagda & bickel, 2004) multiplication: these companion texts introduce/extend understanding about multiplication. the best of times: math strategies that multiply (tang, 2002) multiplying menace: the revenge of rumpelstiltskin (calvert, 2006) division: these companion texts introduce/extend understanding about division. the great divide (dodds, 1999) cheetah math: learning about division from baby cheetahs (nagda, 2004) doubling: these companion texts introduce/extend understanding about doubling. the king’s chessboard (birch, 1988) one grain of rice: a mathematical folktale (demi, 1997) 100 georgia journal of literacy 46(1) polygons: these companion texts introduce/extend understanding about polygons. the greedy triangle (burns, 1994) shape up! fun with triangles and other polygons (adler, 1998) estimation: these companion texts introduce/extend understanding about estimation. great estimations (goldstone, 2010) jellybeans for sale (1996) pi: these companion texts introduce/extend understanding about pi. happy pi day to you (worth, 2020) sir cumference and the dragon of pi: a math adventure (neuschwander, 1999) perimeter: these companion texts introduce/extend understanding about perimeter. perimeter, area, and volume: a monster book of dimensions (adler, 2013) spaghetti and meatballs for all! a mathematical story (burns, 1997) circles: these companion texts introduce/extend understanding about circles and circumference as a measurement of an attribute of a circle. circles (adler, 2016) sir cumference and the first round table (neuschwander, 1997) multiplication: these companion texts introduce/extend understanding about multiplication. minnie’s diner: a multiplying menu (dodds, 2007) amanda bean’s amazing dream: a mathematical story (neuschwander, 1998) angles: these companion texts introduce/extend understanding about different kinds of mathematical angles. right, acute and obtuse angles: geometry for kids (professor, 2017) the great knight of angleland: a math adventure (neuschwander, 2001) code breaking: these companion texts introduce/extend understanding about two famous, but little known, code breakers. code breaker and mathematician alan turing (schwartz, 2018) code breaker, spy hunter: how elizabeth friedman changed the course of two world wars (wallmark, 2021) mathematics and wartime: these companion texts introduce/extend understanding about the use of mathematics during wartime. the h.l. hunley submarine: history and mystery from the civil war (hawk, 2017) the girl with a mind for math: the story of raye montague (mosca, 2020) algebra: these companion texts introduce/extend understanding about algebra. algebra and geometry: anything but square (green, 2011) mystery math: a first book of algebra (adler, 2011) metric system: these companion texts introduce/extend understanding about the metric system. caveman teach children metric system (rammage, 2022) the metric system (adler, 2022) pythagoras: these companion texts introduce/extend understanding about pythagoras. the encounter with pythagoras (dos santos, 2020) pythagoras and the ratios: a math adventure (ellis, 2010) measurement: these companion texts introduce/extend understanding about measurement. the know-nonsense guide to measurements: an awesomely fun guide to how things are measured (fiedler, 2017) how long or how wide: a measuring guide (cleary, 2009) big numbers: these companion texts introduce/extend understanding about big numbers. millions, billions, and trillions: understanding big numbers (adler, 2013) mind-boggling numbers (rosen, 2016) received: december 9, 2023 | accepted: january 30, 2024 | published: may 15, 2024 vignette reflection companion texts theoretical framework examples of companion texts across the curriculum english language arts figure 1: interwoven companion texts social studies figure 2: complimentary companion texts science figure 3: new understandings, ways of thinking, inquiry questions mathematics figure 4: intertextual connections chart concluding thoughts references literature cited table 1: sports and sports figures table 2: lewis and clark table 3: social studies table 4: science table 5: mathematics georgia journal of literacy 2025, vol. 47(2), pp. 4–21 https://doi.org/10.56887/galiteracy.202 issn: 2833-7611 research article contact dr. vicki l. luther, professor, tift college of education, mercer university, macon, ga; email luther_vl@mercer.edu. dr. matthew j. sroka, assistant professor, tift college of education, mercer university, macon, ga; email msroka_mj@mercer.edu. “not just for the boomers”: the importance of grammatical understandings in 21st century p–20 classrooms vicki l. luther mercer university, macon, ga matthew j. sroka mercer university, macon, ga abstract the word “grammar” often conjures negative feelings for both students and teachers; for students, learning rules of language can be simultaneously daunting and boring, and teachers can often view this as a battle that they would prefer not to fight. in an age of texting, social media, and generative artificial intelligence (genai), the use of proper punctuation, capitalization, and other writing mechanics has become less regulated, yet due to newly implemented ela standards within the state of georgia, as well as new legislation efforts designed to improve literacy for all students, there is now a deeper emphasis on grammar as a focal point of instruction. this article provides a literature review of the importance of teaching and learning grammatical concepts in all grade levels in p–12, as well as in educator preparation programs (epps), preparing the next generation of teachers, and provides context of how educators can provide information that best supports p–20 students’ communicative skills. keywords grammar; writing mechanics; p–12 education, educator preparation programs (epps); english language arts (ela) eaching the mechanics of language is often a polarizing topic; in fact, myhill (2021) posits that with the exception of phonics, there is no element of english language arts more divisive. furthermore, to even define grammar is complex, as there are so many descriptions; as well, there are many ways to define what grammar instruction should entail. for our purposes, we lean into alzahrani’s (2024) explanation of grammar as a skill necessary for enduring, effective communication and in jean and simard’s (2011) recognition that grammar is necessary for productive life skills. additionally, we also include the mechanics of writing and speaking in our discussion of grammatical aspects. in this article, we advocate for explicit, studentcentered grammar instruction that promotes a growth mindset. this refers to brief, purposeful, incontext teaching that makes language features visible, nameable, and discussable in service of helping students to improve their writing and communication. it includes modeling, dialoging, and targeted practicing that allow students to make applications to their own compositions immediately; it does not include decontextualized worksheets or isolated textbook instruction. furthermore, what we consider to be effective and purposeful instruction is not based upon a ‘gotcha’ approach in which students are afraid to make errors and dread the proverbial red pen used to magnify each mistake. instead, we focus on understanding, intentionality, and utilization. t mailto:luther_vl@mercer.edu mailto:msroka_mj@mercer.edu luther & sroka 5 a brief history of grammar instruction while grammar has been taught in schools for centuries, going back to the 1700s (tieken-boon van ostade, 2011), there have been significant shifts in how it is taught and to the extent it is taught. until the 1960s, schools within the united states provided students with lessons that were made up of isolated ‘skill and drill’ practice (vakili & mohammed, 2020), and grammar was exclusively taught through rote memorization instead of practical application (watson, 2013). educational stakeholders began questioning the validity of learning grammar, and in 1963, the national council of teachers of english (ncte) issued a report (research in written composition) that found the teaching of grammar to be detrimental, even harmful, to students’ writing abilities (braddock et al., 1963). due to this, from the 1970s to the early 2000s, grammar instruction was essentially taken out of many classrooms across the country (vakili & mohammed, 2020), and teachers whose school systems required the teaching of grammar often resorted to isolated, drill-related worksheettype practices to do so (kiuhara et al., 2009). at this time, reading and writing instruction were ‘the’ premier literacy skills taught, and while the focus centered on the practices associated with reading and writing, in some school systems, instructing students on the fundamentals and usage of the english language became deemphasized (vakili & mohammed, 2020). many teachers were discouraged from explicitly teaching linguistic structures because, under the arch of whole language, such understandings would simply occur naturally, organically, and when the child was ready (derewianka, 2015). following the report from braddock et al. (1963), many felt that grammar instruction was antiquated and unnecessary, and elbow (1981) went so far as to suggest that “learning to ignore” grammar was the best way to help students with their writing skills (p. 169). the no child left behind act (nclb, 2002) further eliminated grammar instruction, as teachers began concentrating less on content that would not be assessed on high-stakes testing and delineated grammar as non-essential (mccarthey, 2008). with the onset of the common core state standards (ccss; national governors association center for best practices & council of chief state school officers, 2010), grammar once again became a topic of conversation. ccss (2010) confirmed that other communicative components of ela are equally important, demonstrating that receptive (reading and listening) and expressive and descriptive (writing and speaking) skills are all critical to students’ success and college and career readiness. however, because it had been taken out of so many classrooms for years, many teachers were hesitant to teach it and felt unprepared to do so during this time (gartland & smolkin, 2016). at the turn of the decade, covid-19 forced schools to shut down for months, and educators and students worked and learned in online environments. during the pandemic, teachers attempted to create effective online instruction but were often met with a myriad of challenges, including students’ lack of technology, absenteeism, and attention issues (francis & weller, 2022; gonzález et al., 2022). as students were taught outside of their respective classrooms, parents and caregivers were given more of a ‘front row seat’ to children’s learning, and while some parents and caregivers embraced, and continue to embrace, the notion that they are their child’s first teacher of language and literacy, not all recognize how important they are in their child’s understanding of the components of ela, including grammar (macwhinney, 2023). additionally, many family members felt, and continue to feel, ill-equipped to provide strong foundational support for their children (goudeau et al., 2021), and school closures created significant gaps in ela competencies. 6 georgia journal of literacy 47(2) undoubtedly, research shows that the negative implications of covid-19 on students’ academic well-being are far reaching (e.g., colvin et al., 2022; kuhfeld et al., 2022; storey & zhang, 2024). for instance, not only have ela test results declined over the years since covid19, but results of a study conducted by pejovic et al. (2024) also show that the language and communication development of infants and toddlers during the pandemic was significantly diminished. the vast majority of these children are now enrolled in formalized schooling, and many entered school with potential significant gaps in communicative skills (pejovic et al., 2024). the global pandemic took a tremendous toll on basic understandings, and students’ current “grammar knowledge is at an all-time low” (erlbacher, 2025, p. 2). today, as we are now positioned in the post-covid era, common core standards have been fully removed from all educational settings in georgia. although this phase-out has been underway for more than a decade, the adoption of revised ela standards for the 2025-2026 academic year, brought forth by the georgia department of education (gadoe), has eliminated the last remaining traces of common core (gadoe, n.d.). current instructional practices within the state focus on the science of reading (sor), thus requiring teachers to be more structured, intentional, and explicit (petscher et al., 2020). as defined by cabell and espittia (2025), sor is “a body of knowledge about how people learn to read and how to best teach reading” (p. 19). the sor allows educators to recognize the importance of foundational literacy skills, as these foundations provide strong structures for reading in the older grades (cabell & espittia, 2025). while the science of reading is now a fundamental part of our ‘literacy landscape,’ we cannot forget the science behind writing. just as explicit and intentional instructional practices are critical in reading, graham believes that the same intentionality should be occurring in the teaching of writing skills (2019). sadly, graham’s research suggests that writing is not given the same instructional time, as there is often less time in the day for explicit instruction and application of writing, and without foundational structures, students often continue to struggle in writing as they move throughout the grade levels. by recognizing that there is a science to writing, as well as reading, educators can empower students with heightened communication skills and an enhanced motivation to write (graham, 2019). the importance of grammar instruction with more than a quarter of the 21st century behind us, grammar instruction has once again shifted, as the new aforementioned ela standards and curricula have enhanced the need to strengthen grammatical understandings. within these revised ela standards, gadoe (n.d.) has demonstrated its mission of ensuring grammar instruction is a focal point in k–12 classrooms. today’s grammatical standards begin in kindergarten, as students begin to recognize rules of conversations, listening and speaking skills, the formation of complete sentences, and basic grammar. as students move throughout the grade levels, they are able to learn and apply more advanced components of grammar. the k–12 ela grammar, mechanics, and usage standards showcase what is learned and taught throughout the grade levels. while these components are presented and practiced during various years, the standards provide a comprehensive outline of grammatical skills that are introduced, mastered, and reinforced during elementary, middle, and secondary grade levels. appendix a gives a glimpse into these standards. grammar taught in schools is typically based upon standard american english (sae), also known as general american english. carter (1999) defined such standardization as “a set of forms which are used