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by morGan mitcheLL, sybiL keesbury anD vicki Luther 

Ready, Set, Grow: 
Exploring the Readiness and 
Preparation of Kindergarten 
Students within a Title 1 School

Abstract
This article discusses a research study conducted 
to evaluate whether young students’ educational 
experiences prior to entering kindergarten affects 
their accomplishments within the content of English 
language arts and social development. Data from the 
Georgia Kindergarten Inventory of Developing Skills 
(GKIDS) and Student Learning Objectives (SLOs) 
were analyzed in one high-poverty elementary school 
over the course of a full academic year. Learning more 
about students’ early literacy and development can 
allow teachers to have a much greater understanding 
of their students’ needs. This, in turn, can benefit 
all students as they begin their formal educational 
experiences and as they learn and grow socially, 
emotionally, and cognitively.

Introduction
While kindergarten is typically thought of as the 
beginning of a child’s formalized schooling, today’s 
students frequently attend some form of learning 
environment prior to the start of kindergarten. 
According to the National Institute for Early Education 
Research (2016), approximately 60% of Georgia’s 
four-year-olds are enrolled in public preschools within 
the state. In addition, over 24,000 children, ages three 
and four, received funded services in Head Start 
programs within the state of Georgia in 2018 (U.S. 
Department of Health and Human Services, 2018), 
and many other pre-kindergarteners attend private 
or public child care facilities. Research constantly 
confirms that children who enter school with a strong 
foundation in language development are more 
equipped to read, while those who enter school with 
limited language skills are more likely to fall behind 
in academic achievements (Wasik & Hindman, 2018). 
Young children who live in poverty are more likely to 
show deficiencies in critical language skills. Recent 
statistics show that 34% of all students entering 
kindergarten are lacking in basic understandings of 
phonological concepts, thus negatively impacting 
their abilities to read in later years (Kena et al., 2016; 
LoCasale-Crouch et al., 2007). Lottery-funded Pre-K, 
Head Start, and the Georgia Department of Early Care 
and Learning (DECAL) subsidize child care expenses 
for many low-income families, allowing young children 
living in poverty to become better prepared and more 
equipped for the rigors of elementary, middle, and 
high school (Georgia Department of Early Care and 
Learning, 2016).

Social and emotional developmental factors are 
also critical the education of young children. For 
preschoolers, the acquisition of language allows 
for self-advancement and greater understandings 
of others; however, children living in low-income 



GEORGIA JOURNAL OF READING 32 VOLUME 42, NUMBER 1   2019

households are more likely to have deficiencies 
in social, emotional, and linguistic fundamentals 
(McDevitt & Ormrod, 2013). Economic insecurity 
and a lack of early literacy skills are both indicators 
of low social development in children (McDevitt & 
Ormrod, 2013). Therefore, providing students from 
low socioeconomic backgrounds opportunities to 
become engaged in structured social environments 
prior to kindergarten can enhance cognitive, social, 
and emotional development. Young children engaged 
in organized learning environments have occasions 
to learn social skills through the observation and 
imitation of educators and peers, and such modeling 
can enhance necessary foundational understandings 
(Ormrod, Anderman, & Anderman, 2017).

A Review of the Literature
Basic language and emergent literacy skills are 
paramount to a child’s development and growth. 
Without such skills, a child is more likely to struggle in 
language arts and in a wider variety of subject areas 
as they move into older grades, as early literacy is 
a critical indicator of success in later grades (Mullis, 
Mullis, Cornille, Ritchson, & Sullender, 2004). We often 
fail to appreciate the procedures necessary for student 
progression, especially in an area as multifaceted 
as English language arts, and teachers are often 
“unaware of the challenges” that students face when 
learning necessary etymological skills (Barone, 2006, 
p. 8). This is especially true when teaching students
of low socioeconomic status. Children do not come to
school equipped with the same background knowledge 
or rudimentary skills when they enter kindergarten,
and many are developmentally deficient.

The foundations of language development, especially 
in oral language, are developed in the first few years 
of a child’s life (Biemiller, 2006). Further research 
indicates that the initial foundations of reading must 
be developed well before a child even enters school 
(Dougherty-Stahl, 2014); therefore, it is pivotal that 
young children are positioned in environments where 
literacy is paramount and social learning consistently 
takes place. Young children who have opportunities 
to learn in environments where fundamental skills are 
introduced are more likely to narrow the literacy gap 
(Barone, 2006).

As critical components of English language arts 
include reading, writing, listening, and speaking, 
beginning learners benefit from having meaningful 
and solid linguistic exposures. Young children, when 
given opportunities to continually participate in 

meaningful conversations with peers and adults, are 
more likely to have better vocabulary, comprehension, 
and communication skills in later years (Hart & Risley, 
1995). Providing children time to practice speech 
through everyday conversations is critical in both 
language and social development (Justice, Jiang, & 
Strasser, 2018). Furthermore, constant engagement 
in read-aloud events is a particularly effective practice 
for developing oral language skills in children, as 
this enhances both listening and speaking abilities 
(Straub, 2003). When made habitual, read alouds can 
demonstrate to young children the importance of the 
printed word and print concepts and can positively 
impact student motivation. Collaborative, text-based 
discussions can allow for greater text-to-self and text-
to-world connections and for deeper understanding 
(Giroir, Romero Grimaldo, Vaughn, & Roberts, 2015).

Children of poverty often lack educational resources 
and are frequently unable to participate in educational 
experiences at home (Brophy, 2006). During the first few 
years of life, children develop linguistic, cognitive, social, 
and emotional skills at a rapid pace, and such resources 
and experiences are not available in impoverished home 
environments (Trawick-Smith, 2014; Brophy, 2006). 
According to the National Institute for Early Education 
Research (2016), children who receive early learning 
opportunities are less likely to repeat a grade level and 
are more likely to graduate from high school later on. 
In addition, children with early educational experiences 
are less likely to engage in crime and are more likely to 
earn more money as adults.

A Background of the School Environment
This study was conducted in an inner-city, Title I 
elementary school. At the time of the study, the school 
had a PK-5th grade enrollment of 708 students. In this 
same academic year, 99% of students were eligible for 
free or reduced lunch, 97% of the student population 
was Black, 1% Hispanic, 1% White, and 1% Multiracial. 
In addition, almost one-third (30%) of students were 
in the school’s Early Intervention Program (EIP), and 
10.2% of the student population received Special 
Education services (The Governor’s Office of Student 
Achievement, 2019). This elementary school has 
been classified as low-performing; with a recent 
score of 55.5 on the College and Career Reading 
Performance Index (CCRPI), it ranks much lower than 
the state average. In addition, school data shows that 
61% of students who took the Georgia Milestones 
assessment during this particular academic year 
scored at a “beginning” level in English language arts 
components, and the percentage of students scoring 



GEORGIA JOURNAL OF READING 33 VOLUME 42, NUMBER 1   2019

at a “below basic” literacy rate is far higher than the 
overall state average. Only 15.1% of third graders and 
36.6% of fifth graders were reading on grade level 
at the time of this study (The Governor’s Office of 
Student Achievement, 2019).

Research Objectives
The objective of this research study was to determine 
if kindergarten students’ schooling experience before 
entering kindergarten affected their foundational 
understanding of English language arts concepts, 
learning approaches, and social and personal 
development. To accomplish this goal, the data from 
the Georgia Kindergarten Inventory of Developing 
Skills (GKIDS), as well as the Student Learning 
Objectives (SLO) data for kindergarten students were 
analyzed during a recent academic school year. Eighty-
nine students (n=89) were enrolled in kindergarten at 
this high-poverty, public school setting; information 
was collected to determine the percentage of these 
students who had gone to Pre-K, Head Start, or Day 
Care prior to the beginning of the academic year. 
The list of students was coded to remove names and 
protect identities. Spreadsheets were used to focus 
on three “previous schooling” environments (Pre-K 
settings, Head Start settings, and Day Care settings) in 
order to make correlations and comparisons between 
prior schooling and kindergarten data.