with only minimal variation in written english” (p.163). sae can also be called prescriptive grammar, which is often thought of as the formalized means of speaking and writing luther & sroka 7 (huddleston et al., 2021). xavier et al. (2020) define prescriptive grammar as the “correct and accurate use of grammatical structures,” focused on grammatical rules (p. 200). in contrast, descriptive grammar is described as the way that individuals may actually speak and write in daily communication. xavier et al. (2020) designate descriptive grammar as a means for “linguistic choices,” thus allowing individuals to gain more connectivity through “meaning-making” (p. 200). prescriptive grammar is often thought of as more formally academic in nature, while descriptive grammar is more personalized in nature. grammar is an essential component of expressive language, and those with a proficient understanding of grammar are able to communicate with meaning and purpose (larsen-freeman, 2015). contrary to former ideologies from previous decades, camps and fonitch (2019) state that grammar is “not learned spontaneously or naturally” and must therefore be taught (p. 6). as command of grammar and mechanics can typically be seen as a benefit for speaking and writing, grammar can also benefit students’ reading comprehension (t. shanahan, 2020), especially as state ela standards have increased text-level complexity. grammar can also enhance students’ morphology knowledge, thus allowing them to better understand the meanings of words (jackendoff & audring, 2020). students’ ability to understand and produce complex sentences is another important aspect of writing and reading comprehension. as older students read more complex texts, they need stronger understandings of how to write more complex sentences (balthazar & scott, 2023). cognitive and psycholinguistic research further shows that comprehension depends heavily on a reader’s ability to integrate each word into the unfolding syntactic structure of a sentence, a process that underlies how meaning is constructed during reading (dempsey et al., 2024; van dyke & dempsey, 2025). integrating syntax as part of grammar instruction supports not only writing skills but also access to complex texts. teachers must also recognize that students bring their own cultural linguistics into the classroom, and such descriptive grammar and dialect are a part of students’ identities (gartland & smolkin, 2016). for students learning english as a second (or third) language, grammatical constructs in academic language can be perplexing (uccelli et al., 2015). at the same time, multilingual learners bring a variety of linguistic resources that can serve as assets for their language development. when teachers encourage curiosity and awareness about patterns and connections between languages, students are able to leverage these resources to extend the knowledge and skills they bring with them into the classroom (crosson et al., 2022). without doubt, classrooms are rich environments for sociolinguistics. teachers do have a responsibility to teach prescriptive grammar, especially in light of enhanced standards, as to not do so could negatively impact college and career readiness and academic success. yet we do not want to completely ignore descriptive grammar, as that can lead to enhanced writing motivation, feelings of individualism, and pride of culture and community. why is teaching grammar so difficult? the student lens students in all grade levels, especially in middle and secondary grades, spend an inordinate amount of time using digital language, which, according to ovsiienko et al. (2025), is more simplistic and concise than the language, writing mechanics, and grammatical structures expected in a classroom environment. digital language is the etymology of social networks, online platforms, gaming systems, and messaging services (e.g., texting). students are entrenched in digital language, which reduces syntax and punctuation, increases the use of abbreviations and acronyms, and often, visual 8 georgia journal of literacy 47(2) representations (e.g., emojis and gifs) take the place of text entirely (ovsiienko et al., 2025). simply put, digital language has greatly influenced the grammar that our students use. due to this, there can be a huge disconnect when we as educators ask for subject/verb agreement, proper punctuation, capitalization, and complete sentences, as to many students, these are ‘old-fashioned’ methods and often seen as ‘taboo’ on social media platforms. for instance, in a recent study, when shown text messages, participants determined that those ending with a period were more negative than those with messages with no ending punctuation, regardless of whether the message itself was positive in nature (houghton et al., 2018). this study clearly demonstrates that grammar, including punctuation, is valued differently in digital language. it is important to remember that today’s p–12 students are, as prensky (2001) termed, digital natives, as they have never known a world without technology and devices. they are developing in a world where digital technology is being disseminated at a rapid rate and where new social media apps regularly gain popularity (e.g., tiktok, instagram, snapchat). the “gen z” generation consists of individuals born between the approximate years of 1997–2010/2012. “gen alpha,” a phrase coined by social researcher mark mccrindle in 2020, refers to those born from approximately 2010 and beyond. though these generations differ, those born within these years represent elementary, middle, secondary, and college-aged students. according to howarth (2023), the number of individuals considered “gen alpha” will be approximately 2.2 billion worldwide by the end of 2025; this number, along with those born in the late 1990s and early 2000s, showcases the vast number of digital natives in our respective p–20 (p–12 and higher education) classrooms. those considered to be “gen z” or “gen alpha” have grown up with smartphones as a constant presence in their lives, shaping how they view writing and literacy. these students may feel as though writing mechanics is unnecessary in their academic work because of its unimportance online, and because of this, there is a fear that digital communication can and will negatively impact students’ language skills (busch, 2018). asking students to write with appropriate punctuation, sentence structure, and spelling can feel rather out of date to them, given that such conventions are rarely valued or modeled within digital spaces such as social media platforms. additionally, students in p–20 are increasingly using generative artificial intelligence (genai) in their writing (gupta et al., 2024). as those within these generations seek immediate gratification and are digital natives, they tend to utilize technology sources that can be used for their immediate benefit (mccrindle, 2020). for instance, students frequently use programs such as grammarly to correct writing errors automatically. while these practices can improve surfacelevel correctness, they also encourage an uncritical acceptance of changes to their writing. to counter this, levine et al. (2025) suggest educators use chatgpt as a tool to make writing processes visible, allowing students to critically examine their grammatical and stylistic decisions rather than outsource them to genai. the teacher lens simply put, teaching grammar is not necessarily a favorite of many teachers. often, teachers find the teaching of grammar to be an uphill battle, and because the “do-we-teach-grammar-or-don’twe-teach-grammar?” pendulum has shifted so much throughout the years, teachers can often feel unsupported in this area, commonly wondering how to best teach grammar and the rules of conventions. implicit learning suggests that the rules are not explained and are instead implied; explicit grammar learning, on the other hand, suggests more detailed orientation and awareness of luther & sroka 9 form as the concepts are explicitly taught (oxford et al., 2007). numerous studies (e.g., al-jarf, 2022; alzahrani, 2024) recognize that explicit instruction is often more valuable to students’ success, yet many teachers still struggle with the ability to teach grammar in an explicit manner while not causing students to become bored and shut down. this is often due to the fact that there is a lack of standardization in grammar, and as ‘grammar’ is so ambiguous and broad, it can be difficult to recognize what to teach. in addition, due to the aforementioned pendulum of grammar instruction, many teachers feel uncomfortable in their own understandings and language usage, as they themselves may not have received appropriate grammar instruction in school. this can lead to a sense of insecurity and frustration (gartland & smolkin, 2016), and teachers who are insecure in their own grammatical understandings often resort to rote, implicit methods of practice (watson, 2014) or default to methods of teaching that they were taught as students (smagorinsky et al., 2011). compounding this issue, research by myhill et al. (2023) found that many teachers do not view themselves as writers, which limits opportunities to engage in and model authentic grammatical awareness in practice. grammar in educator preparation programs many teachers enter the classroom without sufficient preparation for teaching grammar because few educator preparation programs (epps) include explicit coursework on writing and language instruction. according to van der heijden et al. (2015), it is critical that epps enhance grammar instruction in order to adequately prepare preservice teachers for the field. yet research shows that few epp programs have specific courses, or even one specific course, aligned to the teaching of writing and grammar, leaving many teachers without a strong pedagogical foundation (morgan & pytash, 2014; myers et al., 2016). in addition, epp faculty members are often confused as to what to teach preservice teachers concerning grammar and are often even more perplexed as to how those preservice teachers can take what they learn and translate that into their own future classrooms (liu & master, 2003). moreover, while some preservice teachers might be exposed to grammar instruction in their education courses, this often varies based on educational majors and certification tracks; for instance, preservice teachers majoring in elementary education might receive a peripheral overview of grammar and mechanics in their overarching ela classes, but those majoring in middle and secondary education take courses that are more literature-intensive. while preservice english teachers are required to take methods courses and complete year-long english placements aligned with gadoe’s new ela standards and the georgia professional standards commission (gapsc) requirements, which include preparation in language and grammar, the nature and depth of that preparation can vary considerably across epp programs. this is especially true as certification pathways have become more diverse and alternative certification routes are gaining in popularity (dori et al., 2023; peterson-ahmad et al., 2025). as a result, novice english teachers may either avoid teaching grammar or rely heavily on textbooks and test-prep materials (smagorinsky et al., 2011), as a lack of preparation often contributes to teachers feeling that they do not have the adequate knowledge or understanding of grammar (chatterjee & halder, 2023). lee (2019) suggests that preservice teachers need learning experiences that allow them to create their own knowledge about grammar, thus bridging the gap between theory and practice. unfortunately, very few epps provide preservice teachers with these types of opportunities. a lack of confidence in grammatical concepts also shapes teachers’ identities, as many teachers do not see themselves as writers, making it challenging to effectively teach writing 10 georgia journal of literacy 47(2) (morgan & pytash, 2014; myers et al., 2016; myhill et al., 2023). cremin and oliver (2015) note that teachers often lack confidence with writing and carry negative past experiences with these into their classrooms, thus hindering their ability to create effective, positive writing experiences for students. collectively, these aforementioned studies suggest that epp programs must do more to prepare teachers to be teachers of writing by building a stronger pedagogical foundation, reshaping attitudes, and strengthening teachers’ sense of themselves as writers (cremin & oliver, 2015; morgan & pytash, 2014; myers et al., 2016; smagorinsky et al., 2011). student-centered grammar instruction in order for students to personally connect to the nuances of grammar, they need time to practice; such implementation occurs most effectively when teachers model a curious, reflective, and growth-oriented approach to language. this includes demonstrating appropriate written and spoken prescriptive grammar when conducting academic instruction and also modeling a positive attitude toward grammar and a willingness to learn from mistakes and ask questions. when teachers approach grammar in this way, students are able to benefit not only from hearing and seeing proper grammar usage within the classroom but also from observing a positive and inquisitive view of language. yet as previously mentioned, teachers often feel underprepared. recognizing the importance of the utilization of written and spoken grammar, changing habits and attitudes, practicing appropriate prescriptive grammar in and out of classroom environments, and utilizing a growth mindset to continuously improve in grammar skills are some ways that educators can be positive models for their students. in this section, we discuss activities that can allow students to practice while also providing continuous guidance and support. figure 1 showcases specific key ideas that can be used within k–12 classrooms. figure 1: ideas for student-centered grammar instruction studentcentered grammar instruction ideas accept mistakes as a growth model target grammar instruction use genai as a tool teach grammar in context luther & sroka 11 accept mistakes as a growth model in an age of genai, students who show a willingness to take chances and make errors in their own expressive work should be praised for their effort. this is true for all students, and perhaps even more so for english learners, for striving readers and writers, and for students with language-based disabilities. a growth-oriented stance towards grammar invites students to take an inquiry stance towards their own writing and explore how grammar and language work, rather than viewing grammar as a restrictive list of dos and don’ts. eileen shanahan (2021) frames this as “a shift from finding fault to finding the wonder” (p. 18), while crosson et al. (2022) encourage us to “model and cultivate curiosity” around language and to encourage students to be lifelong language learners (p. 492). when responding to students’ writing, lead with rich, descriptive feedback on ideas, evidence, and organization; address grammar and writing mechanics in targeted follow-ups (walqui-van lier & hernandez, 2001). beck and jones (2023) suggest conference-based, dialogic feedback with student writers, which positions the teacher as an interested reader and keeps attention on the writer’s goals and writing processes. this supports student agency and avoids an overemphasis on errors in conventions while still creating space for targeted work on grammar and mechanics. over time, attending first to the what (what was written or stated), and then to the how (how the content was written or stated) improves writing and convention without dampening motivation or voice. while we must allow students to make errors, we must also ensure that they are learning and growing from misunderstandings or inaccuracies. one way that this can be done is through allowing students to recognize mistakes on their own (chiou, 2019). sometimes, students are able to find flaws in someone else’s writing faster than they can find errors in their own work. teachers can ‘make mistakes on purpose’ as a means of allowing students to find and fix errors. such types of activities engage students, and, according to chiou (2019), enhance students’ abilities to find their own errors in writing. using genai as a tool there is a current debate on the use and potential misuse of genai in p–20 settings. while we strongly believe that students should not rely extensively on genai for communication purposes, and while students should be given ample opportunity to write organically and to make errors in the process, we also believe in the value of genai as a teaching and learning tool. for instance, emerging research on ai-supported writing aligns with this perspective: levine et al. (2025) found that when students compare their writing to chatgpt-generated drafts, they often critique the ai’s choices, especially when it removes their personality or voice, and use those differences to refine their own grammatical and stylistic decisions. such work reinforces the idea that mistakes, revisions, and experiments with language are essential to growth. in addition, teachers can prompt chatgpt to generate multiple versions of an opening statement and then guide students in comparing those versions to identify underlying rhetorical or grammatical principles. similarly, in the revision stage of writing, students can compare chatgpt’s edits to their own drafts and evaluate which revisions strengthen clarity, coherence, or syntax and which remove their “personality” or voice. through this kind of guided comparison work, students learn to articulate and justify their grammatical and stylistic decisions while also learning to use genai in a productive and responsible way. the utilization of such tools can help teachers and students practice vygotsky’s (1978) zone of proximal development (zpd), as the functionality of chatgpt and other genai programs can serve to scaffold writing skills until students begin to feel more confident. bridging the gap 12 georgia journal of literacy 47(2) between what a student cannot yet do, or is unmotivated to do, and what a student can do with help and support enhances both skill and motivation (fulton et al., 2021). such gradual release of responsibility (vygotsky, 1978) inhabits an “i do, we do, you do” approach to writing throughout multiple grade levels. teach grammar in context teaching grammar in context means providing authentic reading and writing opportunities where grammar instruction can be engaging and relevant for students (chatterjee & halder, 2023). this often begins with helping students see the connections between reading and writing so that what is learned in one domain can transfer to the other (kim & zagata, 2024). when students become more aware of how authors use language to shape meaning in the texts they read, and then apply similar strategies in their own writing, they begin to understand grammar not as an isolated set of rules, but as a resource for comprehension and expression. embedding grammar within highinterest and meaningful academic texts and assignments has been shown to be more effective than teaching it as an isolated skill (andreev, 2025; balthazar & scott, 2023; simmons, 2016). balthazar and scott (2023) argue that providing authentic texts also allows students to have richer semantic and syntactic support than decontextualized examples, so they are better able to understand and apply the grammatical concepts they are learning (balthazar & scott, 2023). this means students not only notice how grammar functions but also internalize these patterns more deeply when instruction is grounded in authentic texts. relatedly, simmons (2016) used the hunger game trilogy as high-interest mentor texts to discuss how authors purposefully use grammar and language and then how students can apply these grammatical understandings to their own writing. song lyrics can also be used in the classroom, as the lines contain a wide array of grammar structures ready to be dissected and analyzed (roslim et al., 2011). at the same time, teaching grammar in context involves encouraging students to authentically reflect on their own writing and grammatical decisions, while also recognizing and drawing upon the linguistic resources and language variations they bring into the classroom (crosson et al., 2022; godley et al., 2007). effective grammar instruction should develop students’ metalinguistic awareness and support purposeful decision-making in their writing (lancaster & olinger, 2014; levine et al., 2025; myhill & watson, 2014). for teachers, this means inviting students to dialogue about their language use, thus providing space and opportunities to think about how language works so they become more aware of their choices as writers. target grammar instruction given the complexities of grammar, it may be beneficial to limit the scope of the explicit grammatical lessons (schenck, 2017). in identifying what grammar conventions to teach, it is often best to begin by examining students’ work and engaging students in conversation around their own grammar usage (bohney, 2019; e. shanahan, 2021). mccormack-colbert et al. (2018) believe that grammar should be taught in small, explicit mini-lessons, as these shortened, focused lessons respond to specific needs in a structured and explicit manner while not taking time away from practice and implication. bohney (2019) suggests focusing on just a few grammatical conventions throughout an academic year and providing students ample opportunities to identify, discuss, and apply those conventions. one example of targeted instruction is syntax. studies show that brief, explicit lessons in syntactic complexity support improvements in both comprehension and writing (balthazar & scott, 2023). for example, when students write fragments beginning with ‘because,’ teachers can luther & sroka 13 use this as an opportunity to discuss the relationship between dependent and independent clauses and model how complex sentences convey clearer meaning. in keeping with our previous advice, examples for complex sentences beginning with ‘because’ can be drawn from the class readings. students can then be encouraged to practice incorporating these types of complex sentences meaningfully into their writing. this type of targeted syntactic work reinforces the idea that grammar instruction is most effective when it helps students make intentional language choices rather than simply comply with rules. conclusion understanding grammar is an important life skill and a necessity for academic success for college and career preparedness. the gadoe k–12 ela standards also emphasize the importance of helping students to deepen their grammatical knowledge over time. studies throughout the years (e.g., kagan, 1992) have focused on teacher beliefs, determining that how educators feel and what they believe about the content they teach has a tremendous bearing on the quality of instruction that is given to students. we posit that teacher beliefs about grammar might actually be even more relevant today, especially in light of how views and expectations around grammar instruction have changed drastically over the past several decades. educators must be cognizant and reflective of their own grammar instructional practices and their own feelings of grammar, as teachers who appreciate the significance of grammar are more likely to model it, take an inquiry stance towards language, teach it through targeted daily practices in all content areas, and recognize that aspects of grammar and communication skills are taught, learned, practiced, and discussed in all grade levels. grammar is a necessary component of english language arts that must be cultivated through organic experiences and is critical for all ages. as students utilize technology consistently in their everyday lives, teachers should recognize that application through the use of digital tools can be helpful in the practice and analysis of grammatical constructs, as this can bring real-world application. however, digital tools should never take the place of educators’ explicit instructional practices that embrace a growth mindset. as well, those preparing the next generation of teachers must take logistical steps to discuss and practice grammar in education courses designated for all certification tracks. for instance, as preservice teachers complete assignments within their respective epp programs, faculty members should give specific feedback on both the content and the writing so that novice teachers, who may not have strong foundational skills in grammar and writing conventions, are able to recognize ways to improve in their written work. this will allow novice teachers to apply and practice strategies and better prepare them for their future classrooms. above all, p–20 educators must remember the cultural and linguistic differences in students. just as students come into the classrooms with varying background knowledge and skillsets in other components of language arts, p–20 students have differing proficiency in spoken and written grammar. being intentional in providing authentic student-centered instruction is critical in preparing learners of all ages for academic and career success in the 21st century. references al-jarf, r. 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(2015). characteristics of teachers as change agents. teachers and teaching, 21, 681–699. https://doi.org/10.1080/13540602.2015.1044328 http://doi.org/10.1002/rrq.352 https://doi.org/10.1108/10748120110424816 https://doi.org/%e2%80%8c10.7575/aiac.alls.v.2n.2p.118 https://doi.org/%e2%80%8c10.7575/aiac.alls.v.2n.2p.118 https://doi:10.1515/iral-2015-0038 https://doi.org/10.58680/vm20213%e2%80%8c1174 https://doi.org/10.58680/vm20213%e2%80%8c1174 https://www.shanahanonliteracy.com/blog/why-we-need-to-teach-sentence-comprehension https://www.shanahanonliteracy.com/blog/why-we-need-to-teach-sentence-comprehension https://doi.org/10.1002/jaal.449 https://doi.org/%e2%80%8c10.58680/ee201114002 https://doi.org/%e2%80%8c10.58680/ee201114002 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.%e2%80%8c2024.100624 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.%e2%80%8c2024.100624 https://doi.org/10.1002/rrq.104 https://doi.org/10.32996/ijllt.2020.12.16 https://doi.org/10.32996/ijllt.2020.12.16 https://doi.org/10.1080/13540602.2015.1044328 luther & sroka 19 van dyke, j. a., & dempsey, j. (2025). linguistically-driven text formatting improves reading comprehension: evidence from 4th and 5th graders [manuscript submitted for publication]. haskins laboratories, yale university. vygotsky, l.s. (1978). mind in society: the development of higher psychological processes. harvard university press. walqui-van lier, a., & hernandez, a. (2001). a scaffold for change: professional development for teachers of english learners. san diego county office of education. watson, a. (2013). conceptualisations of ‘grammar teaching’: l1 english teachers’ beliefs about teaching grammar for writing. language awareness, 24(1), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1080/09658416.2013.828736 xavier, c., hong, h.m., & renandya, w. (2020). grammar in writing: teachers’ reflections. pasaa: journal of language teaching and learning in thailand, 60(1), 199–221. https://doi.org/10.58837/chula.pasaa.60.1.7 appendix a: k–12 ela grammar, mechanics, and usage state standards standard code and strand standard description k–12.l.gc.1.1 (usage) use nouns and verbs to share complete thoughts when speaking. k–12.l.gc.1.2 (usage) form and use singular and plural nouns when speaking k–12.l.gc.1.3 (usage) use interrogatives to ask questions when speaking. k–12.l.gc.1.4 (mechanics) capitalize the first word of a sentence and the pronoun i. k–12.l.gc.1.5 (grammar) form regular plural nouns by adding -s or -es. k–12.l.gc.1.6 (grammar) form and use verbs by adding -ing, -ed, or -s. k–12.l.gc.1.7 (grammar) use action verbs. k–12.l.gc.1.8 (grammar) use adjectives and adverbs. k–12.l.gc.1.9 (grammar) use common and proper nouns. k–12.l.gc.1.10 (grammar) form and use the simple verb tenses. k–12.l.gc.1.11 (usage) use determiners (articles, possessive determiners, demonstrative adjectives). k–12.l.gc.1.12 (mechanics) capitalize proper nouns. k–12.l.gc.1.13 (mechanics) use periods, exclamation marks, and question marks at the end of sentences. k–12.l.gc.1.14 (grammar) form plural nouns by changing -y to -ies. k–12.l.gc.1.15 (grammar) use personal pronouns (subject, object, and possessive). k–12.l.gc.1.16 (grammar) use frequently occurring prepositions. k–12.l.gc.1.17 (mechanics) use commas to separate items in a series and to format dates, addresses, salutations, and closings. https://doi.org/10.1080/09658416.2013.828736 https://doi.org/10.58837/chula.pasaa.60.1.7 20 georgia journal of literacy 47(2) k–12.l.gc.1.1 (mechanics) use apostrophes to form contractions and singular possessive nouns. k–12.l.gc.1.19 (grammar) form and use irregular plural nouns. k–12.l.gc.1.20 (grammar) form and use the past tense of irregular verbs. k–12.l.gc.1.2 (grammar) use coordinating conjunctions to join words, phrases, or clauses. k–12.l.gc.1.22 (grammar) form and use verbs by adding -d or -es. k–12.l.gc.1.23 (grammar) use collective and abstract nouns. k–12.l.gc.1.24 (grammar) use reflexive pronouns. k–12.l.gc.1.25 (mechanics) use commas with coordinating conjunctions to join independent clauses. k–12.l.gc.1.26 (mechanics) use hyphens to divide words at line breaks. k–12.l.gc.1.27 (grammar) form and use prepositional phrases. k–12.l.gc.1.28 (grammar) form and use comparative and superlative adjectives and adverbs. k–12.l.gc.1.29 (usage) ensure pronoun-antecedent agreement. k–12.l.gc.1.30 (mechanics) recognize and use conventional capitalization, quotation marks, and commas to indicate exact words and dialogue. k–12.l.gc.1.31 (grammar) use relative pronouns and relative adverbs. k–12.l.gc.1.32 (grammar) use interjections. k–12.l.gc.1.33 (grammar) use helping and linking verbs. k–12.l.gc.1.34 (usage) correctly use frequently confused words (e.g., to/too/two; there/their/they’re; advice/advise). k–12.l.gc.1.35 (mechanics) recognize and use conventional capitalization in abbreviations, proper adjectives, and formal titles. k–12.l.gc.1.36 (mechanics) use commas to indicate direct address and to set off the words