Georgia Kindergarten Inventory of Developing Skills 
(GKIDS) data and each students’ individual score for 
the SLO assessment were examined. Because the 
GKIDS evaluation is a performance-based assessment 
aligned to the state mandated content standards, 
teachers are provided year-long data concerning the 
instructional supports needed for each individual child 
(Georgia Department of Education, 2019). Student 
learning objectives are content-specific, grade-level 
learning goals that are aligned to current curriculum 
standards. According to the Georgia Department of 
Education (2019), SLOs allow educators and school 
systems methods in which to better understand and 
recognize success within the classroom. It is important 
to note that for the sake of this research, only a few 
specific areas were focused upon, as the purpose was 
look at whether or not different schooling experiences 
impacted kindergarten scores.

Research Results
Results of Students Who Attended  
Pre-Kindergarten (Pre-K):
Forty-four (approximately 50%) of the eighty-nine 
(n=89) total kindergarten students attended Pre-K 

before entering Kindergarten. Fifteen of these 44 
students (approximately 34%) attended Pre-K at the 
same elementary school prior to being promoted to 
kindergarten, while the other children attended local, 
public Pre-K settings within the community. The average 
Pre-ELA Student Learning Objective (SLO) score for 
students who previously attended Pre-K was 33.7758861 
and the Post score for ELA was 83.1727273. The 
following table shows the percentages of the students’ 
abilities, according to the collected GKIDS data. This 
information displays the percentage of Pre-K attendees 
who met or exceeded the kindergarten standards by the 
end of the academic year.

Kindergarten Concepts or % of 
Students: ELA Students  

Who Met or 
Exceeded 

Skills

● Can describe the role of the 91% 
author and illustrator in a text

● Can identify the front cover,
back cover, and title page

● Recognizes and names both
upper and lower case letters
adequately

● Demonstrates basic knowledge
of consonants and vowels

● Recognizes common types of texts 80%
● Actively engages in group reading

activities
● Can read commonly used high- 

frequency words

● Demonstrates appropriate 70% 
questioning skills

● Demonstrates ability to work
independently

● Can capitalize words and can 61% 
name ending punctuation

● Recognizes and produces rhyming 50% 
words

● Orally produces and expands
complete sentences

● Demonstrates ability to use affixes 41% 
as a clue to word meanings with
teacher support



GEORGIA JOURNAL OF READING 34 VOLUME 42, NUMBER 1   2019

Pre-Kindergarten (Pre-K) Approaches to Learning 
and Personal/Social Development
GKIDS data revealed that 90% of the students who 
previously attended Pre-K consistently demonstrated 
an ability to adjust to changes in routines and 
environments. In addition, 80% of the former Pre-K 
attendees demonstrated self-confidence and were 
able to consistently work cooperatively with others. 
By comparison, the data found that less than half of 
the students displayed motivation and enthusiasm for 
learning, and only 20% demonstrated the ability to use 
a variety of problem solving strategies. 

Kindergarten Concepts or % of 
Students: Approaches to Learning Students 
and Personal/Social Development Who Met or 

Exceeded 
Skills

● Constantly demonstrates an ability 90% 
to adjust to changes in routines and
environments

● Demonstrates respect for self and
for others

● Constantly demonstrates 80% 
self-confidence

● Consistently works cooperatively
with others

● Demonstrates ability to follow 70% 
age-appropriate directions

● Constantly demonstrates
appropriate questioning techniques

● Seeks help when needed
● Works independently

● Demonstrates the ability to pay 50% 
attention within the age-appropriate
learning environment

● Exhibits imagination in storytelling, 45% 
writing, and drawing

● Displays motivation and 40% 
enthusiasm for learning

● Displays the ability to use a variety 20% 
of problem solving strategies

Kindergarten Concepts or % of 
Skills: ELA  Students 

Who Met or 
Exceeded 

Skills

● Can describe the role of the author 91% 
and illustrator in a text

● Can identify the front cover, back
cover, and title page

● Actively engages in group reading
activities

● Recognizes and names both upper-  
and lowercase letters adequately

● Can read commonly used high- 83% 
frequency words

● Recognizes and produces rhyming
words

● Demonstrates basic knowledge of
consonants and vowels

● Recognizes common types of texts 74%
● Demonstrates appropriate

questioning skills

● Activity engages in group reading 60% 
activities

● Demonstrates ability to use affixes 43% 
as a clue to word meaning with

teacher support
● Orally produces and expands

complete sentences 
● Can capitalize words and can name

ending punctuation

Results of Students Who Attended Head Start:
Twenty-three (n=23; approximately 26%) of the 89 
kindergarten students attended a local Head Start 

program preceding their formalized education. The 
average Pre-ELA Student Learning Objective (SLO) 
score for the students who attended Head Start prior 
to kindergarten was 32.933325 and the Post score 
for ELA was 83.2666667. Based on the data obtained 
from the GKIDS assessments, the following table 
shows the percentages of the students’ abilities. This 
information displays the percentage of Head Start 
attendees who met or exceeded these kindergarten 
standards by the end of the academic year.