yes and no. k–12.l.gc.1.37 (mechanics) use apostrophes to form plural possessive nouns. k–12.l.gc.1.38 (grammar) use indefinite pronouns, ensuring correct agreement. k–12.l.gc.1.39 (grammar) use subordinating conjunctions to join clauses. k–12.l.gc.1.40 (mechanics) use commas after introductory phrases or clauses. k–12.l.gc.1.41 (mechanics) use conventional capitalization and underlining, quotation marks, or italics to indicate titles of works. k–12.l.gc.1.42 (grammar) use intensive pronouns. k–12.l.gc.1.43 (grammar) form and use the progressive, perfect, and perfect progressive verb aspects. k–12.l.gc.1.44 (grammar) form and use participles. k–12.l.gc.1.45 (usage) recognize and correct vague pronoun references. k–12.l.gc.1.46 (grammar) use correlative conjunctions to join words, phrases, or clauses. luther & sroka 21 k–12.l.gc.1.47 (mechanics) use conventional capitalization, quotation marks, commas, end punctuation, and attributions to indicate exact words and lines of dialogue. k–12.l.gc.1.48 (mechanics) use semicolons to separate items in a series or list when at least one of the items already contains commas. k–12.l.gc.1.49 (mechanics) use commas, parentheses, and dashes to set off nonessential words, phrases, or clauses. k–12.l.gc.1.50 (mechanics) use ellipses appropriately. k–12.l.gc.1.51 (mechanics) use hyphens with appropriate affixes and compound words. k–12.l.gc.1.52 (mechanics) use semicolons, with or without a conjunctive adverb, to form compound and compound-complex sentences. k–12.l.gc.1.53 (grammar & mechanics) use parts of speech and their associated phrases or clauses to perform indicated sentence functions (e.g., subject, direct object, predicate k–12.l.gc.1.54 (mechanics) use conventional capitalization, quotation marks, commas, end punctuation, and parentheses (citations) when incorporating textual evidence. k–12.l.gc.1.55 (grammar) use demonstrative pronouns. k–12.l.gc.1.56 (mechanics) use colons to introduce lists, examples, and explanations. k–12.l.gc.1.57 (usage) form and use verbals and verbal phrases (participles/participials, gerunds, and infinitives) based on function. k–12.l.gc.1.5 (usage) use tenses and aspects to indicate the mood of a verb. k–12.l.gc.1.59 (mechanics) use colons to introduce quotations. k–12.l.gc.1.60 (mechanics) use dashes appropriately. k–12.l.gc.1.61 (grammar, usage, & mechanics) use an appropriate style guide to address complex issues of grammar, usage, or mechanics. note: https://case.georgiastandards.org/ received: october 24, 2025 | accepted: november 24, 2025 | published: december 12, 2025 https://case.georgiastandards.org/ a brief history of grammar instruction the importance of grammar instruction why is teaching grammar so difficult? the student lens the teacher lens grammar in educator preparation programs student-centered grammar instruction accept mistakes as a growth model using genai as a tool teach grammar in context target grammar instruction conclusion references georgia journal of literacy 2025, vol. 47(1), pp. 24–45 https://doi.org/10.56887/galiteracy.191 issn: 2833-7611 research article contact dr. forrest r. parker iii, assistant professor, department of teacher education, valdosta state university, valdosta, ga; email fparker@valdosta.edu (https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0671-9097). dr. jodi cronin, assistant professor, department of teacher education, valdosta state university, valdosta, ga; email jcronin@valdosta.edu. fostering social-emotional learning in children’s books: an analysis of content and quality forrest r. parker iii valdosta state university, valdosta, ga jodi cronin valdosta state university, valdosta, ga abstract social-emotional learning (sel) is increasingly recognized as essential to children’s development, equipping them with tools for emotional regulation, positive relationships, and responsible decision-making. this quantitative study explores how sel is represented in contemporary children’s literature, drawing on the collaborative for academic, social, and emotional learning (casel) framework to analyze the frequency and quality of sel themes across five core competencies: self-awareness, self-management, social awareness, relationship skills, and responsible decision-making. the study focuses on two primary research questions: (1) which sel themes appear most frequently in children’s books based on rubric scores? and (2) how do literary and artistic rubric ratings relate to the effectiveness of sel content? the study differentiates between the presence of sel themes and the quality of their delivery. findings highlight how children’s books can serve as powerful tools for modeling empathy and social understanding, offering valuable insights for educators, parents, and publishers seeking to support holistic child development through literature. keywords children’s literature; social development; social relationships ocial-emotional learning (sel) has emerged as a crucial component of children’s development, emphasizing the importance of helping young learners acquire the skills needed to manage emotions, build healthy relationships, and make responsible decisions. in an increasingly complex world, the ability to navigate social and emotional challenges is essential for both personal well-being and academic success. sel provides children with the tools they need to understand and manage their emotions, show empathy toward others, establish and maintain positive relationships, and make responsible choices. children’s literature plays a significant role in fostering these skills. books that are rich in sel content can serve as valuable resources for parents, educators, and children themselves. through engaging stories and relatable characters, children’s books have the potential to introduce and reinforce sel concepts in accessible and developmentally appropriate ways. research suggests that when these texts are intentionally selected and used, they can model behaviors that support emotional growth, empathy, and social understanding (doyle & bramwell, 2006; ludwig, 2012; shechtman, 2008). the narratives found in these books often model positive behaviors and provide children with examples of how to handle various social and emotional situations. as such, s mailto:fparker@valdosta.edu https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0671-9097 mailto:jcronin@valdosta.edu parker & cronin 25 the intentional incorporation of sel themes into children’s literature is a critical component in promoting holistic development. while social-emotional learning (sel) is widely regarded as a foundational component of student development, much of the existing research has focused on sel implementation in schoolbased programs and curricula (devaney et al., 2005; greenberg, 2023). fewer studies have examined how sel competencies are represented in children’s literature, particularly in terms of how narrative and artistic elements reinforce sel messages. because children’s books are frequently used in early education settings as both literacy and life-skills tools, there is a need to understand how effectively these books present sel content—not only in terms of frequency, but in the quality and clarity of those messages (doyle & bramwell, 2006; mondi & reynolds, 2020). this study addresses this gap by exploring not just how often sel themes appear in children’s literature, but also how the literary and artistic quality of the books may contribute to the effectiveness of sel communication. research objectives this study aims to explore both the presence and the quality of sel content in contemporary children’s books. specifically, it investigates the frequency with which key sel themes appear and examines whether literary and artistic quality influences the perceived effectiveness of these themes. these are treated as two distinct areas of inquiry: representation does not imply effectiveness. instead, the study seeks to better understand how often sel themes appear and whether the way they are presented enhances their developmental impact on young readers. the primary research questions guiding this study are: 1. which sel themes appear most frequently in children’s books based on rubric scores? 2. how do rubric ratings of literary and artistic qualities correlate with the effectiveness of sel content in children’s books? by addressing these questions, the study endeavors to provide a comprehensive analysis of the intersection between sel content and the overall quality of children’s literature. significance of the study this research contributes to the existing literature on sel by offering an in-depth analysis of its representation in children’s books. while previous studies have focused on the role of sel in educational settings (devaney et al., 2005; greenberg, 2023), there is a growing need to understand how children’s literature can serve as an additional resource for promoting social-emotional learning skills. children’s books that model emotional regulation, empathy, and responsible decision-making have the potential to shape not only how young readers understand emotions but also how they relate to others in meaningful ways (ludwig, 2012; shechtman, 2008). previous studies suggest that high-quality picturebooks can positively influence children’s sel development by presenting relatable characters and situations that reflect real-world social dynamics (mondi & reynolds, 2020; ursache et al., 2020). moreover, integrating sel themes through engaging narratives can support emotional growth, improve behavior, and enhance literacy outcomes (deliman et al., 2024; doyle & bramwell, 2006). this study extends those findings by providing a quantitative analysis of both sel content and literary/artistic quality, offering educators and publishers specific guidance on what constitutes effective sel integration in children’s literature. 26 georgia journal of literacy 47(1) the findings of this study will have practical implications for educators, parents, and publishers, offering guidelines on selecting and creating high-quality sel-themed books that effectively support children’s social and emotional growth. ultimately, this research underscores the potential of children’s literature as a powerful tool for fostering sel and enhancing the emotional well-being of young readers. theoretical framework the theoretical foundation for this study is grounded in the collaborative for academic, social, and emotional learning (casel) framework, which identifies five core competencies essential for social-emotional learning (sel). these competencies (table 1), social awareness, relationship skills, self-awareness, self-management, and responsible decision-making, are critical for the holistic development of children and serve as the guiding principles for evaluating and promoting sel through children’s literature. table 1: casel core competency terms term definition social awareness casel (2020) defines social awareness as the ability “to understand the perspectives of and empathize with others, including those from diverse backgrounds, cultures, and contexts” (p. 2). relationship skills casel (2020) defines relationship skills as the ability “to establish and maintain healthy and supportive relationships and to effectively navigate settings with diverse individuals and groups” (p. 2). self-awareness casel (2020) defines self-awareness as the ability to understand one’s own emotions, thoughts, and values and how they influence behavior across contexts (p. 2). self-management casel (2020) defines self-management as the ability “to manage one’s emotions, thoughts, and behaviors effectively in different situations and to achieve goals and aspirations” (p. 2). responsible decision-making casel (2020) defines responsible decision-making as the ability “to make caring and constructive choices about personal behavior and social interactions across diverse situations” (p. 2). the role of literature in promoting sel the importance of sel in education social and emotional learning (sel) is one of the crucial aspects of the whole child learning process. however, it receives little or no attention in schools because the emphasis is on grades and the overall academic situation. the core of the “whole child” method is sel, such that students are able to recognize and control their feelings, become empathetic and care about those in need, build relationships, make sound judgments, and solve difficult situations (devaney et al., 2005). how literature supports sel competencies the five core competencies of social and emotional learning (sel) outlined by the collaborative for academic, social, and emotional learning (casel, 2019) can all be meaningfully supported through the integration of high-quality children’s literature. extensive research has demonstrated that fostering these competencies leads to a range of positive student outcomes, including improved academic achievement, stronger interpersonal skills, enhanced school climate, and parker & cronin 27 reduced emotional stress (casel, 2019; devaney et al., 2005). greenberg (2023) reinforces these findings by highlighting sel’s long-term impact on student success, while ursache et al. (2020) link early emotional understanding with later academic performance, especially in under-resourced communities. furthermore, classroom-based sel initiatives have been shown to strengthen students’ empathy, behavior, and overall emotional literacy (kaur & sharma, 2022). collectively, these findings support the role of literature as a powerful tool for promoting sel in developmentally appropriate and impactful ways. literature as a classroom sel tool. one effective way to incorporate social-emotional learning in the classroom is through the use of children’s literature. children’s books can become great resources for educators because they can be both enjoyable to read and very useful in teaching, reviewing, or reinforcing sel themes. in addition, the length of many children’s books allows educators the opportunity to read multiple texts or reread previous texts without requiring a large time commitment. instructional strategies for sel through literature. high-quality children’s books can serve as valuable tools to model, reinforce, and review sel components within a literacy curriculum. when thoughtfully selected, these texts provide opportunities for students to engage with sel themes through relatable characters and meaningful narratives. educators can enhance this experience through instructional strategies such as interactive read-alouds and repeated readings, which not only support oral language development and reading fluency but also foster social-emotional growth (doyle & bramwell, 2006). research by gunn et al. (2022) further suggests that engaging with multicultural picturebooks that emphasize sel can increase student motivation and improve literacy outcomes. these approaches help students internalize sel concepts while simultaneously developing essential literacy skills, making children’s literature a powerful dual-purpose tool in early education. extending sel themes beyond early grades. the use of picturebooks to teach sel is not limited to elementary-aged students. “middle school students need consistent opportunities to learn about, practice, and discuss social emotional skills. these skills aid students in their behavioral and academic growth” (short, 2022, para. 1). most picturebooks can be read quicker than a novel as they are shorter in length, which allows the educator additional time to concentrate on the literary elements or the sel components. through the imaginative process that reading involves, children have the opportunity to do what they often cannot do in real life, become thoroughly involved in the inner lives of others, better understand them, and eventually become more aware of themselves (shechtman, 2008). “the more competent children are in their sel skills, the more successful they will be in school and in life” (ludwig, 2012, para. 4). sel themes reflected in children’s literature the importance of social-emotional learning in early childhood has led to a growing interest in understanding how these themes are being reflected in the books and stories that young children encounter. several studies have examined how social-emotional skills and competencies are portrayed in children’s literature, highlighting how stories and characters support, or at times overlook, these critical developmental areas (campagnaro & ferrari, 2024; doyle & bramwell, 2006; health et al., 2017; morton & akram, 2022) through their plots, conflicts, and character 28 georgia journal of literacy 47(1) arcs, these books help shape how young readers understand emotions, relationships, and their own social environments. in the educational world, social and emotional learning (sel) has reached high importance, showing persistent growth. numerous studies have linked the development of sel competencies to improvements in children’s well-being, academic performance, and long-term success (devaney et al., 2005; greenberg, 2023; jones & doolittle, 2017; ursache et al., 2020). by integrating relevant themes and characters that model important sel topics, children’s literature sources, such as picturebooks, have the potential to serve as a valuable tool for the development of the “whole child.” key findings from sel literature research. one area of research has focused on evaluating the extent to which children’s literature features the themes associated with the concepts of emotional management, empathy, and positive social connections. the studies of many children’s books pointed out that many books present the same fundamental skills related to the sel process, such as emotional management, role-switching, and social relationship navigation (devaney et al., 2005; mondi et al., 2021; mondi & reynolds, 2020; ursache et al., 2020). high-quality children’s literature offers educators a practical means of integrating socialemotional learning (sel) into literacy instruction, particularly through intentional strategies such as read-alouds and repeated readings. these practices not only reinforce key sel competencies by allowing students to engage with characters’ emotions and decisions but also promote oral language development and literacy growth (doyle & bramwell, 2006; gonsalves et al., 2018). read-alouds have been shown to increase student motivation and foster meaningful conversations about emotional experiences, especially when supported by engaging and inclusive texts (gunn et al., 2022). moreover, repeated exposure to sel-themed literature enhances vocabulary acquisition and comprehension skills, while follow-up discussions and reflection activities deepen both reading and writing outcomes through dialogic engagement (deliman et al., 2024; gonsalves et al., 2018). together, these strategies demonstrate the reciprocal benefits of using high-quality literature to support both literacy development and social-emotional growth in early childhood settings. connecting sel with the science of reading the quality of children’s books has long been a topic of debate, with many factors contributing to the overall excellence of these crucial educational and entertainment resources. one of the main factors of children’s books that is gaining attention is the role of the science of reading; this element has produced great strides in the comprehension of the cognitive processes involved in learning to read over the years. cognitive and linguistic foundations in literature. the field of research in the science of reading revealed that different linguistic and cognitive factors are necessary in the process of reading, such as phonological awareness, orthographic knowledge, vocabulary, and comprehension. the basic components of reading ability are currently the main focus of the kids’ books’ making and checking processes, as the authors, illustrators, and publishers are demonstrating a trend to create materials that readers can fully enjoy and that will drive their literacy growth. parker & cronin 29 story structure and comprehension strategy use. good readers can use their knowledge of story elements (text features) to combine and activate additional comprehension strategies, to ask and answer questions, monitor story comprehension, predict and preview, connect to world knowledge, construct mental images, and summarize or retell (honig et al., 2018). recognizing the story structure is a prerequisite to effective strategy use; therefore, having story elements and plots organized in a predictable format promotes reading comprehension. selecting high-quality books for sel instruction as educators strive to nurture the essential sel competencies, the selection of high-quality children’s books that integrate sel principles has become a crucial consideration. it is just as important for educators to have a clear purpose for selecting a book to read to the students. a book could be selected to support an academic standard or skill, aligned to a thematic unit, used to motivate students to read similar texts, or support soft skills, including sel (weih, 2015). criteria for evaluating sel books. when evaluating the quality of sel children’s books, several key factors should be considered. everyday speech for educators (2024) identified five key criteria for educators to consider when selecting sel books, which are explained in table 2. table 2: five key criteria considerations when selecting sel books criteria explanation age-appropriate content the books should be developmentally appropriate, with language, themes, and content that align with the cognitive, emotional, and social abilities of the target age group. the students’ reading abilities, emotional maturity, and complexity of the text should be suitable. the book should address the content that is especially suitable for the targeted child group. in addition, educators should check that the manner, topics, and concepts are clear so that children can grasp the meaning. relevance to students’ experiences and challenges utilizing books that address similar topics or challenges that are relevant to the students will help them make a connection to the text. additionally, the message is conveyed in a positive manner and supports emotional development. engaging and interactive elements books that are engaging with images or include interactive elements like questions, activities, or reflections may motivate students to engage with the text. the artwork within the book should fit the written text well and provide proper ideas and emotions respectively. the story should be child-friendly and have a thoughtful plot structure. diversity and inclusivity representation books should present characters and storylines that resonate with the diverse experiences and identities of the children. representation and inclusivity are paramount in ensuring that all children can see themselves reflected in the narratives and characters. characters should be well-realized and exhibit character growth as the story progresses. alignment with sel competencies and goals books should effectively model and reinforce sel competencies and goals that an educator wants to address in their classroom, such as self-awareness, selfmanagement, social awareness, relationship skills, and responsible decisionmaking. the narratives and illustrations should provide opportunities for children to engage with and internalize these crucial skills. 30 georgia journal of literacy 47(1) katie cunningham (2016) included additional key elements (table 3) to consider when deciding whether a book is a new must-have for classroom bookshelves. table 3: additional key elements for consideration when selecting sel books criteria prompt/explanation text selection to engage literacy learners will the book engage multiple learners? curriculum connections are there direct connections to the curricular contexts or skills? authentic representation there should be authentic representation regarding diverse populations and perspectives, as well as issues of diversity relating to gender, socioeconomic class, religion, etc. the value of social-emotional connections the values of the social-emotional connection should strengthen a reader’s capacity to empathize or understand what others are thinking and feeling. educators should “select books that include characters from different cultural and linguistic backgrounds authored and illustrated by culturally and linguistically diverse authors” (cunningham, 2016, para. 3) to support children’s sense of belonging or connectedness at school. in addition, the varied types of texts should each have individual elements that are considered. narrative books should have a clear setting, problem or conflict, plot or events within the story, and characters (weih, 2015). informational books should include a background perspective highlighting the importance of the topic, creatively encourage students to want to read the text, include high quality graphics, demonstrate a logical and clear organization, and include a print size or style that serves a purpose, such as headings, explanations, and captions (weih, 2015). the national center on cultural and linguistic responsiveness (2011) includes four criteria to review when evaluating culturally and socially diverse children’s books. first, the educator should consider the context for the text, including the author’s background, copyright date, and content. if the content is outdated or inaccurate, this text should not be utilized. secondly, the educator should take the time to examine the illustrations to ensure there is diversity with characters and that those illustrations are accurately illustrated and match the story. thirdly, the educator should analyze the message to ensure there is a clear, positive self-image from diverse backgrounds while also ensuring that the message promotes respect for all characters and cultures within the book. finally, the educator should review the words used in the text to ensure dialects are used appropriately and respectfully, and the text is free of problematic words or offensive terms. the multifaceted impact of sel literature the evaluation of children’s books is a process that is made up of many parts. some of the aspects to be addressed include the representation of a large group of different perspectives, the depth of the materials, the connectedness to the curriculum, and the promotion of the social and emotional learning themes. the educator’s role in delivering sel content. the relationship between social and emotional learning (sel) and children’s literature is a complex one that involves various factors, parker & cronin 31 such as the quality of the content, the effectiveness of the themes, and the impact on the readers. in addition, if the children’s literature is presented in a read-aloud format by an educator, consideration must also be given to the effectiveness of the lesson and the ability of the educator to deliver engaging reading with excellent fluency and prosody factors. long-term benefits of sel literature integration. researchers have consistently found that the development of social-emotional skills, such as emotion recognition, empathy, and responsible decision-making, can significantly affect a child’s academic performance, motivation, and overall well-being (devaney et al., 2005; greenberg, 2023; matsumura et al., 2008; ursache et al., 2020). moreover, research has revealed that these programs also increase academic performance, in that they equip children with the essential skills of school and daily life success (devaney et al., 2005; greenberg, 2023). the power of high-quality literature in sel instruction. an important factor that can support the success of social emotional learning in schools is the novelty and the quality of children’s literature that is utilized for teaching sel themes. high-quality children’s books that authentically and thoughtfully address topics related to sel themes can serve as powerful resources for educators to engage students and support essential life skills. studies show that when social-emotional learning is strategically integrated into well-crafted children’s narratives, it can increase the overall effect and retention of these life skills (greenberg, 2023). in addition, research has shown that a sense of school community and positive social interactions in the classroom are associated with higher levels of reading comprehension and motivation, particularly among disadvantaged students (matsumura et al., 2008). applying sel concepts through literature. utilizing high-quality children’s literature to teach, review, or reinforce sel themes can provide engaging and relatable contexts for children to explore and practice these essential skills (devaney et al., 2005; matsumura et al., 2008; greenberg, 2023; ursache et al., 2020). an important aspect of this relationship is the ability of quality children’s literature to capture the emotional experiences and social dynamics of the characters. thus, they can help children gain a deeper insight into their emotions (matsumura et al., 2008). integration of sel themes into high-quality children’s literature, such as picturebooks, can serve not only as powerful tools for the development of students and enhancement of academic excellence, but also help them prepare to confront future hurdles. thus, books that feature characters and stories that resonate with learners can be used as platforms through which students can apply their learning in real settings. high-quality children’s literature can develop the “whole child” and provide students with the necessary skills and dispositions to follow challenges that may unfold around them (greenberg, 2023). ultimately, the research suggests that the strategic integration of high-quality children’s literature with sel themes can serve as a powerful way to support the development of young learners. by providing children with opportunities to engage with stories that resonate with their lived experiences and foster the development of essential life skills, educators can help set them up for long-term success in school and beyond. therefore, it is essential for educators to prioritize the selection of children’s books that not only engage and captivate young readers but also foster the development of essential social-emotional and holistic competencies (greenberg, 2023; kaur & sharma, 2022). when intentionally selected and