Head Start Approaches to Learning and Personal/
Social Development
According to the GKIDS data, 91% of the students 
who attended Head Start adjusted well to changes in 



GEORGIA JOURNAL OF READING 35 VOLUME 42, NUMBER 1   2019

Kindergarten Concepts or % of 
Skills: Approaches to Learning  Students 
and Personal/Social Development Who Met or 

Exceeded 
Skills

● Constantly demonstrates an ability 91% 
to adjust to changes in routines
and environments

● Demonstrates respect for self and 83% 
for others

● Consistently works cooperatively 74% 
with others

● Consistently demonstrates self- 61% 
confidence

● Demonstrates the ability to seek
help when needed

● Works independently
● Demonstrates ability to follow

age-appropriate directions
● Demonstrates the ability to pay

attention within the age-appropriate
learning environment

● Displays motivation and enthusiasm 52% 
for learning

● Exhibit imagination in storytelling,
writing, and drawing

● Displays the ability to use a variety 22% 
of problem solving strategies

routines and environments, and 83% demonstrated 
consistent respect for others and themselves. Fifty-
two percent of these kindergarteners demonstrated 
motivation and enthusiasm for learning throughout the 
school year, yet only five of these 23 students were 
able to use a variety of problem solving strategies in a 
consistent manner.

Results of Students Who Attended Daycare:
Twenty-one percent (n=19) of the 89 kindergarteners 
went to some form of daycare prior to the start of 
kindergarten. The average Pre-ELA Student Learning 
Objective (SLO) score for the students who attended 
daycare prior to kindergarten was 30.291675 and the 
Post score for ELA was 73.777889. Based on the data 
obtained from the GKIDS assessments, the following 
table shows the percentages of the students’ abilities. 
This information displays the percentage of Daycare 

Kindergarten Concepts or % of 
Students: ELA Students  

Who Met or 
Exceeded 

Skills

● Can identify the front cover, 95% 
back cover, and title page

● Recognizes and names both upper- 84% 
and lowercase letters adequately

● Can describe the role of the author 63% 
and illustrator in a text

● Demonstrates basic knowledge of
consonants and vowels

● Recognizes and produces rhyming 42% 
words

● Recognizes common types of texts
● Demonstrates appropriate

questioning skills
● Demonstrates ability to work

independently

● Can read commonly used high- 32% 
frequency words

● Orally produce and expand
complete sentences

● Actively engages in group reading
activities

● Demonstrates ability to use affixes 21% 
as a clue to word meanings

Daycare Learning and Personal/Social 
Development
Fourteen of the 19 students (74%) consistently 
demonstrated that they were able to seek help when 
needed. Eight of these students (42%) effectively 
demonstrated the ability to work independently. While 
ten of the 19 students consistently followed age-
appropriate directions within the classroom, only six 
recurrently displayed motivation and enthusiasm for 
learning, and merely four of the 19 students (21%) 
demonstrated the ability to use a variety of problem 
solving strategies.

attendees who met or exceeded these kindergarten 
standards by the end of the academic year.