thoughtfully discussed, these texts can become 32 georgia journal of literacy 47(1) catalysts for meaningful dialogue, empathy-building, and real-world application of sel principles in the classroom and beyond. methodology this study employs a quantitative research design to examine the quality and effectiveness of social-emotional learning (sel) content in children’s literature to answer the following research questions: (1) which sel themes appear most frequently in children’s books based on rubric scores? (2) how do rubric ratings of literary and artistic qualities correlate with the effectiveness of sel content in children’s books? it is important to emphasize that frequency of sel themes and the effectiveness of their presentation are treated as distinct constructs in this study. while frequency offers insight into representation patterns, effectiveness is evaluated independently using a rubric designed to assess literary and artistic quality in conveying sel principles. the primary method involves the use of a validated rubric to assess the integration and quality of sel themes within selected books. the rubric generates numerical data based on specific criteria, which are systematically evaluated by literacy experts. this approach allows for objective measurement of how effectively sel themes are embedded within the narrative and artistic elements of the books. data collection criteria children’s books were selected based on their explicit or implicit inclusion of sel themes. the selection process aimed to ensure a diverse representation of sel competencies, following the framework established by the collaborative for academic, social, and emotional learning (casel). these competencies include self-awareness, self-management, social awareness, relationship skills, and responsible decision-making. book selection criteria to develop a purposeful sample of children’s literature focused on social-emotional learning (sel), a multi-step selection process was used to ensure alignment with the study’s goals. the initial pool of texts was generated from three primary sources: (1) curated library collections, (2) keyword searches on online bookstores, and (3) professional recommendations from educators, librarians, and sel experts. curated library collections were identified by reviewing sel booklists published by public libraries, school systems, and national literacy and education organizations (e.g., casel, scholastic, american library association). these lists focused specifically on early childhood and elementary-aged readers and included texts known to support sel development. titles from these lists were compiled into the initial dataset. to broaden the sample, additional books were located using keyword searches on amazon and barnes & noble. search terms included combinations of “social-emotional learning,” “children’s books,” and the casel core competencies (e.g., “empathy,” “self-regulation,” “responsible decision-making”). only books explicitly marketed or categorized under sel-related themes were included. the resulting pool of over 100 titles was then reviewed by a panel of researchers, education faculty, and a school librarian, each with expertise in children’s literature and/or sel. titles were evaluated for developmental appropriateness, alignment with casel competencies, narrative clarity, and overall educational value. a total of 40 books were selected for the final sample based parker & cronin 33 on their demonstrated relevance to sel themes and suitability for readers in early childhood through upper elementary grades. although the initial pool included a range of text types, only narrative children’s books— such as picturebooks, illustrated storybooks, and sel-themed fiction—were selected for inclusion in the final sample. informational texts, workbooks, and nonfiction resources that lacked a narrative structure (e.g., plot, characters, or dialogue) were excluded from analysis. this decision ensured alignment with the design of the evaluation rubric, which was developed specifically to assess narrative elements such as character development and story-based sel theme integration. as such, all books evaluated in the study were consistent in genre and structure, reducing the risk of skewed results due to mismatched text types. this list can be found in appendix a. data collection methods each book was evaluated by at least two independent reviewers using the validated rubric. this full rubric can be found in appendix b. the reviewers included faculty members with expertise in sel and children’s literature and undergraduate education students trained in the use of the rubric. to ensure consistency, researchers conducted a two-hour training session for the student reviewers, which included an overview of sel themes, rubric criteria, and guided practice using sample texts. the rubric assessed multiple dimensions of the books, including sel theme integration, character development, narrative structure, artistic quality, cultural relevance, and overall impact on sel learning. in addition to these scored dimensions, reviewers also identified which of casel’s five core sel competencies—self-awareness, self-management, social awareness, relationship skills, and responsible decision-making—were present in each book. this identification was done using a checklist format on the rubric, and reviewers could select multiple competencies as applicable. presence was determined based on observable elements in the narrative or illustrations (e.g., characters displaying empathy, resolving conflict, or managing emotions). these identifications informed the analysis of the frequency of sel competencies across the dataset but were treated separately from overall effectiveness ratings. the rubric used in this study was developed based on existing literature and best practices for evaluating children’s books in the context of sel. it includes categories that reflect core features of effective sel instruction and messaging, such as theme integration, character development, emotional resonance, and cultural authenticity. these indicators align with casel’s framework and related sel research (casel, 2020; doyle & bramwell, 2006; greenberg, 2023), making the rubric a valid tool for approximating the quality and potential impact of sel content on young readers. while the rubric does not measure outcomes such as behavioral change, it serves as a proxy for how well books are likely to model or reinforce sel principles in developmentally appropriate ways. data analysis the rubric provided a standardized framework for assessing the sel content and overall quality of each book. quantitative data from the rubric scores were analyzed using descriptive statistics to identify trends and evaluate the overall quality of the books. these descriptive statistics directly addressed the first research question by highlighting the most commonly presented sel themes. a hierarchical multiple regression analysis was conducted using the ordinary least squares (ols) method to explore the incremental impact of different predictor sets (e.g., literary vs. artistic qualities) on sel outcomes. nine rubric criteria served as predictors: sel theme integration, character development, plot and narrative structure, artistic quality (illustrations), language and 34 georgia journal of literacy 47(1) style, engagement and appeal, authenticity and cultural sensitivity, cover and text design, and grammar and spelling. this hierarchical approach allowed examination of how adding predictor sets influenced the overall model. additionally, a stepwise multiple regression analysis was performed to identify the most influential predictors of overall sel impact based on statistical criteria. a pearson correlation analysis was also conducted to assess the strength and direction of linear relationships between individual rubric categories and overall sel effectiveness. the correlation matrix provided a comprehensive view of the interrelationships between literary, artistic, and sel effectiveness scores. together, these regression and correlation analyses offered detailed insights into how literary and artistic qualities influence sel outcomes, addressing the second research question. reliability and validity to enhance validity, the rubric was reviewed by three content experts with backgrounds in sel, literacy education, and children’s literature. their feedback guided revisions to clarify rubric categories, refine language, and ensure alignment with developmentally appropriate sel competencies. this expert review process provided face and content validity for the rubric, consistent with qualitative validation approaches in educational research (brookhart, 2013). the rubric was designed to evaluate narrative children’s books for sel theme integration, character development, narrative structure, artistic quality, cultural relevance, and overall sel impact. a two-hour training session was conducted with undergraduate student reviewers prior to data collection. during this session, researchers introduced the casel framework, discussed the purpose and scoring of each rubric category, and engaged participants in collaborative scoring exercises using sample texts. this calibration helped establish consistency in scoring practices and minimized interpretive discrepancies. in addition to the initial training, reviewers also had access to a rubric guide with definitions and sample annotations to support consistent interpretation of scoring criteria. each book was independently evaluated by at least two reviewers. the review team consisted of four total evaluators: two faculty members with expertise in sel and children’s literature, and two trained undergraduate education students. inter-rater reliability was calculated using cohen’s kappa and yielded a score of 0.74, indicating substantial agreement among reviewers (landis & koch, 1977). these reliability results support the consistency and trustworthiness of the scoring process. results this study examined the prevalence of social-emotional learning (sel) themes in children’s literature and analyzed the impact of literary and artistic qualities on overall sel outcomes. to ensure consistency in evaluations, inter-rater reliability was assessed using cohen’s kappa. the analysis produced a kappa value of 0.74, indicating a substantial level of agreement between evaluators. this result reflects strong consistency across all paired evaluations, supporting the reliability of the coding process. descriptive statistics provided insights into the distribution of sel themes within the children’s books analyzed. among the five core sel competencies, self-awareness was the most frequently represented theme, appearing in 82.4% of the books. this was followed by selfmanagement (59.5%), responsible decision-making (33.8%), social awareness (24.3%), and relationship skills (21.6%). additionally, the analysis of sel theme integration scores indicated parker & cronin 35 that 48.6% of the books received an “excellent” rating, while 26.7% were rated as “good,” meaning that over 75% of the books demonstrated strong sel representation. these descriptive findings highlight the prevalence of key sel themes in children’s literature and the overall quality of their integration. figure 1: distribution of sel themes in children’s books to further explore the relationship between literary and artistic qualities and overall sel outcomes, a hierarchical multiple regression analysis using the ordinary least squares (ols) method was conducted. the regression model was statistically significant (f(9, 64) = 9.780, p < .001), with an r-squared value of 0.579, indicating that the model explained 57.9% of the variance in overall sel outcomes. the hierarchical approach identified sel theme integration (β = 0.292, p = 0.032) as a significant predictor of sel outcomes, underscoring the critical role of how well sel themes are embedded in children’s literature. table 4: hierarchical multiple regression analysis predicting overall sel outcomes predictor b se b β t p sel theme integration 0.292 0.131 0.292 2.23 .032 engagement and appeal 0.265 0.115 0.278 2.30 .026 plot and narrative 0.189 0.102 0.215 1.85 .069 model summary: r² = .579, f(9, 64) = 9.780, p < .001 note. this table displays the results of the hierarchical multiple regression analysis. 36 georgia journal of literacy 47(1) a stepwise multiple regression analysis provided further clarity regarding the relative importance of predictors. this analysis confirmed that sel theme integration was the strongest predictor of overall sel outcomes. additionally, engagement/appeal and plot/narrative structure emerged as secondary contributors, further emphasizing the importance of literary elements in promoting sel competencies. table 5: stepwise multiple regression analysis predicting overall sel outcomes step predictor b eb β t p 1 sel theme integration 0.295 0.125 0.312 2.36 .021 2 engagement and appeal 0.267 0.118 0.281 2.26 .027 3 plot and narrative 0.193 0.104 0.219 1.87 .065 model summary: r² = .564, p < .001 note. this table displays the results of the stepwise multiple regression analysis. the findings from the pearson correlation analysis aligned with the regression results, demonstrating significant positive relationships between overall sel outcomes and key predictors. specifically, strong correlations were observed with sel theme integration (r = 0.674), engagement and appeal (r = 0.748), and plot and narrative structure (r = 0.601). these correlations reinforce the importance of both content quality and narrative structure in influencing sel outcomes. table 6: pearson correlations between predictors and overall sel outcomes variable sel integration engagement plot & narrative overall sel outcomes .674** .748** .601** note: **p < .01 for all correlations. in summary, the results of this study consistently highlight sel theme integration as the most significant predictor of overall sel outcomes, with engagement, appeal, and plot and narrative structure serving as important supporting factors. the alignment between the descriptive statistics, hierarchical regression, stepwise regression, and correlation analyses provides a comprehensive understanding of how literary and artistic elements contribute to the effectiveness of children’s literature in fostering sel competencies. discussion overview of sel representation in children’s literature the findings of this study underscore the crucial role that social-emotional learning (sel) content plays in children’s literature. the analysis revealed that self-awareness was the most frequently represented sel theme, followed by self-management, responsible decision-making, social awareness, and relationship skills. this distribution suggests that while there is broad parker & cronin 37 representation of the core sel competencies, some areas, such as social awareness and relationship skills, are less prevalent. the prominence of self-awareness and self-management may reflect the tendency of children’s literature to focus on individual emotional growth and regulation, which are foundational for personal development. quality and consistency of sel integration. furthermore, the strong sel theme