GEORGIA JOURNAL OF READING 36 VOLUME 42, NUMBER 1   2019

Kindergarten Concepts or Skills: % of 
Approches to Learning and Students  
Personal/Social Development Who Met or 

Exceeded 
Skills

● Constantly demonstrates an ability 84% 
to adjust to changes in routines
and environments

● Demonstrates respect for self and 74% 
others

● Seeks help when needed

● Constantly demonstrates self- 63% 
confidence

● Demonstrates ability to follow age- 53% 
appropriate directions

● Consistently works cooperatively
with others

● Works independently 42%

● Exhibits imagination in storytelling, 32% 
writing, and drawing

● Displays motivation and enthusiasm
for learning

● Demonstrates the ability to pay
attention within the age-appropriate
learning environment

● Displays the ability to use a variety 21% 
of problem solving strategies

Talking with the Kindergarten Team
While collecting data, we had the opportunity to 
sit down and have an open conversation with the 
kindergarten teachers. We wanted to hear about their 
classroom experience with children from different 
previous schooling experiences. Their comments 
remained anonymous in the hopes that we would 
receive complete honestly from each of them. We first 
asked, “Do you believe that it is easy to access Pre-K 
in this area?” They expressed their deep concerns on 
the difficulty of this and the many issues that occur 
with accessing Pre-K within the community and went 
on to say that many parents/caregivers desire for their 
children to be placed in Pre-K classes within the school 
but there are simply not enough spots for children. 
The teachers hope that the school will be able to 
add another Pre-K class to make students’ transition 
into the rigors of kindergarten easier. They were all 

very passionate about this urgent need, and this brief 
discussion left us with an obvious understanding how 
desperate this community is for more access to free 
Pre-K education for its children.

We then asked, “Do you see a difference in the 
children that went to Pre-K, Head Start or Day Care?” 
The teachers all agreed that students who went to 
Pre-K before coming to their class could be spotted 
immediately. The previous Pre-K students were 
not only advanced academically, but in their self-
confidence and the ability to follow the structure of a 
school day. It was enlightening to hear the teachers 
express their thoughts on the Head Start program; 
most felt that there is a need to improve the program 
so that the transition into kindergarten will be a more 
positive one for students. We found this to be extremely 
interesting, as there was not a significant difference 
in scores between the students who attended Pre-K 
and those who attended Head Start, and the ELA Post 
score for students who attended Head Start was even 
slightly higher than that of the students who attended 
Pre-K. The kindergarten teachers also stated that 
daycare programs may be more easily accessible 
than the other options, but that does not mean that all 
daycare facilities have quality curricula set in place.

Analysis of the Collected Data
Overall, the data did not show an extremely substantial 
difference in success based upon the different 
schooling experiences prior to kindergarten. This data 
does show that Pre-K and Head Start students did 
perform higher than those who attended daycare. Both 
the Pre- and Post-ELA Student Learning Objective of 
students who attended daycare prior to kindergarten 
was points lower than those who attended Pre-K 
or Head Start. In addition, those who attended 
daycare had more difficulty working independently 
and adjusting to changes in routines that those who 
attended Pre-K or Head Start.

We did see some areas that few kindergarteners 
consistently demonstrated ability; in English language 
arts, most of these students, regardless of previous 
schooling, struggled in the use of affixes to understand 
word meaning, and few students were able to 
demonstrate mastery of problem-solving techniques. 
As this research progresses in the future, it is our hope 
to follow these students for the next three years in 



GEORGIA JOURNAL OF READING 37 VOLUME 42, NUMBER 1   2019

order to more deeply analyze the long-term impact of 
pre-schooling as the students move on to higher grade 
levels. Because the process of assessing the GKIDS 
data is left more to the teachers’ and administrative 
discretion (Georgia Department of Education, 2019), 
we would also like to know more about the process by 
which they choose to assess the standards, allowing 
us to better understand the system that is used.

Conclusion 
The purpose of this research was evaluate whether 
the type of schooling impacts students’ readiness for 
academic success. The data show that high-quality 
learning environments are imperative for all students, 
and perhaps especially for students of poverty. Young 
children benefit, both cognitively and socially, from 
early learning environments. Students who are in 
such settings are able to develop a beginning sense 
of self and of personal initiative, as well as a greater 
academic foundation (Bakken, Brown, & Downing, 
2017). 

From this research, we learned that not all pre-
kindergarten settings are exactly alike. We also 
determined that while students who attended Pre-K 
had higher skill percentages, other programs can 
be effective in preparing children for kindergarten. 
The environment itself may not be the most 
important factor; instead, teachers continue to be 
the most significant influence in a child’s educational 
journey, and students who have passionate early-
care educators who understand child development 
are more prepared for school (Bakken, Brown, & 
Downing, 2017). High-quality, effective teachers who 
have high expectations of students are more likely 
to make an impact in high-poverty schools (Barone, 
2006). Whether in Pre-K, Head Start, or in a daycare 
environment, children learn, grow, and develop best 
with they have supportive caregivers who help them 
flourish. 