integration across most of the books, with over 75% receiving “excellent” or “good” ratings, suggests that a significant number of books integrate sel themes effectively. this indicates a growing recognition among authors, publishers, and educators regarding the importance of embedding sel principles within stories for children. given the consistent and substantial agreement among evaluators (as reflected in the cohen’s kappa value of 0.74), we can confidently conclude that the quality of sel content is not only widely present but also well-implemented across the sample. this alignment of content quality with the sel themes also suggests that children’s literature serves as a powerful tool for promoting sel competencies when these themes are seamlessly integrated into narratives and characters. implications for narrative integration of sel the results from this study suggest several important implications for the promotion of sel through children’s literature. first, the significant role of sel theme integration in predicting overall sel outcomes (β = 0.292, p = 0.032) underscores the importance of how well sel concepts are embedded within the narrative. stories that incorporate sel themes in a meaningful and authentic way are more likely to foster sel competencies in young readers. therefore, educators, authors, and publishers should prioritize the seamless inclusion of sel themes into the fabric of the narrative, ensuring that these themes are not superficial or didactic but integrated into the plot, character development, and conflict resolution. aesthetic qualities and sel impact. the finding that engagement and appeal, along with plot and narrative structure, also contribute to sel outcomes highlights the role of artistic qualities in enhancing the effectiveness of sel content. books that engage readers through compelling plots and relatable characters are more likely to stimulate emotional and social learning. for instance, a well-crafted narrative can create opportunities for young readers to relate to the characters’ emotions and experiences, fostering empathy and emotional regulation. these elements support the idea that the aesthetic quality of children’s literature is as important as the sel content itself in promoting social-emotional development. storytelling engagement and sel outcomes. the correlation analyses reinforce the value of both content and narrative structure. with significant positive relationships between overall sel outcomes and both sel theme integration (r = 0.674) and engagement and appeal (r = 0.748), the findings indicate that the effectiveness of children’s literature in promoting sel is not solely dependent on the presence of sel content but also on the quality of the storytelling and emotional engagement it fosters. this suggests that books that capture the reader’s attention and resonate emotionally are more likely to result in positive sel outcomes. limitations while the study provides valuable insights into the prevalence and integration of sel themes in children’s literature, it is important to acknowledge the limitations inherent in the methodology 38 georgia journal of literacy 47(1) employed. although the study used rigorous inter-rater reliability measures, the evaluation of sel content and literary qualities is still subjective to some extent. evaluators may have different interpretations of the elements that constitute effective sel integration or may prioritize certain themes over others, leading to variability in the assessments. furthermore, the coding process is reliable; however, it still relies on the evaluators’ judgment in identifying and categorizing sel themes, which may be influenced by their personal experiences, biases, or theoretical orientations. while the findings are robust, these constraints could reflect a particular interpretative lens and may not fully capture the nuances of all children’s literature or the diversity of approaches to sel integration. additionally, the focus on literary and artistic qualities as predictors of sel outcomes may have overlooked other potential factors influencing sel development, such as the socioeconomic context of readers or the manner in which books are used in educational settings. the methodology’s reliance on specific evaluative criteria may not account for the broad range of contexts in which children’s literature is encountered, such as family reading versus classroom discussions, which could affect the way sel themes are perceived and internalized. sample size and potential biases in the selection of books is another limitation to this study. while the analysis covered a significant number of children’s books, the sample may not be fully representative of all available literature. the selection criteria for the books analyzed may have inadvertently excluded certain genres, publishers, or authors that present different approaches to sel. for example, the study may have overrepresented books from popular publishers or those that are already well-established in educational settings, potentially limiting the diversity of perspectives on sel. lastly, the book selection process could have introduced bias by favoring books that explicitly address sel themes, while those that subtly incorporate sel concepts or offer more complex, nuanced portrayals of social-emotional development may have been underrepresented. the reliance on a set of pre-selected texts may have also resulted in an overrepresentation of books that align with certain pedagogical frameworks or theoretical perspectives on sel, thereby limiting the generalizability of the findings to a wider range of children’s literature. recommendations authors, educators, and publishers based on the findings of this study, several recommendations can be made for authors, educators, and publishers seeking to create or select effective sel-focused children’s books. first, it is crucial to integrate sel themes seamlessly into the narrative. as highlighted by the study, the most significant predictor of positive sel outcomes was the integration of sel themes. authors and publishers should aim to embed these themes naturally within the storyline, ensuring that they emerge organically from the characters’ experiences, plot developments, and resolutions. sel concepts should not feel forced but rather reflect the real-life challenges and growth children may encounter. additionally, fostering emotional engagement and appeal is essential. the findings suggest that books that engage readers emotionally may enhance the impact of sel themes by fostering deeper personal connection and reflection. authors should create compelling, relatable characters and plots that resonate with children’s lived experiences. the emotional depth and vibrant illustrations of these stories can help capture the attention of young readers, thus enhancing their connection to the sel themes presented. furthermore, a balance between narrative structure and sel themes is important. the study identified the plot and narrative structure as important contributors to sel outcomes, suggesting parker & cronin 39 that well-paced narratives with strong character development and conflict resolution are key. authors should construct stories that not only teach sel principles but also offer clear, engaging plots. publishers should focus on selecting stories that balance artistic and educational elements, providing an enriching experience for young readers. another recommendation is to provide diverse sel representation in children’s literature. while themes such as self-awareness and selfmanagement were prominently represented, other competencies, like social awareness and relationship skills, were less frequent. to ensure comprehensive sel development, authors and publishers should include a broad range of sel themes in their books, promoting a more holistic emotional and social growth for children. lastly, educators should be provided with resources that highlight sel themes in children’s literature. these resources could include discussion prompts, activities, and reflection exercises designed to enhance the sel potential of books. educators should also be encouraged to use these books in ways that foster active engagement, such as group discussions or role-playing, to deepen students’ understanding of the sel themes explored. future research several areas warrant further exploration to expand our understanding of how children’s literature supports sel. one important area for future study is conducting longitudinal research to examine the long-term effects of reading sel-focused books on children’s emotional and social development. this would provide deeper insights into how repeated exposure to sel themes influences children’s behavior and emotional regulation over time. additionally, future studies could explore how sel is represented in literature across diverse cultural, socioeconomic, and linguistic backgrounds. understanding how sel themes resonate with children from various demographics will ensure that literature reflects the needs and experiences of a broader range of readers. another direction for future research is to conduct comparative studies of different literary genres, such as fantasy, historical fiction, and realistic fiction, to determine how each genre incorporates and promotes sel themes. this would offer insight into whether certain genres are more effective in fostering social-emotional learning than others. moreover, since illustrations play a vital role in children’s literature, future research could investigate how visual elements, such as artwork and design, contribute to sel outcomes and emotional engagement. this would offer a more holistic understanding of how both literary and artistic qualities together can support children’s social-emotional growth. lastly, research could explore how teachers and parents perceive and implement sel-focused books in their classrooms and homes. understanding how adults facilitate the discussion of sel themes would offer valuable insights into how these resources can be used most effectively in educational settings. conclusion this study provides valuable insights into the prevalence of social-emotional learning (sel) themes in children’s literature and highlights the importance of both literary content and artistic qualities in fostering sel outcomes. the analysis revealed that self-awareness was the most frequently represented sel theme, followed by self-management, responsible decision-making, social awareness, and relationship skills. over 75% of the books analyzed demonstrated strong integration of sel themes, suggesting a widespread recognition of the importance of these competencies in children’s literature. moreover, the study found that sel theme integration was the most significant predictor of overall sel outcomes, with engagement and appeal, as well as plot and narrative structure, also contributing to positive sel results. these findings underscore 40 georgia journal of literacy 47(1) the critical role of the content of children’s literature and the way the story is conveyed through compelling narratives and engaging artistic elements. the importance of sel in children’s literature cannot be overstated. sel competencies are essential for children’s emotional and social development, helping them navigate complex interpersonal relationships, regulate their emotions, and make responsible decisions. children’s literature offers a unique and accessible platform for introducing these concepts in an engaging and relatable way. by integrating sel themes into stories, authors can help children understand and practice these skills in a context they can connect with, thereby fostering a positive impact on their overall development. these findings build on earlier research suggesting that narrative quality and reader engagement play a vital role in sel learning through literature. for example, doyle and bramwell (2006) highlighted how dialogic reading of emotionally rich texts supports emergent sel skills, while gunn et al. (2022) demonstrated that multicultural picturebooks can promote both motivation and empathy. similarly, ludwig (2012) and deliman et al. (2024) emphasized that high-quality stories with well-developed characters offer opportunities for emotional connection and social-emotional reflection. this study extends their work by offering quantitative support for the value of narrative structure, engagement, and theme integration in shaping sel impact. the potential impact of sel-themed books on children’s emotional and social development is profound. books that effectively integrate sel themes can provide children with valuable tools for emotional regulation, empathy, and relationship-building, laying the foundation for healthier social interactions and personal growth. as this study demonstrates, when sel is embedded seamlessly within a narrative, accompanied by engaging plots and relatable characters, it can enhance children’s ability to understand and manage their emotions and behaviors. the study emphasizes that well-crafted children’s books with strong sel content and artistic qualities can serve as a powerful tool for educators, parents, and children alike in promoting social-emotional learning and contributing to the development of emotionally intelligent and socially responsible individuals. references brookhart, s. m. 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(2020). socio-emotional learning among low-income prekindergarteners: the roles of individual factors and early intervention. early education and development, 32(3), 360–384. https://doi.org/10.1080/10409289.2020.1778989 https://doi.org/10.1002/yd.145 https://doi.org/10.1598/rt.59.6.5 https://doi.org/10.1598/rt.59.6.5 https://everydayspeech.com/sel-implementation/exploring-sel-books-a-guide-to-understanding-social-emotional-learning/ https://everydayspeech.com/sel-implementation/exploring-sel-books-a-guide-to-understanding-social-emotional-learning/ https://doi.org/10.54300/928.269 https://doi.org/10.1002/trtr.2145 https://doi.org/10.1002/trtr.2145 https://doi.org/%e2%80%8c10.1177/0143034317710070 https://doi.org/%e2%80%8c10.1177/0143034317710070 https://doi.org/10.1353/foc.2017.0000 https://doi.org/10.1177/21582440221091254 https://doi.org/10.2307/2529310 https://confidentparentsconfidentkids.org/2017/06/15/a-storied-childhood-the-role-of-stories-in-childrens-social-and-emotional-development/?utm_source=chatgpt.com https://confidentparentsconfidentkids.org/2017/06/15/a-storied-childhood-the-role-of-stories-in-childrens-social-and-emotional-development/?utm_source=chatgpt.com https://doi.org/10.1086/528973 https://doi.org/10.1080/10409289.2020.1778989 42 georgia journal of literacy 47(1) mondi, c. f., giovanelli, a., & reynolds, a. j. (2021). fostering socio-emotional learning through early childhood intervention. international journal of child care and education policy, 15, article 6. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40723-021-00084-8 morton, t., & akram, s. (2022). capturing social-emotional learning (sel) through children’s literature. english in texas, 52(1), 13–19. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ej1386437.pdf national center on cultural & linguistic responsiveness. (2011). selecting and using culturally responsive children’s books. https://eclkc.ohs.acf.hhs.gov/sites/default/files/pdf/selectingculturally-appropriate-books.pdf shechtman, z. (2008). treating child and adolescent aggression through bibliotherapy. springer. short, k. (2022). sel picture books for middle school advisory. middleweb. https://www.middle web.com/47531/sel-picture-books-for-middle-school-advisory/ ursache, a., gouley, k. k., dawson‐mcclure, s., barajas‐gonzalez, r. g., calzada, e. j., goldfeld, k., & brotman, l. m. (2020). early emotion knowledge and later academic achievement among children of color in historically disinvested neighborhoods. child development, 91(6), e1249–e1266. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.13432 weih, t. g. (2015). how to select books for teaching to children: taking a critical look at books through a pedagogical lens. university of northern iowa. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ ed554313.pdf appendix a: children’s book used in this research acker, j., & acker, m. (2022). my respectful robot. joey and melanie acker. blake, j. (2021). chiri the hummingbird: a book about empathy and kindness. author. butler, j. (2020). coloring book and reflections for social emotional learning. free spirit publishing. cain, j. (2021). the way i feel. parenting press. canada, i. n. b., (2021). the exciting, social & emotional adventures of chatting timmy! crucible learning network. cole, e. (2021). our diversity makes us stronger. author. cole, e. (2023a). my way to good manners. author. cole, e. (2023b). perseverance makes me stronger. author. cole, e., & kim, t. (2022). my way to making friends. go2publish llc. collier, t. j., & vasilica, n. (2023). broken crayons still color. thomas nelson. daywalt, d., & jeffers, o. (2021). the crayons’ book of feelings. philomel books. ellis, s. (2022). super sel: a social emotional learning book for kids. author. fuglestad, t. (2023). peter o’meter. teachergoals publishing. john, j. (2017). the bad seed. harper collins. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40723-021-00084-8 https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ej1386437.pdf https://eclkc.ohs.acf.hhs.gov/sites/default/files/pdf/selecting-culturally-appropriate-books.pdf https://eclkc.ohs.acf.hhs.gov/sites/default/files/pdf/selecting-culturally-appropriate-books.pdf https://www.middleweb.com/47531/sel-picture-books-for-middle-school-advisory/ https://www.middleweb.com/47531/sel-picture-books-for-middle-school-advisory/ https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.13432 https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ed554313.pdf https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ed554313.pdf parker & cronin 43 jones, j. (2022). the calm down jar: a social emotional, rhyming, early reader kid’s took to help calm anger and anxiety. random source. kids, b. (2020). my summer with wisdom. author. lasser, j., foster-lasser, s., & lyles, c. (2017). grow happy. magination press. lee, b. w., & souva, j. (2022). the boy with big, big feelings. scholastic. llenas, a. (2021). the color monster: a story about emotions. little, brown and company. ludwig, t., & barton, p. (2022). brave every day. alfred a. knopf. mahajan, s. (2021). feeling my feelings: a book on social emotional learning. atmosphere press. medina, j. (2022). i feel! harper collins. mori, e., & stebleva, v. (2023). social-emotional learning for autistic kids: fun activities to manage big feelings and make friends. z kids. morris, c. (2021). i’m just a kid: a social-emotional book on self-regulation. morrishouse publishers. munson, d. (2015). enemy pie. chronicle books. nhin, m., & stupar, j. (2020). shy ninja. grow grit press. nhin, m., & stupar, j. (2021a). caring ninja. grow grit press. nhin, m., & stupar, j. (2021b). curious ninja. grow grit press. nhin, m., & stupar j. (2021c). impulsive ninja. grow grit press. nhin, m., & stupar, j. (2021d). nervous ninja. grow grit press. nhin, m., & stupar, j. (2021e). supportive ninja. grow grit press. o’neill, p. (2019). sometimes i’m anxious: a child’s guide to overcoming anxiety. sky pony press. parr, t. (2019). the kindness book. little, brown and company. ricketts, a., & barron, a. (2018). gentle hands and other sing-along songs for social-emotional learning. free spirit publishing. sheremet, d. (2023). it’s okay: a social emotional book for kids that helps with self-regulation. dynamic kids press. teitelbaum, n. (2020). munchy and jumpy tales, volume 1: a social-emotional book for kids about practicing mindfulness, finding joy and getting second chances. empowering education. teitelbaum, n. (2021). munchy and jumpy tales, volume 2: stories and games for children age 5– 8. empowering education. union, g., & wade, d. (2022). shady baby feels: a first book of emotions. harper collins. wade, s. (2023). very last leaf. capstone. west, a. e. (2022). today, i feel . . . anxious: a book about managing emotions. puppy dogs & ice cream. whelan, s. m. (2017). don’t think about purple elephants. ek books. 44 georgia journal of literacy 47(1) winner, m. g., & murphy, l. k. (2016). social thinking and me. social thinking publishing. appendix b: children’s book evaluation rubric for social emotional learning (sel) integration criteria excellent (4) good (3) fair (2) poor (1) sel theme integration sel themes are seamlessly woven into the narrative and central to the story, deeply resonating with the target age group. sel themes are wellintegrated and clearly present, though not always central. accessible to the target age group. sel themes are present but may feel forced or secondary. may lack clarity or development for the target age group. sel themes are poorly integrated, barely present, and unclear or inappropriate for the target age group. character development characters are welldeveloped, relatable, and demonstrate emotional and social growth aligned with sel themes. characters show development and model sel themes, though growth may not be fully explored. characters exhibit limited development with inconsistent sel modeling. characters are flat or stereotypical, lacking sel-based growth. plot and narrative structure all plot elements (exposition, rising action, climax, falling action, resolution) are well-crafted, creating a coherent narrative that naturally integrates sel themes. plot is well-structured, with most elements supporting sel, though some aspects may lack full integration. plot structure is basic and may lack coherence or depth, with sel elements explored inconsistently. plot lacks structure or coherence, not supporting sel themes effectively. authenticity and cultural sensitivity portrayal of cultures and lifestyles is accurate, respectful, and avoids stereotypes, enhancing sel content. cultural representation is generally respectful and avoids major inaccuracies, though depth may be limited. limited diversity present, with potential oversimplification or minor inaccuracies in representation. depictions are stereotypical, inaccurate, or disrespectful, failing to support inclusive sel themes. cover and text design cover is engaging and relevant, with clear, legible text that supports the story and sel themes without distraction. cover and text design are generally effective and engaging, with minor limitations in clarity or relevance. cover or text design may lack appeal or clarity, impacting reader engagement. cover or text design is ineffective, lacking relevance and legibility, distracting from the narrative. grammar and spelling text is free from grammar or spelling errors, enhancing readability and professional quality. minor grammar or spelling errors present, but do not significantly affect readability. several grammar or spelling errors disrupt flow, affecting readability. frequent grammar and spelling errors interfere with comprehension. artistic quality (illustrations) illustrations are highquality, visually appealing, and enhance sel themes by effectively conveying emotions and social situations. illustrations support sel themes and are visually appealing, though not always enhancing the narrative. illustrations are adequate but lack depth in conveying emotions or sel themes. illustrations are poor quality, detract from sel themes, and fail to convey relevant emotions. language and style language is engaging, ageappropriate, and enhances sel theme language is generally appropriate and engaging, though some areas may lack depth. language may be occasionally inappropriate or inconsistent, language is inappropriate, disengaging, or confusing, with an inconsistent style that parker & cronin 45 comprehension, with a consistent style. detracting from the story’s message. detracts from the narrative. engagement and appeal book is highly engaging, capturing attention and fostering a deep connection to sel themes. book is engaging and generally appealing to the target audience, with a solid connection to sel themes. engagement is limited, with weaker connections to sel themes. book is unengaging, failing to capture interest or foster sel connections. overall impact on sel learning book strongly promotes sel, encouraging reflection and application of sel concepts. book positively promotes sel, with some encouragement for reflection. limited sel impact, with minimal encouragement for reflection or application. little to no sel impact, failing to promote reflection or learning. scoring guide (total points) (36–40) exceptional sel content and quality, highly effective for sel promotion (28–35) good sel content, effective, but with areas for improvement (18–27) fair sel content, requiring significant improvements to promote sel effectively (10–17) poor sel content, not suitable for sel promotion received: march 4, 2025 | accepted: may 5, 2025 | published: may 20, 2025 research objectives significance of the study theoretical framework table 1: casel core competency terms the role of literature in promoting sel table 2: five key criteria considerations when selecting sel books table 3: additional key elements for consideration when selecting sel books methodology data collection criteria book selection criteria data collection methods data analysis reliability and validity results figure 1: distribution of sel themes in children’s books table 4: hierarchical multiple regression analysis predicting overall sel outcomes table 5: stepwise multiple regression analysis predicting overall sel outcomes table 6: pearson correlations between predictors and overall sel outcomes discussion overview of sel representation in children’s literature limitations recommendations conclusion references appendix a: children’s book used in this research appendix b: children’s book evaluation rubric for social emotional learning (sel) integration poor (1) fair (2) good (3) excellent (4) criteria sel themes are poorly integrated, barely present, and unclear or inappropriate for the target age group. sel themes are present but may feel forced or secondary. may lack clarity or development for the target age group. sel themes are well-integrated and clearly present, though not always central. accessible to the target age group. sel themes are seamlessly woven into the narrative and central to the story, deeply resonating with the target age group. sel theme integration characters are flat or stereotypical, lacking sel-based growth. characters exhibit limited development with inconsistent sel modeling. characters show development and model sel themes, though growth may not be fully explored. characters are well-developed, relatable, and demonstrate emotional and social growth aligned with sel themes. character development plot lacks structure or coherence, not supporting sel themes effectively. plot structure is basic and may lack coherence or depth, with sel elements explored inconsistently. plot is well-structured, with most elements supporting sel, though some aspects may lack full integration. all plot elements (exposition, rising action, climax, falling action, resolution) are well-crafted, creating a coherent narrative that naturally integrates sel themes. plot and narrative structure depictions are stereotypical, inaccurate, or disrespectful, failing to support inclusive sel themes. limited diversity present, with potential oversimplification or minor inaccuracies in representation. cultural representation is generally respectful and avoids major inaccuracies, though depth may be limited. portrayal of cultures and lifestyles is accurate, respectful, and avoids stereotypes, enhancing sel content. authenticity and cultural sensitivity cover or text design is ineffective, lacking relevance and legibility, distracting from the narrative. cover or text design may lack appeal or clarity, impacting reader engagement. cover and text design are generally effective and engaging, with minor limitations in clarity or relevance. cover is engaging and relevant, with clear, legible text that supports the story and sel themes without distraction. cover and text design frequent grammar and spelling errors interfere with comprehension. several grammar or spelling errors disrupt flow, affecting readability. minor grammar or spelling errors present, but do not significantly affect readability. text is free from grammar or spelling errors, enhancing readability and professional quality. grammar and spelling illustrations are poor quality, detract from sel themes, and fail to convey relevant emotions. illustrations are adequate but lack depth in conveying emotions or sel themes. illustrations support sel themes and are visually appealing, though not always enhancing the narrative. illustrations are high-quality, visually appealing, and enhance sel themes by effectively conveying emotions and social situations. artistic quality (illustrations) language is inappropriate, disengaging, or confusing, with an inconsistent style that detracts from the narrative. language may be occasionally inappropriate or inconsistent, detracting from the story’s message. language is generally appropriate and engaging, though some areas may lack depth. language is engaging, age-appropriate, and enhances sel theme comprehension, with a consistent style. language and style book is unengaging, failing to capture interest or foster sel connections. engagement is limited, with weaker connections to sel themes. book is engaging and generally appealing to the target audience, with a solid connection to sel themes. book is highly engaging, capturing attention and fostering a deep connection to sel themes. engagement and appeal little to no sel impact, failing to promote reflection or learning. limited sel impact, with minimal encouragement for reflection or application. book positively promotes sel, with some encouragement for reflection. book strongly promotes sel, encouraging reflection and application of sel concepts. overall impact on sel learning scoring guide (total points) (36–40) exceptional sel content and quality, highly effective for sel promotion (28–35) good sel content, effective, but with areas for improvement (18–27) fair sel content, requiring significant improvements to promote sel effectively (10–17) poor sel content, not suitable for sel promotion