References
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73285

Barone, D. M. (2006). Narrowing the literacy gap: 

What works in high-poverty schools. New York, NY: 
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Bright from the Start: Georgia Department of Early 
Care and Learning (DECAL). (2019). http://decal.
ga.gov/PreK/Default.aspx

Brophy, J. E. (2006). Effective schooling for 
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Dougherty Stahl, K.A. (2014). Fostering inference 
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GEORGIA JOURNAL OF READING 39 VOLUME 42, NUMBER 1   2019

The Georgia Journal of Reading is a peer-reviewed journal 
of the Georgia Association of Literacy Advocates. The 
Georgia Journal of Reading is published in the fall and 
spring of each year and is sent to educators across 
Georgia and surrounding states. The Journal publishes 
articles that address topics, issues, and events of interest 
and value to teachers, specialists, and administrators 
involved in literacy education at all levels. We invite those 
interested in improving reading and language arts instruction 
at all levels to submit manuscripts for publication in future 
issues. Please view our website for more information at 
www.gala.org Information can be found under the link 
“publication.” 

Submission Guidelines:
Articles should deal with research, current issues, and recent 
trends in reading or literacy programs. Appropriate topics 
for the Journal include project descriptions, research 
or theoretical reports that address pedagogical 
implications or issues in reading education at the local, state 
or national level. Preference is given to articles focusing on 
topics that impact Georgia’s students and surrounding 
states.n Manuscripts should be submitted electronically in
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conform to the guidelines presented in the Publication
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n Decisions will be made within 8-12 weeks of publication of
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Questions may be addressed to georgialiteracyadvocates.gmail.com 

GEORGIA JOURNAL OF READING

caLL for manuscriPtsA B O U T  T H E  A U T H O R S

Robert A. Griffin is an assistant professor in the 
Department of Literacy and Special Education at the 
University of West Georgia, Carrollton, GA 30118. Email 
rgriffin@westga.edu.

Sybil Keesbury, keesbury_sa@mercer.edu. Keesbury is 
an associate professor in the Tift College of Education, 
director of The Holistic Child Program, and has been 
teaching at Mercer University for nine years. She has 
her Ed.D in curriculum and instruction from Gardner-
Webb University, M.S., in special education from 
University of Minnesota-Mankato, and a B.A. from 
Gustavus Adolphus College. Her area of interest is 
special education, with a focus on Autism Spectrum 
Disorders and Behavioral Disorders.

Vicki Luther, luther_vl@mercer.edu. Luther is an 
associate professor in the Tift College of Education, 
where she teaches reading and literacy courses in The 
Holistic Child Program. Her research interests include 
early literacy skills, effective co-teaching practices, 
and teaching ready to children of poverty. Vicki Luther, 
luther_vl@mercer.edu, Dr. Luther is an associate 
professor in the Tift College of Education, where she 
teaches reading and literacy courses in The Holistic 
Child Program. Her research interests include early 
literacy skills, effective co-teaching practices, and 
teaching ready to children of poverty. 

Morgan Mitchell, morgankelleymitchell@gmail.com. 
Mitchell graduated Summa Cum Laude in May of 
2017 from Mercer University’s Holistic Child Education 
Program. She currently teaches in Fulton County 
Schools and will begin the Master of Education in 
School Counseling Program at Georgia Southern 
University this summer.

Rebekah E. Piper, Ph.D., is an Assistant Professor in 
the Department of Educator and Leadership Preparation 
at Texas A&M University-San Antonio in San Antonio, 
Texas. Email rebekah.piper@tamusa.edu

Roberta D. Raymond, Ed.D., is an Assistant Professor of 
Reading and Language Arts in the College of Education 
at the University of Houston-Clear Lake in Houston, 
Texas. raymond@uhcl.edu

Laurie A. Sharp, Ed.D. is the Dr. John G. O’Brien 
Distinguished Chair in Education at West Texas A&M 
University in Canyon, Texas. Email laurie.sharp2013@
gmail.com.


